Maths 4

Defence University; College of Engineering
CHAPTER 4
REAL SEQUENCES AND SERIES
Introduction
In your earlier mathematics courses you have discussed about the special type of
functions known as sequences whose domains are the sets of integers and whose ranges are the
set of real number. We use sequences in the study of series, which are sums of infinite collection
of numbers. In turn, series can be used to represent many differential functions which would be
discussed in Chapter 5. This chapter has two parts. The first part discusses about Real Sequences
and the second part will discusses about Real Series.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to

 know about sequences and series.
 state convergent and divergent sequences.
 identify bounded, unbounded and monotonic sequences.
 understand about convergent and divergent series.
 apply different convergent and divergent theorems to test the convergence or
divergence of an infinite series.
4.1 Real Sequences
In mathematics, the word “sequence” is used in much the same way as in ordinary
English. To say that a collection of objects is in sequence usually means that the collection is
ordered so that it has an identified first member, second member, third member, and so on.
Objectives
At the end of this section you will be able to
 define a sequence
 list the terms of a sequence.
 determine whether a sequence converges or diverges.
 identify bounded and unbounded sequence.
 identify monotonic sequence.
Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 324
4.1.1 Sequences; Convergent Sequences
Definition 4.1.1 A sequence is a function whose domain is the collection of all integers
greater than or equal to a given integer (usually 0 or 1).
Although a sequence is a function, it is common to represent a sequence by subscript notation

rather than by the standard function notation. Thus, a sequence is a set of numbers written in a
definite order
and the entire sequence is denoted by .

In the sequence , the numbers are called the first term ,
the second term , the third term, . . . , respectively.
If , then the sequence has terms
Terminology: For a sequence ,
i) is called the index for the sequence.
ii) is called the initial index of the sequence.
iii) , for any , is called the general term of the sequence.
Note that a sequence does not depend up on the symbol used for the index.
For example, and are the same sequences.
Examples 4.1.1 Write the first four terms of the following sequence
a) b)
c) d)
e) f)

Solution:
Table 4.1 Terms of sequences.

Sequences General Term The first Four Terms of the Sequence
A ,
B
, , ,
C
D , , ,
1
E a 2  1 , a3  1 , a 4  1 , a5  
1  1  1
2!
 31!  ...... +...
F , , ,
….+ 
1 
n ! n 0
+
Definition 4.1.2 (Formal Definition of Limit of a Sequence)

A number is called the limit of an infinite sequence {a n }nm if for any positive
number there exist a positive integer depending on such that a n  L   for all
integer n  N . In such a case we write
lim an  L
n
If such a number exists we say that {a n }nm converges (or converges to L) or lim an
n
exists. If such a number does not exist, we say that the sequence diverges or
lim an does not exist.
n  
Graphically, this definition says that eventually (for a sequence that converges to ) the sequence
will be with in that band between the lines , as shown in fig. 4.1
given below.

y =an
L+
L
n
1 2 3 4 5 6.... M......
Figure 4.1. For n > M, the terms of the sequence all lie with in  units of L.
Remark: If the limit of a sequence exists, then it is unique.
Example 4.1.2 Show that the sequence converges and that lim
n
Solution: We must show that for any   0 , there is a number such that
for all .
Now, .
Choose . Then 1   . It follows that

N
1
If . This show that lim 0
nn
Therefore, the sequence is convergent (or converges to 0)

For , then terms of the sequence all be with in units of . 
Note: The sequence is known as Harmonic Sequence.
3
Example 4.1.3 Using the definition of limit, show that the sequence converges to 4 .
Solution
Let be arbitrary.
3n  1 3  19 19 4(4 n  9)
     or  19
4n  5 4 4(4 n  9) 4(4 n  9) 19
Expressing n in terms of , we obtain

Now, choosing , we see that
3n  1 3  19 19 19
un  L      
4n  5 4 4(4n  5) 4(4n  5) 44 4  4  5  5
1 19
That is for all , so that lim and the proof is

n
complete. 
For example, if , then . This is to mean that all
3
terms of the sequence beyond the 1186th terms differ from by less than
4
Instead of the formal definition of limit of a sequence, in this chapter we may use the
intuitive definition which is stated as follow.
Definition 4.1.3 (Intuitive Definition of Limit of a Sequence)

Let L be a real number. Then a sequence has the limit , denoted by lim
n
if goes close to whenever is sufficiently large.
For example, consider the sequence . The first few terms are
Thus, here we can see that for sufficiently large values of , the terms becomes very
close to a fixed number that is lim

n
Therefore, the sequence is convergent and it converges to 0 .
Example 4.1.4 Find the limit of the sequence
Solution: - The nth term of the sequence is .

x
Let f ( x )   1  1  for x   , x  0
 x
Then for all ,
That is the sequence agrees with a function at every positive integer .

In your elementary calculus course, you have learnt that

x
 1
im f ( x)  im 1    e
x x  x
So, by Theorem 4.1.1, you can conclude that
n
 1
im an  im 1    e
n n n
Thus, the infinite series converges. 
Example 4.1.5 Show that the sequence diverges.
Solution: - Let
Then
lim x
x
Since im e  e
n
 e    , we conclude that lim e n  
x n
Therefore, the sequence diverges. 
Example 4.1.6 Show that lim

n
Solution For , the terms of the sequence are
Let for x  1 .
Using L’Hopital’s Rule to evaluate the limit of , we obtain
lim
x
This implies that lim . Thus the sequence diverges.

n
Theorem 4. 1.1 Limit of a Sequence
Let be a real number and a function defined on such that lim .

x
1. If is a sequence such that f (n)  an for every , then

converges and lim .
n
2. If lim f ( x)    or lim f ( x)    then a n nm diverges and


x  x ,
lim a n    or lim a n    .
n  n 

Exercises 4.1.1
In Exercises 1 – 8 , write the first four terms of the sequence.
1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.
7. , where
8. , where
In Exercises 9 – 12, using the definition 4.1.2, verify the equation

9. lim 11. lim =
n n
10. lim 12. lim

n n
13. Find the least positive integer such that if
a) b)
In Exercises 14 – 18, find a formula for the general term of the sequence, assuming that
the pattern of the first few terms continuous.
14. 17.
15.
18.
16.  2, 4  1
2 , 9  , 16  , ......
1
3
1
4
In Exercises 19-26, evaluate the limits of the sequence,
19. lim 23. lim

n n
20. lim 24. lim

n n
21. lim 25. lim

n n
22. lim 26. lim

n
n

In Exercises 27 –36, determine whether the sequence converges or diverges. If it converges,

find its limit.

27.  2n 1  3 
33.  n  2 
28.  3 n  0
34.
29.
35. ( 1) n  1n n  1

30.
36.
31.
32.
4.1.2 Convergent Properties of Sequences

The following properties of limits of sequences parallel those given for limits of functions of real
variable.
Theorem 4.1.2 Properties of Limits of Sequences

Let and be two sequences such that lim
n
1. lim
n
2. lim
n
3. lim
n
4. lim , for any c 

n
5. lim , where lim

n n
6. lim , for any exists.

n
7. lim , for any , if exists.

n

Remark: Let lim and lim

n n
1. If then lim does not exist.

n
2. If then lim = 0.
n
3. If then lim may or may not exist.

n
Example 4.1.7 Check whether the sequence converges or diverges.

Solution
Let the nth term be an  3  (1) n , for n  1 .
The terms of the sequence are that oscillate between and .
Therefore, lim does not exist. So the sequence diverges. 

n
Example 4.1.8 Show that the sequence whose term is converges.
Solution
Let f be a function of real variable x given by .
n2
Then, f (n)  n  an , for n  1 .
2 1
Now, applying L’Hopital’s Rule twice gives
x2
lim f ( x)  lim (has indeterminate form )
x x   2x 1
( x2 )'
 lim
x   ( 2 x  1) '
2x
 lim x
(has indeterminate form )
x   2 (n2)
2
 lim =0 
x 2 (n 2) 2
x
n2
This shows that lim 0
n   2n 1
.


 n2 
 n 
Therefore, the sequence  2  1 n 0 converges.
Example 4.1.9 Check whether the sequence converges or diverges.
If converge find the limit.
Solution
1
Let . Define the function f ( x)  x x for
Then,
1
x
lim f ( x )  lim x x  lim e n x
x x  x
1 n x n x
lim
n x x n x x x
 lim e  lim e  lim e x
e x 
-------------------- (i)
x x x
n x
Now, lim has an indeterminate form .
x x
Then applying L’Hopital’s Rule, we obtain

n x (n x) ' 1
lim  lim  lim  0 -------------------- (ii)
x x x   ( x )' x x
This implies that lim exists .

n
Combining (i) and (ii) we obtain

1
lim f ( x )  lim x = e 0 1
x
x x 
Therefore, by Theorem 4.1.1, converges and lim 

n
Example 4.1.10 Find lim .

n
Solution
Let .
Let .
Then .

lim .
x
 lim
x  x 1  x
.
 x 1  x
x 1 x 1  x
= lim
x
1 1
= lim = lim = (Since lim  0)
x x 2 x   x
1
Therefore, lim
n
n  n 1  n   2

Theorem 4.1.3 Squeezing Theorem for Sequences.

