Introduction to

Wind Energy
 Wind
 Wind is the natural movement of air of any velocity on the surface
of earth due to difference in pressure.
 The difference in pressure is generated by the uneven heating of
Earth’s surface by the Sun
 The air moves from area of high pressure to area of lower pressure.
Wind
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
 Wind Energy or Power
 Wind energy is the process of converting this motion into
mechanical or electrical power.
First Wind Turbine for Electricity Generation
Size and Application of Wind Turbines
Evolution of the US Commercial Wind Turbines
Onshore and Offshore Wind Farms
Onshore Wind Farms
Offshore Wind Farm
Future Expectation of Wind Turbines
Types of Wind
Turbines
Types of Wind Turbines
 Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT).
 Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT).
 These are classified by the axis of the main
axle that the blades are attached to, if the axe
is horizontal then HAWT, if it is vertical then
VAWT.
 Vertical Axis
Wind Turbines
Vertical axis wind turbines
(VAWT)
 The axis of rotation of the blades is vertical.
Advantages of the VAWT
 Omnidirectional (VAWT operates in all wind
directions).
 Components including the generator are
mounted on the ground, this leads to low
maintenance cost and light weight towers.
 Uses less materials to capture the same amount
of wind compared to the HAWT.
Disadvantages of the VAWT
 The blades are close to the ground, in which the wind
speeds are low leading to low generation of electricity.
 They do not take advantage of the higher wind speeds at
higher elevations above the ground as well as horizontal
axis turbines.
 Poor self-starting capabilities due to heavy weight.
 Requires the rotor to be completely removed to replace
the bearings.
 Requires support at the top of the rotor.
 Not successful commercially.
 Overall poor performance and reliability.
Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbines
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)
 The axis of rotation of the blades is horizontal.
 There are two types of HAWT, the upwind and the downwind.
 The upwind faces the wind and there is no shadowing effect.
 The downwind is behind the wind and it is affected by shadowing
effect.
Advantages of the HAWT
 High efficiency.
 HAWTs are formed of large towers, leading to exposure to high wind
speed, hence more power is generated.
 Self starting.
Disadvantages of the HAWT
 Components are placed on the top of the tower leading to difficulty
in maintenance.
 Difficulty in installation.
 Interference with radio waves.
 Tall towers lead to environmental problems.
Conclusion
 The Vertical Axis Turbine or VAWT is easier to design and maintain
but offers lower performance than the horizontal axis types due to
the high drag of its simple rotor blade design.
 Most wind turbines generating electricity today either commercially
or domestically are horizontal axis machines so it is these types of
wind turbine design we will look at in this wind energy course.
Number of Rotor
Blades and Rotor
Solidity
Rotor Solidity
𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 3𝑎
 Rotor solidity = 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴

 Low solidity (0.1) leads to small

number of blades, light weight of
blades, high speed, and low starting
torque.
 High solidity (>0.8) leads to large
number of blades, large weight of
blades, low speed, and large starting
torque.
 Low solidity used in electricity
generation.
 High solidity used in water pumping
systems.
Rotor Solidity

 Low solidity used in electricity  High solidity used in water pumping

generation. systems.
Even or Odd Number of Blades?
 Modern wind turbine engineers avoid building large machines with an even
number of rotor blades.
 A rotor with an even number of blades causes stability problems for a
machine with a stiff structure.
 This is because each rotor blade has an exact and opposite blade which is
located 180 degrees in the opposite direction. As the rotor rotates, the very
moment the uppermost blade is pointing vertically upwards (12 o’clock
position) the lower most blade is pointing straight down in front of the
turbine support tower.
 The result is that the uppermost blade bends backwards, because it receives
the maximum force from the wind, called “thrust loading”, while the lower
blade passes into the wind free area directly in front of the supporting tower.
 A rotor with an odd number of blades can be like a disc when calculating
the dynamic properties of it.
 A wind turbine design which has an “ODD” number of rotor blades (at least
three blades) rotates smoother than even number of blades because the
forces are more evenly balanced across the blade leading to increasing of
the stability of the turbine.
Number of Odd Blades?
 The one-bladed type of wind turbines does exist and saves the cost of
extra rotor blades with a higher rotational speed, but they are not
widespread as they have the same problems of the even blades.
 They have noise and visual problems; they require a counterweight to be
placed on the opposite side of the hub from the rotor blade in order to
balance the rotor.
 So, there is no weight-savings compared to a two-bladed design.
 The most common odd bladed wind turbine design is that of the three
bladed turbine.
 The power efficiency of a three bladed rotor is slightly above that of a
similar sized two bladed rotor.
 Other advantages of three bladed rotors include smoother operation, less
noise and fewer bird strikes which compensate for the disadvantage of
the higher material costs.
Conclusion
 Most modern wind turbines use three-bladed designs with the rotor
position maintained upwind by using electrical motors in their yaw
mechanism.
 Most of the turbines manufactured today have this design.
Gearbox
 Gearbox
 A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using
the aerodynamic force from the rotor blades
 A gearbox is used in a wind turbine to increase
rotational speed from a low-speed rotor to a higher
speed electrical generator.
 A common ratio is about 90:1, with a rate 16.7 rpm
input from the rotor to 1,500 rpm output for the
generator.
 Some multimegawatt wind turbines known as the
direct-drive machines without a gearbox, the generator
rotor turns at the same speed as the turbine rotor.
 Other wind turbines on the market sit in-between, with
gearbox ratios of about 30:1
Power Available in
the Wind Spectra
Factors Affecting Wind Power
 Amount of air (volume).
 Speed of air (velocity).
 Mass and density of air flowing through the area.
 The kinetic energy of a stream of air with mass m and
moving with a velocity V is

