Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Concretes made of EAF slag and AOD slag aggregates from stainless steel
process: Mechanical properties and durability
G. Adegoloye, A.-L. Beaucour ⇑, S. Ortola, A. Noumowé
University of Cergy-Pontoise, Laboratoire de Mécanique & Matériaux du Génie Civil, EA 4114, F-95000 Cergy-Pontoise, France

h i g h l i g h t s

 EAF and AOD slag aggregates are more dense but more porous than natural aggregates.
 Very few mineral phases can show expansive reaction in EAF and AOD slag aggregates.
 The use of EAF and AOD slag aggregates improves concrete mechanical properties.
 Concretes made of EAF and AOD slag aggregates show a slightly but limited expansion.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study is to investigate the opportunity using EAF and AOD slags aggregates in concrete.
Received 28 April 2014 First, physicochemical and mineralogical properties of these stainless steel slag aggregates are deter-
Received in revised form 17 October 2014 mined. Second, the silico-calcareous aggregates of reference concretes are replaced by each of these steel
Accepted 5 December 2014
slag aggregates in different proportions. The results show a slight improvement of the mechanical prop-
erties for concretes made of stainless steel slag aggregates. The use of EAF and AOD slag aggregates can
slightly decrease concrete durability-related properties and increase linear expansion. But these charac-
Keywords:
teristics fit the standards requested for construction use.
Stainless steel slag
EAF slag
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Stabilised AOD slag
Coarse aggregates
Concrete
Mechanical properties
Expansion
Durability

1. Introduction
Currently, stainless steel is essentially manufactured from recy-
cled scrap in electric arc furnace and refined in an Argon Oxygen
Decarbonisation vessel. The produced steel slags contain EAF (Elec-
tric Arc Furnace) slag, AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarburisation) slag
and LM (Ladle Metallurgy) slag. The use of these stainless steel
slags was very limited because of their high chromium content
[1,2]. However, recent research studies have shown that it is pos-
sible to reduce the leachable chromium of these slags and make
them usable [3]. Stainless steel slags are nowadays only used as
aggregates in road construction and their future recovery in con-
crete could be interesting. This new way of valorisation would help
to achieve several aims: conservation of the natural aggregate
resources and reduction of the high costs of slag’s processing and
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 (0)1 34 25 69 75; fax: +33 (0)1 34 25 69 41.
E-mail address: anne-lise.beaucour@u-cergy.fr (A.-L. Beaucour).
storage. To date, very few studies have been conducted on the
use of slags from stainless steel process as aggregate in concrete.
Published studies exclusively deal with carbon steel slag [4–14].
This work aims to study possibility of using slags from stainless
steel process (EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag) as aggregates in
concrete.
According to published studies, EAF slag aggregates from car-
bon steel manufacture have a good mechanical strength and a high
specific density (3.6 on average) mainly due to their high content
in iron oxide. Despite their good mechanical behaviour, carbon
steel slag can show sometimes a dimensional instability due to
the free lime and magnesia hydration [5,6,9,10,15–17]. Indeed
these chemical reactions result in an increased volume of oxides:
about 5–10% for Ca(OH)2 and more than 100% for Mg(OH)2. Free
lime hydrates quickly but free MgO hydrates at a much lower rate,
causing significant volume change after months or even years [18].
To limit these expansive effects, steel slag is left outdoor and
exposed to weather during several months. Published studies

