A BRIEF HISTORY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
That in turn led to theories
Organic chemistry was first defined as a branch of modern science in 1806
by Jon Jacob Berzelius. He classified chemical compounds into two groups:
organic if they originated in living or once-living matter and inorganic if they
came from "mineral" or non-living matter.  Berzelius believed in Vitalism -
the idea that organic compounds could only originate from living organisms
through the action of some vital force.
In 1828, Frederich Wöhler made the discovery that would result in the
abandonment of Vitalism as a scientific theory.  He discovered that urea - an
organic compound - could be made by heating ammonium cyanate (an
inorganic compound).
Wöhler mixed silver cyanate and ammonium chloride to produce solid silver
chloride and aqueous ammonium cyanate.  He then separated the mixture by
filtration and tried to purify the aqueous ammonium cyanate by evaporating
the water.  The solid left over after the evaporation of the water was not
ammonium cyanate, it was a substance with the properties of urea.
Wöhler's discovery also represented the discovery of isomerism - the
possibility of two or more different structures (ammonium cyanate crystals
and urea crystals) based on the same chemical formula (N2H4CO).  Chemists
started searching for reasons to explain isomerism.
about the structure of chemical compounds.
By the 1860s, chemists like Friedrich August Kékulé were proposing
theories on the relationship between a compound's chemical formula and the
physical distribution of its atoms.  Kékulé established the foundation for the
structural theory in organic chemistry
By the 1900s chemists were trying to determine the nature of chemical
bonding by developing models for electron distribution. During all of this
time, the number of known organic compounds was increasing rapidly year
by year.
During the 20th century, organic chemistry branched into sub-disciplines
such as polymer chemistry, pharmacology, bioengineering, petro-chemistry,
and numerous others. During that century, millions of new substances were
discovered or synthesized. Today over 98% of all known compounds are
organic.
Sources and General Characteristics of Organic Compounds
There are three (3) generally accepted sources of organic compounds:
1. carbonized organic matter
2. living organisms
3. invention/human ingenuity
Carbonized Organic Matter: Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas
Humans have known about fossil fuels for over 6000 years; however, only Each year over 250,000 new chemical compounds are discovered. Plastics
during the past 300 years have they been utilized on a large scale. Coal was are excellent examples of substances that are the product of invention - they
the first of the fossil fuels to be extracted from the earth on a commercial are not found anywhere in nature.  
basis. It was the fuel that drove the steam engines of the industrial revolution
Properties of Organic Compounds
in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.
Through a process called destructive distillation, coal was converted into 1. Organic compounds are flammable
coke, coal tar, and coal gas. Coke was used in the smelting of ores, coal tar
was refined into over 200 different carbon compounds, and coal gas was used  Organic compounds react readily with oxygen
for things like street lighting.  Complete combustion produces CO2 and H2O.
 Incomplete combustion produces C, CO, CO2, and H2O.
Oil emerged as the dominant energy source for transportation in the
20th century. Natural gas is becoming a clean alternative to coal for
2. Organic compounds are covalently bonded
generating electricity. It is also widely used as home heating and appliance
fuel in North America. The economies of the western world are now
 Carbon always forms four covalent bonds.
completely dependent on oil and natural gas.
 Hydrogen always forms one covalent bond.
To some people, the burning of fossil fuels represents a tremendous waste.
Not only does this practice contribute to the build-up of carbon dioxide in the 3. Most organic compounds are insoluble to water
atmosphere, but it also consumes the raw materials needed to make useful
substances like plastics. By some estimates, the world will virtually exhaust  Organic compounds with less than 3 carbon atoms are soluble to water.
its supply of oil and natural gas by 2050.  Organic compounds with 4 to 5 carbon atoms are slightly soluble to
water.
Nature: Living Organisms
 Organic compounds with 6 carbon atoms and above are insoluble to
Humans have extracted and purified thousands of useful compounds from water
plants and animals. For example, the penicillin used to fight bacterial  Organic compounds are soluble to non-polar organic solvents.
infections is extracted from a naturally occurring mold. Acetylsalicylic acid,
commonly known as aspirin, comes from the bark of a species of a willow 4. Organic compounds are nonelectrolytes
tree. Vanilla flavoring is extracted from dried beans that come from a species
of orchid called Vanilla planifolia. The heart drug digitalis comes from a  Organic compounds do not conduct electricity
plant called Digitalis purpurea.
5. Organic compounds have low boiling and melting point
 Invention
Antibiotics, aspirin, vanilla flavoring, and heart drugs are examples of  Many are gases, liquids, or solids with low melting points (less than
substances that no longer have to be obtained directly from nature. They are 360°C)
manufactured in laboratories from organic starting materials. Furthermore,
experiments in which the chemical structures of naturally occurring 6. Organic compounds have a high vapor pressure 
substances are modified have produced organic compounds substances that
do not exist anywhere in nature.
  Some organic compounds undergo sublimation while some are highly m is mass
volatile 
MM is molar Mass
7. Organic compounds exhibit isomerism
How to find number of moles
 Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula.
Ex: How many moles of CO2 are there if its mass is 88g

1C : 1(there is only 1 carbon) x 12(atomic mass) = 12g/mol

2O : 2(there are 2 oxygen ) x 32(Atomic Mass) = 32 g/mol

Molar Mass = 12g/mol + 32g/mol

=44g/mol
Difference of Organic and Inorganic Compounds
n= 88g/44(g/mol) = 2mol
Organic Compound Inorganic Compounds
Predominant Element : Carbon Empirical Formula - the chemical formula in ‘lowest term’ ‘simplest form’
Not Predominant Element
(Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen)
Non-Flammable and Non- Molecular Formula - the actual chemical Formula
Combustible and Inflammable
Combustible
Low Melting and Boiling Point High Melting and Boiling Point Ex: What is the empirical formula od a substance having 40% C, 6.71% H
Soluble to other Organic Compounds Soluble to other Inorganic and 53.3% O. GIven molecular mass of 180.2 amu. WHat is its Molecular
and Non-polar Compounds and Polar Formula?
Non Electrolytes Electrolytes (Has Ions)
Slow reaction (Needs catalysts) Fast Reaction Givens:
Complex Structure Simple Structure
Exhibits Isomerism Rarely Exhibits Isomerism 40% C

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA 6.71% H

Molar Mass - g/mol (amu) 53.3% O

n= m/MM C = 40/12 = 3.33 → 3.33 / 3.33 = 1

n is moles H = 6.71/1 = 6.71 → 6.71 / 3.33 = 2 (originally 2.02)

O = 53.3/16 = 3.33 → 3.33 / 3.33 = 1

Empirical Formula = CH2O

Given:

Molar mass = 180.2 amu

Molar Mass from Empirical Formula: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