 m=ρAx
 Where ρ : the density of air, A : cross-sectional area, and X
is the distance traveled.
1
 E = 2 ρ A x 𝑉2
𝑑𝐸 1 1 𝑑𝑥 1
 P= = 𝑚. 𝑉 2 = 2 ρ A 𝑑𝑡 𝑉 2 = 2 ρ A 𝑉 3
𝑑𝑡 2
Wind Measuring Device (anemometer)
Wind Power Density VS Velocity of Wind
 Power Extracted
From Wind Turbines
Power Extracted From Wind Turbines
 The turbine can’t extract all the power available in the wind stream.
 When the wind stream passes through the turbine, only a fraction of its kinetic
energy is passed to the rotor and the air leaving the turbine carries the rest.
 The power coefficient of a turbine depends on many factors such as the profile of
the rotor blades, blade arrangement and setting etc.
Power Extracted from Wind Turbines
Maximum Rotor
Efficiency
Maximum Rotor Efficiency CPmax

 Consider a wind turbine with rotor of area AT, placed in a wind

stream as shown in Fig.
 V is the upwind velocity of the stream.
 Vd is the downwind velocity of the stream.
 Vb is the wind speed at the rotor blades. Wind stream tube (Betz model)
 Vb = ½ (V+Vd ).
(V – Vb)
 a= .
V
 CP = 4 a (1- a)2.

𝑚. = ρ A 𝑉
Maximum Rotor Efficiency CPmax
(V – Vb)
 Vb = ½ (V+Vd ), a = , CP = 4 a (1- a)2
V
 Maximum value of CP (CPmax) is obtained by differentiating the coefficient of
performance with respect to a and equating it with zero:
𝑑cP 1
 = 0 , the solution will be equal to a = .
𝑑𝑎 3
 In other words, the blade efficiency will be a maximum if it slows the wind to one-third
of its upstream velocity.
2 1
 Therefore, at maximum extracted power : Vb = V, Vd = V.
3 3
 CPmax = 4(1/3)(2/3)2 = 16/27 = 0.593 (Betz Limit )
 59% efficiency is the BEST a conventional wind turbine can do in extracting power from
the wind
Maximum Rotor Efficiency CPmax
Factors Affecting
Wind Speed and
Density
Height of Tower
Factor 1: Height of Tower
Factor 1: Height of Tower
 Winds move more slowly at ground level due to friction.
 The reason is that there are surface objects such as trees, rocks, houses, etc. slow the air as it collides into them.
 The influence of this friction is less with height above the ground, so the friction decreases with height, so wind speed
increases as the height increases.
Factor 1: Height of Tower
Factor 1: Height of Tower
Factor 1: Height of Tower
Factor 1: Height of Tower
Factor 1: Height of Tower at Least 2H of the Obstacle
Factor 1: Height of Tower
Air Density
Factor 2: Air Density – Ideal Gas Law
Factor 2: Air Density – Ideal Gas Law
Example
Example
 An anemometer mounted at a height of 10 m above a surface with friction coefficient of 0.2 , shows a wind
speed of 5 m/s.
 Estimate the wind speed and the specific power in the wind at a height of 50 m. Assume 15◦C and 1 atm of
pressure.

Solution

50
 V = 5·( )0.2 = 6.9 m/s.
10
1
 Specific power = P/A = ρ 𝑉 3
2
1∗28.97∗10−3
 ρ= = 1.225 kg/ m3
8.2∗10−5 ∗(273+15)
1
 Power density at 50 m= ρ 𝑉 3 = 0.5 × 1.225 × 6.93 = 201 W/m2
2

 Power density at 10 m = 76.5 W/m2

Example
Example
 A wind turbine with a 30-m rotor diameter is mounted with its hub at 50 m above the ground surface (α = 0.2).
 Estimate the ratio of specific power in the wind at the highest point that a rotor blade tip reaches to the lowest
point that it falls to.

Solution
 Radius = D/2 = 30/2 = 15 m.
 The ratio of power at the top of the blade swing (65 m)
to that at the bottom of its swing (35 m) =
Applied Force on
Wind Turbine
and Torque
Applied Force on Wind Turbine and Torque
 The thrust force experienced by the rotor (F) can be expressed as
1
𝑃 ρ A 𝑉3 1
 F= = 2
= ρ A 𝑉2
𝑉 𝑉 2
1
 Torque = F*R = ρ A 𝑉 2 R, this torque is a theoretical torque,
2
and the actual torque is
1
 T= ρ A 𝑉 2 R CT
2
T
 CT is the torque coefficient, and it is equal to 1
2
ρ A 𝑉2R
Applied Force on Wind Turbine and Torque

 Where Ω or ω is the angular velocity, N is the rotational speed of the rotor

(revolutions per second).
 The tip speed ratio (TSR) or (λ) is the ratio between the velocity of the
rotor tip and the wind velocity.
Applied Force on Wind Turbine and Torque

 TSR: High value leads to low Cp because

at high speed of the turbine, this will lead to
more turbulences that will lead to reduction
of the efficiency.
 TSR: Low value leads to low Cp because at
low speed of rotor, too much wind will pass
without taking advantage of it, leading to
power losses.
Applied Force on Wind Turbine and Torque
Effect of Number of Blades on TSR

 Large number of blades lead to large weight

of blades leading to low rotational speed
and low TSR.
 Small number of blades lead to small
weight of blades leading to high rotational
speed and high TSR.
Example
Example
 Consider a wind turbine with 5 m diameter rotor. Speed of the rotor at 10 m/s wind velocity is 130 r/min and its
power coefficient at this point is 0.35.
 Calculate the tip speed ratio and torque coefficient of the turbine.
 What will be the torque available at the rotor shaft? Assume the density of air to be 1.24 kg/m3.

