MIL Reviewer:

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
The act or process of using words, sounds, signs, or behaviors to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts,
feelings, etc., to someone else. The exchange of information and the expression of feeling that can result in understanding
Two Basic Types of Communication
Non-Verbal Communication Verbal Communication
-Signs -Oral
-Symbols -Written
-Colors
-Gestures
-Body language
-Facial expressions
Process of Communication
TRANSMISSION MODELS
Lasswell’s Communication Model, 1948)

Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model (1948)

Claude Shannon, a Bell telephone company research scientist who developed a mathematical theory of signal transmission. His
theory focused on solving technical problems with sound transfer instead of the meaning of a message or its effect on the listener.
RECEPTION MODEL
Osgood- Schramm Model of Communication (1954)

TRANSMISSION MODELS
Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication (1957)

• Event or Information
(X1, X2, X3 and X4…Xn)
• Feedback (f)
• Advocate (A)
• Channel (C)
• Audience (B)
RECEPTION MODEL Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication (1960)

Source
-The source or sender is the origin of the message.
Following are factors affecting the source
>Communication skill
-The ability to communicate effectively is a skill worth honing. In communication, the way words are said is critical in delivering the
right message and ensuring that it is received well. The source should be eloquent in speech.
>Attitude
-Attitude is said to make or break a person. Talent can only get you far enough, but without the right attitude, you can never get to
your destination.
>Knowledge
-The source must be able to display his or her knowledge of the topic of conversation. This does not necessarily mean throwing a lot
of information, or using highfaluting words.
>Social System
-The social system as the patterned series of interrelationships existing between individuals, groups, and institutions forming a
coherent whole.
>Culture
- Sources must consider the culture of their audience in communication. In doing so, a source can show respect towards his or her
listener's cultural background.
Message
- Message pertains to any information that is passed on through communication.
 Content
The sender of the message must translate his or her thoughts into understandable words or illustrations. This translated information
is also known as the content.
 Element
A message should be delivered with postures, gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These elements make sure that a
message will have an impact on the receiver.
 Treatment
Treatment is actually the way one treats his message and how he conveys it to the listeners. It is important to know the message to
determine the right way to deliver
 Structure
A message must be delivered with a certain structure. This ensures that the message is received according to the thoughts of the
sender.
 Code
The code is the use of all the components in the message. One must be able to use the right content, element, treatment, and
structure, according to the thought of the sender.

Channel
- Channel refers to the medium and how the information flows from the sender to the receiver.
- (Berlo, 1960) According to him, sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing are the primary channels human beings use in
communication.
Receiver
- Receiver refers to the listener of the message.
- The source is in charge with the encoding process of communication, the receiver does the decoding.
-Decoding is the process where the listener or the receiver processes the message of the source and then responds accordingly.
The Description of Media Literacy, Information Literacy, and Technology Literacy
Media Literacy
-The ability to read, analyze, evaluate and produce communication in a variety of media forms.
Information Literacy
-The ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, effectively use and communicate information in its
various formats.
Technology (Digital) Literacy
-The ability to use digital technology, communication tools or networks to locate, evaluate, use, and create information.
Media and Information Literacy (MIL)
-refers to the essential competencies (knowledge, skills and attitude) that allow citizens to engage with media and other information
providers effectively and develop critical thinking and life-long learning skills for socializing and becoming active citizens
Information
-can be broadly defined as data, knowledge, or instructions through signals or symbols.
Media
- are tools used by the source to disseminate information to the receivers. It can be broadcast media such as television and radio,
print media such as newspapers and magazines, new media or Internet, and non-traditional media like film, literature, and outdoor media.
Communication
- is the process by which messages or information is sent from one place to another or the message itself. It can also be the
exchange of information and the expression of feeling that can result in understanding.
-Communication transfers information through a medium or media. The intended audience will receive this information and process
it and eventually turns it into knowledge that is useful to build and develop people and communities.
Types of Communication
Verbal communication
 -refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally, communication is done by word of mouth and a
piece of writing.
Oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face con versations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television,
voice over The Internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written
communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Written Communication is a most common form of
communication being used in business.
Non-verbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that communication other than oral and written, such
as gesture, body language, posture, the tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication.
Three elements of Non-verbal
Appearance
-Appearance in nonverbal communication plays a significant role in conveying the message. Even though your appearance may not
be necessary to determine whether or not you are fit for a post, the interviewer can perceive the way you look as a sign of professionalism or
lack thereof.
Body Language
-Words are primarily the means we use in communication. By using a common language between two conversing parties, a message
can easily be sent and received.
Sound
- Tone, pace, and volume are considered in understanding the true meaning of what someone is saying.
Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style
Communication is used for many things. It is a means to express, inform, entertain, and interact. The communication is done can also vary
depending on the message to be delivered, the audience that it will be delivered to, and purpose why it being delivered.
Formal Communication
- Formal communication mostly takes place professional settings. This is the type of communication practiced in corporate meetings,
conferences, academic seminars, political sessions, and juridical proceedings.
Informal Communication
- Informal communication is the most commonly used form of communication. It takes place in our daily interaction with one
another.
The Role of Media and Information in Effective Communication
 It makes the world a smaller place
 It makes communication convenient
 It shapes public opinion
Defamation
- Defamation is a statement that injures a third party's reputation.
To win a defamation case, a plaintiff must show four things:
1. A declaration that a false statement is a fact;
2. Publication or communication of that statement to a third person;
3. Fault;
4. Damages to the subject (person, institution, etc.) of the statement.
Privacy
- Privacy in this context is defined as the freedom from unauthorized intrusion. Also called as one's right to privacy, it refers to the
concept that one's personal information is protected from public scrutiny.
Obscenity and Pornography
- Obscenity and pornography although related, are not the same. Pornography is the term used to refer to any material that uses the
elements of nudity to cause sexual arousal among the audience. A pornographic material is considered obscene when it crosses a line to a point
that may be offensive.
Copyright
- Copyright in its literal sense means the right to copy. The owner of a copyright has the exclusive right to reproduce, distribute,
perform, display, license, and to prepare derivative works based on the copyrighted work.
- Plagiarism takes place when someone else's work is used by a different person and claimed as his or her own.
- The exclusive rights of the copyright owner are subject to limitation by the doctrine of "fair use." Fair use of a copyrighted work for
purposes such as criticism, comment, new reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research is not copyright infringement.
Basic Ethical Orientation
Divine Command Theories
 Being good is equivalent to doing whatever the Bible--or the Qur'an or some other sacred text or source of revelation--tells one to
do.
 "What is right equals "What God tells me to do."
The Ethics of Conscience
 Conscience dictates what is right or wrong
 Often has a religious source
 Maybe founded on a notion of human nature
 Is often negative in character, telling people what is not right
Ethical Egoism
 Says the only person to look out for is oneself
The Ethics of Duty
 Begins with the conviction that ethics is about doing what is right, about doing one's duty.
 Duty may be determined by reason, professional role, and social role.
The Ethics of Respect
 Human interactions should be governed by rules of respect
 What counts as respect can vary from one culture to another
Utilitarianism
 Seeks to reduce suffering and increase pleasure or happiness Demands a high degree of self-sacrifice-considers the consequences
for everyone.
 Utilitarians claim the purpose of morality is to make the world a better place.
The Ethics of Justice
 What is fair for one should be fair for all.
 Treating people equally may not mean treating them the same.
Virtue Ethics
 Seeks to develop individual character Assumes good persons will make good decisions developed by Plato and Aristotle.
  The Spiritual Exercises
 Provides a way of integrating all the theories.
Netiquette
-Netiquette or network etiquette is a set of rules for behaving properly online.
- (Shea, 1997) Rules, that may not be strictly enforced or even regularly followed is important to keep everyone online in check.