For three sequences , if lim
n
and there exists an integer such that for all , then lim cn  L .
n
Example 4.1.11 Show that lim

n
Solution
We know that
This implies that .
Since lim , By Squeezing Theorem, it follow that lim 

n n
Example 4.1.12 Show that the sequence converges and find the limit.
Solution
. Then
1
Let f ( x )  (ln x ) x , for x  3.
Then
lim
x

Now, lim
x
This implies that lim .

x
Therefore, converges and lim 

n
Example 4.1.13 Show that the sequence converges and find its limit.
Solution
To apply the Squeezing Theorem, you must find two convergent sequences that can be related to
the given sequence. Two possibilities are both which converges to 0.
We can see that
and
( )
This implies that Thus, we have
Since lim by Squeezing Theorem, We have lim

n n
Thus, the sequence converges. 
Theorem 4.1.4 For the sequence , if lim

n
, then lim
n
.
Example 4.1.14 Evaluate lim if it exists.

n
Solution
Since the signs of the terms of are alternating, we first calculate
lim . Then by Theorem 4.1.4; lim 

n n

Example 4.1.15 Using the Squeezing Theorem, show that the sequence , where
, converge to 0.
Solution
n!
Both and as , but here we have no corresponding function for an 
nn
To use L’Hopital’s Rule (since is not defined when is not an integer). Let’s write a
few terms to get a feeling for what happens to as .
Now, we write as
Because That is
This implies that
That is . We know that lim

n
Therefore, by Squeezing Theorem, lim

n
That is the sequence is convergent which converges to 0. 
Note: The sequence of the form for is called Geometric Sequence.
Example 4.1.16 For what values of r the sequence convergent? Divergent?
Solution
From your high school discussion of exponential function , you have learnt
that
Therefore, putting , we have lim

n
For the cases and , we have

lim
n
If , then , so

lim , and hence, by Theorem 4.5, lim

n n
If , then diverges (i.e lim )

n
If , then which diverges. 
Note that we have the same result for any initial index . Thus the results of
Example 4.1.16 are summarized as follow and we use the result throughout the chapter.
The geometric sequence is
i) Convergent if and
ii) Divergent if
Moreover, lim
n
Example 4.1.17 The sequence is geometric sequence with
and . Hence, is convergent and lim 

n
Example 4.1.18 Consider the sequence


Thus, the sequence is geometric sequence, with . Hence, the sequence diverges.
Theorem 4.1.5 For a sequence , and a real number , if lim

n
and the function is continuous at , then lim .

n
The above theorem says that if we apply a continuous function to the terms of a convergent
sequence, then the result is also convergent.
Example 4.1.19 Find lim

n

Solution
Since, lim and the function is continuous at x = 0 ,
n
then by Theorem 4.1.5, we have
lim 
n
Example 4.1.20 Determine whether the sequence , where , converges.

Solution
1
lim 
n 9
1
and is continuous at x  . Therefore by Theorem 4.1.5, we have
9
lim
n
Hence, is convergent which converges to . 
Monotonic Sequences and Bounded Sequences
So far you have determined the convergence of a sequence by finding its limit. If you cannot
determine the limit of a particular sequence, it still may be useful to know whether the sequence
converges.
The monotonic and the bounded properties of a sequence provide a test for convergence of a
sequence without determining the limit.
Definition 4.1.4 (Monotonic Sequence)

1) A sequence is said to be Increasing if
.
2) A sequence is said to be Strictly Increasing if

3) A sequence is said to be Decreasing if

.
4) A sequence is said to be Strictly Decreasing if
5) A sequence which is either increasing or decreasing is called Monotonic Sequence.
Example 4.1.21 Determine whether each of the following sequences is monotonic.
a) b)
c)  2n 

1  n n 1 d)  
n2
n

2 n 1
e) where
Solution
1
a) Let an  3  n
for . We know that This implies that
. Thus, 3 + . This shows that a n  1  a n for all n.
Hence, the sequence is monotonic and decreasing. 
b) that is
Thus, the terms of the sequence alternates between 2 and 4. So, it is not monotonic (That is it is
neither increasing nor decreasing) 
c) Let . Then
To compare the rules and , we shall evaluate the ratio .
Clearly; It follows that

Thus, Therefore, that sequence is increasing. 
d) Let . Let .
Then .
We may use the concept of differential calculus to see that monotonic property of the sequence.
It follows that
x , since 2x ≠ 0
iff .
This implies that
Then
Evaluating gives
Then by the second Derivative Test is increasing on and decreasing on
Thus, is increasing sequence, since 
1 1 1
e) where an  1  1    .......  and
2! 3! n!
1 1 1 1
an1  1  1    .......  
2! 3! n! (n  1)!
 1 1 1 1   1 1 1
Then an  1  an  1  1    .......    1  1    .......  
 2! 3! n ! (n  1)!   2! 3! n! 
1
  1 for all n  1 .
(n  1)!
It follow that
Therefore, the sequence is increasing. 
Definition 4.1.5 Bounded Sequence

1. A sequence is Bounded Above if there is a real number such that for
all The number M is called an Upper Bound of the sequence.
2. A sequence is Bounded Below if there is a real number such that for
all n . The number is called A Lower Bound of the sequence.
3. A sequence is Bounded if it is bounded above and bounded below.
Example 4.1.22 Consider the sequence with nth term given by . List
of some of its terms are
i) Now, for all , we know that It follow that
Adding both sides 4, we obtain
Hence, . 
Thus, the sequence is bounded above and 4 is the upper bound of the sequence.
Moreover, any real number greater than 4 is also the upper bound of the sequence 4 is the least of
all the upper bounds and it is known as the Least Upper Bound of the sequence, usually denoted
by lub.
1 1
ii) Clearly,  1 for all implies that  1  
n n
Adding both sides 4 gives .
That is
Therefore, is bounded below and the first term 3 is its lower bound. Moreover, any
real number less that 3 is also the lower bound of the sequence. Thus, 3 is the highest of all these

lower bounds and we say that 3 is the Greatest Lower Bound, usually denoted by glb, of the
sequence.
Thus, from (i) and (ii), we can see that the sequence is bounded sequence and we
can write as .
Remark 1. The monotonicity of a sequence alone has no guarantee for the

convergence of the sequence.
2. The boundedness of a sequence, alone has no guarantee for the
convergence of the sequence.
Example 4.1.23
i) The sequence is monotonic (Increasing) sequence,
but lim . That is the sequence diverges.

n
ii) The sequence is a decreasing sequence
1
and lim an  lim ln   . That is the sequence is decreasing but divergent.
n n n
iii) The sequence is bounded, since but
it diverges. 
Theorem 4.1.6 Bounded Monotonic Sequence
If a sequence is bounded and monotonic, then it converges.
For example, the sequence , is bounded, since ,
. Hence, by Theorem 4.1.6 the sequence converges.
Note: i) If a sequence is monotonic increasing then its first term is the glb of the sequence.
ii) If a sequence is monotonic decreasing than its first term is the lub of the sequence.