Solution

1
T= ρ A 𝑉 2 R CT
2
 Wind Turbine
Generator
Characteristics
Wind turbine power output as a function of wind speed.
 The generator does not start producing electricity until the available
power in the wind exceeds the power needed to overcome the windage
and friction losses in the whole system.
 The wind speed at which the generator starts producing electricity is
called cut-in wind speed (Vcut-in).
 As the wind turbine speed increases, the power output of the generator
increases until the generator produces its rated power output.
 The wind speed at which the generator produces its rated output is
called rated wind speed (Vrated).
 When the wind speed reaches a point where the wind turbine is
rotating at a dangerously high speed, with the possibility of
destruction, the wind turbine is furled, and the generator is stopped.
 The wind speed at which the generator is stopped is called cut off wind
speed, Vcut-off.
 Furling prevents a wind turbine from spinning too quickly by turning
the blades away from the direction of the wind.
Important Note
 Between the cut-in and rated velocities (Vcut-in to
Vrated), the power increases with the wind velocity.
Though, theoretically, this increase should be cubic in
nature, in practice it can be linear, quadratic, cubic and
even higher powers and its combinations, depending
upon the design of the turbine.

For Vci ≤ V ≤ VR
Example
 A 2 MW wind turbine has cut-in, rated and cut-out velocities 3.5 m/s, 13.5 m/s and 25 m/s respectively.
 For 13.5 m/s < V < 25 m/s, the turbine develops its rated power of 2 MW.
 When V >25, the turbine produces no power as it is shut down.

For Vci ≤ V ≤ VR

For 3.5m/s ≤ V ≤ 13.5 m/s

Example
Example
 Assume that we have a 250-kW wind turbine with the following characteristics:
 Vci = 5 m/s, Vrated = 8 m/s, and Vco = 14 m/s
 The curve between Vci and Vrated is designed to be linear.
 Find the amount of energy generated by the turbine per month, the following figure shows the wind velocity and how many
hours it exists in a month.
Solution
 Vci = 5 m/s, Vrated = 8 m/s, and Vco = 14 m/s and the curve between Vci and Vrated is designed to be linear.
Solution
Conclusion
 To calculate energy generated from a wind turbine, we need two curves:

 1- Generator Power Curve

 2- Wind Speed Duration Curve

 Effect of Rotor
Diameter and
Generator Size on
Power
Effect of Rotor Diameter on Power
 Increasing the rotor diameter, while keeping the same generator, shifts the power curve upward so that rated
power is reached at a lower wind speed.
 This strategy increases output power for lower wind speeds.
Effect of Generator Size on Power
 Keeping the same rotor but increasing the generator size allows the power curve to continue upward to the new rated
power.
 For lower-speed winds, there isn’t much change and no noticeable effect.
 In an area with higher wind speeds, increasing the generator rated power is a good strategy.
Wind Turbines
Spacing
Wind Turbines Spacing
 When several turbines are installed in
clusters, the turbulence due to the
rotation of blades of one turbine may
affect the nearby turbines.
 In order to minimize the effect of this
rotor induced turbulence, a spacing of
3 DT to 4 DT is provided within the
rows, where DT is the rotor diameter.
 Similarly, the spacing between the
rows may be around 10 DT.
 Wind Farm
Feasibility Study
Wind Power Classification
Wind Power Map
Wind Farm Feasibility Study
 Behind every wind farm project there is a technical feasibility study to assess the potential for electricity generation of the
selected site.
 At the beginning of the wind farms era wind speed and direction was estimated using data from existing weather stations.
 Due to large differences between predicted energy production and actual generated energy (which was usually
overestimated) meteorological met mast are now designed and installed to have better estimates.
Wind Speed Measurement
 It is recommended to have a wind speed measurement of at least 2/3 of hub height to keep uncertainties at an acceptable value, as
any methods for hub height wind speed estimation will add uncertainty to the calculation.
 A typical range for this uncertainty is in the 1 to 4% range (for example, 0.5% per every 10 meters vertical difference).
 The data from a met mast are representative only for few km - up to 10km for a simple terrain and around 2km for a much more
complex terrain.
 Depending on the wind farm total size, and terrain characteristics, this values can be even higher.
 The DNV-GL identifies the horizontal and vertical extrapolation to be responsible for approximately 35% of the energy uncertainty.
 For projects with turbines very far away from each other, the value can be as high as 51%.
For a Small Wind Farm Site ( < 20 MW)
 A high-quality site wind speed measurement campaign has a crucial importance in reducing the uncertainty in the predicted energy
production of a proposed project.
 The goal for a wind measurement campaign is to provide information to allow the best possible estimate of the energy on the site to
be provided.
 For a small wind farm site, it is likely that one meteorological mast is sufficient to provide an accurate assessment of the wind
resource at the site.
For a Small Wind Farm Site ( < 20 MW)
For a Medium and Large Wind Farms Site
 For medium wind farms, say in excess of 20 MW, located in complex terrain, it is likely that more than one mast will be
required to give an adequate definition of the wind resource across the site.
 For large projects of around 100 MW, located in complex terrain, a monitoring campaign is implemented to record the
necessary data for a robust analysis in a cost-effective way.
 If there are significant numbers of turbines more than one kilometer from a meteorological mast in terrain that is either
complex or is significant forestry, it is likely that additional masts will be required.
 In such circumstances, discussion with the analyst responsible for assessing the wind resource at the site is recommended at
an early stage.
Wind Speed Data
 The wind has a rapid fast change of speed with time and location.
 The wind speed changes in every single minute compared to other renewable energy sources like solar energy.
 The wind speed is also affected by various factors such as humidity, the geographical location etc.
 The measurements should be done for one complete year or even couple of years in the site.
 There are several statistical methods that can help us in analysis of the wind speed.
Speed Variation in a Site
Average Wind Speed
and Standard
Deviation
Average Wind Speed and Standard Deviation
 Wind speed is a variable quantity not a fixed value. That’s why we need a probability distribution of the wind speed
provides information about the long-term characteristics of a site.
 The probability distribution is used to calculate the available wind energy output.
Average Wind Speed and Standard Deviation
Wind Speed Probability Function
Example
Example
 In a location, five wind speeds were observed: 2, 4, 7, 8, and 9 m/sec. Calculate
the average wind speed, variance. and standard deviation.