- Limits the no. Off electrons to not have more than 2 electrons in each
CH2O orbital and that it should be spinning in opposite direction

C = 1 x 12 = 12g/mol Max number of Electrons

S=2
H = 2 x 1 = 2g/mol P=6
D = 10
O = 1 x 16 = 16g/mol F = 14

Molar mass (Empirical Formula) = 12 + 2 + 16 g/mol = 30g/mol Hund’s Rule

- distribute the electrons to the next orbital before pairing
MM Empirical / MM Molecular → 30/180.2 = 6 (originally 6.007)
CONCEPT OF ATOMS
Molecular Formula J. J Thompson
- Electron is embedded in the nucleus
= (CH2O)6 - Plum Pudding Model

= C6H12O6 Rutherford
- Electrons are outside the neutrons surrounding it
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF ATOMS
Bohr
Aufbau Principle - There is a central nucleus and the electrons are orbiting around it
- like a planetary system
- the electrons are filled into an atomic orbital in the Increasing Order of the
orbital energy level (Lowest to Highest) Schroedinger
- there is a nucleon (collective name for neutrons and protons)at the center
- There are electrical waves outside

4. Spin Quantum Number (s)

- Direction of the election
4 QUANTUM NUMBERS - if the rotation is clockwise or the arrow is upwards the s value is 1/2
- if the rotation is n=counterclockwise or the arrow is downwards, the s value
1. Principal Quantum Number (n) is -1/2
- main energy
Values: 1,2,3,4,5…
3 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
2. Azimuthal (l) Protons - inside
- shape Electrons - outside
S - Spherical → 0 Neutrons - Inside
P - Dumbell → 1
D - Cloverleaf → 2 Atomic number = Protons = Electrons
F - Complex → 3 Atomic Mass = Protons + Neutrons
Protons = Atomic Mass - Neutrons
3. Magnetic (m) Neutrons = Atomic Mass - Neutrons
- Orientation
S=1 COVALENCY
Values: 0
Covalency Number
P= 3 - refers to the number of unpaired electrons.
Values : -1, 0, 1 - It also determines the number of covalent bonds an atom can form.

D=5 There are 2 ways to determine the covalency number

Values: -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
F=7
Values: -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
 1st at Ground State
 2nd is at Excited state (Promotion of an electron/s to the next empty
orbital at the same energy level before pairing.)
Ground state
- the original electric configuration of an element

Excited State
- to determine the covalency, fill up first the whole orbital before pairing.
Ex:
M2 lesson 1 Hydrocarbons (open Chain & Closed Chain)  

Open chain compounds Classifications of Hydrocarbons

These are compounds that do not form into a ring. It can either be a straight-         Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that consist of only C and H
chain molecule or a branched-chain (i.e. one that goes off in different atoms.They include the alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and the aromatic
directions). Open chain compounds are also known as aliphatic compounds.  hydrocarbons. Almost all usable supplies of hydrocarbons are obtained
from fossil fuels. These compounds are classified as saturated or unsaturated
Closed ring molecule hydrocarbons. This classification only applies to the aliphatic compounds
(alkanes, alkenes and alkynes), that is the straight or branched chain
These are molecules that do form a ring. This is also known as a cyclic
hydrocarbons depending on the number of bonds in between the carbon atom
compound categorized as homocyclic - composed of just carbon and
which is the basis of hydrocarbons structural differences.
hydrogen atoms and heterocyclic - contains an atom or atoms that are
different from carbon and hydrogen. These are further categorized as  
aromatic and alicyclic. An aromatic molecule is a cyclic organic compound
with an odd number of double bonds. Benzene is the most common example
of an aromatic molecule. All other cyclic compounds that are not aromatic
are called alicyclic.
Based on the structure, organic compounds can be broadly classified as
acyclic (open chain) or cyclic (closed chain) as seen in the following
diagram. 

         Previously, it was discussed that hydrocarbons can exist in open or

close structures. In addition to that, Hydrocarbons can be categorized based
on the nature of their bonds and aromaticity. In terms of its
bonds, Alkanes are saturated open/close chain hydrocarbons containing
Carbon - carbon single bonds. Alkenes and Alkynes are unsaturated
hydrocarbons containing C-C double and triple bonds, respectively.
Unsaturated Aromatic hydrocarbons are also known as ‘arenes’. Since most
of them possess pleasant odour (Greek; aroma meaning pleasant smelling),
the class of compounds was named as ‘aromatic compounds’. Most of such
compounds were found to contain a benzene ring. These four functional
groups majorly characterize the parent chain structure of any organic
compounds.  Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only the
elements of carbon and hydrogen. The classification is shown in the diagram
while examples with functional groups are enumerated in the table.   bonds. Due to this, Its chemical formula is CnH2n. Alkenes are also known
 Four major classes of hydrocarbons.
Additional Learning Materials:
To understand more of the hydrocarbons and functional groups, please
read the topic in our textbook &/or study the PowerPoint  Ch.11 slides 23-
31, General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry by Janice Smith
1. Alkanes
  Alkanes, also known as paraffins (latin:parum,little;affinis,affinity), are
saturated open chain hydrocarbons having a general formula CnH2n+2. They
are a major component of natural gas. The simplest one, methane (CH4), is
the most abundant followed by ethane and propane, respectively. Large
amounts are present in our atmosphere, in the ground, and in the
oceans. Cycloalkanes contain carbons joined in one or more rings. Since a
cycloalkane has two fewer H’s than an acyclic alkane with the same number
of carbons, its general formula is CnH2n.
2. Alkenes
Alkenes are compounds that contain at least one carbon–carbon double
as olefins (oil forming) since the first member, ethylene or ethene (C2H4)
was found to form an oily liquid on reaction with chlorine. Carbon-carbon
double bond in alkenes consists of one strong sigma (σ) bond (bond enthalpy
about 397 kJ mol–1) due to head-on overlapping of sp2 hybridised orbitals
and one weak pi (π) bond (bond enthalpy about 284 kJ mol–1) obtained by
lateral or sideways overlapping of the two 2p orbitals of the two carbon
atoms. Due to this double bond characteristic, there are 2 possible structural
isomers of alkenes. These are the cis (Z) and trans (E) isomers.
Cis (Z) and Trans (E) isomer characteristic of double bonds.
          2.1 Dienes
         Are special conjugated alkene compounds whose molecules contain two
carbon-carbon double bonds separated by a single bond. The carbons forming
a single bond between 2 double bonds are sp2
hybridized. 
 3. Alkynes

Like alkenes, alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons. They contain at

least one triple bond between two carbon atoms. The number of hydrogen
atoms is still less in alkynes as compared to alkenes or alkanes. Their general
formula is CnH2n–2. The first stable member of the alkyne series is ethyne
which is popularly known as acetylene. On an industrial scale, ethyne is
prepared by treating calcium carbide with water.  
Non-Benzenoid Aromatic Compounds 
       4.1 Resonance and Stability of Benzene