Example 4.1.24 Show that the sequence is increasing and bounded. Find its
limit.
Solution
Let . Then , and
. It follows that
since .
Hence, . This tells us that the sequence is
increasing.
Thus, the first term is the lower bound (or glb) of the sequence.
Now, This implies that
Adding both sides gives
Hence; . This implies that the sequence is bounded
above. Thus, we have shown that is monotonic (increasing) and bounded, since
Then by Theorem 4.1.6, the sequence converges.
lim = lim = = .
n n
That is converges to . 
Example 4.1.25. Consider the sequence some of the terms of the sequence are
By simple inspection, we can see that the sequence is increasing and

Therefore, by Theorem 4.1.5, it follow that the sequence
Converges and lim exists, and

n

lim =2 
n
Example 4.1.26. Consider the sequence where .
Some of the terms are
Clearly, we can see that the sequence is neither increasing nor decreasing. Moreover,
. That is the sequence is bounded. Thus, Theorem 4.1.5 is fails to
apply. But,
lim = lim
n n
Thus, the sequence is bounded and convergent but not monotonic. 
Subsequences
If the terms of a sequence appear with in another sequence, then the later sequence is said
to be a subsequence of the first sequence. A subsequence is formed by deleting some ( or none,
since a sequence is its own subsequence of itself) of the terms of the sequence and relabeling the
remaining terms retain the original order of the terms, of course there must be infinitely many
terms remaining after deletion.
Definition 4.1.6
Let be a sequence and nk nk 1 a sequence of positive integers such that
n1  n2  n3  ........ . Then the sequence is called a Subsequence of .
Example 4.1.27 For each of the following sequences, determine three subsequences.
a) b)
Solution
a) is the sequence of positive integers. Hence

- the sequence of even positive integers
- the sequence of odd positive integers and
- the sequence of prime natural numbers {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ……..}
are subsequences of
b) . Hence
- the sequence
- the sequence
- the sequence
are subsequences of .
Theorem 4.1.7
A sequence converges if and only if each of its subspaces converges. In fact, if every
subsequences of a sequence converges, then they all converges to the same limit.
Remark: From the above theorem, we can state that if any subsequence of a sequence diverges,
or if any two subsequences have different limits, then the sequence diverges.
Example 4.1.28 Using subsequence, show that the sequence diverges.
Solution
The sequences and are subsequences of

which converges, respectively, to different limits 1 and – 1. Therefore, the given
sequence diverges .

Exercises 4.1.2
In Exercises 1 - 4, find lim
n
1.
2.
3.
4.
In exercises 5 – 16 check whether the sequence is bounded, monotonic and the limit exist.
5. 11.
6. 12.
7. 13.
8. 14.
15.
9.
16.
10.

4.2 Infinite Series

Introduction
A lot of students are confused between sequences and series. If we add the terms of an infinite
sequence , we get an expression of the form
Which is known as an Infinite Series (or simply series) and this sum is denoted by
Here the question that might be raised is “Is it possible for the sum of infinitely many numbers
to be finite?’’ This concept, which may seem paradoxical at first, plays a central role in
mathematics and has a variety of important applications.
One of the questions that have stimulated the imaginations of philosophers for a very
long time was the question of dividing line segment into infinitesimal parts. In a corruption of
paradox introduced by Zenos of Elea (in the 5th B.C) a dimensionless frog sits on one end of a
one dimensional log of unit length. The frog jumps half way, and then half way and half way,
add infinitum. The question is whether the frog ever reached the other end. Mathematically, we
obtain an ended sum
+ + +…… + + …..
This section of the chapter, will answer the above questions.
Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to
 define an infinite series.
 identify convergent and divergent infinite series.
 State the divergent test.
 State the convergence tests.
 use the convergence tests to determine whether an infinite series converges or
diverges.
 State the generalized convergence tests
 use the Generalize convergence tests to determine whether an infinite series
converges or diverges.

4.2.1 Infinite Series And Their Convergence And Divergence

One important application of infinite sequences is in representing “infinite summations.”
Definition 4.2.1 Infinite Series


Let be an infinite sequence. Then sum 
n 1
is called an Infinite Series (or simply a series). The numbers are called the
Terms of the series.
Examples 4.2.1

i) 
n 0

ii) 
n 1

iii) 
n 2
are infinite series. 
To find the sum of an infinite series, consider the following sequence of partial sums:
If this sequence of partial sums converges, then the series is said to be convergent and has the
sum indicated in the following definition.

Definition 4.2.2 Convergent and Divergent Series


For the infinite series a
n 1
n the sum
n
S n  a1  a2  a3  ...........  an   ak
k 1
is called the nth Partial Sum of the series. If the sequence of partial sums is

convergent and lim S n  S exists as a real number, then we say that the infinite series
n  
a
n 1
n is
Convergent and we write


a1  a2  a3  ...........  S or a
k 1
k S
The number S is called the Sum of the series. If the sequence is divergent then we say

that the series a
n 1
n Diverges.
Note that in the Definitions 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, the initial index can be 0 or any integer.
Remark: If sum of an infinite series exists, then it is unique.
Example 4.2.2 Show that the series


1

n 1 2n
converges and find its sum.
Solution
The series has the following partial sums.
and so on.
Then by simple inspection, from the pattern of the above partial sums, we can write the nth
partial sum as

It follow that lim =1

n
That is lim S n exists.

n  
 
1 1
Hence, the infinite series 
n  12
n
is convergent and has sum S = 
n 1
 lim S n  1
2n n 


Example 4.2.3 Show that the series 1
n 1
diverges.
Solution

The series  1  has n-th partial sum
n 1
and , lim
n

Therefore, the series 1
n 1
diverges. 

  , if c  0
Note In general, for any constant c, c  0, the series  c  lim ( n c )  
n  1
n
  , if c  0
which diverges.
Next, we shall define and check the convergence and the divergence of some special series:
Telescopic series, Harmonic series and Geometric series.

Remark: The series of the form  (b n  bn 1 )  (b1  b2 )  b2  b3   (b3  b4 ) . .........
n  1
is called Telescopic Series.

The nth partial sum of a telescopic series  (b n  bn 1 ) is given by
n  1
Thus, the sum of the series , if any, is


S   (b1  bn1 )  im S n  im (b1  bn  1 )  b1  im bn  1
n n n
n 1

1
Example 4.2.4 Show that 
n  1 n(n  1)
1
Solution
By method of partial fractions can be written as
. ( Check.)
Now, the nth partial sum of the series is
n n
1 1 1   1 1 1 1 1 1 1  1
Sn  
k 1 k (k  1)

k
  
1  k

k 1
1  
 2
         ........   
 2 3 3 4
 1 
 n n 1 n 1
Clearly, the series is telescopic series and
 1   1 
lim Sn  lim  1    1  lim    1 0  1  
n   n
 n 1 n  
 n  1

Hence, the infinite series 
n 1
converges and has sum 1.

That is 
n 1


2
Example 4.2.5 Find the sum of the series 
n  1
2
4n  1
.
Solution
Let Using partial fractions, let
Then
It follows that
Solving the above system of linear equations, we obtain

Thus, we can write as
This shows that the given series is telescopic series. From this telescopic form, we can see that
the nth partial sum of the series is

1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1 
             .....    
1 3   3 5   5 7   2n  1 2n  1 
 1 
Then lim S n  lim 1   1
n   n 
 2n  1 

Therefore, the telescopic series 
k 1
converges and the sum is


k 1


Note: The series 
n 1
is called Harmonic Series.
Example 4.2.6 Show that the harmonic series


1 1 1 1
 n  1  2  3  4  .........
n 1
is divergent.
Solution
For this particular series it is convenient to consider the partial sums
and show that they become large

S1  S 2 0  1
1
S 2  S 21  1 
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S 4  S 2 2  1     1     1    1  2  , since
2 3 4 2 4 4 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S8  S 2 3  1        > 1            = 1   
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2  4 4 8 8 8 8 2 2 2
1
That is S8  S 23  1  3 
 2
In a similar manner we can write

and so on.
In general,
This show that lim S 2 n   , since lim 1  k2   
n   k 
It follow that the sequence of partial sums is unbounded. As a result, the harmonic

series 
n 1
diverges. 

Remark The series having the form  cr n
 cr m  cr m 1  cr m  2  . . . . .
n m
Where and are constants and is called a Geometric Series with ratio r.
Theorem 4.2.1 Geometric Series Theorem


A geometric series 
n  m
i) converges if and has sum .

ii) diverges if .
Example 4.2.7 Check the convergence or divergence of the following geometric series. If it
converges find the sum.
 
a) 
n  0
c) 
n  2
 
b) 
n  1
d) 
n  0
Solution

a) 
n  0
Here and the ratio is where

Thus, the series is convergent which has sum

3
b) 
n  1
. Here or 
2
> 1. Hence, the series is divergent. 

c) 
n  2
For this series, and where

Hence, the series is convergent and has sum
2
 2 4
m
1  
cr 5  4  5  4
S    25      
1 r  2 2  25  7  35
1    1
 5 5

d) 
n  0
3
Here and r 4 where
Hence, the series is convergent and has sum
cr m 18 34 
n 0

3n2 
3 18
S   18      4(18)  72 
n 0 2 2 n1
n 0 4 1  r 1   4  1  34
3
Remark The formula for the sum of a convergent geometric series can be used to write a
a
repeating decimal as a rational number of the form where a and b are int egers.
b
Example 4.2.8 Use a geometric series to write the decimal number as a ratio , where
a & b are integers.