Solution
(2+4+7+8+9)
 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 6 𝑚/𝑠
5
(2−6)2 +(4−6)2 +(7−6)2 +(8−6)2 +(9−6)2
 Variance = = 8.5 𝑚2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
5−1

 Standard deviation = 8.5 = 2.92 𝑚/𝑠

 Lower values of the standard deviation indicate the uniformity of the data set.
Example
Example
 On a site, the number of wind speed observations is n = 211, each wind speed (𝑉𝑤𝑖 ) is observed 𝑚𝑖
 Calculate P(𝑉𝑤𝑖 ) and F(𝑉𝑤𝑖 ), the results are shown in the following table.

Solution
Method of Bins
Method of Bins
 The method of bins also provides a way to summarize wind data and to determine expected turbine productivity.
 The data must be separated into the wind speed intervals or bins in which they occur, and it is convenient to use the
same size bins.
 Suppose that the data are separated into 𝑁𝑏 bins of width 𝑤𝑖 with midpoints 𝑚𝑗 and with 𝑓𝑗 the number of
occurrences in each bin or frequency, such that:
 We usually use a histogram to represent this data in this method.
 Weibull and
Rayleigh
Probability Density
Functions
Weibull and Rayleigh Distributions
 At any wind turbine site, the wind speed and direction varies throughout the day.
 Varying wind directions would require the wind turbine to yaw into the wind as needed.
 To simplify the simulation, it was assumed that the wind turbine was always facing the headwind and incurred no losses
due to lagging dynamic yawing control.
 To account for varying wind speeds, long term wind speed data must be collected on site.
 It has been found that Weibull and Rayleigh functions appear to accurately reflect the wind speed probability datasets.
 Weibull and Rayleigh distributions measure how much time of the year (in percent) that each wind speed occurs.
Weibull Distribution
 The Weibull distribution is the most widely used probability density function and is defined as:
Weibull Distribution
 The shape factor k is a parameter used
to relate how consistent the wind
speeds are in the Weibull distribution
plot.
 For example, a very gusty,
mountainous region might have a
Weibull k value as low as 1.5.
 The steady, tropical wind just off the
coast can have a Weibull k value up to
3 or 4
Weibull Distribution
 There is a correlation between
increasing wind speeds and the shape
parameter.
 The wind speeds increase with
increasing height.
 Therefore, it can be concluded that the
shape factor k scales with height.
 The turbulence intensity is shown to
decrease at higher wind speeds.
 Higher wind speeds means less
turbulence and more consistent winds
(higher k value).
 Turbulence intensity is defined as the
standard deviation of the horizontal
wind speed divided by the average
wind speed over some time period,
typically 10 minutes.
Rayleigh Distribution
 When the shape parameter is equal to 2, the Rayleigh distribution is obtained;
 This distribution is used in the studies in the international standard IEC 61400-12-1.
Rayleigh Distribution
All Weibull Distribution Equations
 Determination of
Weibull Parameters
Determination of Weibull Parameters
Determination of Weibull Parameters
Determination of Weibull Parameters
Determination of Weibull Parameters
Determination of Weibull Parameters
Important Note
on Weibull
Distribution
Weibull Distribution
 k ≤ 1 the probability distribution function curve shape exponential.
 The Weibull probability distribution with shape factor 1 is called the
exponential probability distribution which is usually used in the reliability
studies.
 1< k ≤ 2 the probability distribution is considered Weibull distribution (the
most common curve).
 The curve in the middle with k = 2 is a typical wind probability distribution
found at generality sites. In this probability distribution, most of the wind
speed days have lower than the average wind speed, while few days have
high wind speed.
 k > 2 the probability distribution is considered bell-shape or Gaussian.
 The last case when k exceeds more than 3, it approaches the normal
distribution, in this case the curve called the bell-shape or Gaussian.
 The area under the Weibull curve is equal exactly 1.
Weibull Distribution
Example on
Weibull
Distribution
Example