Rule 1: Remember the Human
Remembering that the receiver on the other side of your computer or phone screen is another person is vital to avoiding hurting
other people's feelings.
Rule 2: Adhere to the same standards of behavior online that one follows in real life
Good netiquette is derived from the same standards set in real life. If your online behavior doesn't meet that, would be good to re-
evaluate your actions.
Rule 3: Know where you are in cyberspace
The cyberspace may be as vast as the actual outer space. With the amount of infor mation and the wide array of users online,
divisions are bound to come up depending on domains.
Rule 4: Respect other people's time and bandwidth
It is important to ensure that one is not wasting it by delivering nonsense or unsolicited information.
Bandwidth is the information-carrying capacity of the wires and channels that connect everyone in cyberspace.
Rule 5: Make oneself look good online
Making oneself look good online means appearing as a decent, smart, and well-rounded individual, through what one writes.
Even more important than proper grammar and correct spelling is the content itself. To be taken seriously online, take the time to
verify information before posting them.
Rule 6: Share expert knowledge
Sharing expertise with one another isn't one of them. If one has knowledge on any subject, share it. Experts contributing valuable
information, and making them available to many, is indeed a positive effect of the media and information age.
Rule 7: Help keeps flame wars under control
"Flaming" is what people do when they express a strongly held opinion without holding back any emotion.
Rule 8: Respect other people's privacy
Privacy still remains a right that needs to be asserted. Personal emails should be treated as regular mails, only to be read by whom it
was addressed to.
Rule 9: Don't abuse one's own power
The cyberspace requires experts to be further developed and constantly maintained.
Power, even if it is as small as being entrusted with a Facebook password, must not be abused.
Rule 10: Be forgiving of other people's mistakes
There have been no truer words spoken than the words "No one is perfect." It is true that people make mistakes, even online. So be
forgiving of other people's mistakes.
The Digital Divide, Addiction, and Bullying
Digital Divide
- Benjamin Company defines Digital divide as the disparities in access to telephones, per sonal computers, and the internet across
certain demographic groups.
Addiction
- Addiction is defined as an overdependence on something or a damaging need to do something. While it is commonly associated
with substances like recreational drugs, the digital age has now ushered an addiction that is gradually raising concerns in industries and society
as a whole.
Bullying
- Cyberbullying, or bullying through electronic means, is one of the many problems brought about by advancements in technology.
Types of Media
The Print Media
Print media is a typed media used in mass communication in the form of printed publications. The traditional form of print media
involves ink and paper. The major types of print media are books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, posters, brochures, and press releases.
 Book
The book is defined as a set of printed sheets of paper that are held together inside a cover. It is a long written work intended to
inform like reference books or entertain such as novels.
 Newspaper
Newspaper refers to as a document published regularly, consisting of news reports, articles, photographs, and advertisements that
are printed on large sheets of paper folded together.
 Magazine
The magazine is defined as a periodical publication containing articles and illustrations, typically covering a particular subject or area
of interest.
 Poster
Poster is a bill or placard for posting, which is often placed in a public place. Posters by nature are visual.
 Brochure
Brochure is defined as a small, thin book or magazine that usually has many pictures and information about a product, or a place,
etc.
 Press Release
It is defined as an official statement that gives information to newspapers, magazines, television news programs, and radio stations.
Characteristics of Print Media
1. A proponent of literacy - Print media is essentially written media. One must be able to read to patronize print. By requiring literacy, print
media also promotes it.

2. Portable-Print media is the most portable platform of media. Its size and weight allow people to carry it everywhere.
3. Independent form of media - Unlike other forms of media, print does not require a separate medium or technology to transmit or receive
information.
4. Structure-Correct grammar and proper sentence construction is a must in print me dia. Arranging material to follow a layout is required
before publishing. The structure is given emphasis in print media.
Newspaper as Source of Information
The newspaper is one of the reliable sources of news and information. Its goals are to inform the public of the latest happenings in
almost everywhere and develop public opinion.
