Lesson 2: Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology

INTRODUCTION

This lesson tackles how social contexts shaped and were shaped by science and technology
across three historical periods. By introducing the historical antecedents of science and
technology, the lesson explores the dynamic interactions between different societal factors and
technology. Along with the discussion of these antecedents during the ancient period, middle
ages, and modern ages, this section also includes a discussion on important Philippine inventions
and innovations. It emphasizes the various social, cultural, economic, and political impacts of
science and technological innovation throughout history.

Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss the historical antecedents of science and technology across time; and
2. Explain how Philippine scientific and technological inventions shaped and were shaped
by various social contexts.

TOPIC OUTLINE

1. Historical antecedents of science and technology.

2. Dynamic interactions between different societal factors and technology.
3. Philippine inventions and innovations.

LESSON CONTENT

One of the key interests of STS as an academic field is the history of science and
technology. As a strands of STS, the history of science and technology focuses on how science and
technology have changed across times. Also, it explores the impacts of scientific and technological
innovations on the prevailing social, political, and economic contexts throughout history.
Conversely, it also pays attention to the conditions that shaped science and technology. Quite
often, interests lie in historical antecedents of scientific and technological innovations.

An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Thus,

historical antecedents in science and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence
of advanced and sophisticated scientific and technological innovations today. Knowledge of the
history of science and technology is useful in appraising these innovations today. By
understanding how previous generations influenced and were influenced by developments in
science and technology, today’s generation can come up with informed decisions on the proper
application of science and technology to daily life.

Ancient Period
The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances in science and technology.
These advances during the Ancient period allowed civilizations to flourish by finding better ways
of communication, transportation, self-organization, and of living in general.
 Figure 1: Ancient Wheel Figure2: Potter’s Wheel
Ancient Wheel. People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long
before the invention of the wheel. No one know exactly who invented the wheel and when. There
is, however a general agreement that the ancient wheel grew out of a mechanical device called the
potter’s wheel---a heavy flat disk made of hardened clay which was spun horizontally on an axis.
It is believed that the Sumerians invented the potter’s wheel shortly after 3500 BC. The invention
of the ancient wheel is often credited to the Sumerians since no other ancient civilization used a
similar device at the time. It could be that potter thought of shifting the potter’s wheel to a 90-
degree angle for the purpose of transportation or the wheel was reinvented for this purpose.
Nonetheless, it would not be until 1000 to 1500 years later that the wheel was first used on carts.

Paper. Roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians began writing on papyrus, a
material similar to thick paper. Papyrus is made from the pith
of the papyrus plant cyperus papyrus. It is lightweight,
strong, durable, and most importantly, portable. Before the
Egyptians invented the papyrus, writing was done on stone.
Because of the difficulty of writing on a stone, writing was
reserved only for very important occasions. With the advent
of the papyrus, documentation and record-keeping became
efficient, widespread, and vast. Through its use, information
dissemination became exponentially faster. Records were
kept and stood the test of time.

Figure 3: The Edwin Smith Papyrus

Shadoof. The shadoof was an early tool invented and used by ancient
Egyptians to irrigate land. Among Egyptians who lived near the Nile
River, irrigation was necessary to water their crops. The shadoof, also
spelled as shaduf, is a hand-operated device used for lifting water. Its
invention introduced the idea of lifting things using counterweights.
Because of this invention, irrigation and farming became much more
efficient. The shadoof is also believed to be an ancient precursor of more
sophisticated irrigation tools.

Figure 4: Shadoof
 Antikythera Mechanism. Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern
computer, the Greeks had already invented the ancient world’s analog computer orrery.
Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the waters of Antikythera, Greece, the Antikythera
mechanism is similar to a mantel clock. Upon its discovery, the bits of wood seen on its fragments
suggested that it must have been housed in a wooden case. It is akin
to a clock in the way that the case has a circular face and rotating
hands. A knob on the side makes it possible for it to be wound
forward or backward. As this knob moves forward or backward, its
mechanism allows it to display celestial time. Thus, it is widely
believed that the Antikythera mechanism was used to predict
astronomical positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological
purposes. It is also believed that the Antikythera mechanism, which
is one of the oldest known antecedents of modern clockwork, was
invented by Greek scientists between 150-100 BC.
Figure 5: A fragment of the Antikythera mechanism

