SERGFDZDSV

Propositional Logic 1: Motivation – Parse Tree
Mathematical Logic – First Term 2021-2022
MZI
School of Computing
Telkom University
SoC Tel-U
September-October 2021
MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 1 / 45

Acknowledgements
This slide is compiled using the materials in the following sources:
1 Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (Chapter 1), 8th Edition, 2019, by
K. H. Rosen (primary reference).
2 Discrete Mathematics with Applications (Chapter 2), 5th Edition, 2018, by
S. S. Epp.
3 Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and Reasoning about Systems
(Chapter 1), 2nd Edition, 2004, by M. Huth and M. Ryan.
4 Mathematical Logic for Computer Science (Chapter 2, 3, 4), 2nd Edition,
2000, by M. Ben-Ari.
5 Discrete Mathematics 1 (2012) slides in Fasilkom UI by B. H. Widjaja.
6 Mathematical Logic slides in Telkom University by A. Rakhmatsyah and B.
Purnama.
Some …gures are excerpted from those sources. This slide is intended for internal
academic purpose in SoC Telkom University. No slides are ever free from error nor
incapable of being improved. Please convey your comments and corrections (if
any) to <pleasedontspam>@telkomuniversity.ac.id.
Contents
1 Motivation
2 Proposition: De…nition
3 Proposition: Example
4 Logical Operators and Compound Propositions
5 Precedences of Logical Operators
6 Propositional Formulas (Supplementary)

Motivation
Contents
1 Motivation

Motivation
Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?
Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

engineering.
System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

A software engineer is inquired by his manager to develop an information system
that complies following speci…cation:

Motivation

engineering.

1 Whenever the system software is being upgraded, the user cannot access …le
system;

Motivation

engineering.

system;
2 If the user can access …le system, then the user can save a new …le;

Motivation

engineering.

system;
3 If the user cannot save a new …le, then the system software is not being
upgraded.

Motivation

engineering.

system;
upgraded.
Can an information system with these speci…cation be built?

Motivation

engineering.

system;
upgraded.
Can an information system with these speci…cation be built? In other words, are
these system speci…cation consistent?
System speci…cation consistency problem is one of the problems that can be
solved using propositional logic which we are going to learn.

Proposition: De…nition
Contents
1 Motivation

Proposition
Proposition
A proposition is a declarative sentence or a statement that is either true or false,
but not both.

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.
Propositional logic: a system of logic based on propositions. We also called this
stu¤ by its fancier name: propositional calculus (no connection with single
variable calculus though).

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.
A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

p; q; r; s;

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ;

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.
The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

true, or we can also write:

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

true, or we can also write: T,

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

true, or we can also write: T, >,

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

true, or we can also write: T, >, 1

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

false, or we can also write:

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

false, or we can also write: F,

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

false, or we can also write: F, ?,

Proposition
Proposition
but not both.

p; q; r; s; p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; q1 ; q2 ; : : :.

false, or we can also write: F, ?, 0

Proposition: Example
Contents
1 Motivation

Some Examples of Propositions
23 < 32

23 < 32
Is this a statement?

23 < 32
Is this a statement? Yes.

23 < 32

Is this a proposition?

23 < 32

Is this a proposition? Yes.

23 < 32

Truth value?

23 < 32

Truth value? True.

23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10

23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10

23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10

23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10


23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10


23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10

Truth value?

23 < 32

Truth value? True.
34 43 < 10

Truth value? False (because 34 43 = 17).

Other Examples
x+3 2021

Other Examples
x+3 2021

Other Examples
x+3 2021

Other Examples
x+3 2021


Other Examples
x+3 2021

Is this a proposition? No,

Other Examples
x+3 2021

Is this a proposition? No, because its truth depends on x (the statement is
true if x 2018 and is false otherwise).

Other Examples
x+3 2021

This type of statement is called an open sentence.

Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0

Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0

Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0

Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0


Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0

Is this a proposition? Yes, because regardless the value of x, the statement
x + 2x 3x = 0 is always true.

Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0

Truth value?

Other Examples
x+3 2021

x + 2x 3x = 0

Truth value? True.

Other Examples
“Please read your textbooks regularly!”

Other Examples

Other Examples
Is this a statement? No, this is a requisition.