   Benzene was isolated by Michael Faraday in 1825. The molecular formula of

benzene, C6H6, indicates a high degree of unsaturation. This molecular
 Production of Ethyne from Calcium carbide and water. formula did not account for its relationship to corresponding alkanes, alkenes
and alkynes, Due to its unique properties and unusual stability. According to
4. Aromatic Valence Bond Theory, the concept of oscillating double bonds in benzene is
now explained by resonance. Benzene is a hybrid of various resonating
Aromatic hydrocarbons typically contain a benzene ring. Benzene ring is structures explained in the image below.
highly unsaturated but in a majority of reactions of aromatic compounds, the
unsaturation of the benzene ring is retained. However, there are examples of
aromatic hydrocarbons which do not contain a benzene ring but instead
contain other highly unsaturated rings. Aromatic compounds containing a
benzene ring are known as benzenoids and those not containing a benzene
ring are known as non-benzenoids. Some examples of arenes are given
below:
 rule has been met. For example, benzene has six (6) π electrons. Following
the formula:

 
shows the orbital overlapping to give us a better picture about the
resonance stability of benzene. All the six carbon atoms in benzene are
sp2 hybridized. Two sp2 hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom overlap
with sp2 hybrid orbitals of adjacent carbon atoms to form six C—C
sigma bonds which are in the hexagonal plane.
      4.2 Hückel's Rule for Aromaticity (4n+2 π electrons)
Applying the Huckel’s rule for the aromaticity of Benzene.
Structural Representations of Hydrocarbons
     The building block of hydrocarbons in structural organic chemistry is the
tetravalent carbon atom. With few exceptions, carbon compounds can be
formulated with four covalent bonds to each carbon, regardless of whether
the combination is with carbon or some other element. The two-electron
bond, which is illustrated by the carbon-hydrogen bonds in methane or ethane
and the carbon-carbon bond in ethane, is called a single bond. In these and
many related substances, each carbon is attached to four other atoms.  In all
cases each carbon has a full octet of electrons.

        According to Hückel's Molecular Orbital Theory, a compound is

particularly stable if all of its bonding molecular orbitals are filled with
paired electrons. This is true for aromatic compounds, meaning they are quite
stable. With aromatic compounds, 2 electrons fill the lowest energy
molecular orbital, and 4 electrons fill each subsequent energy level (the
number of subsequent energy levels is denoted by n), leaving all bonding
orbitals filled and no anti-bonding orbitals occupied. To apply the 4n+2 rule,
first count the number of π electrons in the molecule. Then, set this number
equal to 4n+2 and solve for n. If n is 0 or any positive integer (1, 2, 3,...), the
Tetravalency of carbon and formation of 4 single bonds in methane  video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6unef5Hz6SU  (Links
by sharing valence electrons between C-C or C-H.  external site.)
 
Due to the nature of carbon in forming bonds, Carbon can form complex
chain structures that adds to its versatility in forming unique groups of
molecules. To further visualize each complex organic structure, there are
different 2D or 3D graphical models known in studying these molecules.
Common representations are summarized below:
Common formula writing for Organic Compounds.
1. Structural Formula
      By convention, a single straight line connecting the atomic symbols is
used to represent a single (two-electron) bond, two such lines to represent a 2
double (four-electron) bond, and three lines a triple (six-electron) bond.
representations of compounds by these symbols are called structural formulas
   1.1 Displayed/Expanded Formula (Lewis structure)
Lewis structure is a very simplified representation of the valence shell
electrons in a molecule. It is used to show how the electrons are arranged
around individual atoms in a molecule. Electrons are shown as "dots" or for
bonding electrons as a line between the two atoms. The goal is to obtain the
"best" electron configuration, i.e. the octet rule and formal charges need to be
satisfied. To learn how to write Lewis structures watch this linked
to an
   1.2 Condensed Formula
Simplification of structural formulas may be achieved without any loss of the
information they convey. In condensed structural formulas the bonds to each
carbon are omitted, but each distinct structural unit (group) is written with
subscript numbers designating multiple substituents, including the hydrogens.
Condensed structural formulas show the order of atoms like a structural
formula but are written in a single line to save space and make it more
convenient and faster to write out. Condensed structural formulas are also
helpful when showing that a group of atoms is connected to a single atom in a
compound. When this happens, parentheses are used around the group of
atoms to show they are together. An example is shown below.
 
   1.3 Skeletal/Line Formula
Because organic compounds can be complex at times, line-angle formulas are
used to write carbon and hydrogen atoms more efficiently by replacing the
letters with lines. A carbon atom is present wherever a line intersects another
line. Hydrogen atoms are then assumed to complete each of carbon's four
bonds. All other atoms that are connected to carbon atoms are written out.
Line angle formulas help show structure and order of the atoms in a
compound making the advantages and disadvantages similar to structural
formulas. A zig-zag pattern is usually shown to mimic the bond angles and
steric effect depicted in other models. To learn how to write structural also want to show how large the atoms are. As such, "space-filling" models
formulas watch this linked video: made with truncated balls held together with snap fasteners are used widely
to determine the possible closeness of approach of groups to each other and
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-3QMeNRP7s (Links to an external the degree of crowding of atoms in various arrangements.
site.) 
2. 3D Graphical Structures
   2.1 Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) Model
The VSEPR model can predict the structure of nearly any molecule or
polyatomic ion in which the central atom is a nonmetal, as well as the
structures of many molecules and polyatomic ions with a central metal atom.
The premise of the VSEPR theory is that electron pairs located in bonds and
lone pairs repel each other and will therefore adopt the geometry that places
electron pairs as far apart from each other as possible. This theory is very
simplistic and does not account for the subtleties of orbital interactions that
influence molecular shapes; however, the simple VSEPR counting procedure
accurately predicts the three-dimensional structures of a large number of
compounds, which cannot be predicted using the Lewis electron-pair
approach.  
   2.2 Ball And Stick Model Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons
are three-dimensional models where atoms are represented by spheres of     At first, the names of alkanes may seem strange, but they form the
different colors and bonds are represented by sticks between the spheres. foundation for the widely accepted system of organic nomenclature –
Particular atoms are associated with different colors, for example, black is the IUPAC system of nomenclature. IUPAC stands for the International
usually used to represent carbon and white to represent hydrogen. Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. In the medical field, most drugs have
three names: (1) Systematic name–the IUPAC name, (2) Generic name–the
internationally approved name, and (3) Trade name–assigned by the
manufacturing company. Of the three mentioned, the systematic name is
what we are going to learn and apply as we move along the modules in this
course. An advantage of using the IUPAC naming system is that each organic
compound gets a unique and unambiguous name.
    We begin with the IUPAC nomenclature for the straight-chain alkanes.
   2.3 Space Filling Model Names such as methane, ethane, and propane are assigned for alkanes
containing one, two, and three carbons, respectively. In general, the number
While ball-and-stick models of molecules are very useful for visualizing the of carbon atoms in the chain is specified by a Latin or Greek prefix preceding
relative positions of the atoms in space, they are unsatisfactory whenever we
the suffix -ane, which identifies the compound as a member of the alkane 4 Steps for IUPAC nomenclature system:
family. 
STEP 1:

Straight-chain IUPAC Names for Alkanes 

STEP 2: 

STEP 3: 

STEP 4:

Remember that the chemical name for an IUPAC nomenclature system

constitutes four parts, namely: prefix, locant, parent, and suffix. The guide
questions are shown below for each part.