Aeolipile. Also known as the Hero’s engine, the aeolipile is widely

believed to be ancient precursor of the steam engine. Hero of Alexandria
is credited for the demonstration of the use of the aeolipile during the 1 st
century AD. The aeolipile is a steam-powered turbine which spun when
the water container at its center was heated, thus making it practically the
first rudimentary steam engine. It is not clear whether the aeolipile served
any practical purpose, but it is believed to be one of many “temple
wonders” at the time. Nonetheless, Vitruvius, a Roman author, architect,
and civil engineer, described the aeolipile as a scientific invention through
which “the mighty and wonderful laws of the heavens and the nature of
winds” may be understood and judged.

Figure 6: An illustration of Hero’s engine

Middle Ages
Between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5 th century AD and the colonial expansion
of Western Europe in late 5th century AD major advances in scientific and technological
development took place. These include steady increase of new inventions, introduction of
innovations in traditional production, and emergence of scientific thinking and method. The
Middle Ages was not as stagnant as alternate terms such as the ‘Medieval Period’ or ‘Dark Ages’
suggest. In fact many medieval universities at the time stirred scientific thinking and built
infrastructures for scientific communities to flourish. As such, some of humanity’s most
important present-day technologies could be traced back to their historical antecedents in the
Middle Ages.

Heavy Plough. Perhaps one of the most important technological innovations during the middle
ages is the invention of the heavy plough. Clay soil, despite being
more fertile than lighter types of soil, was not cultivated because of
its heavy weight. However, through the invention of the heavy
plough, it became possible to harness clay soil. Professor Thomas
Bernebeck Andersen of the University of Southern Denmark
succinctly describes the impact of the invention of the heavy
plough: “The heavy plough turned European agriculture and
economy on its head. Suddenly, the fields with the heavy, fatty, and
moist clay soils became those that gave the greatest yields.” Because of this, Europe, particularly
its northern territories, saw rapid economic prosperity. The heavy plough stirred an agricultural
revolution in Northern Europe marked by higher and healthier agricultural yields and more
efficient agricultural practices. Figure 7: An
impression of the heavy plough

Gunpowder. Around 850 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally invented black powder or
gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that the gunpowder might have been an intended
byproduct of attempts made by the Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is why the Chinese
called it huayao, roughly translated as “fire potion.” Prior to invention of the gunpowder, swords
and spear wear used in battles and wars. Towards the end of the
13th century, the explosive invention crept into most parts of
Europe and Asia. Since its invention, the gunpowder has allowed
for more advanced warfare. From fiery arrows to cannons and
grenades, the gunpowder has prompted foundation for the
functionality of almost every new weapon used in war since its
invention. It ushered in an unprecedented advancement in
warfare and combat throughout the Middle Ages.

Figure 8: Illustration of a Chinese warrior

using gunpowder in weapons

Paper Money. Although it was not until the 17th century that bank notes began to be used in
Europe, the first known versions of paper money could be traced back to the Chines in 17 th century
AD as an offshoot of the invention of block printing, which is similar to stamping. Before the
introduction of paper money, precious metals, such as gold and silver were used as currency.
However, the idea of assigning value to a marked piece of
paper did not immediately become popular. In fact, when the
Mongols attempted to introduce paper money into the Middle
East market in the 13th century, it did not gain immediate
success. Nonetheless, traders and merchants eventually
realized the huge advantage of using paper money because it
was easier to transport around compared to the previous forms
of currencies. Figure 9: The Chinese are credited for
the invention of paper money

Mechanical Clock. Although devices for timekeeping and

recording sprung from the ancient times, such as the Artikythera
mechanism, it was not until the Middle Ages that clockwork
technology was developed. The development of mechanical clocks
paved the way for accurately keeping track of time. The
sophistication of clockwork technology of the mechanical clock
drastically changed the way days were spent and work patterns
were established, particularly in the more advanced Middle Age
cities. Figure 10: A medieval mechanical clock
found in Pague, Czech Republic
Spinning Wheel. Another important invention of the Middle Ages is
the spinning wheel, a machine used for transporting fiber into thread or
yarn and eventually woven into cloth on a loom. Although no consensus
could be made regarding the origin of the spinning wheel, it is theorized
that the Indians invented the spinning wheel between 6 th and 11th
century AD. Prior to the invention of the spinning wheel, weaving was
done predominantly through the more time-consuming and tedious
process of hand spinning. According to White (1974), the invention of
the spinning wheel sped up the rate at which fiber could be spun by a
factor of 10 to 100 times. Thus, White argued that this invention
ushered in a breakthrough in linen production when it was introduce in
Europe in 13th century AD. Figure 11: Spinning Wheel