Other Examples


Other Examples

Is this a proposition? No, because this is not a statement.

Other Examples

Only a statement can be a proposition .
Exercise
Verify whether following sentences are propositions or not.

Other Examples

Exercise
1 “Have you understood the de…nition of a proposition?”

Other Examples

Exercise
2 “I have understood the de…nition of a proposition.”

Other Examples

Exercise
3 “Fus Ro Dah!”

Other Examples

Exercise
3 “Fus Ro Dah!”
4 “Bla bla bla, $#@&%!”

Logical Operators and Compound Propositions
Contents
1 Motivation

We have seen several simple propositions,

We have seen several simple propositions, these propositions are called atoms or
atomic propositions.

From two or more atomic propositions, we can combine these propositions to form
a new proposition using logical operator (logical connectives). The resulted
proposition is called a compound proposition.

Based on the number of propositions involved, there are two types of elementary
logical operators:
1 unary operator ; only requires one operand:

logical operators:
1 unary operator ; only requires one operand: negation (: or );
2 binary operator ; requires two operands:

logical operators:
1 unary operator ; only requires one operand: negation (: or );
2 binary operator ; requires two operands: conjunction (^), disjunction (_),
exclusive disjunction/ exclusive-or ( ), implication (!), bi-implication ($)

Negation
Negation
Let p be a proposition. Then :p (also denoted by p or p) is also a proposition
which is called the negation of p.

Negation
Negation
:p is read not p or “it is not the case that p”

Negation
Negation
:p has the truth value that is the opposite of the truth value of p.

Negation
Negation
:p is true (T) precisely when p is false.

Negation
Negation
The truth table for negation of a proposition:
p :p
T

Negation
Negation
p :p
T F
F

Negation
Negation
p :p
T F
F T

Example of Negations
Exercise
Write in English the negation of following propositions:
1 “I am a student”
2 “This month is not August”
3 “Alex didn’t do nothing”
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
1 “it is not true that I am a student” or

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
1 “it is not true that I am a student” or “I am not a student”

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
2 “it is not true that this month is not August” or

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
2 “it is not true that this month is not August” or “this month is August”

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
3 “it is not true that Alex didn’t do nothing” or

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
3 “it is not true that Alex didn’t do nothing” or “Alex did do nothing”

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
4 210 102

Exercise
4 210 < 102
5 34 43
Solution:
4 210 102
5 34 < 43

Negation and Antonym
Example
Write in English the negation of following propositions.
1 Bill is richer than Steve.
2 Steve is older than Bill.
Solution:

Example
Solution:
1 “It is not true that Bill is richer than Steve” or in other words

Example
Solution:
1 “It is not true that Bill is richer than Steve” or in other words “Bill is as rich
as Steve or he is poorer than Steve”.

Example
Solution:
2 “It is not true that Steve is older than Bill” or in other words

Example
Solution:
2 “It is not true that Steve is older than Bill” or in other words “Steve is as old
as Bill or he is younger than Bill”.

Double Negative
In Standard English, two negatives are understood to resolve to a positive;

however, today as African American culture becomes more dispersed, the use of
double negatives becomes increasingly prevalent and in many cases lead to
confusions.
For examples:

Double Negative

confusions.
For examples:
1 I didn’t do nothing.

Double Negative

confusions.
For examples:
1 I didn’t do nothing. (So, the speaker did something or not?)

Double Negative

confusions.
For examples:
2 I ain’t got no money.

Double Negative

confusions.
For examples:
2 I ain’t got no money. (So, the speaker got some money or not?)

Double Negative

confusions.
For examples:
3 I’m not hungry no more.

Double Negative

confusions.
For examples:
3 I’m not hungry no more. (So, the speaker is hungry or not?)


Conjunction
Conjunction
Let p and q be propositions. Then p ^ q is also a proposition which is called the
conjunction of p and q.

Conjunction
Conjunction
p ^ q is read p and q.

Conjunction
Conjunction
p ^ q is true (T) precisely when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.