Typical newspapers has the following sections
1. News section - This section is considered the essence of the newspaper. Thus, it is found in the first pages of the newspaper. The front page
of the newspaper is intended for significant news stories from local community, national, and international scenes.
2. News stories featured in this section should have a lead that answers questions who, what, where, when, why, and how.
3. Newspapers must maintain its sense of fairness, accuracy, and truthfulness in narrating the stories at all times.
4. Photojournalism-It is a form of journalism that tells new stories through images. Photojournalism should maintain its sense of timeliness,
objectivity, and narrativity.
5. Opinion section-It contains editorial stories which report or tackle issues that concern the public or communities in an objective and
unbiased manner.
6. Opinion section also includes a letter to the editor and editorial cartoons.
7. Sports section - It features local, national, and international news and information on sports events.
8. Entertainment section - It offers feature articles that emphasize the various aspects of culture. This section includes film, music, arts, fashion,
and food. It may also contain comic strips, columns on advice, and horoscopes.
9. Classified or Classified Ads Section - it contains advertisements on services, job opportunities, and bidding.
The Broadcast Media
The term broadcasting refers to the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio signals (radio) or audio-visual signals (television)
that are readily accessible to a wide population via standard receivers.
 Radio Broadcasting
>The invention of radio began with the telegraph. As the first technological advancement that made long distance
communication possible, its popularity at the time cannot be overstated.
>Great invention was that of Alexander Graham Bell, called the telephone.
>It became a necessity for ships and naval fleets. Its strategic applications in the military made it a powerful tool during
the First World War. When the war ended in the year 1918, the Golden Age of radio began.
 TV Broadcasting
>The invention of television was initially prompted by commercialism. The earliest notable development was that of
German inventor Paul Nipko, where he was able to successfully transmit an image in 1884. Further developments to
Nipko's mechanical system known as the rotating disk was made by several other experts from all over the world.
Characteristics of Broadcast Media
Radio
Is a tool that uses voice, sound, and music. These three are called elements of radio. Because it lacks visual elements, producers of
information in radio bank on these three elements to attract attention and convey the message.
Two Types of Radio Format
1. AM (Amplitude Modulated) radio
AM radio offers variety stations that feature different program formats.
1. Dramatic Programs
2. Non-dramatic Programs a. News and commentary
b. Talk show
c. Counseling
d. Educational
e. Informative
2. FM (Frequency Modulation) radio
FM radio, the majority of the stations offer music and entertainment program formats. FM Stations based their offerings on the type
of audience they cater.
Television
Can be considered as the most powerful medium in the mass communication. It has a complete feature. It offers both sight and
sounds. It is more convenient to the audience in terms of exposure and participation.
Television has two main elements
1. Audio Sound, music, and voice
2. Video or visual - footage, graphics, and text
Television program formats are almost similar to the program formats in radio
1. Dramatic format
a. Drama series
b. Drama special
c. Sitcom
2. Non-dramatic format
a. News and public affairs program
b. Talk show, debate, discussion program
c. Contest, quiz show, game show program
d. Educational program e. Informative program
f. Variety shows program
The New Media: The World Wide Web
Tim Berners-Lee invented it back in 1989
Characteristics of New Media
1. Networked Linkage: Vanishing of fixed place: Geographical separation is no longer an issue with the new media. Through developments in
computer networks, information resources need not be stored on a single centralized server instead made it possible to just connect the
networks together.
2. Ubiquity: New media made information simultaneously present everywhere.
3. Digital: Because of its digital nature, information in the new media became:
 Infinite, where duplication and multiplication of information are possible.
 Easily altered or edited
 Easily retrievable, and machine readable
 Frequently stored on magnetic or optical surfaces, which do not have a proven permanence.
4. Space Binding and Distance Insensitivity: New media creates bridges across continents. Information from anywhere in the world can be
easily accessed everywhere. The only problem is that the volume of information makes it difficult to store them over time.
5. Geographical Insensitivity: Distance makes little difference in the time, cost or speed of getting information.
6. Personalized: New media commonly exist in smart (computing) devices and networks. As such, these systems can be instructed to customize
or individualize information for each user.
