ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is
• the science of heat and work and related properties
• the basic science that deals with energy
• the study of energy movements

The name was coined in 1849 by Lord Kelvin by combining Greek words for heat (thermos) and power
(dynamos).
More specifically, thermodynamics deals with (a) energy conversion and (b) the direction of change.
Basic of thermodynamics is experimental observation. In that sense it is an empirical science. The
principles of thermodynamics are summarized in the form of four laws known as zeroth, first, second, and
the third laws of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with thermal equilibrium of provides a means of measuring
temperature.
The first law of thermodynamics deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the concept of
internal energy.
The second law of thermodynamics dictates the limits on the conversion of heat into work and provides
the yard stick to measure the performance of various processes. It also tells whether a particular process
is feasible or not and specifies the direction in which a process will proceed. As a consequence it also
introduces the concept of entropy.
The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.

MICROSCOPIC VERSUS MACROSCOPIC POINT OF VIEW

Microscopic Approach uses the statistical consideration and probability theory where we deal with average
for all particles under consideration. This is the approach used in the disciplines known as kinetic theory
and statistical approach.

Macroscopic Approach point of view, of classical thermodynamics, one is concerned with the time-
averaged influence of many molecules that can be perceived by the senses and measured by instruments.

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM AND THE CONTROL VOLUME

A Thermodynamic system is device or combination of devices containing a quantity of matter that is
being studied. .

boundary
system

surroundings

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ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

Three types of system:

A.) Closed system mass is not allowed to pass through the boundary of the system. Energy maybe allowed
to pass through the boundary.

Closed mass NO
system

Mass =
constant
energy YES

When the piston moves, the system exchange work with the surroundings. Heat can also be exchanged
with the surroundings.

Since the material within the system always stays the same, we can speak of a control mass.

B.) Open System mass and energy are allowed to pass through the boundary.

steam inlet Shaft Work

outlet steam

Surrounding Environment

C.) Isolated System is one that is completely impervious to its surroundings, neither mass nor energy cross
its boundaries.

Turbine
Wnet
Steam
Generator
Condenser
Pump Boundary
Qin

Control Volume
• Control volume is defined as a volume which encloses the matter and device inside a control
surface.
• Everything to the control volume is the surroundings with the separation given by the control
surface.
• The surface maybe open or closed to mass flows and it may have flows from energy in terms of
heat transfer and work across it.
• The boundaries maybe movable or stationary.
• In the case of a control surface that is closed to the mass flow, so that no mass can enter or escape
the control volume, it is called a control mass containing same amount of matter at all times.

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ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

PROPERTIES, INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE

Properties- are the quantities that describe and define the thermodynamic substance. Properties are usually
divided into two general classifications.
A. extensive
B. intensive
A. Extensive Properties are those properties which are dependent on the magnitude of the mass of the
substance in the thermodynamic system. Examples of extensive properties are
o Mass , m
o Weight , W
o Volume, V
Mass is the quantity of matter possessed by a body and is proportional to the volume and
density of the body.
Weight is defined as the gravitational force existing between the object and the earth
W = mg
where: W is weight
g is the accleration of gravity
Volume is an extensive property and is defined as the amount of space within an identified
boundary. The unit associated with volume is cubic meter ( m3 )
B. Intensive Property is one that is independent of the size of the system but are dependent on the
condition at the point of the property measurement.
 Density,  Pressure, P
 Specific volume,  Specific gravity, S.G.
 Specific weight,   Temperature, T

 The density  of a liquid is defined as its mass per unit volume. It has a units of kilograms per
cubic meter.
m
 = V ( kg/m3 )
 Specific Volume,  the volume per unit of mass of fluid, or the reciprocal of the density.

V
 =m ( m3/kg )

 Specific Weight,  is intensive property, which is defined as the weight per unit volume. It can
be calculated for homogeneous materials by the following equation.

W
 = V ( N/m3 )
mg
= V ( N/m3 ) where g = gravitational acceleration

Specific weight can also be defined in terms of density as follows:

 = g ( N/m3 )

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ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

 Pressure is expressed as the intensity of force, that is, the force acting on unit area. The unit
of force is newton ( N ) and the unit area is the square meter ( m2 ), therefore the fundamental
unit of pressure is newton per square meter ( N/m2 ). The symbol representing pressure is
usually P.

F
P = A ( N/m2 )

• Pascal's Law state that in liquids or gases, a pressure at a point in one direction
produces at same pressure in all directions at the same point.
From the consideration of potential energy, we can develop the principle of
hydrostatic pressure as follows:
W
= V
Then, F = V
where: F = W & V = Ah
PA =  Ah
=  h ( Pa ) F
Where: height, h
P = hydrostatic pressure ( Pa )
A
 = specific weight of fluid ( N / m3 )
h = height ( vertical distance ), m.

Transmission of pressure
P2 = P1 + h
dP =  dh
Relations of various pressures:
Internal Pressure

Pgage
plenum
Pabs Atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa )
vacuum
Patm

Absolute zero

Graphical Presentation of Pressure

 For internal pressure above atmospheric,
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
 For internal pressure less than atmospheric
Pabs = Patm - Pvac
Absolute Pressure is obtained by adding the atmospheric pressure either to the gage pressure or vacuum
pressure, the atmospheric pressure obtained from the barometric reading.
Atmospheric Pressure is defined as being equivalent to a mercury column 760 mm high, where mercury
has temperature of 0 0C.
The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg, 29.92 inHg at 32 0F, 14.696 psia, 1 atm, 101.325 kPa.