*Note: The steps shown above are generally the same procedures in getting
the IUPAC name of any organic compounds. There are special rules added
 
depending on the functional group of the parent chain. To explore more in
  naming organic compounds, specifically hydrocarbons, watch the video link
here: https://youtu.be/0Zg8CLk_G6Y
M2 Lesson 2 Derivatives of Hydrocarbons

When a hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane, an alkyl group

represented by R is formed. When the alkyl group is attached to another
atom or groups of atoms, then derivatives of hydrocarbons are formed.
These derivatives are enumerated in the following two tables. The first table
shows the compounds that contain a carbon singly bonded to a heteroatom.
The second table shows the compounds that contain the carbonyl group
C═O.
 

* NOTE: Thorough discussions of each derivative are discussed in the next

modules. So familiarization  with each of their general formula and
functional group will be of advantage in the learning process.

M2 Lesson 3 Structural/Constitutional Isomerism

Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different
  structures. 
  The following diagram summarizes the types of isomerism exhibited by
organic compounds producing the corresponding isomers.
 1. Chain isomers, also called skeletal isomers, are isomers that
differ in the arrangement of the carbon chain. They have
similar chemical properties but different physical properties.
Examples are the three chain/skeletal isomers of pentanes, each
structure has a molecular formula of
C5H12

The
types of isomerism are shown in the diagram. Chain, positional, and .  
functional isomerism fall under structural while geometrical and optical
are under stereoisomerism. Compounds that exhibit this property are  
called isomers.
Structural isomers, also called constitutional isomers, are isomers that
vary in the bonding attachments of atoms.  Because of this difference,
structural isomers tend to differ in physical and/or chemical properties.
Under structural isomers are:
   2.   Positional Isomers are isomers that differ in the location of a
noncarbon group or a double bond or triple bond. They have similar
chemical properties but different physical properties. Examples are  

M2 Lesson 3 Geometric & Optical Stereoisomerism

Stereoisomers are isomers with the same bonding attachments of atoms but
different spatial orientations. They are classified as:
1. Geometric isomers, also called cis and trans isomers, are stereoisomers
in which atoms or groups of atoms display orientation differences around a
double bond or ring.

 The isomer where the same groups are on the same side of

the C=C double bond is known as the cis isomer.
 The isomer where the same groups are on the opposite sides of
the C=C double bond is known as the trans isomer.
        Two criteria must be satisfied in order for alkenes to exhibit cis-trans
  isomerism:
   3. Functional Isomers are isomers with structural differences that place  Restricted rotation about C=C double bond (due to the presence
them in different classes of organic compounds. They have very different of π bond)
chemical and physical properties. Examples are propanal which belongs to  The 2 groups bonded to any one carbon in C=C must not be
aldehyde and propanone to the ketone family.    identical
        Examples are  the cis and trans isomers of 2-pentene  
 

Cis-trans isomers have similar (but not identical) chemical properties but
different physical properties.
           When none or most of the groups attached to the double bond are
not the same then geometric isomers are notified or named with E or Z.
For the notification of this type of isomers the highest priority atom
(highest atomic number) attached to each double-bonded C is considered.
If two highest priority atoms stay on the same side of the isomer that is
designated as Z and if they are on the opposite side they are designated as
E.  
 
 
For  additional information on geometric isomerism, please read
https://chemdictionary.org/geometric-isomers/ (Links to an external site.)
There will be more examples of constitutional isomers as the next module is
discussed.
 
2.  Optical Isomers, also called enantiomers, are isomers that are identical
in structure except where they differ as mirror images, mirror images that
are not superimposable.
Nonsuperimposable mirror images contain a chirality center, that is, a
carbon bonded to four different substituents.
 