7. Prothesis and Telepresence: Studies show that personal gadgets like smartphones and computers reveal a lot about its user. People’s
dependence on new media has affected their daily lives, making their devices become that they are.
8. Virtuality, Virtual Community: New media has created a social environment without having the need for proximity.
9. Hypertext: Links documents together in such a way that one need not read documents in a prescribed order; authors, styles and permissible
rules of content may vary as one reads linked documents; responsibility and control are diffused – as is ownership of the resulting content; form
and structure are easily changed, composed on demand for individuals.
10. Interactivity: It seeks user input to perform functions based upon it. One example would be the function of cookies that stores personal
data and preferences as a tool to decipher what type of information would be interesting to the user.
11. Push v. Pull: New media contrast with older forms in that users/audiences request custom content and are not programmed to in the usual
sense of television and the press. Instead, content is “pulled” by the consumer, not “pushed” by the media organization.
12. Convergent: Merged Modal Capabilities, multimedia, and multiple media. These terms denote that formerly separate technologies (and the
industries behind them) are blending together with a digital common denominator.
13. “Smart” Server controlled functions, applications. Below are terminals of new media:
14. Wired, Wireless, Terrestrial and Satellite-based: While not strictly characteristic of new media, the digital and smart character of new
media make them more easily con figured for a variety of transmission methods.
15. Electromagnetic v. Optical: Digitally based new media are more readily converted to optical transmission (using pulses of light), which
affords advantages over conventional electronic transmission (using magnetic pulses). In brief, electromagnetic systems are more fragile, are
often bulkier for a given capacity, more subject to interference, and often can be more easily tapped. Optic fibers deliver gains in capacity,
reliability and accuracy compared with traditional copper wire and microwave radio technologies.
The Avenues of new media: Social Media Networking Sites
Facebook
- The world’s largest and most visited social networking site with more than 900 million users, FB is the easiest way to connect and
share moments with family and friends online. Signing up is easy. All you have to do is fill-up all the necessary information then you can now
easily connect to friends and family from here or abroad. Facebook was created by Mark Zuckerberg and fellow Harvard University students,
Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin Moskovitz and Chris Hughes in February 2004.
Twitter
- Just like Facebook, Twitter is one of the most visited sites. It is an online social networking and microblogging service that enables
users to send and read text-based messages. You can follow the tweets of your friends, your relatives and even public personalities from all
over the world. Totally fun for they can follow you back as well. This is where the word “trending”, “follow back” and “hashtag” first emanated.
Tweets are publicly visible, but us ers can filter and restrict messages and deliver them just to their followers. It was created in March 2006 by
Jack Dorsey and was launched by July.
Instagram
- Instagram or more commonly known as "IG" was originally created to be a photo-sharing site. Just recently, it
incorporated a 15-seconds video-sharing service that adds up to its main features. What makes IG different is that users can apply digital filters
on their pictures and upload them on various social network platforms like Facebook, Twitter,
Tumblr or Flickr.
- It has become popular by its hashtags "Throwback Thursday" and "Flashback Friday”. It was created by Kevin
Systrom and Mike Krieger and was launched in October 2010.

YouTube
- Popularly known to be a video-sharing website, YouTube was created in February 2005 by former PayPal employees. Users can
upload, view and share videos online. Unregistered users can watch videos while registered users can upload an unlimited number of videos.
Videos considered to contain potentially offensive content are available only to registered users at least 18 years old.

Tumblr
- A blog site that enables users to post multimedia contents, Tumblr is one of the social media sites that contains a variety of funny
pictures and videos which can be shared and re-shared thru the dashboard interface and to other social media sites. The cultural diversity on
the web can be explained in figure and table below.
The Convergence of Media in the Age of Information
They have moved outside their original medium format and explored other available media technologies. This phenomenon is called
the convergence of media.