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.007
0950-0618/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
314 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321
[4–8] and [13] also indicate that EAF slag aggregates from carbon
steel manufacture have a water absorption coefficient which may
strongly vary (from 0.2% to 10.5%) and an intrinsic porosity which
is sometimes important. These both parameters can affect the
durability of concrete made of steel slag aggregates.
In stainless steel process, EAF slag is a similar crystalline rock but
its chemical composition is different from that of EAF slag from car-
bon steel process [19]. Its content in iron oxide is lower and may
explain its lower specific density. This could lead to a lower strength
noticed in concrete made of this type of EAF slag aggregates.
The AOD slag naturally falls to a powder on cooling due to its
mineralogy. The dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4) phase is commonly
present in this slag and the b ? c dicalcium silicate transition
which occurs during cooling causes its disintegration [20–21].
Here, the Ca2SiO2 is stabilised under beta form, producing a solid
crystalline slag in order to study their use as aggregates in
concrete, that possibility has not yet been studied in the litera-
ture. The resulting steel slag has almost the same physical and
mechanical characteristics as EAF slag but a different mineralog-
ical composition [1,20]. Compared to BOF slag [22–23], stabilised
AOD slag has a lower density and a much lower content in iron
oxides.
The results of an experimental study about two types of slags
from stainless steel process, EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag, are
presented. Firstly, physicochemical and mechanical properties of
stainless steel slag aggregates are determined and compared to
EN 12620 requirements for their use as aggregates in concrete.
The mineralogical composition of these stainless steel slag aggre-
gates is also analysed. Secondly, the natural aggregates (silico-cal-
careous) of reference concretes are substituted, partially to
totally, by stainless steel slag aggregates (EAF slag and stabilised
AOD slag) and several properties are measured on concrete sam-
ples. In this study, high-strength concretes are designed in order
to highlight the influence of slag aggregate strength on the
concrete behaviour. The measurement of the apparent density,
compressive strength, tensile strength and elasticity modulus is
useful to assess the impact of stainless steel slag aggregate
strength on concrete’s mechanical properties. The evolution of
concrete mechanical properties has been followed over the time
up to 365 days. Similarly, to assess the impact of stainless steel
slag aggregates on concrete’s durability, porosity and permeabil-
ity are measured. Because of the possible expansion of stainless
steel slag aggregates, the measurement of the longitudinal strain
of prismatic specimens stored in water provides comparison of
dimensional variations between concretes made of EAF or AOD
aggregates and those made of silico-calcareous aggregates. SEM
observations were also made on interface between stainless steel
slag aggregates and cement paste.
2. Study of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates
In this study, the granular size of EAF slag and stabilised AOD
slag aggregates is (4–20 mm). In order to limit the risk of
expansion, these steel slags have been subjected to weathering in
outdoor conditions during several months. Different tests on
aggregates are made to determine their physico-chemical and
mineralogical characteristics. Tests are also made according to EN
12620 standard in order to make sure they can be used as aggre-
gates in concrete.
Table 1
Chemical composition of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates (percent per mass).
Contents (%) CaO SiO2 MgO Al2O3
EAF slag 41.7 34.7 9.1 6.3
Stabilised AOD slag 58.4 26.4 2.1 2.1
2.1. Tests
To know the chemical composition of the aggregates, a study
was performed through X-ray fluorescence analysis on the two
types of slag aggregates. To complete this aggregates chemical
analysis, other tests were made according to EN 1744-1 in order
to measure the contents of total sulphur, acid-soluble sulphates,
water-soluble chlorides and free lime. For these tests, samples
are taken in accordance with the EN 932-1 standard procedures.
The intrinsic characteristics of aggregates also depend on their
mineralogical nature. To obtain more representative results of the
mineralogical variability within a slag aggregates sample, the min-
eralogical study was conducted here in two steps. Firstly, an identi-
fication of aggregate’s groups under UV lamps is made with two
wavelengths (254 and 365 nm) [24]. For each type of stainless steel
slag aggregates, two groups are identified depending on their fluo-
rescence. This first stage of mineralogical study provides a sampling
of slag aggregates at a larger scale. Secondly, for each identified
group, X-ray diffraction analyses and SEM observations with map-
ping by EDX are performed on five samples. For X-ray diffraction
analysis, samples were scanned with a Philips diffractometer using
copper Ka radiation, with 1130/00 generator and 1050/30 goniom-
eter. The wavelength of the incident X-ray is equal to 1.54 Â. The dif-
fractometer was running at 40 kV and 20 mA. The step widths was
0.025° from 6° to 66° 2-theta and 0.0025° from 64° to 70° 2-theta.
The counting time was 1.5 s per step. For SEM observations, the used
device is a LEICA S340i model with a 20 kV accelerating voltage. A
Bruker’s Quantax X-ray energy dispersive (EDX) detector was also
used to determine the mineralogical composition. Polished samples
were evaluated using a backscatter detector.
The apparent specific density and the water absorption are
determined according to the EN 1097-6 standard. Pycnometer
method is used. The Los Angeles coefficient is tested according to
EN 1097-2 standard. All these tests define the physical and
mechanical properties of the aggregates.
2.2. Chemical compositions of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag
aggregates
The chemical composition of slag aggregates studied (EAF slag
and stabilised AOD slag) is shown in Table 1. The SiO2 and the
CaO are the main components of these steel slag aggregates: about
80% of the total chemical composition. The iron oxides content is
very low for both slags. The stabilised AOD slag basicity index is
2.3 while that of EAF slag is around 1.3.
EN 12620 standard indicates the maximum total sulphur con-
tent (Table 2) and acid-soluble sulphates content (Table 3). The
maximum allowable values of these contents depend on the type
of the aggregates. There is no specification about stainless steel
slag aggregates. Only blast furnace slag aggregates are mentioned
in the standard. For water-soluble chlorides, there is no maximum
value for aggregates but its content is required in the calculation of
the chloride content of the concrete.
These minerals contents in EAF and AOD slag aggregates are
reported in Table 4. All the measured values comply with the
requirements of EN 12620 standard for the use as aggregates in
concrete.
Stainless steel slag aggregates contents in total sulphur and in
acid-soluble sulphates are far lower than the required maximum
Cr2O3 MnO TiO2 FeO CaF2 Total
3.5 2.1 2.2 0.5 – 100.1
0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 9.4 99.2
 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321 315

Table 2
Maximum allowable values of total sulphur content [EN 12620].