Enantiomers have identical physical constants, such as melting points,
boiling points, density, refractive index, viscosity, etc., but are said to be
optically active since they can be distinguished from each other by their
ability to rotate the plane of polarised light in opposite directions. 
A mixture of enantiomers in equal proportions is optically inactive and is
called a racemic mixture
Enantiomers that rotate the plane of polarized light to the right are
called dextrorotary (prefixed with +) and the ones which rotate to the left
are called levorotatory (prefixed with -).  
M3 Lesson 1 Molecular Interactions & Structural Effects
Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces that exist between molecules or
particles and influence the physical properties of the substance. Compared to
bonding forces, intermolecular forces are relatively weak because they
involve smaller charges that are farther from each other. Organic molecules
typically exhibit three types of intermolecular forces:
Dipole-dipole attraction
This is a predominant force between polar molecules. Polar molecules exhibit
a dipole moment (the centers of the positive and negative charges do not
coincide) and they can attract each other electrostatically by lining up so that
their positive and negative ends are near each other.
Hydrogen bonding
Molecules in which hydrogen is bound to very small highly electronegative
atoms such as N, O, or F exhibit strong dipole-dipole forces. Because these
are unusually strong, they are given a special name. Two factors that account
for the strength of the attractive forces are: (a) the great polarity of the bond
and, (b) the close approach of the dipole because of the small size of the H
atoms.
London dispersion forces (van der Waals)
These are relatively weak forces existing in atoms and nonpolar molecules.
Because of the movement of electrons, atoms can develop a momentary
nonsymmetrical distribution that produces a temporary dipole. This
instantaneous dipole can induce a similar dipole in a neighboring atom. This
leads to an inter-atomic attraction that is weak and short-lived.
Large atoms or molecules have a greater number of electrons, thus, are more
‘polarizable’ and have stronger London dispersion forces. Polarizability
refers to the ease with which the electron cloud of a particle can be distorted.
Structural Effects on Boiling Point, Melting Point, and Solubility
Intermolecular forces are related to certain properties of molecules. The
strength of the intermolecular forces determines whether a compound has a
high or low boiling point and melting point and whether a compound is
soluble or insoluble in a given solvent.
Boiling point
The boiling point refers to the temperature at which a liquid is converted to
the gas phase. Generally, a stronger intermolecular force results in lower
pressure leading to a higher boiling point.
Among hydrocarbon groups, the boiling point increases with increasing
molecular weight. Branching of the carbon chain lowers the boiling point
because of the lesser point of contact. The reverse is true for cylindrically-
shaped hydrocarbons or the straight-chain hydrocarbons. Their cylindrical
shape allows a greater point of contact, requiring higher energy (higher
temperature) to break these molecules apart, resulting in the increase of
boiling point.
Melting point
The melting point refers to the temperature at which a solid is converted to
the liquid phase at 1 atm pressure. At this temperature, molecular motion due
to increased thermal energy is enough to break down the lattice structures of
the crystals. This temperature for a given crystal would remain constant until
all of the solid phase changes to a liquid.  Like the boiling point, the melting Stronger intermolecular forces increase solubility in solvents with similar
point increases with the increasing strength of intermolecular forces. polarities. Branching of the molecular structure increases solubility because
of increased surface area. Moreover, increasing molecular weight generally
decreases solubility.
Resonance
One useful concept in organic chemistry is resonance. Resonance structures
allow us to describe molecules or ions for which a single Lewis structure is
inadequate. A conventional way of representing resonance structures is done
as follows. First, write two or more equivalent Lewis structures (calling them
resonance structures/contributors). Second, connect these structures by
double-headed arrows (↔). The real molecule or ion is a hybrid of all these
contributory structures. An example is shown below.
Solubility
Rules in writing resonance structures
Solubility is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent.
 All resonance structures/contributors must obey the octet rule.
It is usually reported in grams of solute per 100 mL of solution (g/100 mL).
 Structures differ only in the placement of electrons.
The general rule for solubility is ‘like dissolves like’ – indicating substances  Nuclei can’t be moved and bond angles must remain the same.
of similar polarity will dissolve each other. For example, polar organic  The number of paired and unpaired electrons must remain the same for
compounds are water-soluble, given that water is also polar, only if they are all structures.
small in terms of molecular weight and contain nitrogen (N) or oxygen (O)
atoms that can hydrogen bond with water. Hydrocarbons and other nonpolar
organic compounds are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents.
Inductive Effect
This property exists because of the electronegativity difference between
atoms. Electronegative atoms tend to disperse the electron cloud towards
them, creating a dipole. This unequal distribution of the electron cloud makes
the bond polar, as shown below.

Inductive effect may either be (1) electron attracting, or (2) electron repelling.
Electron-attracting inductive effect includes cases where inductive groups are
attracted to the central atom whereas the latter case involves electron-
withdrawing groups which stabilize the central atom.

Although the terms acids and bases seem familiar, have you wondered what
makes a substance acidic or basic? To answer this, we will first go through
the acid-base theories. Later, we will dive deeply into their relationship with
structural effects.
THE ACID-BASE THEORIES
Arrhenius Theory

Structural Effects on Acidity/Basicity
Acid-base chemistry is important in a wide variety of daily applications.
Television commercials link pH to products such as shampoos, deodorants,
feminine wash, and antacids. A famous environmental concern oftentimes
mentioned in news articles and magazines is ‘acid rain’. In our bodies, there
are complex systems that carefully control the acidity of our blood (shown in
the figure below) since even slight deviations may lead to serious illness and
death.
 Arrhenius acid – a substance that contains hydrogen and produces
hydronium ions (H3O+) in aqueous solutions (Examples: HCl, HNO3,
H2SO4)
Note: H+ does not exist in water. Instead, it reacts with water to form the
hydronium ion, H3O+.
H+(aq)   +   H2O(l)   →   H3O+(aq)
 Arrhenius base – a substance that contains the hydroxyl group (OH) and
produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions (Examples: NaOH, KOH,
NH3)
 The Arrhenius concept only applies to aqueous solutions.
Brønsted-Lowry Theory
 Brønsted-Lowry acid – any hydrogen-containing molecule that is capable
of releasing a proton (proton donor)
 Brønsted-Lowry base – any molecule capable of accepting a
proton (proton acceptor)
NH3 (aq)   +   H2O (l)   →   NH4+(aq)   +  OH–(aq)
            NH3 – Brønsted-Lowry base           OH– – conjugate base
           H2O – Brønsted-Lowry acid            NH4+ – conjugate base
Lewis Theory
 Lewis acid – electron-pair acceptor
 Lewis base – electron-pair donor
AlCl3 (aq)   +   Cl– (aq)   →   AlCl4– (aq)
AlCl3 – Lewis acid
Cl– – Lewis base
The origin of the acid-base concept dates back in 1777 when Antoine
Lavoisier tried to explain what makes a substance acidic. He proposed that
oxygen was an essential element in acids. However, in 1808, Humphry Davy
demonstrated that some acids do not contain oxygen. An example is a
hydrochloric acid which contains only hydrogen and chlorine. Finally, in
1884, Svante Arrhenius was the first to explain the essential concept of
acidity and basicity of substances..
 The Effect of Structure on Acid-Base Properties
Now that we have already described the nature of acids and bases, let us
examine closely which structural components affect the acidic or basic
property of an organic molecule.
 ATOMS BONDED TO HYDROGEN ATOM
Across a period, acidity increases because of increasing electronegativity.
Down a group, acidity increases because of decreasing orbital overlap
between the atom and proton.
INDUCTIVE  EFFECT
In the presence of electronegative atoms, the electrons are dispersed, C–H
bonds become weak due to this dispersion. Thus, protons are easily
abstracted.
HYBRIDIZATION
Atoms with higher %s characters are more electronegative which means they
tend to hold more tightly their valence electrons.
RESONANCE EFFECT
This structural effect greatly stabilizes the conjugate base because the
negative charge is dispersed to a larger area.
STERIC EFFECT
The steric effect increases the basic character of a molecule since it allows
the lone-pair electrons to be less tightly held, thus, more available for
donation.
Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
 These three are classes of organic compounds having a wide usage in a
broad range of industries as well as for domestic purposes. But, what are
they?
 Alcohol is the product we get when a saturated carbon atom bonds to a
hydroxyl (-OH) group.
 Phenol is what we get when the -OH group replaces the hydrogen atom in
benzene.
 Ether is the product that we get when an oxygen atom bonds to two alkyl
or aryl groups.
Classification of Alcohol
Depending on the number of hydroxyl groups attached, alcohol can be
classified into three types.
 Monohydric alcohols: They contain one -OH group. Example, CH3CH2-
OH
 Dihydric alcohols: They contain two -OH groups. Example, 1,2-
Ethanediol.
 Trihydric alcohols: They contain three -OH groups. Example 1,2,3-
Propantriol.
Classification of Alcohol: Mono-hydric, Di-hydric, Tri-hydric
Depending on the number of carbon atoms which are directly attached to the
carbon that is bonded with the -OH group, alcohols can be classified into
three types.
Primary alcohols: One carbon atom is directly attached.
Secondary alcohols: Two carbon atoms are directly attached.
Tertiary alcohols: Three carbon atoms are directly attached.  Compound that has the CH3CO- group (or compound on oxidation gives
Classification of Alcohol: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohol
                  