Digital Print Media
There has been a considerable continuous decline in readership among all print mediums throughout the years. Although print has
remained to have a solid foothold in society, the need to revolutionize their methods has never been more necessary than it is today. This is
why print has gone where their readers all went, online.
Teleradio
Teleradio or television-radio is a program that combines the visual aspect of television with AM or news radio. Filming of teleradio
happens in radio booths and simultaneously broadcasted on radio stations, television channels, and even online.
Stream Media
Stream Media, in this context, refers to the transmission of television or radio content online. In this scenario, allows these two
traditional media players to broaden their reach to Internet media consumers.
Mass Media and Social Media
Mass Media platforms sought to take advantage of these numbers and bring their content to a wider audience. As such, most media
companies in existence today, regardless of their platform turn to social media to grow their patronage.
The Importance of Media
John Vivian explained the importance of media in his book entitled, The Media of Mass Communication. According to him, the value
of media lies in its pervasive nature, its func tion as an information and entertainment source, its role as a persuasion forum, and its binding
influence on people.
 Pervasiveness
The Cambridge dictionary defines pervasiveness as present or noticeable in every part of a thing or a place.
 Information Source
Everyone gets their dose of news and current affairs on a particular media plat form of their choice.
 Entertainment source
TV shows, music, films, books, clips and videos, and social media, are just some of the things that the media offers as
entertainment.
 Persuasion Forum
The media has the power to persuade people. Swaying people's beliefs does not happen instantly, though.
 Binding Influence
The media has become part of everyone's mundane lives.
The Concepts of Mass Media and Media Demassification
Mass Media
Mass media refer to channels of communication that involve transmitting information in some way, shape or form to large numbers
of people. Dutton et al (1998) suggest that traditionally the mass media has been differentiated from other types of communication in terms of
four essential characteristics.
Types of communication in terms of four essential characteristics:
Distance: Unlike face-to-face communication, there is a considerable amount of distance between the sender and receiver of the information in
mass media.
Technology: TV and radio networks won't be able to transmit information without satellites. Connecting to the Internet requires electronic
equipment like laptops and smartphones.
Scale: Mass media communication deals with broadcasting information to the masses simultaneously.
Commodity: Due to its massive scale and the technological equipment it requires, mass media is an expensive type of communication.
Media Demassification
Demassification is derived from the word demassify which means to divide or break up (a social or political unit) into its component
parts.
The Evolution of Media
Prehistoric Age
- NBC news reported the discovery of a 40000-year-old cave painting in Sulawesi, Indonesia.
- Several other discoveries of cave art around the world have proven that even at a time when no known civilizations existed, the
media have been a part of man's life.
- The earliest of which is the hieroglyphic script of the ancient Egyptian civilization developed around 32000 BCE. (Scoville, 2015) The
Sumerians developed another notable ancient form of writing around 5000 BCE called the cuneiform. (Mark, 2011).
- Many believe that the Egyptians developed the earliest paper through an abundant reed found along the Nile River. History,
however, cred it’s the Han dynasty for the invention of paper. (Violatti, 2013).
Industrial age
-Industrial age brought improvements in mass media. In the book Industrialization in the Modern World, Hinshaw and Stearns cited
the changes in mass media in the industrial age. In print, faster, steam-driven presses and methods of translating photographs to the printing
press.
Electronic age
-The electronic age of media began with the invention of the telegraph during the mid 1840s. According to Howe, it was a part of a
widespread revolution in communications along with the mass production of newspapers, magazines, and books.
- Bill Kovarik said that the invention of the telegraph led to telephones, radios, and televisions.
Information age
-While the traces of the industrial and electronic age still remain in modern media, the Internet is the prevailing platform of media in
the information age.
- The Internet is a development instead of an invention. What people know today as the World Wide Web began as a more secure
alternative means of communication during the cold war, called the ARPAnet.
- Sending files to one another was the main purpose of the worldwide network throughout the 1980s. A decade later, Tim Berners-
Lee led another Internet innovation. He developed the World Wide Web, where the internet itself became a web of information.