Modern Ages
As the world population steadily increased, people of the Modern Ages realized the utmost
importance of increasing the efficiency of transportation, communication, and production.
Industrialization took place with greater risks in human health, food safety, and environment
which had to be addressed as scientific and technological progress unfolded at an unimaginable
speed.

Compound Microscope. A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Jansen is credited for the
invention of the first compound microscope in 1590. Together with his father Hans, Zacharias
began experimenting with lenses by putting together several
lenses on a tube. This led to an amazing discovery that an object,
when placed near the end of the tube, can be magnified far larger
than what a simple magnifying lens can do. Jansen’s compound
microscope was an important progression from the single lens
microscope. It was capable of magnifying objects three times
their size when fully closed and up to ten times when extended to
the maximum. Today, the compound microscope is an important
instrument in many scientific studies, such as in the areas of
medicine, forensic studies, tissue analysis, atomic studies, and
genetics. Figure 12: Jansen’s compound microscope
Telescope. Perhaps the single, most important technological invention in the study of astronomy
during the Modern Ages was the practical telescope invented by Galileo Galilei. This invention
could magnify object 20 times larger than the Dutch perspective glasses.it was Galileo who first
used the telescope skyward and made important astronomical discoveries, and identified the
presence of craters and mountains on the moon. Galileo’s remarkable technological contribution
drastically changed the study of astronomy. For the first time, it became clearlarger than the
Dutch perspective glasses.it was Galileo who first used the
telescope skyward and made important astronomical
discoveries, and identified the presence of craters and
mountains on the moon. Galileo’s remarkable
technological contribution drastically changed the study
of astronomy. For the first time, it became clear that the
universe is far larger than previously imagined and the
Earth far smaller compared to the entire universe. Figure 13: One of Galileo’s first telescope
Jacquard Loom. As the Industrial Revolution reached full speed, the
Jacquard loom was considered as one of the most critical drivers of the
revolution. Built by French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard, the
Jacquard loom, a drawloom was used which required two individuals to
operate---the weaver and a “drawboy”---if figured designs on textiles
were needed. As such, intensified manual labor and greater effort had
to be exerted to produce complex designs. In 1801, Jacquard
demonstrated the ingenuity of his version of a loom in which a series of
cards with punched holes automatically created complex textile designs
and made mass production easier. The jacquard loom is also an
important antecedent of modern computer technology as it
demonstrated the use of punched cards to instruct a machine to carry
out complex tasks, i.e., making different textile patterns.
Figure 14: Jacquard loom

Engine-Powered Airplane. Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are credited for designing and
successfully operating the first engine-powered aircraft. The Wright brothers approached the
design of powered aircraft and flight scientifically. Orville and
Wilbur proved that aircrafts could fly without air-foil shaped
wings. They demonstrated this in their original Flying
machine patent (US patent #821393), showing that slightly
tilted wings, which they referred to as aeroplanes, were the
key features of a powered aircraft. Their pioneering success
marked an age of powered flights. Sans modern knowledge
on aerodynamics and a comprehensive understanding of the
working of aircraft wings, the Wright brothers were brilliant
scientists who paved the way for modern aircraft technology.
Figure 15. The flight of the Flying Machine of
Orville and Wilbur Wright
Television. The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely credited for the invention of the
modern television. Bird successfully televised objects in outline in 1924, recognizable human faces
in 1925, and moving object in 1926, and projected colored
images in 1928. Baird’s television technology caught on
really swiftly. In fact, British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) used this for its earliest television programming in
1929. Despite being the first television invented, Baird’s
television was later on criticized for its fuzzy and flickering
images, primarily because it was mechanical compared to
electronic versions that were developed much later.
Figure 16: Baird’s television

