6.

2 New political philosophies in the 19th century

The French revolution was an “an experiment with democratic government”. Its failure was relative,
it had a long-lasting impact, including political thinking. Conservatism, liberalism, nationalism and
radicalism were political labels which grew from attitudes to the French Revolution.
Conservatism - The word derives from the Latin meaning ’to maintain’, ’to keep’. The characteristic
features of conservativism focused on the respect for traditions as well as keeping the existing, the
traditional forms of government and institutions. Its values highlighted the importance of Church,
family and property. Two branches could be differentiated. The “Moderate conservatives” supported
constitutional monarchy. The “extreme conservatives” insisted on absolute monarchy (e.g.
Metternich). The social basis of the conservatives were the wealthy land owners and the nobles. They
were satisfied with the old way and happy to have things restored.
Liberalism - The word also derives from Latin. It means free. The idea rooted in the Enlightenment.
The individual freedom of citizens was the key concept. According to liberalism, man was born free
and able to act sensibly. Consequently, basic rights had to be granted: freedom of speech, religion,
opinion and equality before law. Their ideal state was based on the division of power and constitution
to prevent a society from tyranny. Liberal politicians favoured limited democracy and believed that
only educated people should be granted the right to vote (they feared the mob). They approved the
early reforms of the French Revolution and condemned the Reign of Terror. Liberal economic thinking
stressed the importance of free trade, enterprise and free competition. Their social basis included
mainly the upper bourgeoisie (business leaders, wealthy merchants, factory owners). Some of the
important representatives were Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart.
Radicalism - The Radicals aimed to spread the democratic rights to all layers of society. When it was
necessary they supported the drastic and violent changes. They even justified the Reign of Terror.
Nationalism - A nation is a group of people who share the same traditions, history and language. A
nation-state is a nation living in the same geographical area under its own government (1815: France,
Spain). Modern nationalism was born during the French revolution. It contributed to French military
success, which helped to spread nationalism in Europe (For example, a reaction to French oppression
was the activity of the Spanish guerrillas).
Socialist ideologies and Marxism - Unlike the previous political concepts, Socialism was a counter-
movement to capitalism and its negative social trends (child labour, exploitation etc.) as well as
liberalism. Socialists demanded a fair distribution of goods, welfare for the lower classes and peace
(war struck mainly lower classes). Their means included social reforms, class struggle and revolution.
Utopian socialists hoped that an economic system, based on their idea, would result in a greater
economic equality. They established the idea of “government central planning” and “state ownership
of property”. Important representatives were Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. Petty bourgeois
socialists had controversial theories. Proudhon is regarded as the forerunner of anarchists (the denial
of all kind of authority, freedom without limitations). Louis Blanc emphasised the right to work and the
importance of ending unemployment. Auguste Blanqui believed that dictatorship was necessary to
realise economic and political equality. Marx and Engels were German philosophers. They devoted
themselves to liberate the working class. In 1848 they published the Communist Manifesto. According
to the Communist Manifesto, society had always been divided into the classes. `HAVES` controlled the
means of production and exploited `have nots` They accumulated wealth and possessed political
power. `HAVES NOTS` produced goods and were deprived of the means of production. They lived in
poverty and lacked political power. Marx and Engels believed that working-class revolution should end
exploitation and overthrow the bourgeoisie after which the victorious proletariat would establish a
classless society. Communism was the most complete form of socialism where all means of production
were owned and controlled by the state. Private property ceased to exist and was shared as common
property. Marxism is the unified system of ideas on politics, society, economy and philosophy by Karl
Marx and Friederich Engels.