Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701

www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Plant refurbishment in historical buildings turned into museum

Carla Balocco *, Giuseppe Grazzini
Dipartimento di Energetica ‘‘Sergio Stecco’’, via Santa Marta 3, 50139 Firenze, Italy
Received 22 May 2006; received in revised form 10 June 2006; accepted 17 June 2006

Abstract
Suitable conditioning plant design is only one aspect of a wide problem that concerns thermo-physical building performance and then building
envelope characteristics quality. This is really very important when a building is a museum and work of art at the same time, like the Hall of the Five
Hundred that is the object of our study. Its need for conditioning is due to its prestige utilization for public meetings; but it must be seen as
connected to different interventions for energy saving and rational energy use. Because of the architectural structure of the Hall and lack of space
for plant allocation, the solution proposed in this paper is based on the minimum impact and reversibility concept. A movable platform on the
existing floor that can hold all plants was proposed. This thin radiant panel solution was studied by a CFD simulation based on the finite volume
method in transient conditions. In order to obtain reliable information concerning the fluid dynamic and thermal fields, the simulations were
performed by using experimental data carried out by the Opificio delle Pietre Dure as comparison.
# 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Energy saving; Reversibility; Air conditioning; Museum; Simulation

1. Introduction sufficient comfort level for users. The present paper concerns
the study of an integrated and reversible architectural-plant
Museums were originally containers holding various solution proposed for the Hall of the Five Hundred in
artworks exhibited to visitors [3,5] and today they should Florence. In this paper reversibility of the proposed system is
be considered as places where precious artefacts should find understood as the possibility of the present conditions easily
first rate protection and conservation. It is a question of being restored.
solving the compromise between protection and conservation
and comfort for artworks and/or visitors, with the conse-
2. Architectural and functional features of the ambient
quence that preservation and planned maintenance criteria
studied
must prevail over use requirements. Italian laws and standard
rules provide some basic indications [17,18]. Methodologies
The Hall located on the first floor in the central part of
for precise experimental measurements, comparative analysis
Florence’s Palazzo Vecchio (the present town hall), is a single
and collecting data and information about thermo-hygro-
volume with a trapezium base area of about 1000 m2, 18 m
metric and natural/artificial lighting parameters address to
high and a volume of 20,000 m3 (Fig. 1). East wall is 62 m
artwork conservation. They also provide reference values for
long and the west one 53 m. On the north-west and south-east
plant design, some suggestions for coupling thermo-hygro-
walls there are respectively three, two and four wide arch
metric requirements of artwork and visitor and the maximum
windows. The side walls are frescoed and in the lower parts all
admissible vapour quantity together with the minimum
the walls are covered with typical local stone and marble.
temperature acceptable level. The stability requirements of
Sixteen marble sculptures stand inside special niches [15].
microclimatic conditions are the most binding. It is necessary
The floor is supported by the cross vaults of the Dogana Court
to reduce variations in thermo-physical parameters because
of the palace. The flooring is terracotta with local stone strips
they are as damaging as their absolute values, also ensuring a
rectangular divisions. The roof covering system of the
building belongs to the so-called ‘‘architectural machine’’ of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 055 4796236; fax: +39 055 4796342. Giorgio Vasari of the 16th Century (Fig. 2). It holds up the
E-mail address: carla.balocco@unifi.it (C. Balocco). moulding of the coffered ceiling and the ceiling itself, with a
0378-7788/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.06.012
694 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701
Fig. 1. Internal view of the Hall of the Five Hundred.
double order of trusses which one of it is upside down. The
ceiling is decorated by 39 oil paintings and 3 small triangular
wood panels. The roof covering system is naturally ventilated
by wide gratings positioned on the outside walls. The Hall is
the most important official venue in Florence: it is the seat of
economic and functional activities, conferences, international
meetings, ceremonies, concerts and also national funerals
celebrations. In addition to these very different uses, its
museum character remains in the project Palazzo Vecchio-
Quartieri Monumentali [3,13,15]. This obstructs all the
potentialities for utilization of the museum that is subject to a
constant visitor number increase. Consequently any inter-
vention must be justified by a rigorous conservative
restoration and conservation of the museum container,
building, and artworks.
Fig. 2. The roof covering system: the Giorgio Vasari ‘‘architectural machine’’.
3. The indoor climate
Internal climatic data were provided by experimental
monitoring campaigns undertaken every hour of the day for
11 months (from 21 December 2001 to 21 November 2002) [9].
This campaigns were conducted by the Opificio delle Pietre
Dure, the leading restoration lab in Florence. The measuring
system did not cover lighting data (natural and/or artificial).
The monitoring system used 27 sensors for temperature and
relative humidity data taken and recorded at a stratigraphic and
planimetric level. From the experimental data analysis it can be
noted that the air temperature variation from the floor to the
coffered ceiling is between 8 and 30 8C. The relative humidity
ranging between 28 and 71% has the same temperature trend
during all the year. Yearly temperature variations obtained for
all the lateral walls are quite limited; for different measuring
points at the coffered ceiling the higher variations were
deduced. A particular case concerns the central zone of the
Hall: the measured data analysis shows a reversal trend [9]. In
the upper part of the coffered ceiling the temperature values are
lower with a higher relative humidity. This is probably due to
the fact that this zone is not affected by solar radiation incoming
through the windows, but is strong affected by visitor presence.
Data collected by sensors located at different heights of the
north-east walls, near the windows, show a clear difference
between temperature and humidity values measured in the
lower and upper zones. Visitor numbers cause the presence of a
high quantity of heat, vapour, dust and various pollutants (CO,
CO2, O3, NO, VOC). The indoor air temperature trend is a
typical seasonal one with maximum values during the summer
period of about 20–30 8C and relative humidity of 40–50%.
Relative humidity rarely and for short periods, exceeds 60%.
The stronger stresses for organic material (fittings, paintings,
gilded ornaments) are due to the effects of the presence of large
numbers of persons during important events. Optimal condition
maintenance for the coffered ceiling conservation and in
particular for its gilded cornices, imposes very strong
prescriptions and limits for thermo-hygrometric conditions
that have to be controlled and managed by a possible air
conditioning system design. Temperature and/or humidity
gradients even if reduced, between intrados and extrados of the
ceiling could be very damaging. Since the ambient above the
coffered ceiling is naturally ventilated, the contemporary
conditioning of this zone and the Hall could have unforeseen
effects on the structures.
4. The plant solution proposed
From some data provided by the Florence Museums
Department on visitor numbers, the mean number was
calculated for some months and a typical day (Tables 1 and
2). The results on thermal power, CO2 and vapour emission
released in the ambient, show the great importance of visitor
numbers for comfort and indoor air quality. Traditional heating
systems imply air temperature stratification with values
increasing in the zone adjoining the ceiling. Taking into
account that the ceiling upper zone is in direct contact with the
 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701 695