Aggregates Total sulphur content

(percentage by mass)
Aggregates other than air-cooled 61
blast furnace slag
Air-cooled blast furnace slag 62

Table 3
Categories for maximum values of acid-soluble sulphate content [EN 12620].

Aggregates Acid soluble sulphate content Category

(percentage by mass) AS
Aggregates other than air- 60.2 AS0.2
cooled blast furnace slag 60.8 AS0.8 Fig. 1. Mineralogical composition of EAF slag aggregates group 1.
>0.8 ASDeclared
No requirement ASNR
Air-cooled blast furnace slag 61.0 AS1.0
>1.0 ASDeclared
No requirement ASNR
are present like fluorite CaF2 and periclase MgO (in a very small
amount).
This mineralogical study shows that MgO is not found in the
EAF slag aggregates, neither through X-ray diffraction, nor by
values. This limits the risk of sulphate expansion. As stainless steel SEM–EDX analyses. Mg is mainly within akermanite, merwinite
slag contents in water-soluble chlorides are very low, the risks of or spinels. XRD analyses and MEB-EDX analyses do not show the
damage due to a bad concrete setting and to the steels corrosion presence of free lime. Only XRD spectrums of CaCO3 and
are also reduced. Free lime content in EAF slag and stabilised (CaMg)CO3 were observed. It is likely that carbonation of CaO is
AOD slag aggregates is very low, below 1% by weight. Thus expan- done when slag aggregates are subjected to weathering in outdoor
sion due to its hydration could be neglected [9]. Free MgO content conditions. In stabilised AOD slag aggregates very small amount of
in EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates could not have been MgO was observed. In conclusion, in the stainless steel slag aggre-
determined by chemical analyses. However the presence of peri- gates, the content in mineral phases likely to present an expansive
clase (MgO) in stabilised AOD slag aggregates were detected reaction (free CaO or free MgO) is very low.
through SEM and EDX analyses.
2.4. Physical and mechanical characteristics of EAF slag and AOD slag
2.3. Mineralogical composition of EAF slag and AOD slag aggregates aggregates

The mineralogical properties of EAF and AOD slags aggregates EAF slag aggregates and stabilised AOD slag aggregates have the
are determined through XRD analyses and SEM–EDX studies. The same physical characteristics even if they have different colours:
mineralogical composition of EAF slag aggregates is different from dark grey or black for EAF slag aggregates and light green for
that of stabilised AOD slag aggregates. stabilised AOD slag aggregates. These both stainless steel slag
XRD patterns of EAF slag aggregates are very complex, with sev- aggregates have generally a rough surface and a heterogeneous
eral overlapping peaks resulting from the main present minerals. appearance; from compact to cavernous (Figs. 5 and 6).
X-ray diffraction analyses show that EAF slag aggregates contain: The apparent specific density and the water absorption coeffi-
some silicates (akermanite Ca2Mg(Si2O7), merwinite Ca3Mg(SiO4)2, cient of aggregates are indicated in Table 5. Three measurements
andratite Ca3Al2FeSi3O12, cuspidine Ca4Si2O7F2, rankinite Ca3Si2O7) are done for each type of aggregate. The EAF slag and stabilised
and some metallic oxides (chromium spinels MgCr2O4 and AOD slag have an apparent specific density higher than that of
perovskite CaTiO3). XRD patterns of AOD slags aggregates show the silico-calcareous aggregates: 2.8 against 2.5. Nevertheless
less variety of minerals. The main identified mineral phases are these values remain lower than the average amount of 3.6 for
dicalcium silicates ß-Ca2SiO4, fluorite CaF2, calcium sulphide CaS
and periclase MgO.
SEM-BSE observations with Energy-Dispersive X-ray (EDX) anal-
yses are performed in order to study the distribution of the mineral
phases identified by XRD analyses (Figs. 1–4). For EAF slag, they indi-
cate that akermanite and merwinite are the main mineral phases.
Those minerals are stable. For stabilised AOD slag, the mineralogical
composition is more homogeneous, as they essentially contain the
stabilised beta-dicalcium silicates. Some other secondary phases

Table 4
Measured contents in stainless steel slag aggregates.