Solution
can be written as 0.27  0.272727........

 n
That is 0.27  0.272727........ =  27  1 
   
n  0  100  100 
27 1
Which is the geometric series with c  , m  0 and r 
100 100
Since , the series converge to the sum
 n m
 27  1  cr
0.27     
n 0  100  100 

1 r
0.27

1  0.01
3
Thus, 0.27  
11
Theorem 4.2.2 Divergence Test


a) If the series a
n  1
n is convergent, then lim
n
.

b) If lim
n
or lim an does not exist, then the series
n  
a
n  1
n is divergent.
Theorem 4.2.2 has two parts. The 2nd part of the theorem helps us to test the divergence of a
certain series and sometimes it is called the nth Term Test for divergence.
You can easily see that part (a) and part (b) of Theorem 4.2.2 are contra positive to each other,
hence they are logically equivalent.
Note that the converse of Theorem 4.2.2 generally is not true.

1
For example, lim
n
but the series 
n  1n
is divergent.
Thus, lim , does not tell us anything about the convergence or divergence of the
n

series 
n  1
.

Example 4.2.9 Show that the series 
n  1
diverges.

Solution
Let Then
lim 
n

Hence, by the Divergence Test Theorem, the series 
n  1
is divergent.

n 0
is divergent.
Solution
Let for
Then which oscillates between 1 and 1.
Hence lim does not exist.

n

n
Then by Divergence Test, the series  ( 1)
n  0
diverges. 

Example 4.2.11 Using Divergence Test, show that the series  2 n is divergent.
n  0
Solution:
Let Then
lim
n
That is lim does not exist.

n

n
Then by the Divergence Test, the series 2
n  0
diverges. 

Example 4.2.12 Show that the series  n sin
n  1
1
n
diverges.
Solution
Let
lim . Letting we have

n

lim ( since whenever n   )

n
=10

Hence, by Divergence Test, the series  n sin
n  1
1
n
diverges. 
Properties of Convergent Series
Theorem 4.2.3 If and are convergent series, then so are
  
 a n  bn  ,  a n  bn  and  cbn  , where

n m n m n m
is constant, and
1. +
2.
3. =c
These properties of convergent series follow from the corresponding limit laws for sequences in
section 4.1.

n 1

Solution The series  is convergent geometric series, since r  1 1 ,
n 1 2

and has sum 
n 1
, where , and

1
The series
n
  1 n ( n  1)
is telescopic series, and as seen in Example 4.2.4, we know
that
 
1 1 1 
 n(n  1)
n 1
   n  n  1   1
n 1

Then, by Theorem 4.2.3, we have



n 1

n 2
Solution
n n

3n 1  5 n 
 3 n 1 5n  
1 
5
 3 n.2 n
  
n  2  3 .2

 n n 3 n.2 n    3     
n 2  2  n 2  6 
n 2 
Since < both series
n  n

1 5
   and    are convergent geometric series and have sum
n  2 6 
n  2 2 

n 2
and

n 2

Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.3, the series 
n 2
converges and has sum

n 2
. 
Note: A finite number of terms do not affect the convergence and divergence of a
series.


n 4
Solution
From Example 4.2.3 and Theorem 4.2.4, we know that
 
2 1
n 1
 n( n  1)
 2
n  1 n ( n  1)
 2(1)  2

n 1

Then 
n 4
is convergent and has sum
 
2  2  1 1  3 1
 n (n  1)
   n( n  1)  1  3  6   2  2  2 
n 4 n 1  

Thus, the index at which the summation of the series 
n m
is irrelevant to the
convergence of the series. However, as seen in Example 4.2.15, the actual sum of the series is
affected by the index m. For that reason, although most of the theorems will be stated for series
with initial index , all these theorems can be applied to a series with arbitrary initial index .
 
In general, for m2  m1 the series a
n  m1
n converges if and only if the series 
n  m2
 
converges. In addition, if both series 
n  m1
and 
n  m2
converges, then
 m2 1 
 an 
n  m1
 an   an .
n  m1 m2

i.e 
n  m1

Exercises 4.2.1

In Exercises 1 and 2, determine whether the sequence and the series 
n 1
are convergent.
1) 2)
In Exercises 3 – 6, determine the fourth partial sum of the series

 
3) 
n  1
5) 
n  10
 
4) 
n  0
6) 
n  2
In Exercises 7 - 12 , using Divergence Test, if applicable, check whether the series

diverges,

7. 10. 
n  0


8.  11. 
n  1
n  1


9.  12. 
n  1
n  1
In Exercises 13 –18, find the formula for the partial sum of the series. Using lim
n
determine whether the series converges or diverge. If it converges find the sum of the series.
 
13. 
n  1
1 16. 
n  1
 
14. 
n  0
17. 
n  1
 
15. 
n  0
18. 
n  1
In Exercise 19 – 26, determine whether the series converges or diverges. If converge, find
its sum.
 
n 1
19.  20. 
n  1 3n  1 n  0
 
21. 
n  2
n
2 22. 
k  0

 
23. 
n  1
24. 
n  1
 
25. 
n  1
26.  (1)  
n  1
n 3 2n
8  n ( n21) 
In Exercises 27 – 31, write the repeating decimal as a geometric series and write its sum as
the ratio of two integers.
27. 28. 29.
 
1
30. a) It is known that 
n  1
. Using this, find the sum 
n 3 n2
.
 
b) It is known that 
n  1
. Using this, find the sum 
n 4
.
31. A ball dropped from a height of 16m. On each bounce it re-bounces 4 of the previous
5
height. Find the total distance traveled by the ball.
4.2.2 Non – Negative Series: The Integral Test and the Comparison Tests
In general, it is difficult to find the exact sum of a series, since usually it is not easy to obtain
formula for the partial sum and to compute the limit of partial sum lim . Therefore, in this
n
and the next sections we develop tests that enable us to determine whether a series is convergent or
divergent without explicitly finding its sum.
In this section and section 4.2.3, we shall deal with series with non - negative terms. Note that if
the terms of a series are positive then its partial sums are increasing.
The Integral Test
Theorem 4.2.4 Integral Test
Let be a non-negative sequence and let be a continuous, decreasing function

defined on such that

Then the series 
n  1
is convergent if and only if the improper integral is
convergent.

In other words the Integral Test states the following.


i) If converges then 
n  1
converges.

ii) If diverges then 
n  1
diverges.

1
Example 4.2.16 Using Integral Test, show that the series 
n 1
2
n 1
converges.
Solution
Let
Let . Clearly and is defined for all
 2x
Moreover; f ' ( x )   0 iff  2 x  0 iff x  0 and f ' ( x)  0 for x  0.
( x 2  1) 2
That is by First Derivative Test, is decreasing on
Thus, the conditions for the Integral Test are satisfied by f. Then we can integrate on to
obtain
 b
1 b
 f ( x) dx  lim  x 2
dx  lim ( arctan x) 1
1 b 1 1 b
 lim (arctan b  arctan1)

b
   
 lim (arctan b)    
b 4 2 4 4
b
1
That is the improper integral lim x 2
dx converges. Hence, by the Integral Test,
b  1 1

1
the infinite series n
n 1
2
1
converges. 
b
1 
In Example 4.2.16 solved above, the fact that the improper integral lim x 2
dx converges to
b  1 1 4

1 
does not imply that the infinite series n
n 1
2
1
converges to .
4


n
Example 4.2.17 Using Integral Test, check whether the series n
n 1
2
1
converges or diverges.
Solution
n
Let an  2
for n  1.
n 1
x n
Let f ( x)  2
for x  1 . Then f ( n)  2  an for all n  1.
x 1 n 1
Clearly, f is continuous, non-negative and decreasing on [1, +). (Check it!).
 b
x
Now,  f ( x) dx  lim  x 2
dx
1 b 1 1
b
 12 lim [ n ( x 2  1)] 1
b 
  
 12 lim n b 2  1  n 12  1  
b
 12   lim n b 2  1   n 2 
 
 b    
 
b
x
That is the improper integral lim x 2
dx is divergent. Therefore, by the Integral Test, the series
b 1 1

n
n
n 1
2
1
is divergent. 

1
Example 4.2.18 Using Integral Test, show that the series 
n2 n n n
converges or diverges?
Solution
1
Let an  for n  2.
n n n
1 1
Let f ( x)  for x  2 . Then f (n)   an for all n  2.
x n x n n n
Now, f ( x )  0 for all x  2 and f (x ) is continuous on [2, +).