Solution
 Determination of
Weibull Parameters
Using Graphical
Method
Power Control of
Wind Turbines
Power Control of Wind Turbines
 Wind turbines are designed to produce electrical energy as
cheaply as possible.
 Wind turbines are generally designed so that they yield
maximum output at wind speeds around 15 m/s (33 mph).
 It is not cost effective to design turbines that maximize their
output at stronger winds, because such strong winds are
rare.
 In case of stronger winds, it is necessary to waste part of the
excess energy of the wind in order to avoid damaging the
wind turbine.
 All wind turbines are therefore designed with some sort of
power control.
 There are different ways of doing this safely on modern
wind turbines:
 Pitch Controlled Wind Turbines.
 Stall Controlled Wind Turbines:
1. Passive Stall Controlled Wind Turbines.
2. Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines.
Aerodynamics of
Wind Turbines
Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines
Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines
Airfoil and Angle of Attack
Angle of Attack in Airplanes
Rotation of Wind Turbines
Types of Airfoils
Effect of Angle of Attack
Pitch Angle
Wind Turbine Blade Failure
 Inappropriate design of blades.
 Selection of inappropriate materials.
 The blade failure occurs due to exposure to different
stresses during operation of the wind turbine.
 If these stresses weren’t taken into consideration, this will
lead to damage of blades and wasting the wind turbine
cost.
 Some common reasons are damage to the blades caused
by bird strikes, lightning strikes, rainfall, blade furniture
detachment, delamination, leading-edge corrosion or
blade cracks.
Pitch Controlled
Wind Turbines
Pitch Controlled Wind Turbines
 Pitch control is the technology used to operate and control the
angle of the blades in a wind turbine.
 On a pitch-controlled wind turbine the turbine's electronic
controller checks the power output of the turbine several times
per second.
 When the power output becomes too high, it sends an order to
the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns)
the rotor blades slightly out of the wind. Conversely, the blades
are turned back into the wind whenever the wind drops again.
 During normal operation, the blades will pitch a fraction of a
degree at a time - and the rotor will be turning at the same time.
 On a pitch-controlled wind turbine, the computer will generally
pitch the blades a few degrees every time the wind changes in
order to keep the rotor blades at the optimum angle in order to
maximize output for all wind speeds.
 The pitch mechanism is usually operated using electric motors
and gears, or hydraulic cylinders and a power supply system.
Pitch Controlled Wind Turbines
Control System
 The pitch system is a closed loop drive
system.
 The turbine main controller calculates
the required pitch angle from a set of
conditions, such as wind speed,
generator speed and power production.
 The required pitch angle is transferred to
the pitch system as a set point.
 If the actual angle is NOT the same as
the set point, the system will direct
power to the electric motor or fluid to the
cylinder in order to make the actuator
move the blade to the required angle.
 This mechanism is desirable in case of
the variable speed wind turbines.
 Fast blade angle control is necessary in
this case.
Control System
Control System
Control System
Control System
Control System
 Passive Stall
Controlled Wind
Turbines
Passive Stall Controlled Wind Turbines
Passive Stall Controlled Wind Turbines
 Passive stall-controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades
bolted onto the hub at a fixed pitch angle.
 The geometry of the rotor blade profile, however, has been
aerodynamically designed to ensure that the moment the
wind speed becomes too high, it creates turbulence on the
side of the rotor blade which is not facing the wind.
 This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from
acting on the rotor.
 As the actual wind speed in the area increases, the angle of
attack of the rotor blade will increase, until at some point it
starts to stall.
 The basic advantage of stall control is that one avoids
moving parts in the rotor itself, and a complex control
system.
 On the other hand, stall control is a very complex
aerodynamic design problem, and related design challenges
in the structural dynamics of the whole wind turbine, e.g. to
avoid stall-induced vibrations.
 Around two thirds of the wind turbines currently being
installed in the world are stall controlled machines.
Passive Stall Controlled Wind Turbines
 Active Stall
Controlled Wind
Turbines
Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines
 Larger number of wind turbines (1 MW and up) are being developed with an active stall power control mechanism.
 The active stall machines resemble pitch-controlled machines, since they have pitchable blades.
 In order to get a reasonably large torque (turning force) at low wind speeds, the machines will usually be programmed
to pitch their blades much like a pitch-controlled machine at low wind speeds.
 When the machine reaches its rated power , however, you will notice an important difference from the pitch-controlled
machines: If the generator is about to be overloaded, the machine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction from
what a pitch-controlled machine does.
 In other words, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in order to make the blades go into a deeper stall,
thus wasting the excess energy in the wind.
Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines
 One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the power output more accurately than with passive stall, to avoid
overshooting the rated power of the machine at the beginning of a gust of wind.
 Another advantage is that the machine can be run almost exactly at rated power at all high wind speeds.
 A normal passive stall-controlled wind turbine will usually have a drop in the electrical power output for higher wind speeds,
as the rotor blades go into deeper stall.
 This type is used with fixed speed wind turbines.
 Slow blade angle control is sufficient.
Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines
Quick Comparison
 Maximum Power
Point Tracking Wind
Turbines (MPPT)
Maximum Power Point Tracking Wind Turbines (MPPT)

 The amount of power output from a wind energy

conversion system (WECS) depends upon the accuracy
with which the peak power points are tracked by the
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controller of
the WECS control system irrespective of the type of
generator used.
 MPPT controllers are used for extracting maximum
power from the WECS like permanent magnet
synchronous generators (PMSG), squirrel cage
induction generators (SCIG) and doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG).
 These controllers can be classified into three main
control methods:
 Tip speed ratio (TSR) control, power signal feedback
(PSF) control and hill-climb search (HCS) control.
Maximum Power Point Tracking Wind Turbines (MPPT)
Maximum Power Point Tracking Wind Turbines (MPPT)
Maximum Power Point Tracking Wind Turbines (MPPT)
Maximum Power Point Tracking Wind Turbines (MPPT)
Tip Speed Ratio
(TSR) Control
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) Control
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) Control