Contents (percent by mass) EAF slag Stabilised AOD slag

Total sulphur (%) 0.26 0.18
Acid-soluble sulphates (%) 0.02 0.21
Water-soluble chlorides (%) 0.0005 0.0020
Free lime (%) 0.07 0.07
Fig. 2. Mineralogical composition of EAF slag aggregates group 2.
316 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321
Fig. 3. Mineralogical composition of stabilised AOD slag aggregates group 1.
Fig. 4. Mineralogical composition of stabilised AOD slag aggregates group 2.
the carbon steel slag aggregates [4–8]. Indeed these latter have a
higher content of metal oxides.
The water-absorption coefficients of stainless steel slag
aggregates are slightly higher than that of the silico-calcareous
aggregates. The stainless steel slag aggregates also have a very
good resistance to fragmentation: their Los Angeles coefficients
range from 16 to 23. According to EN 12620 standard, EAF slag
aggregates category’s is LA25 and stabilised AOD slag aggregates’
one is LA20. LA20 and LA25 are respectively the second and third
best categories of the nine proposed by EN 12620 standard. LA
coefficient shows that the slag aggregates from stainless steel
process have good mechanical characteristics. As specific feature,
they are at the same time more dense but paradoxically more por-
ous than silico-calcareous aggregates. This could be related to the
presence of metal oxides in the solid phase of aggregates.
3. Study of concrete made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag
aggregates
3.1. Mix proportion and specimen preparation
In this study, all or part of the silico-calcareous aggregates of a
reference concrete has been replaced by stainless steel slag
aggregates. As aggregate strength plays a more important role in
high-strength concrete than in ordinary one, seven types of high-
strength concrete (ratio W/C = 0.3) are designed. They differ in their
composition in coarse aggregates. One concrete contains only
silico-calcareous aggregates (SC, reference concrete), concretes are
composed of 50%, in volume percent of silico-calcareous aggregates
Fig. 5. EAF slag aggregates appearance.
Fig. 6. Stabilised AOD slag aggregates appearance.
and 50% of stainless steel slag aggregates (EAF slag or stabilised AOD
slag); the last two concretes are made of 100% of stainless steel slag
aggregates (EAF slag or stabilised AOD slag). The volume of aggre-
gates remains the same from one concrete to another. The mixing
water is obtained by considering the water content in aggregates
and the water provided by the superplasticiser. The different
concretes have S4 consistency class (EN 206 standard) and the
amount of superplasticiser varies from one mix concrete to another
in order to keep the same slump. The modified polycarboxylate-
based superplasticiser (cimfluid 3002) is used. The mix composi-
tions of these concretes are presented in Table 6. For fine aggregates
only silico-calcareous aggregates are used. Their water absorption is
lower than that of silico-calcareous coarse aggregates and is
estimated at 1%. The binder is Portland cement CEM I 52.5 R.
3.2. Methods
Seven mixtures are tested. For each test and each mixture, three
concrete samples stored in water at 20 °C are used.
Mechanical properties of concretes are investigated. The
measurements of compressive and tensile strengths were done
on all studied concretes. Compressive and splitting tests were
 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321 317

Table 5
Physical properties of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates.

Aggregates EAF slag (4/20) Stabilised AOD slag (4/20) Silico-calcareous (4/20)
Average Standard deviation Average Standard deviation Average
Apparent specific density 2.8 ±0.2 2.8 ±0.3 2.5
Water absorption (mass%) 2.6 ±0.2 3.0 ±0.2 1.7
Porosity (volume%) 7.3 ±0.3 8.4 ±0.3 4.2
Los Angeles coefficient (LA) 23 – 16 – 30