Table 1
Mean monthly affluence of visitors and emissions
Year Month Opening Total Mean Average heat Average hourly Average heat Average hourly
monthly visitors hourly power for emission (standing) power for emission (walking)
hours during affluence 1 h (standing) 1 h (walking)
month (kW) CO2 Vapour (kW) CO2 Vapour
(l/h) (kg/h) (l/h) (kg/h)
2003 July 265 33,152 125 16 2627 6.3 22 4879 12.5
August 265 38,665 146 18 3064 7.3 26 5690 14.6
September 260 29,503 113 14 2383 5.7 20 4425 11.3
October 270 27,067 100 13 2105 5.0 18 3910 10.0
November 250 17,519 70 9 1472 3.5 12 2733 7.0
December 260 20,503 79 10 1656 3.9 14 3075 7.9
2004 July 265 34,039 128 16 2697 6.4 23 5010 12.8
August 265 43,578 164 21 3453 8.2 29 6413 16.4
September 255 33,659 132 17 2772 6.6 23 5148 13.2
October 265 34,594 131 16 2741 6.5 23 5091 13.1
November 265 21,847 82 10 1731 4.1 15 3215 8.2
December 255 23,055 90 11 1899 4.5 16 3526 9.0

external air, through the ventilation gratings, this would provide
a strong temperature gradient between the intrados and extrados
of the ceiling. Traditional heating systems do not allow
temperature control in the ceiling zone. A forced air change is
very difficult because air extraction from the internal ambient
will disfigure architectural and the artistic system due to very
large crossing sections required to maintain low air velocity.
Traditional low temperature floor radiant panel technology
implies quite limited air convection motions and reduced
thermal stratification in comparison with other plant systems,
but it is an invasive plant. Plant design proposals should start
from the minimum incidence on the structure and present
conditions under which the ‘‘building has become stable’’
following seasonal climatic variations. Due to the Hall structure
and lack of spaces for plant allocation, an air conditioning
system integrated with floor radiant panels is not easily feasible.
The reversibility requirement of the intervention led us to a
plant proposal with its structure placed on the existing ones and
addressing only winter heating. This system is modular with a
movable mounting structure which allows characteristic
adaptation and heat power supply to different needs. Hot fluid
feeding is also easily feasible, using the existing boilers that
supply the heating plant of different rooms of Palazzo Vecchio.
5. Basic analysis of the plant proposed
The plant proposed in this work belongs to the recent
solutions with thin floor radiant panels placed on an insulating
material protected in the upper parts by a metal plate, to allow
both the sitting positioning and people passing. Modularity
allows impact reduction and working time phase differentiation
for its realization. It consists of 10 connected platforms, each
10 cm thick placed on the floor and containing the hot water
supplying pipes, feeding the thin radiant panel system (Fig. 3).
No thermal stresses are induced by small structural changes and
very low thermal inertia, if compared with a traditional system.
Thermodynamic and fluid dynamic analysis of the system, to
study air velocity and air temperature distribution, was made by
a CFD simulation in transient conditions [8]. Because the Hall
is a single volume, for the numerical simulation a 2D model and
then a 3D model were used with the same computational
domain, meshes and boundary conditions. Building mass and
thermo-physical properties of different building materials were
taken into account. In particular, for the coffered ceiling all the