1. Reaction with Metal
When ethanol reacts with sodium metal (a base) sodium ethoxide and
hydrogen gas are produced.
                            2ROH + Na→2RO+Na– + H2
2. Formation of Halides
Halogens such as chlorine or bromine replace the -OH group in an alcohol. 
                            ROH+ Zn+HCl → R-Cl
                            R2C-OH alcohol + HCl→ R2CCl
3. Reaction with HNO3
There is oxidation, accompanied by gas evolution (slow but progressive) in
this reaction.
                      R-OH + HO-NO2→ R-O-NO2
4. Reaction with Carboxylic Acid (Esterification)
The reaction of the carboxylic acid with an alcohol and an acid catalyst leads
to the formation of ester (along with water). This is Fischer esterification.
                        R-OH +R’-COOH +H+↔ R’-COOR
5. Dehydration of Alcohol
Alcohols dehydrate in an acidic medium. As per the Satyzeff’s Rule, intra-
molecular dehydration leads to the formation of alkene while intermolecular
dehydration forms ether.
6. Haloform Reaction
CH3CO – group) which is bonded with a C or H, in the presence of halogen
and mild alkali gives haloform. CH3-CH2-COCH2-CH3, CH3-CO-Cl,
CH3COOH will not respond to haloform reaction while CH3CH2OH will
respond to the haloform reaction.
Phenols are the organic compounds that have a benzene ring bonded to a
hydroxyl group. It is also known by the name of carbolic acids. They are
weak acids and generally form phenoxide ions by losing one positive
hydrogen ion (H+) from the hydroxyl group.
In earlier days, people were able to synthesize phenol from coal tar. It was a
very complex and lengthy process.  It had a lot of risks associated with it as
well. Nowadays, with advancements in technologies, however, certain new
methods have come up for the preparation of phenols in laboratories.
Nomenclature of Phenols
The simplest derivative of benzene is Phenol. It is the common name as well
as an accepted IUPAC name. Both in the common and in the IUPAC system,
we name the substituted phenols as the derivatives of phenols (Links to an
external site.).
In the common system, we indicate the substituent position present on the
benzene ring with respect to –OH group by adding the prefix such as ortho
(o-) for 1:2, meta (m-) for 1,3 and para (p-) for 1,4.
However, in the IUPAC system, we use Arabic numerals to indicate the
position of the substituent w.r.t –OH group. The carbon (Links to an external
site.) carrying the OH group gets the number 1. The phenols having a
carbonyl group such as aldehyde, ketonic, carboxyl or an ester group get their
names as hydroxyl derivatives of the parent aromatic compound.
In laboratories, chemists primarily synthesize and derive phenol from
benzene derivatives. In this chapter, we will look at some of the ways in
which we can produce phenols commercially in laboratories.
          1)    Preparation of Phenols from Haloarenes
 Chlorobenzene is an example of haloarenes. We can obtain chlorobenzene
by the monosubstitution of a benzene ring. When chlorobenzene fuses with
sodium hydroxide at 623K and 320 atm, we obtain sodium phenoxide.
Finally, sodium phenoxide on acidification gives phenols.
      2) Preparation of Phenols from Benzene Sulphonic Acid
It can obtain Benzenesulphonic from benzene by reacting it with oleum.
Benzenesulphonic acid, thus formed, is treated with molten sodium
hydroxide at high temperatures. This process leads to the formation of
sodium phenoxide. Finally, sodium phenoxide on acidification gives phenols.
  3) Preparation of Phenols from Diazonium Salts
When treated an aromatic primary amine with nitrous (NaNO2 + HCl) acid at
273 – 278 K, it can easily obtain diazonium salts. These diazonium salts are
highly reactive in nature. Upon warming with water, these diazonium salts
finally hydrolyze to phenols. We can also obtain phenols from diazonium
salts by treating them with dilute acids.
 4) Preparation of Phenols from Cumene
Cumene is an organic compound that we can obtain by the Friedel-Crafts
alkylation of benzene with propylene. Upon oxidation of cumene
(isopropylbenzene) in presence of air, we obtain cumene hydroperoxide.
Upon further treatment of cumene hydroperoxide with dilute acid, we get the
phenols. We also produce acetone as one of the by-products of this reaction
in large quantities. Hence, phenols prepared by these methods need
purifications.
 PHENOLS AND THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Phenols are the organic compounds that have a benzene ring bonded to a
hydroxyl group. We also name them as carbolic acids. They exhibit unique
physical and chemical properties that are mainly due to the presence of a
hydroxyl group. Let us discuss some of the important physical properties of
phenols in the section below.
 1) The Boiling Point of Phenols
Phenols generally have higher boiling points in comparison to other
hydrocarbons with equal molecular masses. The main reason behind this is
the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of
phenol molecules. In general, the boiling point of phenols (Links to an
external site.) increases with an increase in the number of carbon atoms.
 2) The Solubility of Phenols
The hydroxyl group determines the solubility of phenol in water. The
hydroxyl group in phenol is responsible for the formation of
intermolecular hydrogen (Links to an external site.) bonding. Thus, hydrogen
bonds form between water and phenol molecules which make phenol soluble
in water.
 3) The Acidity of Phenols
Phenols react with active metals such as sodium, potassium, etc. and give the
corresponding phenoxide. These reactions of phenols indicate its acidic
nature. In phenol, the sp2 hybridized carbon of the benzene ring attached
directly to the hydroxyl group acts as an electron-withdrawing group.
Thus, it decreases the electron density of oxygen. Due to the delocalization of
negative charge in the benzene ring, phenoxide ions are more stable than
alkoxide ions. Therefore, we can say phenols are more acidic than alcohols.
 In this chemical compound, a hydroxyl group directly attaches to an
aromatic hydrocarbon. Cumene, diazonium salts, etc. form phenols.
 Reactions of Phenol               
 a.    Formation of Ester d.    Electrophilic Substitution
Phenyl esters (RCOOAr) do not form directly from RCOOH, but for this acid The —OH and even the —O(phenoxide) are strongly activating ortho, para –
chlorides or anhydrides react with ArOH in the presence of a strong base. directing. Electrophilic monosubstitution in phenols happens in special mild
(CH3CO)2O + C6H5OH + NaOH → CH3COOC6H5 + CH3COONa + H2O conditions because they are highly reactive and favors both polysubstitution
Phenylacetate and oxidation.
C6H5COCl + C6H5OH + NaOH → C6H5COOC6H5 + Na+Cl– + H2O
Phenyl benzoate
 b.    Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation of phenol forms cyclohexanone.

e.    Halogenation
There is a formation of monobromophenol, on treating phenols with bromine
in the presence of a solvent of low polarity like CHCl3 at low temperature.