 The TSR control method regulates the rotational speed of the generator in order to maintain the TSR to an optimum
value at which power extracted is maximum.
 The optimal TSR for a given wind turbine is constant regardless of the wind speed.
 This method requires both the wind speed and the turbine speed to be measured or estimated in addition to requiring the
knowledge of optimum TSR of the turbine for the system to be able extract maximum possible power.
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) Control
Generator Side Control
Grid Side Control
Estimation of Wind Speed
Optimal Torque
Control (OT)
MPPT Algorithm
Optimal Torque Control (OT) MPPT Algorithm
 The approach for the OT MPPT algorithm involves
the regulation of generator torque by using the
optimal torque curve for multiple wind speeds.
 The efficiency of the WT is dependent and defined
by the optimum value of the constants of the turbine,
which emphasizes the need for experimental
validation.
 The benefits of this technique are greater efficiency,
simplicity, and high tracking speed, but it suffers
from the issues of dependency on the climatic
conditions and the requirement of knowledge of the
characteristics of the WT.
Optimal Torque Control (OT) MPPT Algorithm
 Power Signal
Feedback (PSF)
Control
Power Signal Feedback (PSF) Control
 Perturbation and
Observation (P&O)
or Hill-Climb
Searching (HCS)
Perturbation and Observation (P&O) or Hill-Climb Searching
(HCS)
Perturbation and Observation (P&O) or Hill-Climb Searching
(HCS)
Perturbation and Observation (P&O) or Hill-Climb Searching
(HCS)
 Electricity
Generation Using
Wind Turbines
 Electrical Generator
 For small scale power generation, DC machines, synchronous
machines and squirrel-cage induction machines have been used.
 For medium and large wind turbines, the doubly-fed induction
generator (DFIG) is currently the dominant technology.
 For the switched reluctance (SR) and high temperature
superconducting (HTS) generators are all extensively researched
and developed over the years.
 PMSG and WRSG
in Wind Turbines
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
 Permanent magnets are typically used in low power, low-cost synchronous generators.
 In a permanent magnet synchronous generator ( PMSG ), the excitation field is created using permanent magnets in the rotor.
 The permanent magnets can be mounted on the surface of the rotor, embedded into the surface or installed inside the rotor.
 The air gap between the stator and rotor is reduced for maximum efficiency and to minimize the amount of rare earth magnet
material needed.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
 For low-speed direct drive wind turbine generators, the permanent magnet generator is more competitive because it can have
higher pole number of 60 or more poles compared to a conventional wound rotor synchronous generator.
 The PMSG is connected directly to the wind turbine without gearbox, this means lower power generation compared to other
types.
 The AC/DC converters in synchronous generators convey 100% of the nominal generator output power.
 Also, the excitation implementation with permanent magnets is simpler, more durable but does not allow control of excitation
or reactive power.
Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG)
 Doubly-Fed
Induction
Generator (DFIG)
 DFIG
 Most doubly-fed induction generators in industry today are used to generate electrical power in large (power-utility scale)
wind turbines.
 The DFIG is an induction machine with a wound rotor where the rotor and stator are both connected to electrical sources,
hence the term ‘doubly-fed’.
 The stator circuit is directly connected to the grid while the rotor winding is connected via slip-rings to a three-phase
converter.
DFIG
 DFIG
 An AC-DC-AC converter is included in the induction generator rotor circuit. This converter needs to handle a fraction of the
total power (about 30% of generator power)
 The rotor has 3 phase windings that are energized with 3-phase currents that establish the rotor magnetic field.
 The rotor magnetic field interacts with the stator magnetic field to develop torque.
 The magnitude of the torque depends on the strength of the two fields (the stator field and the rotor field) and the angular
displacement between the two fields.
DFIG
 DFIG – Maintaining Constant Frequency - Synchronization
 Doubly-fed induction generators produces three phase voltages with a constant frequency, no matter the generator rotor
speed (and thus, no matter the wind speed).
 To achieve this purpose, the frequency of the ac currents fed into the rotor windings of the doubly-fed induction
generator must be continually adjusted to counteract any variation in the rotor speed caused by fluctuations of the
mechanical power provided by the prime mover driving the generator.
 DFIG – Maintaining Constant Voltage - Synchronization
 To maintain the voltage produced at the stator equal
to the ac power network voltage, a specific magnetic
flux value must be maintained in the machine (more
precisely at the stator windings).
 This can be achieved by applying a voltage to the
generator rotor windings that is proportional to the
frequency of the voltages applied to the rotor
windings (this maintains the v⁄f ratio constant and
ensures a constant magnetic flux value in the
machine).
 The value of the v⁄f ratio is generally set so that the
reactive power at the stator is equal to zero.
 This is like the common practice used with
conventional (singly-fed) synchronous generators
where the exciter current (dc current in the rotor) is
adjusted to zero the reactive power at the stator.
DFIG Control System
DFIG - Advantages
 Operation at variable rotor speed while the amplitude and frequency of the generated voltages remain constant.
 Optimization of the amount of power generated as a function of the wind available up to the nominal output power of the
wind turbine generator.
 Virtual elimination of sudden variations in the rotor torque and generator output power.
 Generation of electrical power at lower wind speeds.
 Control of the power factor (e.g., in order to maintain the power factor at unity).
 DFIG - Disadvantages
 The doubly-fed induction generator requires complex power conversion circuitry which the asynchronous
generator does not need.
 Also, the slip rings on the wound-rotor induction machine used to implement the doubly fed induction generator
require periodic maintenance while no such rings are required on the rotor of the squirrel-cage induction machine
used to implement the asynchronous generator.
 Brushless
Permanent Magnet
DC Generator
(PMDC)
Separately Excited DC Generator