carried out on 16  32 cm specimens according to EN 12390 stan-

dard. The loading rate is 0.5 MPa per second. The dynamic Young’s
modulus is determined by acoustic test according to EN 12504-4
standard. The equipment used is the ultrasonic device ‘‘Pundit’’.
It generates low-frequency ultrasonic pulses and measures the
time to pass from one transducer to the other. The pulse velocity
is calculated and the dynamic modulus is determined from its rela-
tion with the Poisson’s ratio and the concrete oven-dried density.
The good acoustical contact between the sample and the face of
each transducer is ensured by the use of petroleum jelly. Before
the test, the 15  7 cm concrete samples are drying at 60 °C until
constant weight in laboratory oven.
The measurement of the mechanical properties is performed at
various ages (28, 90 and 365 days) in order to identify possible
damage with time, due to the forming of expansive compound.
To facilitate the possible hydration reactions, the samples have
been stored in water at 20 °C.
Fig. 7. Measurement of concrete expansion.
To determine whether any expansion occurred, length measure-
ment of prisms is made at 28, 90 and 365 days, following NF P 18-
454 standard (Fig. 7). Our tests consist in measuring longitudinal slag aggregates and the cement paste. These possible cracking
deformations of three concrete prismatic samples (7  7  28 cm) could be caused by the expansion of EAF or stabilised AOD slag
stored in water at 20 °C. The first value is taken on 24-h-aged con- aggregates.
crete samples. Reference stainless steel studs are casted into the
mid-points of the top and bottom faces of the prisms. An invar rod
is used to calibrate the length of the measurement apparatus. For 4. Influence of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates on
each measurement, the prism is kept in the same position (top concrete mechanical properties
and bottom position, the same prism face towards the apparatus).
Some measurements of gas permeability and water porosity High-strength concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD
were also performed to obtain some durability indicators of con- slag aggregates are slightly denser than the only natural aggre-
cretes made of steel slag aggregates. The gas permeability test is gates-composed ones (silico-calcareous): apparent density of the
made with a constant load device ‘‘CEMBUREAU’’ with nitrogen hardened concrete made of silico-calcareous aggregates is 2.42
as neutral percolating gas. According to AFPC-AFREM protocol, while the hardened concrete made of slag aggregates vary from
concrete cylinders are cut by using a diamond blade saw, to obtain 2.60 to 2.64, depending on the proportion of the slag aggregates
15  5 cm concrete discs. Three discs are tested for each concrete in the concrete mixes. So the use of EAF slag or stabilised AOD slag
mix. Only discs located in central portion of the cylinder are aggregates increases the concrete’s density from 7% to 9%. That
retained; discs at the both extremities are rejected. The samples increase occurs with a slight rise of the concrete’s mechanical
are drying at 60 °C in laboratory oven. The density and water strengths. Fig. 8 shows the evolution of the concrete 28-days com-
porosity of the concretes are determined by hydrostatic weighing pressive and tensile strengths with the proportion of EAF slag and
according to NF EN 12390-7 standard. stabilised AOD slag coarse aggregates. Each value is the average of
SEM observations were also carried out on concrete samples three measurements. Standard deviation of the data is ±3 MPa. The
stored in water for 365 days to detect possible cracking 28-days compressive strength of concretes made of natural aggre-
(longitudinal or radial) at the interface between the stainless steel gate is 67 MPa. When EAF slag or stabilised AOD slag are used as

Table 6
Mix composition of concrete.

Contents for m3 of concrete Silico-calcareous EAF slag Stabilised AOD slag

Volume percent of slag in coarse aggregate 0% 50% 100% 50% 100%
Cement content CEM1 52.5 (kg) 500 500 500 500 500
Silico-calcareous coarse aggregates 4/20 (kg) 1052 526 0 526 0
EAF slag coarse aggregates 4/20 (kg) 0 592 1183 0 0
AOD slag coarse aggregates 4/20 (kg) 0 0 0 600 1200
SC fine aggregates 0/4 (kg) 649 649 649 649 649
Effective water (kg) 150 150 150 150 150
Superplasticiser (kg) 3.3 3.6 3.8 3.6 3.7
Slump (cm) 19 18 16 19 17
318 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321

80 71 72 73 73
67

Mechanical strengths (MPa)

60

40

20
6.1 6.2 6.2 6.4 6.4
0
0 50 1 00
Volume percent of SC aggregate substitued by slag aggregates (%)
Silico-calcareous compressive strength EAF compressive strength
stabilised AOD compressive strength EAF tensile strength
Stabilised AOD tensile strength silico-calcareous tensile strength

Fig. 8. 28-Days compressive and splitting tensile strengths of concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates.