To check the monotonicity of f (x ) we use differentiation as follow.

 1  n x 
f ' ( x)    
2 
 ( x n x ) 
1  n x  0 and ( x n x) 2  0 for all x  2 .
 1  n x 
Hence, f ' ( x)      0 for all x  2 .
2 
 ( x  n x ) 
Therefore, by First Derivative Test f (x ) is decreasing on [2, +).
Thus, the conditions for Integral Test are satisfied.
 b
1 b
 f ( x ) dx  lim  x n x dx  lim [ n (nx )] 2
 lim  n (n b)  n (n 2)   
b  2 b b
2
b
1
That is the improper integral lim  x n x dx is divergent. Therefore, by the Integral Test, the series
b 2

1
 n n n
n2
diverges. 
Note: For a given real number p , the series of the form


1 1 1
n
n 1
p
 1
2 p
 p  ............. is called a p-series.
3
    
1 1 1 1 1
For example, the series n, n 2
, n 5
, n 0.3
,  1 ,
n 1 n 1 n4 n 1 n 1 n2
    
1 1 1 1

n 1
5 n
, 
n 1 n 3
,  n7 
n 1

n3n
7
, n
n 2
2 3
are p-series.
1
Note that the Integral Test is most effective for p-series, since the function f ( x )  for x  1
xp

1
satisfies the conditions of the Integral Test and the improper integral x p
dx is easily integrable.
1
We know that for p  1

c

1  x1 p   c1 p  1 
1 x p dx  lim    lim  
c   1  p  c   1  p 
1

Now,

1  c1 p  1 
i) If p < 1, then 1 x p dx  lim     
c  1 p 

1  c1 p  1  1
ii) If p > 1, then 1 x p dx c    1  p   1  p   
 lim
 
1 1
iii) If p = 1, then  p dx =
1
x  x dx =  lim n c   
1
c 
Thus, we have the following statement.


1
Remark The p-series n
n 1
p
i) converges if p > 1.
ii) diverges if p  1.
Example 4.2.19 Determine the convergence or divergence of the following p-series.

  
1 2 1
a)  n 5
b)  n3
c)  5
n 1 n 1 n 1 n3
Solution

1
a) The series n
n 1
5 is a p-series with p = -5 < 1. Hence the series diverges.
 
2 1
b) The series n 1 n3
= 2 
n 1 n
3 is a p-series with p = 3 > 1. Hence the series converges.
 
1 1
c) The series  5 3
=  3 is a p- series with p =
3
< 1. Hence the series diverges. 
n 1 n n 1
n 5 5
The Comparison Tests

The Comparison Tests: Comparison Test and Limit Comparison Test greatly expand the variety
of series you are able to test for convergence or divergence. They allow you to compare a series
having complicated terms with a simpler series whose convergence or divergence is known.
Theorem 4.2.5 Comparison Test

Let 0  an  bn for all n  1.

 
1. If  bn converges, then a n converges.

n 1 n 1
 
2. If  a n diverges, then b n diverges.

n 1 n 1
Informally saying, the Comparison Test states the following.

1. If the “larger” series converges, then the “smaller” series must also converges.
2. If the “smaller” series diverges, then the “larger” series must also diverges.
Note: In using the Comparison Test, you must have some known convergent or divergent series
for the purpose of comparison. Most of the time you may use one of a p-series or a geometric
series.
Example 4.2.20 Using the Comparison Test determine the convergence or divergence of the
following series.
 
1 
5 1
a) 
n 1 2  3n
b)  n 1
2
2 n  4n  3
c) 
n 1 2 n

n n 
3n 
3 sin 2 n
d) 
n2 n
e) 
n 1 2 n 1
f) 
n 0 n!
Solution
1 1
a) We know that 2  3n  3n for all n  1. This implies that 0  n
 n for all n  1.
23 3

1
The series 
n 1 3n
is convergent geometric series, since r 
1
3
 1 . Therefore, by

1
Comparison Test, the series  23
n 1
n converges. 
b) For large n, the dominant term in the denominator is 2 n 2 . Compare the given series with

5 5  1
the series  2n
n 1
2
  .
2 n 1 n 2

5 5
We know that 0  2
 2 2
2 , because 0  2 n  2 n  4 n  3 .
2 n  4n  3 2 n

1 
5 5  1
The series 
n 1 n2
is convergent p-series with p = 2. Thus, the series 
n 1
 
2 n 2 2 n 1 n 2

5
is convergent. Therefore, by Comparison Test, the series  2n 2
converges. 
n 1  4n  3
 
1 1
c) The series  n 1 n
= 
n 1
1 is divergent p – series, since p = 1
2
< 1.
2
n
By term – by – term comparison, you may get 0  n  2  n for all n  1. But the

1
requirement for divergence of the given series  2
n 1 n
does not fulfill. However, you can

1
compare the given series with the harmonic series 
n 1 n
. You can easily show

1 1 1
that n  2  n for n  4. Hence, 0  
n 2 n
for n  4 and 
n 4 n
diverges.

1
Therefore, by Comparison Test, the series  2
n 4 n
diverges. You have also
 3 
1 1 
1 1

n 1 2 n
=  2
n 1 n
+  2
n4 n
. As the result, the series 
n 1 2 n
diverges. 
d) Observe that n n  1 for all n  3 and so n n  1 for n  3. By Comparison Test the

n n

nn
series diverges. As the result, the series 
n 3 n
diverges. 
1 1
e) You know that 2n  2n  1 for all n  1. This implies that 0  n
 n for all n  1.
2 2 1
3n 3n
Now, since 3n > 0 for all n, you will have 0   for all n. The series
2n 2n  1

n

3n 3
3
 n
    is divergent geometric series, since r  3  1 . Therefore, by Comparison
n 1 2 n 1  2  2

3n
Test, the series 
n 1 2n  1
is divergent. 
2
f) You know that  1  sin n  1 for all n. This implies that 0  sin n  1 . Moreover,
3 sin 2 n 3
0  for all n.
n! n!

3
However, the series  is convergent (check it). Hence by the Comparison Test, the
n0 n!

3 sin 2 n
given series 
n 0 n!
is convergent. 
The Limit Comparison Test

Often a given series closely resemble a p-series or a geometric series, yet you cannot establish the
term – by – term comparison necessary to apply the Comparison Test. Under these conditions you
may use the test known as Limit Comparison Test which is stated below.
Theorem 4.2.6 Limit – Comparison Test

 
an
Let  a n and b n be two non-negative series. Suppose im  L , where L is fixed positive
n b
n 1 n 1 n
 
number. 1. If  bn converges, then a n converges.

n 1 n 1
 
2. If  bn diverges, then a n diverges.

n 1 n 1
Usually we use Limit - Comparison Test for the series whose n th term an is of the fractional form.
Example 4.2.21 Using the Limit-Comparison Test determine the convergence or divergence of
the following series.

n 2  10 
n
a) 
n 1 4 n 5  4n 3  2
b) 
n 1 n2  1


3 
4n  1
c) 
n 1 2n 1
d) 
n 1 3n  1

1 
n 2n
e)  f)  4 n3  1
n 1 3 n2  2 n 1
g)  sin  
n 1
2 1
n
Solutions:
n 2  10
a) Let an  . To obtain a series with which to compare the given series, disregard all
4 n5  n3  2
except the highest powers of n appearing in the numerator and the denominator of an . Then you
n2 1
will get bn   .
4 n 5 4n 3

1
Therefore, we will compare the given series with the new series 
n 1 4n 3
.
n 2
 10 
L   im
an
  im
4 n 5
 n3  2  lim
n  10 4 n 
2 3
n  b
n
n  1 3
n  1 4 n  n  2 
5 3
4n
40
5
4 n  40 n 3 1
n5
4  n2
 lim  lim 1
n  4n5  n3  2 1
n5
n  4  1
n2
 2
n5

1 1 1
Now since 
n 1 4n 3
  3 is convergent p-series and L = 1 < ,
4 n 1 n

n 2  10
by Limit - Comparison Test the series 
n 1 4 n 5  4n 3  2
converges. 
n
b) Let a n  2 . Disregarding all but the highest power of n in both the numerator and the
n 1
n 1
denominator of an we obtain bn  2
 3 . Then
n n2
n
L   im
an
  im
n 2
1   lim n 2  1
n2

  lim 1
< .
n  b n  1 n  n 2  1  1  n   1  12  1
n 3 n2  n
n 2


1
The series  3 is convergent p-series, since p = 3
2
> 1.
n 1 n 2

n
Therefore, by Limit - Comparison Test the series 
n 1 n 1
converges.
2

3 3
c) Disregarding 1 from the denominator of an  we obtain bn  . Then you
2n 1 2n
can compare the given series. Then
3 n
an 2  1   lim 2 n = lim 2 n 