 One of the main disadvantages of these DC generators, is that these machines have commutating brushes that carry the full
output current of the generator, so DC machines used as generators require regular maintenance as the carbon brushes used to
extract the generated current quickly wear out and produce a lot of electrically conductive carbon dust inside the machine.
Brushless Permanent Magnet DC Generator (PMDC)
 The brushless permanent magnet DC generator is a good choice for small scale wind turbine systems.
 They are reliable, operate at low rotational speeds and provide good efficiency especially in light wind conditions as their cut-
in point is low.
 The most common type of DC generators for wind turbines and small-scale wind turbine systems used to charge batteries.
 In this device the rotor windings have been replaced with permanent magnets.
 These devices do not require a separate DC supply for the excitation circuit or do they have slip rings and contact brushes.
 Another major advantage is that these machines does not require any specific work environment and hence can be used in
wind and water machines.
Brushless Permanent Magnet DC Generator (PMDC)
SCIG and WRIG in
Wind Turbines
Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator
 Variation in rotor speed is ordinarily very low (roughly 1 to 2 percent); therefore, this WECS is known as constant or fixed
speed WECS.
 Constant or fixed speed-controlled wind turbine using asynchronous squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) directly
connected to the electric grid using a step-up power transformer.
 Since the squirrel cage induction generator always draws reactive power from the AC network, this concept requires a
reactive power compensator, such as a capacitor bank, in order to reduce or even eliminate the reactive power demand from
these turbine generators to the grid.
 It is typically achieved by continuously switching capacitor banks according to the active power generated.
Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator
 In a fixed speed machine, the wind fluctuations are converted into mechanical fluctuations and further into electrical power
fluctuations.
 These can cause voltage fluctuations at the PCC of the wind turbine to the electric grid when the network is weak.
 Because of these voltage fluctuations, the fixed speed wind turbine draws fluctuating reactive power from the utility grid (in
the case of no use of capacitor bank), which increases both the voltage fluctuations and the line losses.
 Fixed speed systems have the advantage of simplicity and low cost.
 The main drawbacks of this concept include the inability of supporting speed control, the requirement of a stiff grid and the
necessity of a robust mechanical structure in order to support the high mechanical stress caused by wind gusts.
Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator
Wound Rotor Induction Generator
 Partial variable speed-controlled wind turbine with variable generator rotor resistance is known as a wound rotor induction
generator (WRIG) and has been used since the mid-nineties.
 In this case, the configuration is analogous to the fixed wind turbine concept, with a generator directly connected to the
electric grid.
 The rotor windings of the generator are connected in series with a controlled resistance, whose size defines the range of the
variable speed (typically 0-10% above the synchronous speed), which is changed by a controlled converter mounted on the
rotor shaft.
Wound Rotor Induction Generator
 A capacitor bank performs reactive power compensation, and a smoother grid connection is obtained by including a soft
starter.
 By varying the rotor resistance, the slip and thus the power output of the wind turbine can be controlled.
Wound Rotor Induction Generator
Quick Comparison
Different Types of
Towers
Different Types of Wind Turbine Towers
 Wind turbine tower is a key part of a complete wind turbine.
 Due to its huge size, the wind farm investors must pay special attention to the tower selection.
 From its material and appearance, there are 3 main types of wind turbine tower on the market.
 They are the tubular steel wind turbine tower, the lattice tower, and the concrete tower.
Tubular Steel Wind Turbine Tower
 The steel wind turbine tower is the most commonly seen tower
types in the world.
 Most large tubular steel wind turbines rely on steel for its towers,
manufactured in sections of 20 to 40 meters.
 Each section has flanges at either end.
 Workers bolt these sections together on site.
 Tubular steel towers are conical, with their diameter increasing
toward the base.
 This increases the tower’s strength and saves materials.
Advantages of Tubular Steel Wind Turbine Tower
 The advantage of steel in this tower is to provide a strong enough
base to support the height and the heavy weight of the turbine.
 Steel is also a flexible enough material to allow for the conical
shape of a tubular steel tower without breaking or resisting
pressure.
 Because it’s made from rolled steel plate, the tower is robust.
 Because of its closed structure, the internal parts are well
protected.
 The installation takes only 1-2 days to finish.
Disadvantages of Tubular Steel Wind Turbine Tower
 Due to its size, the steel wind tower requires a large and tall
factory to manufacture.
 High skill requirement to the manufacturing engineers, especially
the welding level and deformation control.
 The transportation is hard, and the cost is high. The transportation
is limited to the vehicle size and the road condition.
 The corrosion resistance can be expensive. Due to its size, you
can only add antirust cost and paint coat by spraying. In most
cases, this job is done manually, increasing the cost further.
 The installation can be painful. Apparently, you need a very big
crane which can carry at least 100 tons.
 The wind area is huge and so is the wind resistance. It needs extra