60 53 55
50 51
46
Dynamic modulus (GPa)

40 EAF slag

stabilised AOD slag

20

Silico-calcareous

0
0 50 100
Volume percent of SC aggregate substituted by slag aggregates

Fig. 9. 28-Days dynamic Young modulus of concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates.

coarse aggregates, the mean value of the compressive strength is
73 MPa, showing an increase of 9%. Tensile strength also increases
when the natural aggregates are replaced by stainless steel slag
aggregates. The results show a small tensile strength variation
between traditional and steel slag aggregate concretes. This differ-
ence would be more evident for normal strength concrete. Indeed,
the improvement of the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) due to the
highest surface porosity of stainless steel slag aggregates is more
pronounced for high w/c ratio concretes.
Fig. 9 shows that the dynamic Young’s modulus also increases
when natural aggregates are replaced by EAF slag or stabilised
AOD slag aggregates. The increase in dynamic modulus is 10% with
EAF slag coarse aggregates and 20% with stabilised AOD slag coarse
aggregates. The higher dynamic modulus is due to the higher den-
sity of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates compared to
that of the silico-calcareous aggregates.
The good mechanical performances certainly result from the
higher strength of stainless steel slag aggregates (Los Angeles coef-
ficient LA = 23 for the EAF slag and LA = 16 for the stabilised AOD
slag). It could also result from the crushed shape, the rough surface
and the higher porosity of the used stainless steel slag aggregates,
which provide a better adhesion with the cement paste. These
results are consistent with the literature [4,8,12]. The analysis of
failure planes show transgranular fractures and confirm the good
matrix-aggregate adhesion for slag aggregate and for natural
aggregate (Fig. 10). This is linked to the low water to cement ratio
of high-strength concrete.
Compressive strengths over the time of concrete made of slag
aggregates are presented on Fig. 11. Over the time, no drop has
been noticed regarding the strength of concrete made of EAF and
stabilised AOD slag aggregates.
5. Durability indicators and volume stability over the time of
concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates
5.1. Porosity and permeability
Porosity and gas permeability are durability indicators. In this
study, the 28-days water porosity of high-strength concretes made
of steel slag aggregates varies from 12.1% to 12.4% (Table 7) and the
28-days gas permeability from 2.0 to 2.3  10 16 m2 (Fig. 12).
Those values are slightly higher than those of high-strength con-
cretes made of silico-calcareous aggregates. This is mainly due to
the higher porosity of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates.
For a same concrete mixture, concrete made of steel slag aggre-
gates are thereby slightly more sensitive to aggressive agents and
to freeze–thaw cycles. According to the approach developed in
the AFGC guide (2004), concretes made of steel slag aggregates
belong to the average category of durability (porosity between
12% and 14% and permeability between 1 and 3  10 16 m2).
Values of Table 7 and Fig. 12 match with the recommended limits
for building constructions of 30–50 years service-life [25]. How-
ever, the porosity and gas permeability of concretes made of stain-
less steel slag aggregates may be improved by adding fillers which
could fill the voids between the aggregate particles and the cement
particles. Such as in [4], the use of air-entrainer admixture could
 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321 319

Table 7
28-Days water porosity of concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag
aggregates.

Concrete with Silico-calcareous EAF slag Stabilised

aggregates aggregates AOD slag
aggregates
Volume percent of slag in 0 50 100 50 100
coarse aggregate (%)
Porosity (%) 9.9 10.9 12.4 10.8 12.1

2.3
1.9

Permeability 10-16m2
2.2

1.6

0.8 0 0.9 50 100

EAF slag stabilised AOD slag

Volume percent of silico-calcareous aggregates substituted by slag aggregates

Fig. 12. 28-Days permeability of concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD
slag aggregates.
Fig. 10. Failure plane after compressive strength test on concrete made of steel slag
aggregate and silico-calcareous aggregate.

Table 8
Evolution over the time of water porosity of concretes.
90
28 days 90 days 365 days
100% silico-calcareous 9.9 9.9 9.6
100% EAF slag 12.4 12.4 12.0
100% stabilised AOD slag 12.1 12.1 12.0
compressive strength MPa

60

slag aggregates and concretes with silico-calcareous aggregates.

