ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

BLOOD

BLOOD C. Plasma electrolytes (ions)

- Liquid connective tissue that plays an important
role in maintaining homeostasis in a living
organism.
Average adult: 7-9 % of total body weight
Male: 5-6 Liters
Female: 4-5 Liters
Functions:
▪ Transport (Nutrients and gasses)
▪ Protection (Immune Defense, Clotting)
▪ Regulation (hormones)
HEMATOPOIESIS – production of blood in the
bone marrow
• Erythropoiesis – production of RBC
• Myelopoiesis – Production of WBC
BLOOD COMPONENTS
➢ Osmotic pressure (sodium and chloride)
➢ Membrane potentials (sodium and potassium
ions)
➢ Acid base balance (hydrogen, hydroxide, and
bicarbonate ions)
D. Nutrients and waste products
➢ Nutrients – glucose, amino acids,
phospholipids, triglycerides, free fatty acid,
cholesterol.
➢ Metabolic wastes – lactic acid, nitrogenous
waste (urea)
E. Gasses and buffers
➢ Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide (aerobic
respiration)
F. Regulatory substances
– catalyze chemical reactions (enzymes) and
stimulate or inhibit many body functions
(hormones).

SERUM – Plasma without clotting factor

II. Formed Elements

A. Red blood cell (Erythrocyte)

1. Average volume
➢ Male: 5.5 million/cu.mm
➢ Female: 4.8 million/cu.mm
2. Average size: 7.5 µm by 2 µm
3. Shape – biconcave disc
4. Annucleated
5. Absence of cytoplasmic organelles
6. Contains haemoglobin
7. Plasma membrane – strong and flexible
8. Life span – 120 days
9. Old RBCs are removed by macrophages in the
spleen.
10. Cabot rings/ Howell-jolly bodies- remnants of
nucleus found in young RBC.

I. PLASMA
• Liquid portion of the blood
A. Water – 90%
B. Plasma Proteins
– synthesized mainly by the hepatocytes
➢ Albumin – Promotes water retention, maintains
blood volume and pressure.
➢ Globulin – carrier molecule to transport liquid
and fat-soluble vitamins in the blood; used as
antibodies
➢ Fibrinogen – for blood clotting
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ERYTHROPOIEISIS 1. Neutrophil
- Production of RBC
• 60-70% polymorphonuclear (10-12µm in
 Red bone marrow of large bones (vertebra, ribs, diameter)
sternum, pelvis, upper end of humerus and femur) • Neutron-, neutral + philos –loving
 Rate of 2 million per second • Stains with basic acidic dyes
 Production stimulated by hormone erythropoietin • Most abundant in WBC (nucleus 3-5 lobes)
(EPO), synthesized by the kidney. • Connected by very thin strands of chromatin
 Young cells are called reticulocytes • BARR body- inactive x chromosome found only in
Hemoglobin (hgb) – oxygen binding protein; female. Important in sex identification
contains four polypeptide chains (Globin) and four • First line of Defence – responds quickly to
Heme Group. bacterial infection
 Male: 14-16 gm
• Secretes enzymes called Lysozymes (stains
 Female: 12-14 gm
neutral pink-blue) capable of destroying some
 Men have higher Hgb because of testosterone found
bacteria
more in male that stimulates synthesis of EPO.
• In phagocytosis, neutrophil dies together with
microorganism pus.
*old erythrocyte undergoes changes in its plasma
membrane which makes it susceptible to recognition by
phagocytes and subsequent phagocytosis in the spleen,
liver and the bone marrow.

Heme constituent of hemoglobin are broken down into

Fe3+ and biliverdin. The biliverdin is reduced to bilirubin,
which is released into the plasma and recirculates to the
liver bound to albumin. Iron is released to the plasma to
be recirculated by a carrier protein called transferrin.
Hemolyzed hemoglobin is bound to a protein in plasma
called haptoglobin which is not excreted by the kidney.

B. White Blood Cell (leukocyte)

➢ White blood cell (leukocyte)

➢ 5,000-10,000 cells
2. Eosinophil
➢ Has nucleus
➢ Do not have Hgb
 2-4% of WBC (11-14µm in diameter)
➢ Less numerous and larger than RBC
 2-3 lobes of nucleus
➢ Most live in few days except lymphocyte which can
 Larger granules than neutrophil
live for several months or years.
 Cytoplasmic granules stains orange-red to bright
re in acidic stain
 Chemotaxis – process by which neutrophil and other
 Contains lysozymes, peroxidase to destroy
WBC are attached to the chemicals released by
intruder
microorganisms at the site of infection or injury.
 Phagocytize Ag-Ab complexes
 Diapedesis – process by which WBC leaves blood
 Destroys certain parasitic worms
stream by being able to deform, elongate, squeeze
 Reduce inflammation by countering effects of
through pores of capillaries to reached injured tissue.
histamine in allergic reactions by releasing
histaminase.
*lymphocyte continuously recirculates when it leaves blood
stream. It goes into the interstitial space to interstitial fluid
to lymphatic fluid then back to the blood stream.
Colony forming Units
• Myeloblast – neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
• Lymphoblast – Lymphocytes
• Monoblast – monocytes

GRANULAR LEUKOCYTE
• Segmented, multilobulated nuclei
• Has granules in the cytoplasm
• Named after their affinity to dye/stain (wright)
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3. Basophil Memory T-cell - quick and effective response to an

antigen against w/c the immune system has previously
 Baso-, base + philos, loving reacted. Responsible for adaptive immunity
 10-12µm in diameter Cytotoxix T-cell – destroy cell by lyses or by the
 Least common production of cytokines
 With 2 indistinct lobes Delayed hypersensitivity T-cell – produce cytokines
 Stains blue to purple that promote inflammation
 Liberates heparin (anticoagulant) which prevents Helper T-cell – activate B and effector T-cell
clot formation and releases histamine which Suppressor T-cell – inhibits B and effector T-cell
promotes inflammation Dendritic cell - process antigens and involved in the
 Slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis SRS-A activation of b and T-cell
Natural Killer cell – 15% of lymphocyte; innate immunity;
kills tumor cells and virus infected cells.