                       
c.    Oxidation of Quinones
Phenols get easily oxidized to para-benzoquinone. This when reduced forms
quinones.

         
Ethers are a class of organic compounds that have an oxygen atom attached Ethers are relatively unreactive compounds. The ether linkage is quite stable
to two same or different alkyl or aryl groups. We can write down the general towards bases, oxidizing agents, and reducing agents. Therefore, we must
formula for ethers as R-O-R, remember that with respect to the ether linkage, ethers undergo just one kind
of reaction. It is cleavage by acids :
R- O-Ar or Ar-O-Ar.
                 R-O-R’  +  HX   →   R-X  +  R’-OH R’ ¾X
Classification of Ether
                Reactivity of HX : HI > HBr > HCl
 Symmetrical ether: It has two identical groups attached to the oxygen
Cleavage takes place only under quite extreme conditions, like in
atom.
concentrated acids (usually HI or HBr) and high temperatures. A dialkyl
 Asymmetrical ether: It has two different groups attached to the oxygen
ether produces, initially, an alkyl halide and alcohol. This alcohol may react
further and form a second mole of alkyl halide. For example :
Physical Properties of Ethers

 An ether molecule has a net dipole moment. We can attribute this to the
polarity of C-O bonds.
 The boiling point of ethers is comparable to the alkanes. However, it is
much lower compared to that of alcohols of comparable molecular mass.
This is despite the fact of the polarity of the C-O bond.
 The miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols.
 Ether molecules are miscible in water. We can attribute this to the fact that
like alcohols, the oxygen atom of ether can also form hydrogen bonds
with a water molecule.
 Nomenclature of Ethers
The oxygen of ether is basic, similar to the oxygen of alcohol. The initial
reaction between ether and an acid is no doubt, the formation of the
protonated ether. Cleavage, then, involves the nucleophilic attack by a halide
ion on this protonated ether, with the displacement of the weakly basic
alcohol molecule.
Such a reaction usually occurs much more readily as compared to the
displacement of the strongly basic alkoxide ion from the neutral ether.

 Common System: We get the common names of ethers by naming the two
alkyl or aryl groups linked to the oxygen atom as separate words in
alphabetical order and adding the word ether. In the case of symmetrical
ethers, we use the prefix di before the name of the alkyl or the aryl group.  Reactions of Ether Due to an Alkyl Group
 IUPAC system: In the IUPAC system, ethers are Alkoxyalkanes. The
ethereal oxygen is taken with the smaller alkyl group and forms a part of  Combustion: Ethers are highly inflammable and they form extremely
the alkoxy group. On the other hand, the larger alkyl group is taken to be explosive mixtures with air giving CO2 and water.
part of the alkane.
                      C2H5O C2H5 + 6O2   →   4CO2 + 5H2O
 Ether is an organic compound that has an oxygen atom, connected to two
alkyl and aryl groups, known as the ether group.  Halogenation: The alkyl group undergoes substitution reaction with
chlorine or bromine. The resultant product is halogenated ether in absence
Reactions of Ether
 of sunlight. However, in presence of sunlight, it substitutes all the
hydrogen atoms of ethers.
CH3CH2OCH2CH3            CH3CHCIOCHCICH3 (α α’-dichloro
diethyl ether)
CH3CH2OCH2CH3                C2CI2OC2CI5 (Perchloro diethyl
ether)
2) Reaction of Ether Due to Ethereal Oxygen
Ethers behave as Lewis bases because of the presence of two lone pairs of
electrons on the oxygen atom. Therefore, they form salts with strong acids.
The oxonium salts are soluble in acid solution. We can facilitate the
regeneration of ether by hydrolysis of these salts.
Ethers also form coordination complexes with Lewis acids like BF3, AICI3,
RMgX etc. Therefore, we can derive the fact that ethers are very good
solvents for Grignard reagents.
3) Formation of Peroxides
Ethers form peroxide linkage with oxygen when we expose them to air or
ozonized oxygen in presence of sunlight or ultraviolet light. These peroxides
are highly poisonous in nature. They are oily liquids and decompose violently
even at low concentrations. Therefore, we must ensure never to evaporate
esters to dryness. It might lead to explosive reactions.
Besides this, we must also check the purity of ether before its use as an
anaesthetic agent. An impure ether (having peroxide linkage) gives red colour
when shaken with ferrous ammonium sulphate and potassium thiocyanate.
This could prove to be lethal for the patients on whom we try anaesthesia.
On mixing with KI solution, it liberates I2 which turns starch paper blue.
 