Conjunction
Conjunction
Truth table for conjunction of two propositions:
p q p^q
T T

Conjunction
Conjunction
p q p^q
T T T
T F

Conjunction
Conjunction
p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T

Conjunction
Conjunction
p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F

Conjunction
Conjunction
p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Examples of Conjunctions
Exercise
Suppose we have following atomic propositions:
p : The sun rises in the east q : 2 3 32

r : Cat is a reptile s : 2 4 > 42
Write and determine the truth value of the following compound propositions: (1)
p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
1 p ^ :q :

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
1 p ^ :q : The sun rises in the east and

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
1 p ^ :q : The sun rises in the east and 2 3 > 32
Since “the sun rises in the east” is

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
Since “the sun rises in the east” is true and 2 3 > 32 is

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
Since “the sun rises in the east” is true and 2 3 > 32 is false, then p ^ :q
is

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.
2 :r ^ :s :

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.
2 :r ^ :s : Cat is not a reptile and

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.
2 :r ^ :s : Cat is not a reptile and 24 42
Since “cat is not a reptile” is

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.
Since “cat is not a reptile” is true and 24 42 is

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.
Since “cat is not a reptile” is true and 24 42 is true, then :r ^ :s is

Exercise

p ^ :q; (2) :r ^ :s.
Solution:
is false.
Since “cat is not a reptile” is true and 24 42 is true, then :r ^ :s is true.

Disjunction
Disjunction
Let p and q be propositions. Then p _ q is also a proposition which is called the
disjunction of p and q.

Disjunction
Disjunction
p _ q is read p or q:

Disjunction
Disjunction
p _ q is false (F) precisely when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.

Disjunction
Disjunction
Truth table for disjunction of two propositions:
p q p_q
T T

Disjunction
Disjunction
p q p_q
T T T
T F

Disjunction
Disjunction
p q p_q
T T T
T F T
F T

Disjunction
Disjunction
p q p_q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F

Disjunction
Disjunction
p q p_q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Disjunction
Disjunction
p q p_q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Observe that p _ q is also true if both p and q are true.

Examples of Disjunctions
Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
1 :p _ :q :

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
1 :p _ :q : The sun does not rise in the east or

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
1 :p _ :q : The sun does not rise in the east or 2 3 > 32
Since “the sun does not rise in the east ” is

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
Since “the sun does not rise in the east ” is false and 2 3 > 32 is

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
Since “the sun does not rise in the east ” is false and 2 3 > 32 is false,
then :p _ :q is

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
then :p _ :q is false.

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
2 r _ :s : Cat is a reptile or

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
2 r _ :s : Cat is a reptile or 24 42
Since “cat is a reptile” is

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
Since “cat is a reptile” is false and 24 42 is

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
Since “cat is a reptile” is false and 24 42 is true, then r _ :s is

Exercise

:p _ :q; (2) r _ :s.
Solution
Since “cat is a reptile” is false and 24 42 is true, then r _ :s is true.

Exclusive Disjunction (XOR)
Exclusive Disjunction (Exclusive-OR – XOR)

Let p and q be propositions. Then p q is also a proposition which is called the
exclusive disjunction (exclusive or, xor ) of p and q.


p q is read p xor q:


p q is true (T) precisely when p and q have di¤erent truth value.


Truth table for exclusive disjunction of two propositions:
p q p q
T T


p q p q
T T F
T F


p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T


p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F


p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example of Exclusive Disjunctions
Exercise
p : Alex likes cookies q : Alex likes pizza

r : 2 is an even number s : 2 is a prime number
Write the compound proposition: (1) p q; (2) r s and also determine the
truth value of r s.
Solution:

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
1 p q:

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
1 p q : “Alex likes cookies but he doesn’t like pizza, or Alex doesn’t like
cookies but he likes pizza”;

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
cookies but he likes pizza”; or we can also write “Alex likes either cookies or
pizza, but not both”.