Inventions by Filipino Scientists

The Philippines boasts of, its own history and tradition of scientific and technological
innovations. Filipinos have long been known for their ingenuity. As with all other inventions,
necessity has always been the mother of Philippine inventions. Most of these inventions appealed
to the unique social and cultural context of the archipelagic nation. Throughout Philippine
history, Filipinos are responsible for developing many scientific and technological innovations
focused on navigation, traditional shipbuilding, textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and
techniques, and even cultural inventions. The following are some of the most important
inventions by Filipino scientists.
Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney). The jeepney is perhaps one of the most recognizable national
symbols of the Philippines and the most popular mode of public transportation in the country. It
is also perhaps one of the most enduring symbols of Filipino ingenuity. Jeepneys were designed
and improvised from scratch out of military jeeps that the
American left in the country after World War II. As demand for
more responsive transportation technology arose, the e-jeepney
was introduced in Metro Manila and Bacolod City. The e-jeepney
is the inventive response to criticisms to the traditional jeepney
that belched smoke, directly causing air pollution which made it
unsustainable and uneconomical. E-jeepneys are designed to be
environment-friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution as they
run on electricity. They are also more economical for electricity is
far cheaper than ordinary diesel, allowing jeepney drivers to earn
more profit. Figure 17: E-jeepney

Erythromycin. Perhaps one of the most important

medical inventions is the Erythromycin. The Ilonggo
scientist Abelardo Aguilar invented this antibiotic out of a
strain of bacterium called Streptomyces erythreus, from
which this drug derived its name. As with the case of several
other local scientists, however, Aguilar was not credited for
this discovery by Eli Lilli Co., Aguilar’s US employer, to
whom he sent the strain for separation. The US Company
eventually owned the merits for this discovery.
Figure 18: Abelardo Aguilar and his Erythromycin
Medical Incubator. World-renowned Filipino pediatrician and national scientist, Fe Del
Mundo, is credited for the invention of the incubator and jaundice relieving device. Del Mundo
was the first women pediatrician to be admitted to the prestigious Harvard University’s School of
Medicine. She is also the founder of the first pediatric hospital in the country. Her pioneering
work in pediatrics that spanned a total of eight decades won her the 1977 Ramon Magsaysay
Award, Asia’s premier prize granted to outstanding individuals whose selfless service remarkably
contributed to the betterment of society. Her original improvised incubator consisted of two
native laundry baskets of different sizes that are placed one inside the other. Warmth is generated
by bottles with hot water placed around the
baskets. A makeshift hood over the baskets allows
oxygen to circulate inside the incubator. Del
Mundo’s incubator was particularly outstanding
as it addressed the state of Philippine rural
communities that had no electricity to aid the
regulation of body temperatures of newborn
babies. For this purpose, Del Mundo’s invention
was truly ingenious. Figure 19: Dr. Fe Del Mundo and the medical incubator
Mole Remover. In 2000, a local invention that had the ability to easily remove moles and warts
on the skin without the need for any surgical procedure shot to
fame. Rolando dela Cruz is credited for the invention of a local
mole remover that made use of extracts of cashew nuts
(Annacardium occidentale), which are very common in the
Philippines. The indigenous formula easily caught on for its
accessibility, affordability, and painless and scarless procedure.
Dela Cruz won a gold medal for this invention in the International
Invention, Innovation, Industrial Design, and Technology
Exhibition in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.
Figure 20: Rolando dela Cruz’s
commercial product – a mole remover
formula made of cashew nut extracts

Banana Ketchup. Filipino food technologist, Maria Orosa, is credited for

the invention of banana ketchup, a variety of ketchup different from the
common known tomato ketchup. Her invention appeals particularly to
Filipinos who love using condiments to go along with their food. Historical
accounts posit that Orosa invented the banana ketchup at the backdrop of
World War II when there was a huge shortage of tomatoes. As a result, Orosa
developed a variety of ketchup that made use of mashed banana, sugar,
vinegar, and spices, which were all readily available. Orosa’s banana ketchup
is brownish-yellow in natural color, but is dyed red to resemble the color of the
most loved tomato ketchup. Figure 21: Banana Ketchup also called “Banana Sauce”

Now that you have learned the Historical antecedents of science, technology and society,
it’s time for you to take the challenge!