1
2n

  lim 1
L   im
n  b
  im
n  3 n n  2 n  1 n  2n  1  1  n   1  1n  1
n
2  2n  2
  n
1 1
Now, since 
n 1 2n
= 
n 1
  is convergent geometric series, the series
2
  n 
3 1 3
 n = 3 
  is convergent. Therefore, by Limit Comparison Test, the series n
n 1 2 n 1  2  n 1 2 1
converges. 
 n
4 1
d) It is reasonable to compare the given series 
n 1 3n  1
with the series
n

4n 
4

n 1 3n
=   3 
n 1
which is divergent geometric series ( since r = 4
3 > 1 ).
4 n
1 
L   im
an
  im
3 n
1  lim
4 n
 1 3n  
n b
n
n
4 3 n
n
n  3 n
 1 )( 4 n 
 lim
12 n
 3 n  1
12 n 
  lim
1   1
4n
n   12 n
 4 n  1
12 n


n  1   1
3n
 1  .

4n  1
Therefore, by Limit comparison Test, the series 
n 1 3n  1
diverges. 
  
1 1 1
e) Comparing the given series  with the series  = n 2
n 1 3 n2  2 n 1 3 n2 n 1
3
you will get

1
an 3
n2  2 n2 1
L   im   im  lim 3 .  lim 3 1 
n  b
n
n  1 n  n2  2 n  1  n22
3
n2


1 
1
Clearly, the series 
n 1 3
2
= n 2 is divergent p- series, since p = 2
3
< 1.
n n 1
3

1
Hence, by the Limit Comparison Test, the given series  diverges. 
n 1 3 n2  2

n 2n 
n 2n
f) It is appropriate to compare the given series 
n 1 4 n3  1
with the series 
n 1 4 n3
.
n 2  n
L   im
an
  im
4 n 3
1  4 n  3
n  bn n 
n 2 n
 lim
n  4 n 3
1 1 .
4n 3

n 2n 1  2n
The series 
n 1 4 n3
=  2 is divergent series (How? Check!).
4 n 1 n

n 2n
Therefore, by Limit Comparison Test, the given series 
n 1 4 n3  1
diverges. 
sin  1n  sin n 1
g) We know that lim  lim  1 . That is for large n, sin 1n and n are approximately
n 
1
n
n0 n
equal. Hence, it is reasonable to compare the given series  sin   with

n 1
2 1
n
the series  n 
 1 2 an sin 2  1n   sin  1n   2
to obtain L   im   im   im   1  .
n   
 1n 2  n  
n  b n  1
n 1 n
 
The series   = 
n 1
1 2
n
n 1
1
n2 is convergent p-series, since p = 2 >1. Therefore by the Limit –

Comparison Test the given series  sin   converges
n 1
2 1
n 

Exercises 4.2.2
In Exercises 1 – 16 use the Integral Test, the Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison Test
to determine whether the series converges or diverges.

n 2

2 ln(ln n ) 
n2
1.  ne
n 1
2) 
n 10 n ln n
3)  3
n  10 2 n  1
 
2n 2  1 
n
4)  n sin   3 1
n 5)  4 6) 
n 1 n  10 3n  2 n 3 n 1 (4n  5) 3
 
1 
1 1
7) 
n 1 n2
8) 
n 3 n ln nlnln n
9)   ln n
n2
2

n

3n 
ln n
10) 
n 1
ne 11) n 1 2n  1
12) 
n2 n 1
  
1  1 1  1
13)  tan
n
14)    
 n 1 n  2 
15) 
n 1 n 1 n 1 n n2 1

n 5
16) n
n 1
3
 2n  3
In Exercises 17 – 20, find those values of p for which the series converges.
 
1 n
17)  n ln n p 19) 
n2 n 1 1  n  2 p

ln n 
1
18)  np 20) 
n2 n 2 pn
In Exercises 21 – 24 using the result of Exercise 17, determine whether the series converges or
diverges.
 
1 1
21)  23) 
n2 n ln n n2 n 3
ln n 2

1 
1
22)  n ln n 
n2
2 24)  n ln (n 2
)
n2

4.2.3 Non – Negative Series: The Ratio Test and the Root Test
The Ratio and Root Tests involves only the terms of the series being tested; it is not necessary to
compute an improper integral as the Integral Test or manufacturing another series against which to
compare the given as the Comparison Tests. In this sense the Ratio and Root Tests are easier to
apply than are the Integral Test and the Comparison Tests.
The Ratio Test
The Ratio Test is the most commonly used of the two tests.
Theorem 4.2.7 Ratio Test


Let a n be a non-negative series. Assume that an  0 for all n  1 and let
n 1
a n 1
 im  r ( possibly r =  ).
n  an

a) If 0  r < 1, then a
n 1
n converges.

b) If r > 1 or r = , then a
n 1
n diverges.
c) If r = 1, then from the Ratio Test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the

convergence and divergence of a
n 1
n
Remark: The Ratio Test is the most effective convergence test for most series involving factorials
or / and powers in the terms of the series.
Factorial
For a natural number n, the Factorial of n, denoted by n!, is defined as
1) n! = n  ( n  1)  ( n  2)  . . . 3  2  1
2) 0! = 1
For instance, a) 1! = 1 b) 5! = 5  4  3  2  1 =120

10! 10  9  8 7 ! ( n  1)! (n  1)  n!
c)   10  9  8  720 d)   n 1
7! 7! n! n!
Example 4.2.22 Using the Ratio Test, determine whether the following series
Converges or diverges.
 
n 1 
3n
a) 
n 1 4n
b) 
n 0 n!
c) 
n 1 n3

n! 
n 
n!
d) 
n 1 nn
e) 
n 1 n 2 2 n 1
f)  n3
n 1
n

3 n 2  5  8  ....  (3n  2)  
(2n)!
g) 
n 1 1  3  5  ....  (2n  1)
h)  (n !)
n0
2
Solution
n n 1
a) Let an  a  n 1
n  0 for all n  0. Then n  1
4 4
r   im
a n 1
 lim
n 
 1/ 4 n  1  lim
( n  1 )( 4 n )
n  an n  n /4n n  ( 4 n  1 )( n )
( n  1 )( 4 n ) 1 n 1 1 1
 lm  4 lim  4 (1 )  4 1
n  ( 4 )( 4 n )( n ) n n
Hence, by Ratio Test, the given series converges. 

1 1
b) Let an  . Then an  0 for all n  0 and a n  1  .
n! (n  1)!
1
a n 1 ( n  1) ! n! n! 1
r   im  lim  lim  lim  lim  0
n  an n  1 n   ( n  1) ! n   ( n  1) n ! n   n 1
n!

1
r = 0 < 1. Hence, by Ratio Test, the series 
n0 n!
converges.
3n 3n 1
c) Let an   0 for all n  0. Then an  1 
n3 (n  1)3

3
a n 1 3 n 1 n 3 3 . 3 n .n 3  n 
r   im  lim  lim  lim 3   3 > 1.
n  an n  ( n  1) 3 3 n n   ( n  1) 3 3 n n 
 n 1

3n
Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the series 
n 1 n3
diverges. 
n! ( n  1)!
d) Let an   0 for all n  1 and a n  1  . Then
nn ( n  1) n  1
( n  1 )!
an 1 ( n  1) n  1
r   im  lim
n   an n  n! n
n
( n  1 )! ( n n )
 lim
n  ( n  1) n  1 ( n ! )
( n  1 )( n ! )( n n )
 lim
n  ( n  1 ) n ( n  1 )( n ! )
nn
 lim
n  ( n  1) n
n
 n 
 lim  
n 
 n 1
n n
 n  1  1
We know that nlim    lim 1    e

 n  n
 n
n n
 n 1  n   n 
n
1
Since   is the resiprocal of   we have r  lim    < 1.
 n   n 1 n n 1
  e
n!
Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the series an  converges. 
nn
n
e ) Let a n  2 n  1  0 for all n  1. Then and
n 2
  n 1 
 2 n 2  2
an 1  (n  1) 2   n1n 2 2n1   n  
lim  lim  lim n  lim    1
n an n

 n 2 n1
n 2

n    (n  1) 2 2n 2 2 n   n  1  2


n
n 1 n 2 2 n 1
diverges. 
n! (n  1)!
f) Let a n  n . Then an  0 for all n and an  1  . Then
n3 (n  1) 3 n  1
{n  1) ! n  1
an1  ( n  1)3 (n  1)!n 3n n
r  lim  lim    lim  lim 
n a n   n   ( n  1) n!3n1 n 3
n
 n! n 
 n3 

n!
Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the series  n3
n 1
n diverges. 
3 n (2  5  8.......  (3n  2))

g) Let a n   0 for for all n  0 . Then and
1  3  5  .....  (2n  1)
an 1 n 1
r  lim  lim 3 (5  8 11.......  ( 3n  2) (3n  5) ) . n 1 3  5 . . . (2n 1)
n  a n 3  5  7.....  ( 2n  1) 3 (2  5  8  . . . (3n  2) )
n
3 (3n  5)(1) 3n  5 3 9

 lim  3 lim  3    1 .
n 2n  3 n   2n  3
2 2

3 n 2  5  8  ....  (3n  2) 
n 1 1  3  5  ....  ( 2n  1)
diverges. 
( 2n) ! 2(n  1) !  (2n  2)!