 Ethers may be free from peroxide linkages by distilling them with highly
concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4. Also, we can check for the peroxide
formation by adding a little amount of Cu2O to the ether.
4) Reactions of Ether Involving Cleavage of Carbon-Oxygen Bond
 Action of dil. H2SO4 : Ethers, on heating with dilute H2SO4 , under high
pressure, hydrolyse to corresponding alcohols.
 Action of Conc. H2SO4 : Ethers, on warming with conc. H2SO4 , give
alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
                                   R-OR  +  conc. H2SO4   →    2R HSO4
                                  R-OR’  +  conc. H2SO4  →  RHSO4  +  R’HSO4
 Action of HI:
The products that we get during the action of HI on ethers depend mainly
upon the temperature in which we carry out the reaction.
                                  R-OR + HI    R-OH + RI
                                  R-OR’ + HI    R’-OH + RI
Note: In case of a mixed ether, halogen atom attaches itself to the simpler
alkyl group. 
                         CH3OC2H5 + HI → CH3I + C2H5OH
                         R-R + HI    2RI + H2O
We would observe similar reactions with HCI, HBr & the reactivity order is
HI > HBr > HCI.
 Action of PCI5 : In the presence of heat, we get the following reaction:
                         R-O-R + PCI5     2RCI + POCI3
 Action of Acetyl chloride or Acetic anhydride :
 Dehydration of Ethers:
                      C2H5OC2H5   2CH2=CH2 + H2O
 Action of Carbon Monoxide :
                      C2H5OC2H5, + CO    C2H5COOC2H5
                     ROR   +   CO   →   RCOOR
 MODULE 4 HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES 2 (CARBONYL
GROUPS)
The study of aldehydes (R-CHO) and ketones (R-CO-R) helps in the
discussion of carbohydrates since sugars contain either an aldehyde or ketone
group. Glucose, the most common simple sugar in the body, is an aldehyde
that has also several - OH (hydroxyl groups). The blood and urine of
diabetics unusually have high levels of glucose or increased concentrations of
other organic compounds called ketones. Diabetics do not metabolize fats
completely. They tend to produce certain acids and ketones which, when
accumulated in the body, may result in ketosis or ketoacidosis.
Carboxylic acids are the most important organic compounds that show
appreciable acidity. These compounds contain the carboxyl group -COOH
attached to either an alkyl group or an aryl group (Ar-COOH). Carboxylic
acids are very polar compounds. They form hydrogen bonds with other polar
compounds like water. As a result, they boil at higher temperature compound
to the alcohols, aldehydes, or ketones that are of comparable weight. The low
molecular weight carboxylic acids are soluble in water, have sour and sharp
tastes, and unpleasant aromas.
Esters, acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, amides, and nitriles are derivatives of
carboxylic acids since the -OH in carboxylic acid is replaced by other groups
common to the derivative.
Acid chlorides and acid anhydrides are derivatives of carboxylic acids that
are not found in nature because of their reactivity. They are often used as
laboratory chemicals for organic synthesis. Acid chlorides are named by
identifying -ic (acid) to -yl (chloride) or the carboxylic acid ending with the
carbonyl.
Amides
An amide (sometimes called acid amide) has a functional group
characterized by a carbonyl group (C=O) linked to a nitrogen atom (N) or any
organic compound derived by the replacement of a hydroxyl group by an
amino group. Amides are the most stable of all the carbonyl functional
groups. Compounds in which a hydrogen atom on nitrogen from ammonia or
an amine is replaced by a metal cation are also known as amides or azanides.
Esters are organic compounds that have sweet, fragrant aromas and occur
naturally in flowers and fruits. Esters with high molecular weights are solids.
They do not vaporize readily, hence they are not pleasant-smelling.
Polyesters (synthetic fabrics) are substances with repeating ester groups and
have very high molecular weights. The most abundant esters in our body are
triglycerides. Triglycerides with saturated hydrocarbon chains are solid at
room temperature and are called fats while those that are highly unsaturated
triglycerides that occur in plants are liquid at room temperature and are called
oils.
The Carbonyl group
The general formula of an aldehyde is R(C=O)H, while a ketone is
represented by the formula R(C=O)R. Both of these compounds contain the
carbonyl group, C=O, which is largely responsible for their chemical and
physical properties. The carbonyl group is a highly polarized group because
of the greater electronegativity of the oxygen atom. The electron density of
oxygen is increased, while that of the carbon is decreased.
As a result of this polarization, the carbonyl carbon is susceptible to
nucleophilic attack. The nucleophile can approach the carbonyl carbon
either above or below the plane of the pi bond. Some examples of
aldehydes and ketones are:
A. Nomenclature of Aldehydes
Common names of aldehydes consist of a prefix that is related to the number
of carbon atoms, followed by the suffix aldehyde.
The most common prefixes are:
IUPAC names of Aldehydes.
Find the longest continuous carbon chain with the aldehyde group, then
change the ending -e in alkane to -al.
The carbonyl carbon is given the lowest possible number.
Examples of Aldehydes:
Nomenclature of Ketones
To give common names for ketones, name each radical (R) group attached to
the keto (carbonyl) carbon, followed by the word "ketone."
To give IUPAC names for ketones, select the longest continuous carbon
chain containing the keto group. Start numbering from the end nearer to the
keto group. Change the ending (-e) in alkane, to (-one). Name substituents in
the usual way.
Example of Ketone:
 1. Acetone is an excellent solvent for a number of plastics and synthetic
fibers. In the household, acetone is used as a nail paint remover and paint
thinner.  In medicine, it is used in chemical peeling and for acne treatments.
2. Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), chemically butanone, is a common solvent. It
is used in the production of textiles, varnishes, plastics, paint remover,
paraffin wax, etc. MEK is also used as a welding agent for plastics due to its
dissolving properties.
Occurrence of  Aldehydes   &    Ketones 
3. Cyclohexanone is another important ketone which is primarily used in the
Combined with other functional group aldehydes and ketone are widespread production of nylon.
in nature. Compounds such as cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon bark), vanillin
Organic acids play significant and varied roles in our current society as
(vanilla bean), Citra (lemongrass), helminthosporal (a fungal toxin), carvone
evidenced by multiple applications in the field of medicine, agriculture,
(spearmint and caraway), camphor (camphor trees) are found chiefly in
pharmaceuticals, food, and other industries. Carboxylic acids and their
microorganisms or plants. Whereas, compounds such as muscone (musk
derivatives are used in the production of polymers, biopolymers, coatings,
deer), testosterone (male sex hormone), progesterone (female sex hormone),
adhesives, and pharmaceutical drugs. They also can be used as solvents, food
cortisone (adrenal hormone) have animal and human origin.  Formaldehyde is
additives, antimicrobials, and flavorings.
the simplest aldehyde whereas acetone is the smallest ketone.
 Naming and Properties of Carboxylic acids
There are a number of aldehydes and ketones which find application due to
their chemical properties. A few uses of Aldehydes and Ketones are listed Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing
below. a COOH (carboxyl) group.
•General structure: •Example:
Uses of Aldehydes
1. Formaldehyde is a gas. With a 40% solution in water, it forms Formalin
which is used in preserving biological specimens.
Formaldehyde is used in embalming, tanning, preparing glues, and polymeric
products, as germicides, insecticides, and fungicides for plants. It is also used
in drug testing and photography.  When reacted with phenol, formaldehyde
forms Bakelite, which is used in plastics, coatings, and adhesives.
2. Acetaldehyde is largely used for the production of acetic acid and pyridine
derivatives.
3. Benzaldehyde is used in perfumes, cosmetic products, and dyes. It is added •Carboxylic acids are abbreviated as RCOOH or
to provide almond flavor to food products and also used as a bee repellent. RCO2H.
Uses of Ketones Esters are carbonyl compounds that contain an
OR’ (alkoxy) group bonded to the carbonyl C atom.
•General structure: •Example:

•Esters are abbreviated as RCOOR′ or RCO2R′. •A tertiary (3o) amide contains three C—N bonds, and is abbreviated
Amides are carbonyl compounds that contain a RCONHR′2
N atom bonded to the carbonyl C.
•General structure:

Amides are classified based on the number of C atoms bonded to the N atom
•A primary (1o) amide contains 1 C—N bond.
•It is abbreviated as RCONH2

•A secondary (2o) amide contains two C—N bonds, and is abbreviated

RCONHR′.