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
2 r s:

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
2 r s : “2 is an even number but it is not a prime number, or 2 is not an even
number but it is a prime number”;

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
number but it is a prime number”; or we can also write “2 is either an even
number or a prime number, but not both”. The truth of each of r and s

Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
number or a prime number, but not both”. The truth of each of r and s is
true, therefore the truth of r s is
Exercise

truth value of r s.
Solution:
number or a prime number, but not both”. The truth of each of r and s is
true, therefore the truth of r s is false.
Implication or Conditional Statement

Let p and q be propositions, then p ! q is also a proposition which is called an
implication or a conditional statement of the proposition “if p, then q”. In an
implication p ! q, p is called the hypothesis/ antecedent/ premise and q is called
the conclusion/ consequence.
p ! q is read:


p ! q is read:
if p then q q if p


p ! q is read:
if p then q q if p
p implies q q is implied by p


p ! q is read:
if p then q q if p
p implies q q is implied by p
p is su¢ cient for q q is necessary for p

p ! q is false (F) if p is true but q is false, otherwise p ! q is true
Truth table for conditional statement p ! q
p q p!q
T T

p q p!q
T T T
T F

p q p!q
T T T
T F F
F T

p q p!q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F

p q p!q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Examples of Conditional Statements
Example
Consider following propositions:
p : “Alex’s …nal exam is 100”
q : “Alex’s …nal grade is A”
p ! q:

Example
p ! q: “if Alex’s …nal exam is 100, then

Example
p ! q: “if Alex’s …nal exam is 100, then his …nal grade is A”
p ! q is false (F) when

Example
p ! q is false (F) when Alex’s …nal exam is 100,

Example
p ! q is false (F) when Alex’s …nal exam is 100, but his …nal grade is not A”
p ! q is true (T) when:

Example
Alex’s …nal exam is not 100

Example
Alex’s …nal exam is not 100
Alex’s …nal grade is A.

Exercise
At the beginning of a season, an owner of a basketball club once said, “If my club
win this season’s …nal, then I will sell this club”. When the season ended, the club
was relegated to the lower division, yet the owner still sold his club. Does the act
of selling the club violate the owner’s previous statement?

Contrapositive, Converse, and Inverse
Let p ! q be an implication, then:

the contrapositive (sometimes called contraposition) of p ! q is :q ! :p
the converse of p ! q is q ! p
the inverse of p ! q is :p ! :q

The truth table for contrapositive, converse, and inverse of an implication:
contrapositive converse inverse

p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T T


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T T T
Observe that the truth of p ! q is identical to the truth of


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T T T
Observe that the truth of p ! q is identical to the truth of :q ! :p, the truth of
q ! p is identical to the truth of


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T T T
q ! p is identical to the truth of :p ! :q. In this condition, we say


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T T T
q ! p is identical to the truth of :p ! :q. In this condition, we say p ! q is
equivalent to :q ! :p and


p :p q :q p!q :q ! :p q!p :p ! :q
T F T F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F T F T T T T T
q ! p is identical to the truth of :p ! :q. In this condition, we say p ! q is
equivalent to :q ! :p and q ! p is equivalent to :p ! :q.
Remark
Every conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive.

Bi-implication or Biconditional Statement
Bi-implication
Let p and q be propositions, then p $ q is also a proposition which is called a
bi-implication or a biconditional statement of the propositions “p if and only if q”.
p $ q is read:

Bi-implication
p $ q is read:
p if and only if q p i¤ q, (i¤ is a shorthand for if and only if)

Bi-implication
p $ q is read:

if p then q, and conversely p is necessary and su¢ cient for q

Bi-implication
p $ q is read:

if p then q, and conversely p is necessary and su¢ cient for q
p is equivalent to q p and q are equivalent

p $ q is true (T) precisely when p and q have the same truth values, and is
false otherwise.

false otherwise.
p $ q is true (T) precisely when p ! q and q ! p are both true (T).

false otherwise.
Truth table for a biconditional statement:

p q p$q
T T

false otherwise.

p q p$q
T T T
T F

false otherwise.

p q p$q
T T T
T F F
F T

false otherwise.

p q p$q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F

false otherwise.

p q p$q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example of Biconditional Statement
Example
p : “Alex’s …nal grade was not less than 50”
q : “Alex passed the class”
p$q:

Example
p $ q : “Alex’s …nal grade was not less than 50 if and only if he passed the class”
p$q

Example
p $ q is true (T) when

Example
1 Alex’s …nal grade

Example
1 Alex’s …nal grade was not less than 50

Example
1 Alex’s …nal grade was not less than 50 and he passed the class; or

Example

Example
2 Alex’s …nal grade was less than 50

Example
2 Alex’s …nal grade was less than 50 and he didn’t pass the class.
p $ q is false (F) when

Example

Example
1 Alex’s …nal grade was not less than 50,

Example
1 Alex’s …nal grade was not less than 50, but he didn’t pass the class; or

Example

Example
2 Alex’s …nal grade was less than 50,

Example
2 Alex’s …nal grade was less than 50, but he passed the class.