30
0 AOD slag aggregates, against 0.008% for concrete made of silico-
0 100 200
Time (days)
EAF slag Stabilised AOD slag
Fig. 11. Compressive strength over the time of concretes made of EAF slag and
stabilised AOD slag aggregates.
help to improve the durability-related properties of concrete made
of stainless steel slag aggregates.
The water porosity over the time (28, 90 and 365 days) regard-
ing concretes made of 100% stainless steel slag coarse aggregates is
presented in Table 8. It shows that for stabilised AOD and EAF slag
aggregates concretes the water porosity has slightly reduced over
the time, like that of natural aggregate concrete. That porosity
reduction is consistent with the increase of the compressive
strength over the time.
5.2. Volume stability and microscopic observations about concretes
made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates
Fig. 13 shows the expansion curve of EAF slag and stabilised
AOD slag aggregates concretes during 365 days. Each value is the
average of three measurements on three different prism samples.
The results indicate shrinkage at 28 days for concretes with EAF
This shrinkage results from the chemical reaction of the cement
with water. It is not observed for concrete made of stabilised
AOD slag aggregates in which it could have been offset by swelling
phenomena. After one year, the concretes made of stainless steel
slag aggregates show a higher expansion than that of concretes
made of silico-calcareous aggregates: 0.017% for concretes with
EAF slag aggregates and 0.026% for concretes made of stabilised
300 400
calcareous aggregates. These values are consistent with the expan-
sion of concretes made of nonreactive alkali aggregates (from
Silico-calcareous 0.01% to 0.03% at one year) [26].
The expansion increases with the volume fraction of stainless
steel slag coarse aggregates. XRD analyses did not show the pres-
ence of glassy phases in slags so that the expansion cannot result
from alkali-siliceous reaction. No ettringite is determined in SEM
observations either. Consequently, additional dimensional change
could be related to some hydration reactions with free lime or free
magnesium oxides. XRD and SEM–EDS analyses only show a few
proportion of MgO in stabilised AOD slag. Only few content of free
lime was also detected according to EN 1744-1 standard in both
aggregates.
However, according to FD P 18-456 standard, the maximum
limit acceptable for the longitudinal strains (0.03% at 12 months
for concrete stored in water at 60 °C) has not been exceeded.
SEM observations of crack network at the paste-aggregate inter-
face and in concrete samples were carried out (Figs. 14 and 15). For
these observations, samples are taken in 365-days concretes made
of EAF slag, stabilised AOD slag and silico-calcareous aggregates.
SEM observations show intact coarse aggregates (EAF slag,
stabilised AOD slag and silico-calcareous) but cracking through
the cement paste and in some areas at the interfaces between the
paste and EAF slag or stabilised AOD aggregates. No intergranular
320 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321

0.04
0.03
Silico-calcareous

ΔL/L0 (%)
0.02
50% EAF
0.01
100% EAF
0 50% AOD
0 100 200 300 400
-0.01 100% AOD
-0.02
-0.03
Time (days)

Fig. 13. Longitudinal strain of high-strength concretes made of EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag aggregates.

substitute of the natural aggregates (silico-calcareous). Stainless

Fig. 14. SEM observations of an interface between EAF slag aggregates and cement
paste in 365-days concrete. Slight cracking in some areas.
steel slag aggregates have an apparent specific density higher than
that of the silico-calcareous aggregates. They also show a very good
resistance to fragmentation. Physical properties and mechanical
strengths of concrete made of stainless steel slag aggregates are
slightly higher than those of concrete made of silico-calcareous
aggregates. Compressive strength increases by 9% when the
natural aggregates are replaced by stainless steel slag aggregates.
Tensile strength increases by 3%. The increase in dynamic modulus
is 10% with EAF slag coarse aggregates and 20% with stabilised AOD
slag coarse aggregates. Although durability indicators for concrete
made of stainless steel slag aggregates (water porosity and gas per-
meability) show values slightly higher than those of traditional
concrete. The expansion of 365-days water-cured concrete speci-
men increases with the volume fraction of stainless steel slag
coarse aggregates. All the measured values match with the recom-
mended limits for building constructions. The mechanical
strengths evolution over the time and the conservation of the
Young’s modulus indicate that there is no damage due to possible
chemical reactions or expansive reactions of stainless steel slag
aggregates. From the results obtained on the tested mixtures, this
study reveals a new type of concretes with specific properties; as
they are denser and more porous than traditional concrete.
Furthermore, stainless steel slag aggregate concretes provide an
environmental solution: sustainable recovery of industrial by-
products and conservation of natural resources.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank UGITECH SA for financial contribution and

scientific collaboration.