h) Let a n  2 . Then
a n  0 for all n  1 and an 1  . Thus,
(n !) (n 1)!2 (n  1)!2
a n 1 (2n  2)! (n!) 2 (2n  2)(2n  1)(2n)!( n !) 2
r  lim  lim . = lim
n a
n
n   ( n  1)!2 ( 2n ) ! n (n  1) n !2 (2n)!
(2n  2)(2n  1)(2n)!(n !) 2 (2n  2)(2n  1)(2n)!(n ! ) 2
= lim = lim
n n  12 ( n !) 2 ( 2n)! n n  12 (n !) 2 ( 2n)!
(2n  2)(2n  1) ( 4n 2  6n  2) 1
n2
= lim = lim
n n  12 n 
n 2  2n  1  1
n2

4  6
n  n22  4
= lim
n 1  2
n  n12 

(2n)!
r  4  1 . Therefore, the series  ( n !)
n0
2 is divergent. 
Example 4.2.23 Show that the Ratio Test fails for each of the following series.
 
1 1
a) 
n 1 n
b) 
n 1 n2
Solution:
1 1
a) Let a n  . Then a n  0 for all n  1 and a n  1  for n . 1.
n n 1
an1 1  n  n 1n 1
r  lim  lim    = lim = lim = 1.
n  a n  n  1 1 n 1  1
n
n 
 n  1  1  n n

1
r = 1 implies that the Ratio Test fails to apply. But we know that the series n
n 1
is
divergent p-series ( with p = 1). 

1 1
b) Let a n  . Then a n  0 for all n  1 and a n  1  for n . 1.
n2 (n  1) 2
an 1  1  n 2  n2 1 2 1
r  lim  lim    = lim  n
lim
= n = 1. r = 1
n a n   (n  1) 2  1  n   n 2  2n  1 1 2 1  n2  n12
n    n

1
implies that the Ratio Test fails to apply. But we know that the series n
n 1
2 is
convergent p-series ( with p = 1). 

From Example 4.2.23, we can conclude that the Ratio Test doesn’t guarantee for the convergence or

an1
divergence of the series a
n 1
n if the limit r  lim
n a
1
n

an 1
Remark: In the Ratio Test, if lim fails to exist then no conclusion can be drawn from the
n  a
n

Ratio Test about the convergence or divergence of the series a

n 1
n .
The Root Test

The Root Test is another useful and frequently used test next to the Ratio Test.
Theorem 4.2.8 Root Test


Let a
n 1
n be a non-negative series and assume that  im
n 
n a n  r ( possibly r =  ).
d) If 0  r < 1, then a
n 1
n converges.
e) If r > 1 or r = , then a
n 1
n diverges.
f) If r = 1, then from the Root Test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the


n 1
n .
Note The Root Test is most effective for series involving powers of exponent n (and not factorials)
in the terms of the series.
Example 4.2.24 Using the Root Test, determine whether the following series converges or
diverges.
  n 
n  n 1 
a)  n b)    c) n 100
en
n 1 5 n2  2n  3  n 1

1

( n !) n 
1 1 
d)  e)  n 2 f)   n  n 2 
n2 (n n) n n 1 ( n ) n 1 

Solutions
n
a) Let a n  . Clearly a n  0 for all n  1.
5n
n
n n 1 1
r   im n a n   im n   im   im n n .
n  n  5n n  5 5 n 
1
But  im n n
 1 ( See example 4 .1 .9 )
n 
1 
1 1 n
Then r 
5
 im n n  .
5
Hence, by Root Test, the series 5
n 1
n converges. 
n 
n
 n 1 
b) Let a n    . Clearly a n  0 for all n  2.
 2n  3 
n
 n 1  n 1 n 1 1
n
r   im n a n   im n     im   im .
n   n  
 2n  3  n  2n  3 n  2n  3 1
n
1
1 n 1
r   im 3
  1
n  2  n
2
 n
 n 1 
Therefore, by Root Test, the series 
n2
 
 2n  3 
converges. 
c) Let a n  n100 e n . Clearly, a n  n100e n  0 for all n  1. Then

100
100
n 
1
r   im n a n   im n 100
e n   im e n
n 100  e  im n n
 e   im n n 

n   n  n  n   n  
As seen in (a),
100 
1
r  e   im n  e  n diverges. 
100
 n 
n


e (1 ) 100
e (1 )  e  1 . Therefore, the series n
n 1
1
d) Let an  . Clearly a n  0 for all n  2. Then,
(n n) n
1 1
r   im n a n   im n
n
  im  0  1.
n  n  (n n ) n   n n
Therefore, by Root Test, the series converges. 

( n !) n ( n !) n
e) Let an  n 2 . Clearly, a n   0 for all n  1. Then,
(n ) ( nn )2
( n! ) n ( n! ) n n!
r   im n a n   im n   im n   im 2   . Because, n! rises
n  n  (n n ) 2 n  2 n
(n ) n  n
(n !) n 
more rapidly than n , as n  . Hence, by Root Test, the series  n 2 diverges. 
2
n 1 ( n )
n
1 1 
f) Let a n    2  . Clearly, a n  0 for all n  1. Then,
n n 
n
1 1  1 1 
r   im n a n   im n   2    im   2   0  0  0  1 .
n  n 
n n  n 
 n n 

1 1 
Therefore, by Root Test, the series   n  n
n 1
2  converges.


Remark: In the Root Test, if lim n a n fails to exist, then no conclusion can be drawn from the
n

Root Test about the convergence or divergence of the series a
n 1
n .
Exercises 4.2.3
In Exercises 1 – 12, determine whether the series converges or diverges. In some cases you
may need to use tests other than the Ratio and Root tests.

n 
32n 
n
1)  n 2)  3n 3)  n!
n 1 ( n  1)e n0 2 n 1
n

( 5  1) n 
 n  n 2 2 n1

4)  2 5)    6) 
n 1 n  1 n  1  2n  1  n2 3n
  2n
n  2  5n

7)  8)   2  9)  n
n 1 n  1 n  0  n  n  1 n0 2  1
 
n! 
 2  n
10)  n ( n n )  n
n2
11) 
n  0 1.3.5. . . . ( 2 n  1)
12)
n 1
n
n 1

4.2.4 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence

In the previous section we have discussed about non-negative terms series. In this section we shall
see the criteria for the convergence and divergence of series involving positive and negative terms
alternately.
Alternating Series
Definition 4.2.3 Alternating Series

A series is said to be alternating series if the terms of the series are alternately positive and
negative.
For instance, the series


n
i)  (1)
n 0
 1  1  1  1  1  1 . . . .

(1) n 1 1 1 1
ii) 
n 1 n!
 1    
2 6 24 120
 ........
(1) n  1 n 2

4 9 16
iii)       ........ are alternating series, since the terms are
n 1 2n  1 5 7 9
alternately positive and negative or negative and positive. Where as the series

3n 9 81
iv) 
n 1 n
3
 3  1
8 64
 ........

n 3 1 1 3
v)  cos
n 0 6
 1
2
  
2 2 2
 ........

n
vi)  (5  2
n 2
)  1  3  11  27  ........ are not alternating series.