Precedences of Logical Operators
Contents
1 Motivation

Precedence of Logical Operators
From high school arithmetic, we know that 2 + 3 4=

From high school arithmetic, we know that 2 + 3 4 = 14,

From high school arithmetic, we know that 2 + 3 4 = 14, this is because the
precedence (the processing order) of operator is higher than operator +. We
also learned to use parentheses to specify the processing order of arithmetical
operators.

operators. For example, 2 + 3 4 means 2 + (3 4) = 14, whereas
(2 + 3) 4 = 20. By knowing the precedence of logical operators, we may reduce
the number of parentheses in a compound propositions.

Which one of the following propositions is equivalent to p ^ q ! r?


1 p ^ (q ! r)


1 p ^ (q ! r)
2 (p ^ q) ! r

The precedence of logical operators determines which operator has to be operated

…rst (i.e., be applied to an operand)


The precedence of logical operators is described by following table:
Operator Precedence
: 1
^ 2
_ 3
4
! 5
$ 6


The precedence of logical operators is described by following table:
Operator Precedence
: 1
^ 2
_ 3
4
! 5
$ 6
As in arithmetic expressions, we use parentheses “(” and “)” to specify or clarify

the order of an operation in a compound proposition.

Exercise
Put the parentheses to clarify the precedences of logical operators in the following
compound propositions:
1 p_q^r
2 :p _ q
3 p^q !r
4 p ! :q ^ r
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s
Solution:
1 p _ q ^ r means

Exercise
1 p_q^r
2 :p _ q
3 p^q !r
4 p ! :q ^ r
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s
Solution:
1 p _ q ^ r means p _ (q ^ r)
2 :p _ q means

Exercise
1 p_q^r
2 :p _ q
3 p^q !r
4 p ! :q ^ r
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s
Solution:
1 p _ q ^ r means p _ (q ^ r)
2 :p _ q means (:p) _ q
3 p ^ q ! r means

Exercise
1 p_q^r
2 :p _ q
3 p^q !r
4 p ! :q ^ r
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s
Solution:
1 p _ q ^ r means p _ (q ^ r)
2 :p _ q means (:p) _ q
3 p ^ q ! r means (p ^ q) ! r
4 p ! :q ^ r means

Exercise
1 p_q^r
2 :p _ q
3 p^q !r
4 p ! :q ^ r
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s
Solution:
1 p _ q ^ r means p _ (q ^ r)
2 :p _ q means (:p) _ q
3 p ^ q ! r means (p ^ q) ! r
4 p ! :q ^ r means p ! ((:q) ^ r)
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s means

Exercise
1 p_q^r
2 :p _ q
3 p^q !r
4 p ! :q ^ r
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s
Solution:
1 p _ q ^ r means p _ (q ^ r)
2 :p _ q means (:p) _ q
3 p ^ q ! r means (p ^ q) ! r
4 p ! :q ^ r means p ! ((:q) ^ r)
5 :p _ q ! r ^ :s means ((:p) _ q) ! (r ^ (:s))

Propositional Formulas (Supplementary)
Contents
1 Motivation

Propositional Formulas
Propositional Formulas
A propositional formula may consist of:
1 propositional constant: T (true) or F (false)
2 atomic variables:
p; p1 ; p2 ; : : :
q; q1 ; q2 ; : : :
r; r1 ; r2 ; : : :
3 propositional operators: :; ^; _; ; !; $
and is constructed using following rules:
1 every atomic proposition is a propositional formula
2 if A and B are propositional formulas, then :A, A ^ B, A _ B, A B,
A ! B, A $ B, are all propositional formulas.