References

[1] Shen H, Forssberg E, Nordstrom U. Physicochemical and mineralogical

Fig. 15. SEM observations of an interface between stabilised AOD slag aggregates
and cement paste in 365-days concrete. Slight cracking in some areas.
cracking, which could indicate a potential expansive reaction, has
been observed.
6. Conclusion
According to the criteria of EN 12620 Aggregates for
concrete standard, the studied stainless steel slag aggregates
(EAF slag and stabilised AOD slag) may be used in concrete as a
properties of stainless steel slag oriented to metal recovery. Resour Conserv
Recycl 2004;40:245–71.
[2] Baciocchi R, Costa G, Polettini A, Pomi R. Influence of particle size on
carbonation steel slag for CO2 storage. Energy Proc 2009;1:4859–66.
[3] Huaiwei Z, Xin H. An overview for the utilization of wastes from stainless steel
industries. Resour Conserv Recycl 2011;55:745–54.
[4] Pellegrino C, Cavagnis P, Faleschini F, Brunelli K. Properties of concretes with
black/oxidizing electric arc furnace slag aggregate. Cement Concr Compos
2013;37:232–40.
[5] Manso JM, Gonzalez JJ, Polanco JA. Electric arc furnace slag in concrete. J Mater
Civil Eng 2004;16:639–45.
[6] Manso JM, Polanco JA, Losanez M, Gonzales JJ. Durability of concrete made
with EAF slag as aggregate. Cement Concr Compos 2006;28:528–34.
[7] Pellegrino C, Gaddo V. Mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete
containing EAF slag as aggregate. Cement Concr Compos 2009;31:663–71.
[8] Abu-Eishah S, El-dieb A, Bedir M. Performance of concrete mixtures made with
electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag aggregate produced in the Arabian Gulf
region. Constr Build Mater 2012;34:249–56.
[9] Motz H, Geiseler J. Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural
resources. Waste Manage 2001;21:285–93.
 G. Adegoloye et al. / Construction and Building Materials 76 (2015) 313–321
[10] Beshr H, Almusallam AA, Maslehuddin M. Effect of coarse aggregate quality on
the mechanical properties of high strength concrete. Constr Build Mater
2003;17:97–103.
[11] Maslehuddin M, Sharif M, Shameem M, Ibrahim M, Barry MS. Comparison of
properties of steel slag and crushed limestone aggregate concretes. Constr
Build Mater 2003;17:105–12.
[12] Etxeberria M, Pacheco C, Meneses JM, Berridi I. Properties of concrete using
metallurgical industrial by-products as aggregates. Constr Build Mater
2010;24:1594–600.
[13] Papayianni I, Anastasiou E. Production of high-strength concrete using high
volume of industrial by-products. Constr Build Mater 2010;24:1412–7.
[14] Frias Rojas M, Sanchez De Rojas MI. Chemical assessment of the electric arc
furnace as construction material: expansive compounds. Cement Concr Res
2004;34:1881–8.
[15] Wang G, Wang Y, Gao Z. Use of steel slag as a granular material: volume
expansion prediction and usability criteria. J Hazard Mater 2010;184:555–60.
[16] Wang G. Determination of the expansion force of coarse steel slag aggregate.
Constr Build Mater 2010;24:1961–6.
[17] Sorlini S, Sanzeni A, Rondi L. Reuse of steel slag in bituminous paving mixtures.
J Hazard Mater 2012;209–210:84–91.
[18] Yildrim IZ, Prezzi M. Chemical, mineralogical, and morphological properties of
steel slag. Adv Civil Eng 2011. 13 pages.
[19] Tossavainen M, Engstrom F, Yang Q, Menad N, Lidstrom Larsson M, Bjorkman
B. Characteristics of steel slag under different cooling conditions. Waste
Manage 2007;27:1335–44.
321
[20] Kriskova L, Pontikes Y, Cizer O, Mertens G, Veulemans W, Geysen D, Jones P,
Vandewalle L, Van Balen K, Blanpain B. Effect of mechanical activation on the
hydraulic properties of stainless steel slags. Cement Concr Res
2012;42:778–88.
[21] Zhao H-Q, Qi Y-H, Shi Y-L, Na X-Z, Feng H-L. Mechanism and prevention of
disintegration of AOD stainless steel slag. J Iron Steel Res 2013;20:26–30.
[22] Belhadj E, Diliberto C, Lecomte A. Properties of hydraulic paste of basic oxygen
furnace slag. Cement Concr Compos 2014;45:15–21.
[23] Calmon JL, Tristao FA, Giacometti M, Meneguelli M, Moratti M, Teixeira JESL.
Effects of BOF steel slag and other cementitious materials on the rheological
properties of self-compacting cement pastes. Constr Build Mater
2013;40:1046–53.
[24] Adegoloye G, Beaucour AL, Ortola S, Noumowe A. Mineralogical
characterization of EAF and AOD slags using ultraviolet fluorescence. In:
Malfliet A, Jones PT, Binnemans K, Cizer Ö, Fransaer J, Yan P, Pontikes Y, Guo M,
Blanpain B, editors. The transition to sustainable materials management,
Belgium. p. 351–4.
[25] Baroghel-Bouny V, Cussigh F, Rougeau P. L’approche performantielle de la
durabilité des bétons. In: Ollivier JP, Vichot A, editors. La durabilité des bétons.
p. 281–302.
[26] Carles-Gibergues A, Cyr M. Interpretation of expansion curves of concrete
subjected to accelerated alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) tests. Constr Concr
Res 2002;32:691–700.