ornaments were disregarded and for the floor material the
typical local terracotta was considered, disregarding the two
parts of the central and lateral stone runners, because of their
small surface. Taking into account that the floor is supported by
the cross vaults of the Dogana Court below, an outside
convection coefficient of 13 W/m2 K was calculated using
Italian reference standard UNI [19]. Thermal conductivity for
the single glass and wooden frame, of which all the arch and
rectangular windows are made, was considered respectively 1
and 1.4 W/m K. The roof consists of a double order of trusses
straight and inside-out (back to front) which supports the
ceiling and the gilt coffered mouldings. The roof thermal

Table 2
Mean affluence of visitors and emissions during a typical day
Affluence (%) Number of Occupancy Mean hourly Standing Walking
visitors hours affluence
kW CO2 Vapour kW CO2 Vapour
(l/h) (kg/h) (l/h) (kg/h)
Morning (9:00–14:00 h) 44.7 485 5 97 12 2037 5 17 3783 10
Evening (14:00–19:00 h) 55.3 600 5 120 15 2520 6 21 4680 12
Day Total 1085 10 109 14 4557 5 19 8463 11
696 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701

transmittance, calculated by UNI, is 3 W/m2 K [19]. The

ceiling upper zone is naturally ventilated with wide gratings on
the perimeter walls: air temperature of the zone below the roof
was calculated referring to UNI [19]. For the external ambient
air temperature and humidity values and mean wind direction
and velocity, climatic data of the Standard Year of Florence [1]
were used. The indoor microclimatic starting conditions were
defined using experimental data [9].

6. Modelling and simulation

The simulation was realized on the system defined by the

building the Hall container and the radiant platforms proposed,
using CFD software [8] based on the finite volume method. Ten
movable radiant platforms each with 33 sittings, were studied.
An initial simulation concerned the analysis of the temperature
gradient in the zone occupied by sittings, along the perimeter
walls and in the coffered ceiling zone. A second simulation
solved the study of the effects due to heat and vapour diffusion
and also some pollutant diffusion, that were introduced into the
ambient by 150 visitors. Transient simulation implied the
following steps:

1. bi-dimensional drawing of the geometry of the Hall using the

axial-symmetry;
2. computational domain and sub-domain definition and
Fig. 3. Planimetry of the Hall with the radiant platforms allocation.
setting;
3. thermo-physical property assignment to the different
building materials;
4. boundary condition definition;
5. mesh definition with different accuracy levels;

Table 3
Hourly external climatic data and corresponding air temperature values calculated for the under-roof zone—hotter day of January
Hour External External relative Incident vertical solar Wind Temperature of
temperature (8C) humidity (%) radiation (W/m2) velocity (m/s) under-roof zone (8C)
1 1.6 86 0 0.1 6.52
2 2.2 91 0 0.2 5.2
3 2.7 96 0 0 4.6
4 3 100 0 0 4.2
5 3.4 100 0 0 4.1
6 3.7 99 0 0 3.61
7 4 96 0 0 3.8
8 3.8 96 0 0 3.68
9 3.3 96 7 1.1 4.5
10 2.6 97 25 0.5 5.2
11 1.9 95 42 0.2 6.4
12 1 91 54 0.1 6.2
13 0 86 57 2 7.9
14 0.5 85 52 1.2 8.02
15 0.8 85 39 1 7.78
16 1 86 20 1 7.6
17 1 88 4 0.1 7.2
18 0.8 92 0 0 6.8
19 0.4 97 0 0 5.4
20 0.4 99 0 0 5.4
21 0.4 100 0 0 5.4
22 0.6 100 0 0 5.8
23 0.7 100 0 0 6.1
24 0.8 99 0 0 6.3
 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701 697