consideration during project design.
Lattice Wind Turbine Tower
 The lattice wind turbine tower is made from hundreds of steel material.
 It looks just like the traditional telecommunication tower.
 That’s also the reason why some of the lattice tower manufacturers are
also manufacturing electric transmission tower.
 They have the experience to make sure the quality is stable.
Advantages of Lattice Wind Turbine Tower
 Lattice towers provide the advantage of a smaller cost investment
compared to others.
 They use about half as much material as tubular towers and still provides
similar stiffness and reliability as tubular towers.
 Lattice towers allow wind to pass through the base and tower sections,
decreasing the pressure and resistance on the structure.
 Less welding job needed.
 The design is more flexible. By changing the steel material and by
enlarging the space, different lattice wind turbine tower can be produced
to meet different needs.
 The transportation is easier. The cost is lower.
 Hot-dip galvanizing corrosion resistance can be performed for a longer
function period, usually 30-50 years.
Disadvantages of Lattice Wind Turbine Tower
 One disadvantage according to some people is the appearance of lattice towers.
 Several complaints have led to a marketed decrease in the use of lattice towers for
modern wind turbines.
 The parts are many.
 The quantities shall be confirmed before delivery.
 The cabling and other supporting mechanism need extra protection.
Concrete Wind Turbine Tower
 In wind turbine construction, large precast concrete
parts are usually delivered to the construction site. the
precast concrete wind turbine tower is also
manufactured in sections.
 These are then assembled into a tower and then fixed to
one another.
Advantages of Concrete Wind Turbine Tower
 Large carrying capacity. The concrete structure allows
the tower to bear larger turbine and blades.
 The length of each concrete section is no longer than
4m, suitable for more roads for transportation.
 There are no fastening parts, the repair and maintenance
cost is reduced largely.
Disadvantages of Concrete Wind Turbine Tower
 Lack of tensile strength.
 This method is quite fast, but the costs associated with
the special transportation of large precast parts can
often be high.
Hybrid Wind Turbine Tower
 Steel and concrete hybrid towers are ideal for taller
turbines, as they bring the best of both materials.
 Taller towers do not need as great a diameter, reducing
the number of trees that must be cut down.
 Many experts in the industry believe that concrete-steel
hybrids are the future.
 Concrete bottom sections with tubular steel upper
sections can deliver the greatest height and stability.
 Steel provides effective protection from corrosion, a
strong and reliable way to seal towers, and a solution to
building taller and more-efficient wind turbines.
Brakes in Wind
Turbine
Brakes in Wind Turbine
 Brakes are mechanical devices designed to slow down
or stop a machine.
 Brakes are used to prevent the machine from moving
after being stopped.
 The types of wind turbine brake systems are yaw brakes
, rotor brakes, and pitch drives.
 A wind turbine yaw brake is located on the yaw-system.
 It smoothly controls and positions the nacelle as it
rotates with the wind to maximize power.
Rotor Brakes
 Rotor brakes control overspeed and provide parking and
emergency braking.
 These brakes can mount on the rotor (low-speed shaft) on
the generator (high-speed shaft), and both shafts in some
cases.
 Low-speed-shaft braking is relatively straightforward in
that a large disc brake with a large friction lining area is
easy to accommodate.
 The drawback is that the brake must generate a high-
braking torque.
 Generally, the most cost-effective position is on the high-
speed shaft between a gearbox and generator.
 The increased ratios of wind-turbine gearboxes produce a
large reduction in output torque.
Pitch Drive or Aerodynamic Brakes
 The primary braking system for most modern wind
turbines is the aerodynamic braking system, which
essentially consists in turning the rotor blades about 90
degrees along their longitudinal axis.
 When angle becomes 0 degrees, the blade profile is parallel
to wind flow direction.
 This zero-degree position of rotor blade is Aerodynamic
braking position.
 Pitch system in wind turbine rotate the blades from 0
degrees to 90 degrees. The angle of pitch increases by
turning the blades to be parallel to the airflow.
 Blade pitch control is a feature of nearly all large modern
horizontal-axis wind turbines. While operating, a wind
turbine's control system adjusts the blade pitch to keep the
rotor speed within operating limits as the wind speed
changes.
Example Using
ETAP
Quick Example on Wind Design
 Average energy required per month = 100 MWh/month.
 Average energy required per day = 100/30 = 3.33 MWh/day.
 Operation for 15 hours per day.
 Power required by the wind turbine = 3.33/15 = 0.222 MW.
 Density of air = 1.225 kg/m3, total power coefficient = 0.4, average wind speed = 15 m/s.
1
 Average output power from the wind turbine = 2 ρ A 𝑉 3 𝐶𝑝 = 0.222 MW.

 From the previous equation, the swept area = 268.48 m2.

 A = Pi*R^2.
 Radius = 9.2 m, D = 18.4 m.
MATLAB Simulink
Turbine Model in MATLAB
Cp Model and Lookup Table in MATLAB
MPPT Simulink
MPPT in Simulink
 First, we take the mechanical speed and
the optimum tip speed ratio (at the given
pitch angle) and obtain the estimated
wind velocity.
 The velocity of wind with the maximum
Cp will give us the maximum power of
the turbine.
 From this maximum power, we will get
the required turbine speed and the
torque of the generator required.
 Using this torque, we will be able to
change the speed of the generator to get
the maximum power.
 Tip speed ratio optimum at pitch angle
of 2 degrees will be equal to 10.
 The Cpmax at this value of pitch angle
will be equal to 0.39.
MPPT in Simulink