MECHANICS,
constant and the mass, but it is not accelerating. If it falls off the table, it will
then accelerate at a rate equal to the value of the gravity constant.
This brings us to the old problem of the feather and the lump of lead; which
will fall fastest? Well, the answer is that in the vacuum of space, they would
both fall at the same rate. In the atmosphere, however, the feather would be
subjected to a much larger aerodynamic resistance force in relation to the
accelerating gravity force (the weight), and therefore the feather would fall
more slowly.
For all objects falling through the atmosphere, there is a speed at which the
aerodynamic resistance is equal to the weight, so they will then cease to accel-
erate. This speed is called the terminal velocity and will depend on the shape,
the density and the orientation of the object. A man will fall faster head first
than if he can fall flat. Free-fall sky-divers use this latter effect to control their
rate of descent in free fall.
Mass weight and g
The mass of a body depends on the amount of matter in it, and it will not vary
with its position on the earth, nor will it be any different if we place it on the
moon. The weight (the force due to gravity) will change, however, because the
so-called gravity constant will be different on the moon, due to the smaller
mass of the moon, and will even vary slightly between different points on the
earth, Also, therefore, the rate at which a falling object accelerates will be dif-
ferent. On the moon it will fall noticeably slower, as can be observed in the
apparently slow-motion moon-walking antics of the Apollo astronauts.
Units
The system of units that we use to measure quantities, feet, metres, ete., can
be a great source of confusion. In European educational establishments and
most of its industry, a special form of the metric system known as the Systéme
International or SI is now in general use. The basic units of this system are the
kilogram for mass (not weight) (kg), the metre for distance (m) and the second
for time (s).
Temperatures are in degrees Celsius (or Centigrade) (°C) when measured
relative to the freezing point of water, or in Kelvin (K) when measured relative
to absolute zero; 0°C is equivalent to 273K. A temperature change of one
degree Centigrade is exactly the same as a change of one degree Kelvin, it is
just the starting or zero point that is different. Note that the degree symbol °
is not used when temperatures are written in degrees Kelvin, for example we
write 273 K.MECHANICS OF FLIGHT
Forces and hence weights are in newtons (N) not kilograms. Beware of
weights quoted in kilograms; in the old (pre-SI) metric system still commonly
used in parts of Europe, the name kilogram was also used for weight or force.
To convert weights given in kilograms to newtons, simply multiply by 9.81.
The SI system is known as a coherent system, which effectively means that
you can put the values into formulae without having to worry about conver-
sion factors. For example, in the expression relating force to mass and
acceleration: F = m X a, we find that a force of 1 newton acting on a mass of
1 kilogram produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2. Contrast this with a version of
the old British ‘Imperial’ system where a force of 1 pound acting on a mass of
1 pound produces an acceleration of 32.18 ft/sec. You can imagine the prob-
lems that the latter system produces. Notice how in this system, the same
name, the pound, is used for two different things, force and mass.
Because aviation is dominated by American influence, American Federal
units and the similar Imperial (British) units are still in widespread use. Apart
from the problem of having no internationally agreed standard, the use of
Federal or Imperial units can cause confusion, because there are several
alternative units within the system. In particular, there are two alternative
units for mass, the pound mass, and the slug (which is equivalent to 32.18
pounds mass). The slug may be unfamiliar to most readers, but it is commonly
used in aeronautical engineering because, as with the SI units, it produces a
coherent system. A force of 1 pound acting on a mass of one slug produces an
acceleration of 1 ft/sec?. The other two basic units in this system are, as you
may have noticed, the foot and the second. Temperatures are measured in
degrees Fahrenheit.
You may find all this rather confusing, but to make matters worse, in order
to avoid dangerous mistakes, international navigation and aircraft operations
conventions use the foot for altitude, and the knot for speed. The knot is a
nautical mile per hour (0.5145 m/s). A nautical mile is longer than a land mile,
being 6080 feet instead of 5280 feet. Just to add a final blow, baggage is nor-
mally weighed in kilograms (not even newtons)!
To help the reader, most of the problems and examples in this book are
in SI units. If you are presented with unfamiliar units or mixtures of units,
convert them to SI units first, and then work in SI units. One final tip is
that when working out problems, it is always better to use basic units, so
convert millimetres or kilometres to metres before applying any formulae.
In the real world of aviation, you will have to get used to dealing with
other units such as slugs and knots, but let us take one step at a time.
Below, we give a simple example of a calculation using SI units (see
Example 1.1).
EXAMPLE 1.1
The mass of an aeroplane is 2000 kg. What force, in addition to that required
to overcome friction and air resistance, will be needed to give it an accelera-
tion of 2 ms? during take-off?