Table 4
Diffusion coefficient into air of different pollutants (at atmospheric pressure)
4
T (K) O2 (10 m2/s) CO2 (10 4
m2/s) CO (10 4
m2/s) NO (10 4
m2/s) SO2 (10 4
m2/s)
200 0.095 0.074 0.098 0.088 0.058
300 0.188 0.157 0.202 0.180 0.126
400 0.325 0.263 0.332 0.303 0.214
500 0.475 0.385 0.485 0.443 0.326

6. heat transfer analysis, non-isothermal flow and convection
analysis for temperature and heat flux (convection and total)
streamline evaluation and velocity field evaluation.
A three-dimensional model of the ambient was studied and
its transient simulation required:
1. computational domain and sub-domain definition and setting;
2. thermo-physical property assignment to the different
building materials;
3. boundary condition definition;
4. mesh definition with different accuracy levels;
5. heat flux and velocity field distribution
Transient simulation of the 2D model was performed
taking into account, for external climatic conditions the

Fig. 4. Velocity field; control volume for the external ambient; longitudinal section (January, 13:00 h).

Fig. 5. Velocity field; control volume for the external ambient; cross-section (January, 13:00 h).
698 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701

Fig. 6. Velocity field and internal convection streamlines; internal ambient without radiant platforms (January, 13:00 h).

coldest day of the year using [1], with overcast sky and in
particular the hour of this day during which the air
temperature is 0 8C with 56% relative humidity and wind
velocity is 2 m/s, when total incident solar radiation for a
vertical plane is 70 W/m2. A control volume around the
studied building was defined and simulated: local wind
variations in velocity, incidence angle and direction due also
to the urban context were taken into account, so that transient
simulation was required to fully describe cross and long-
itudinal ventilation flow [2,4]. This is important for the
knowledge of wind-driven ventilation flow dynamic turbu-
lence field and pressure difference zones and then natural
ventilation mechanism inside the building. Firstly the
buoyancy effects were neglected. The surrounding ground
was considered unobstructed with roughness of 0.077 m and a
turbulence model adapting the resolution of turbulent field
was defined. The Reynolds Average Navier Stockes and k–e
closure (RAN k–e) were used [10,16]. The atmospheric
boundary layer was modelled considering a logarithmic
profile of the stream-wise velocity component according to
[11,13]. The indoor and outdoor walls were considered
smooth and without slips. A wind velocity profile function of
the thickness of fluid dynamic boundary layer was obtained
for the two sections of the 2D model. In particular the 2D
cross-section allowed taking into account the effects of roof
slope: turbulence, dynamic and frictional energy losses,
induced effects are important for natural ventilation mechan-
ism in the building and for thermal losses, especially through
the windows. An initial transient simulation of the internal
ambient of the Hall, was performed as it is. Taking into
account the transient regime of the plant (starting time), the
heating radiant platforms were schematized with a constant
heat flux on the upper surface function of a uniform
superficial temperature value of 26 8C, convection and

Fig. 7. Velocity field for the internal volume with radiant platforms (January, 13:00 h).
 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701 699

Fig. 8. Temperature distribution; internal volume with radiant platforms (January, 13:00 h).

radiation coefficients values calculated using the literature
expressions [6,7,12]. The air temperature inside the under-
roof ambient was calculated starting from the initial value
calculated by UNI [19]. Table 3 shows climatic data for the
coldest day of the Standard Year [1] and the corresponding air
temperature values for the under-roof zone, used in the
simulation. Thermal power, vapour and CO2 released into the
ambient by 150 seated persons were taken into account using
the reference value shown in Table 2. Diffusion coefficient of
water-vapour into the air at atmospheric conditions and those
of the main air pollutants were calculated as a function of the
air temperature using literature data [14]. They are shown in
Table 4. A transient simulation of the 3D model was also
performed to control distribution and trend of the air velocity
field and thermal gradient in particular around the coffered
ceiling zone.
7. Results and discussion
A thin radiant platform for winter heating of the Hall was
proposed and studied by transient simulations. Indoor winter
climatic conditions are often far from comfort levels; during
summer this problem is less felt. Figs. 4 and 5 provide results
obtained in the external ambient for the flow field and velocity
distribution taking into account the wind velocity profile for the
two different patterns, i.e. cross and longitudinal ventilation,
corresponding to the two different 2D model sections. In Figs. 6
and 7 results obtained from the coldest day at 1 p.m. and
respectively for the ambient considered without radiant
platforms (Fig. 6) and with them (Fig. 7). Comparison shows
that the proposed plant does not imply important vertical
temperature gradients, in particular at the ceiling. Analysing
velocity field (Fig. 7) there are very wide laminar vortices not