Example of Propositional Formulas
Example
According to the de…nition of propositional formulas, we infer that
1 p ^ q is a propositional formula
2 pq_ is not a propositional formula
3 :: (:p ! ::r)

Example
3 :: (:p ! ::r) is a propositional formula that can be rewritten as
: (: (:p ! : (:r)))
4 p^q ! r_s

Example
: (: (:p ! : (:r)))
4 p^q ! r _ s is not a propositional formula
5 p _ q_ ! r s

Example
: (: (:p ! : (:r)))
5 p _ q_ ! r s is not a propositional formula
6 p p_q !r^s

Example
: (: (:p ! : (:r)))
6 p p _ q ! r ^ s is a propositional formula that can be rewritten as
(p (p _ q)) ! (r ^ s)
7 : (: (: (:p ! q) ! r) ! s)

Example
: (: (:p ! : (:r)))
(p (p _ q)) ! (r ^ s)
7 : (: (: (:p ! q) ! r) ! s) is a propositional formula
8 : ((p ! q) : (r s))

Example
: (: (:p ! : (:r)))
(p (p _ q)) ! (r ^ s)
7 : (: (: (:p ! q) ! r) ! s) is a propositional formula
8 : ((p ! q) : (r s)) is not a propositional formula

Subformula
Subformula
1 A formula A is a subformula of A itself.
2 If A and B are two propositional formulas used to construct a more complex
propositional formula C, then A and B are proper subformulas of C.
3 Subformula is transitive: if A is a subformula of B and B is a subformula of
C, then A is a subformula of C.
Example
let A be a formula (p ^ q) ! (r _ s), then the subformulas of A are: (1)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2) p ^ q, (3)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2) p ^ q, (3) r _ s, (4)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2) p ^ q, (3) r _ s, (4) p, (5)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2) p ^ q, (3) r _ s, (4) p, (5) q, (6)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2) p ^ q, (3) r _ s, (4) p, (5) q, (6) r, and (7)

Subformula
Subformula
Example
(p ^ q) ! (r _ s), (2) p ^ q, (3) r _ s, (4) p, (5) q, (6) r, and (7) s.

Exercise
List all subformulas of (p ! q) _ (q ! p)
Solution:

Exercise
Solution: subformulas of (p ! q) _ (q ! p) are:

(p ! q) _ (q ! p)

Exercise

(p ! q) _ (q ! p)
p!q

Exercise

(p ! q) _ (q ! p)
p!q
q!p

Exercise

(p ! q) _ (q ! p)
p!q
q!p
p

Exercise

(p ! q) _ (q ! p)
p!q
q!p
p
q

Exercise
List all subformulas of (:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
Solution:

Exercise
Solution: subformulas of (:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r)) are:

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))
q _ :r

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))
q _ :r
:p

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))
q _ :r
:p
:r

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))
q _ :r
:p
:r
p

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))
q _ :r
:p
:r
p
q

Exercise

(:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
(:p ^ q)
(p ^ (q _ :r))
q _ :r
:p
:r
p
q
r

Parse Tree
Parse tree can be used to visualize the structure of a propositional formula.
For instance, the parse tree for (:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r)) is
Parse Tree
Parse tree can be used to visualize the structure of a propositional formula.
For instance, the parse tree for (:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r)) is
Exercise
Draw the parse tree of each of these formulas:
1 : (p _ (q ! :p)) ^ r
2 (:p ^ q) ! (p ^ (q _ :r))
3 : ((q ! :p) ^ (p ! r _ q))

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Propositional Logic 1: Motivation – Parse Tree

Mathematical Logic – First Term 2021-2022

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 1 / 45

4 Logical Operators and Compound Propositions

5 Precedences of Logical Operators

6 Propositional Formulas (Supplementary)

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 3 / 45

4 Logical Operators and Compound Propositions

5 Precedences of Logical Operators

6 Propositional Formulas (Supplementary)

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 4 / 45

Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?

Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 5 / 45

Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?

Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 5 / 45

Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?

Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 5 / 45

Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?

Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 5 / 45

Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?

Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 5 / 45

Motivation: Why do we need to learn propositional logic?

Propositional logic is one of the foundations in computer science and software

System Speci…cation Consistency Problem

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 5 / 45

4 Logical Operators and Compound Propositions

5 Precedences of Logical Operators

6 Propositional Formulas (Supplementary)

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 6 / 45

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45

A simple proposition is usually written with lowercase letters:

The verity (the truth) of a proposition:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 1 September-October 2021 7 / 45