2. Monocyte

• 3- 8 %
• Largest of WbC
• Becomes Macrophages when they leave blood
• Phagocytize bacteria, dead cell, cell fragments, and
Agranular /Leukocyte/WBC other debris within the tissue
• Can also present the processed substances to
➢ No granules lymphocytes which results to activation of other
➢ Have unsegmented nucleus lymphocytes
• Stay on blood stream for 3 days
1. Lymphocyte

 20-25% (lympho-, lymph + kytos-cell)

 2nd most abundant (6-14µm in diameter)
 Round slightly indented nucleus
 Cytoplasm forms a rim around nucleus
 Not phagocytic
 Produced in the bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
 Seen in acute viral infection and chronic bacterial C. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
infection
 Produce antibodies • 150,000 – 400,000 cells of blood
• Disk shape cell fragments
• No nucleus but have many vesicles
• Lifespan 7-8 days
• Not actually cell but cellular fragments
• formed from megakaryocyte
• Forms platelet plugs for clotting mechanism

Types of Lymphocytes

1. B-cell
2. T-cell
3. NK cell

B-cell – after activation differentiate o become

plasma cell of memory B-cell
Plasma cell – produce antibodies responsible for
destruction of antigens
Memory B-cell – quick and effective response to an
antigen against w/c the immune system has
previously reacted. Presenter.
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Diagnostic Blood Test LABORATORY

HEMATOPOIESIS
• Blood Typing – determination of the ABO and Rh
blood groups in the blood sample
• Cross matching – donor ‘s blood cell is mixed with
the recipient’s serum, and the donor’s serum is
mixed with the recipient’s cells. The donor’s blood is
considered safe for transmission if no agglutination
occurs in either cross match.

Complet Blood Count

• Red Blood Cell Count- usually done electronically

by a machine but can be done manually by
microscope.
Male: 4.6-5.4 million µL of blood
Female: 4.2-5.4 million µL of blood
• Hemoglobin count (Hgb)
Male: 14-18 g/100 ml of blood
Female: 12-16 g/ 100 ml of blood
• Hematocrit measurement
- percentage of Red Blood cells Erythrocytes
Male: 40%-52%
Female: 38% -48%

White Blood Cell Count

• Differential Blood Count – determines the
percentage of each of each of the five kinds of WBC

Normal:
Neutrophil – 60 %- 70 %
Lymphocyte – 20%-25%
Monocyte – 3%-8%
Eosinophil – 2%-4%
Basophil - 0.5%-1% Structure
 Biconcave, anucleate
• Platelet Count Components
Normal:  Hemoglobin
250,000-40 0,000 platelets per microliter of blood  Lipids, ATP, carbonic anhydrase
Function
Prothrombon Time – measures of how long it takes  Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues
that blood to start clotting and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs
Normal: 9-12 seconds
Hemoglobin
Blood Chemistry

• Composition of materials suspended or dissolved in

the plasma to assess the functioning of many of the
body systems

Increased BUN: reduced kidney function

Increased Glucose: low insulin production by
pancreas
Consists of:
Increased Bilirubun: Liver disfunction
 4 globin molecules: Transport carbon
Increased Cholesterol: increased risk of
dioxide (carbonic anhydrase involved),
cardiovascular disease
nitric oxide
 4 heme molecules: Transport oxygen
 Iron is required for oxygen
transport.
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Erythropoiesis ABO Blood Groups

 Production of red blood cells

 Stem cells proerythroblasts early
erythroblasts intermediate late
reticulocytes
 Erythropoietin: Hormone to stimulate RBC
production

Hemoglobin Breakdown
Agglutination Reaction
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Who can give you blood?

What are blood types?
People with TYPE O blood are called Universal
Donors, because they can give blood to any blood
BLOOD TYPES: type.
People with TYPE AB blood are called Universal
AA or AO = Type A Recipients because they can receive any blood type.
BB or BO = Type B Rh + → Can receive + or -
OO = Type O Rh - → Can only receive –
AB = Type AB

There are 3 alleles or genes for blood type:

- A, B, & O. Since we have 2 genes, there are 6
possible combinations.

Rh Blood Group

 First studied in rhesus monkeys

Types
Rh positive: Have these antigens present on
surface of RBCs
Rh negative: Do not have these antigens
present
 Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross
placenta and cause agglutination and
hemolysis of fetal RBCs

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

How common is your blood type?

46.1%

38.8%

11.4%

3.9%

Blood Transfusions

- A blood transfusion is a procedure in which blood is

given to a patient through an intravenous (IV) line in D. Rh Blood Group
one of the blood vessels. 1. The Rh factor was named after the rhesus
- Blood transfusions are done to replace blood lost monkey.
during surgery or a serious injury. A transfusion also 2. If the Rh factor surface protein is present on red blood
may be done if a person’s body can't make blood cells, the blood is Rh positive; otherwise, it is rh negative.
properly because of an illness.
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BLOOD

3.There are no corresponding antibodies in the plasma

unless a person with Rh- negative blood is transfused with
Rh- positive blood; the person will then develop antibodies
for the Rh factor.

4. Erythroblastosis fetalis develops in Rh-positive fetuses of

Rh-negative mothers but can now be prevented.