Fig. 9. Indoor velocity field and heat flux distribution considering heat loads due to visitors (January, 13:00 h).
700 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701

Fig. 10. Indoor water-vapour concentration (mol/m3) and total heat flux (January, 13:00 h).

producing stagnation zones. This plant allows a micro-ambient
with average constant air temperature around the radiant
platforms, directly around the sittings zone (Figs. 8 and 9): from
the base of the platform up to a height of about 3 m, no
appreciable temperature difference can be deduce. Figs. 9–11
show simulation results obtained by taking into account heat
power (Fig. 9), vapour (Fig. 10) and pollutant concentration
(Fig. 11) released into the ambient by visitors. Fig. 9 concerns
transient simulation performed on the cross-section considering
heat power due to sitting persons. Heat flux remains mainly in
the microclimatic zone defined by the volume around the
radiant platforms; this effect guarantees acceptable thermal
conditions for people. A last transient simulation was
performed considering the radiant platforms working, heat
from people, and also their vapour and pollutant release.
Figs. 10 and 12 show respectively vapour and CO2 concentra-
tion both due to 150 persons. It can be easily seen that the CO2
pollutant load remains in proximity of emission sources,
whereas the water-vapour rises to the ceiling due to partial
pressure differences and temperature gradients. Vapour
concentration calculated is not of particular importance for
the coffered ceiling conservation and protection, in particular if
it is compared with convection fluxes and total thermal flux
which in this same area cause wide recirculation zones. Taking
into account the same boundary conditions for the external and
internal computational domains, used in the 2D simulation

Fig. 11. Indoor CO2 (mol/m3) concentration and velocity field (January, 13:00 h).
 C. Balocco, G. Grazzini / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 693–701
Fig. 12. Velocity field for the internal ambient with radiant platforms (January,
13:00 h).
model, a transient simulation for the 3D model was also
performed. In the 3D model pollutant loads due to people were
disregarded. In Fig. 12 results on the air velocity field and air
distribution due to 10 radiant platforms are shown. The plant
system proposed allows winter conditioning for a limited zone
of the Hall. Simulation results show that the system proposed is
a solution for the necessary compromise between protection of
artworks and the museum ambient, and indoor thermal
conditions that can be satisfactory for visitors. This system
does not guarantee total comfort for the occupants but the
necessary indoor microclimatic conditions for the museum and
its artwork protection.
8. Conclusions
A modular and movable heating plant system was proposed
for the Hall in Florence. This radiant platform system can be
proposed for the historical buildings refurbishment, in
particular when turned into museums. It was shown how a
CFD analysis has a good correspondence to the experimental
data and then it can be used to evaluate the plant impact on the
building structure. The plant proposed, which belongs to thin
radiant panel technology, was studied by transient simulation
using CFD software based on the finite volume method [8].
Experimental data of the indoor climatic conditions, collected
by a wide measuring and monitoring campaign, were taken into
account [9]. The simulation results showed the minimum
incidence of the 10 radiant platforms on the temperature
gradient and air velocity distribution and field inside ambient
both with and without sitting people. Transient simulations
performed on the two models of the Hall, also taking into
account heat powers and vapour quantities released in the
ambient by persons, proved the formation of a zone
characterized by a ‘‘microclimatic control’’ around the radiant
platforms. This particular effect also happened when pollutant
diffusion was considered. Even if vapour diffusion due to
people’s presence was rose to the coffered ceiling, its
concentration was not particularly risky and damaging for
conservation conditions. The results show that the heating plant
proposed is totally compatible with the building structure and
701
its uses. Variations of the indoor microclimatic conditions, due
to the building thermo-physical behaviour connected to those of
the external climate and to visitors presence, are not strongly
modified by the radiant platforms collocation. The authors
think that the proposed light heating plant and the CFD
simulation method can be often used when considering
historical buildings refurbishment especially if turned into
museums.
Acknowledgments
We thank all the staff of the Opificio delle Pietre Dure,
Florence Municipality and also Fiorentina GAS S.p.A., that
provided information and access critical for this study.
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