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ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

Gage Pressure the difference between the internal pressure and the outside pressure as indicated by
pressure gage. In usual, in usual cases the outside pressure is atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum difference between the outside ( or atmospheric pressure ) and internal pressure when the latter is
less than the former. It is also referred to as negative gage pressure.
Plenum gage pressures of very small value say 1 to 2 psi.

Measuring Pressure: ( By using Manometers )

A. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure

Po P = absolute pressure

P Po = atmospheric pressure
hg Pg
Pg = gage pressure, the pressure due to
the liquid column, Hg.

P = Po + Pg
= Po + ghg

B. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure

P Po
Pg
hg

Po = Pg + P * The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the vacuum.

P = Po – Pg

P = Po - ghg

 Specific Gravity ( S.G. ) is the ratio of the density of any fluid to the density of water at 4 oC
for liquids. The density of water at this reference temperature has been determined
to be 1000 kg/m3. Thus for liquids we can use the following equation:

liquid liquid
S.G. = = ; water = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lbm/ft3 and water = 9.81 kN/m3
water water
or
gas gas
S.G. = =
air air

 Temperature is an indication of hotness or coldness and therefore is a measure of the intensity

of heat.

The most common temperature measuring instrument:

Pyrometer is an instrument used to measure high temperature gases.

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ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

Thermometer consist of a glass tube of very fine bore with a bulb at its lower end, the bulb
and tube are exhausted of air, partially filled with mercury and hermetically sealed at the top
end.

Temperature Scales:
oK = oC + 273
oR = 0F + 460

Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero.

Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.

Relation between oC and oF scales: Temperature difference

oC
5
oF
9 = 9 oF oC = oK
= 5 oC + 32
oF
9
5 = 5 oC oF = oR
oC = ( oF - 32 )
9
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process is a path followed by a system in reaching a given final state of equilibrium state starting from a
specified initial state.

Cycles- when a system in a given initial state goes through a number of different changes of states or
processes and finally returns its initial state. 2
P
A
B path
C
UNITS 1
Force is defined: V

F = ma
The units of force are defined in terms of the units of mass and acceleration:

SI: Newton = kg  m/s2

cgs: dyne = g  cm/s2
American: lbf = lbm  32.174 ft/s2

The definition of the force units interms of the mass, length and time units for a system of measurement
gives the conversion factor gc:
kg  m
gc = 1
N  s2
g  cm
gc = 1
dyne  s2
lbm  ft
gc = 32.174
lbf  s2

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ME 211: Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

Sample Problems
1. A tank contains a mixture of 20 kg of nitrogen and 20 kg of Carbon Monoxide. The total tank volume is 20 m3.
Determine the density and specific volume of the mixture.
2. Two liquids of different densities 1500 kg/m3 and 500 kg/m3 are poured together in a 100 -liter tank, filling it.
If the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective amounts of liquids used. Also, find the
specific weight of the mixture; Local g = 9.675 m/s2.
3. A skin diver wants to determine the pressure exerted by the water on her body after descent of 35 m to a
sunken ship. The specific gravity of seawater is 1.02 times that of pure water. Determine the pressure.
4. A barometer can be used to measure an airplane's altitude by comparing the barometric pressure at a given
flying altitude to that on the ground. Determine an airplane's altitude if the pilot measures the barometric
pressure at 27.55 in.Hg absolute, the ground report it to be 29.92 in. Hg absolute, and the average air density if
0.077 lbm/ft3. g = 32.174 ft/sec2.
5. The tank in adjoining figure contains oil of specific gravity of
0.22 m
0.75. Determine the reading of gage A in kPa.
3 m

Hg ( S.G. = 13.6 )

6. Someone porposes a new absolute temperature scale in which the boiling and freezing points of water at
atmospheric pressure are 500 oX and 100oX, respectively. Develop a relation to convert this scale to degress
celcius.
7. A 15-kg steel gas has tank holds 300 L of liquid gasoline, having a density of 800 kg/m 3.If the system is
decelerated with 6 m/sec2, what is the needed force?
8. A piston, mp= 5 kg, is fitted in a cylinder, A = 15 cm2, that contains a gas. The setup is in a centrifuge
that creates an acceleration of 25 m/s2 in the direction of piston motion towards the gas. Assuming standard
atmospheric pressure outside the cylinder, find the gas pressure
Po

9. A 5-kg piston in a cylinder with diameter of 100 mm is loaded with a linear spring and the outside atmospheric
pressure of 100 kPa. The spring exerts no force on the piston when it is at the bottom of the cylinder and for
the state shown, the pressure is 400 kPa with volume 0.4 L. The valve is opened to let some air in, causing the
piston to rise 2 cm. Find the new pressure.

Po
Air
Supply
line
g
Air

10. Two piston/cylinder arrangements, A and B, have their gas chambers

connected by a pipe. Cross-sectional areas are AA = 75 cm2 and AB = 25 cm2
with the piston mass in A being mA = 25 kg. Outside pressure is 100 kPa
and standard gravitation. Find the mass mB so that none of the pistons have
to rest on the bottom.

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