Theorem 4.2.9 Alternating Series Test


Let bn n 1 be a decreasing sequence of positive terms such that im bn  0. Then the alternating
n
 
n n 1
series  ( 1) bn and  (1) bn are convergent series.
n 1 n 1
Thus, from Theorem 4.2.9, in order to check the convergence of an alternating series, first we must
check whether the following three hypothesis (or conditions) satisfied:
1. The sequence bn n  1 is decreasing;
2. bn  0 for all n  1;
3. im bn  0.
n
Remark: If any one of the above three hypothesis fails to satisfy then it is impossible to use
Theorem 4.2.9 to check the convergence and divergence of an alternating series.
Example 4.2.25 Check whether the following alternating series converges or diverges.

1 
1
a)  (1) n   b)  (1) n 1
 
n0  n!  n 1 n

 n n 

(1) n  1
c)  (1) 
 n 

n
d)  5
n2 n 1 n3

( 1) n  1 n 
 n2 
e) 
n
n  1 3n  1
f)  (1)
n 1
 2 
 n  3n  5 
Solution

n 1 

1  1
a) In the series  ( 1) 
  , let bn  . Then the sequence bn n  0 =   is
n0  n!  n!  n! n  0
1 1 1
decreasing,  for all n  0. Moreover, bn  > 0 for all n and im bn   im 1  0 .
(n  1)! n ! n! n n   n!

Thus, the hypothesis of the Alternating Series Test fulfilled. Therefore, the alternative series

n 1
 (1)
n 0
  converges.
 n! 

1 1 1 1
b) Let bn  . Then bn   0 ;  for all n  1 and  im 1  0 . Therefore, by Alternating
n n n 1 n n n

n 1 1
Series Test, the series  (  1)
n 1
  converges.
n


n 1 1
The series  (1)
n 1
 
n
is called Alternating Harmonic Series.
n n n n
c) Let bn  . Then we can easily see that bn  > 0 for all n  2 and
n n
n n 
im bn  im has an Indeterminate form ‘ ’. Then by L’Hopital’s Rule
n n n 
(n n ) ' 1
im bn  im = im = 0 and b n + 1 < bn for all n  2.
n n  n' n n

n  n n 
Hence by alternating series Test, the series  (1)
n2

 n 
 converges. 
1
d) Let bn  . Then we can easily see that bn > 0 for all n  1. Thus, n  1  n for all n.
5
n3
1 1
This implies that (n  1)3  n3 .  for all n  1 and im bn = 0.
5
(n  1) 3 5
n3 n

(1) n  1
Therefore, by Alternating Series Test the series  5
converges. 
n 1 n3
n n 1
e) Let bn  . Clearly im bn = im =  0 . That is the Alternating Series Test
3n  1 n n   3n  1 3
fails to apply, although the series is alternating series.

 n 1
for odd n for odd n
(1) n  3n  1
n
(1) n  3
n
 . This implies that im  .
3n  1  n n   3n  1 1
 for even n
for even n
 3n  1  3
(1) n n 
( 1) n n
That is im doesn’t exist. Therefore, by Divergence Test, the series 
n 3n  1 n  3 3n  1
diverges. 
1
n2 n2 n2 2
f) Let bn  2
> 0 for all n  1 and im 2 = im 2 . n1 = 0.
n  3n  5 n   n  3n  5 n   n  3n  5
n2
x2
Let f ( x)  2
for x  1
x  3x  5
'
 x2  ( x 2  4 x  1)
Then f ' ( x)   2     0.
 x  3x  5  ( x 2  3 x  5) 2

 n2 
That is the sequence  2  is decreasing. Hence, by Alternating Series Test the
 n  3n  5 n  1

n  n2 
series  (1)
n 1
 2  converges.
 n  3n  5 

Absolute and Conditional Convergence

The convergence tests we studied so far in section 4.2.2, 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 cannot be applied directly

to a series a
n 1
n which is neither non-negative nor alternating. For instance, the series

sin n sin 2 sin 3
i) 
n 1 n 2
 sin 1 
4

9
 .........

n 3 1 1 3
ii)  cos
n 0 6
1
2
  
2 2 2
 ........
have both positive and negative terms. Yet they are not alternating.
One way to obtain some information about the convergence of these type of series is to investigate

the convergence of the series 
n 1
a n as stated in the following theorem.

 
Theorem 4.2.10 If the series 
n 1
a n converges, then a
n 1
n converges.

Note that 
n 1
a n is the series of non-negative terms. Therefore, we can use the convergence tests

in the previous sections to check the convergence of a
n 1
n .

sin n
n 1 n
2
converges.
Solution:
 
sin n sin n
The series 
n 1 n
2 is neither non-negative nor alternating. Yet 
n 1 n2
is non-negative terms

sin n
series. We may use the Comparison Test to check the convergence of 
n 1 n2
.
sin n 1
We know that sin n  1 . This implies that 2
 2 and
n n

1
the series n
n 1
2
is convergent p-series ( since p = 2 >1). Therefore, by Comparison Test, the series
 
sin n sin n

n 1 n2
is convergent. Hence, by Theorem 4.2.10, 
n 1 n
2 converges. 

n 1 10 n
Example 4.2.27 Check the convergence of the series  (1)
n 0 n!
.
Solution:
The series is alternating. But it may be difficult to use the Alternating Series Test.

10 n

10 n
 (1) n 1
n!
=  .
n 0 n!
n0
Then
a n 1 10 n  1 n ! (10 )( 10 n )( n ! ) 10
r   im   im n
 lim n
  im  0
n  an n  ( n  1 )! 10 n   ( n  1 )( n ! )( 10 ) n   n 1


n 1 10 n
Thus, r  0  1 . Hence, by Ratio Test, the series  (1)
n0 n!
is convergent.

n 1 10 n
Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.10 the series  (  1)
n0 n!
converges. 
Remark: The converse of Theorem 4.2.10 is false.

 
That is the convergence of 
n 1
a n doesn’t guarantee for the convergence of 
n 1
an .

n 1 1
Example 4.2.28 Consider the series  (1)
n 1 n
. It is an alternating series.
1  1  is decreasing and lim b  lim 1  0

Let bn  . Then bn > 0, the sequence bn     n
n n n n 1 n

n 1 1
Hence, by Alternating Series Test the series  (  1)
n 1 n
converges.
 
1 1
But the series  (  1) n  1   diverges (Harmonic Series). 
n 1 n n 1 n
Definition 4.2.4 Absolute and Conditional Convergence


Let a
n 1
n be convergent series.
 
a) If  an
n 1
converges then the series a
n 1
n is called Absolutely Convergent

or we say that the series a
n 1
n Converges Absolutely .
 
b) If a n diverges then the series a

n 1
n is called Conditionally Convergent
n 1

or we say that the series a

n 1
n Converge Conditionally.
For instance;

 
sin n sin n
i) In Example 4.2.26, both series  2 and  converge. Therefore, the
n 1 n n 1 n2

sin n
series n 1 n
2 converges absolutely.

n 1 1
ii) In Example, 4.2.28, we have seen that the series  (1)
n 1 n
converges but the series
  
1 1 1
 (1) n 1
n 1
  diverges. Therefore,
n n 1 n
 (1)
n 1
n 1
n
is conditionally convergent
series.

Note: From Theorem 4.2.10 and Definition 4.4.7, if the series an 1
n converges, then we say that
a
n 1
n converges absolutely.
Example 4.2.29
Determine whether the following series diverges, or converges absolutely or converges
conditionally.

( 1) n 1 
( 1) n 
n
a) 
n 1 3n
b) 
n 1 n
c)  (1) n
n 1 3n  1

cos n 
(1) n
d) 
n0 n  1
d) 
n  2 n n n
Solution

( 1) n 1
a) The series 
n 1 3n
is alternating series. Let bn 
1
3n
. Then clearly the sequence

1 1
 n is decreasing positive terms sequence and im n  0 . Hence, by Alternating
 3 n  1 n 3

( 1) n 1
Series Test, 
n 1 3n
converges.

n

(1) n 1 
1 
1

n 1 3n
= 
n 1 3
n =    is convergent geometric series, since
n 1  3 
r 
1
3
 1.

( 1) n 1
Therefore, the series 
n 1 3n
converges absolutely. 

(1) n 1  1 

b) The series  n
n
. Clearly the sequence   is
n 1  n n  1
1
decreasing positive-terms sequence and im  0 . Then, by Alternating Series Test,
n n
 

(1) n 1 1
converges. The series  n
= 
n 1 n
= n
n 1
1
2
is divergent p-series,
n 1

( 1) n
1
since p   1 . Therefore, the series
2

n 1 n
converges conditionally. 

n
c) The series  (1) n
n 1 3n  1
n
3n  1
> 0 for all n 1 . Yet
n 1
im   0 . Thus, The Alternating Series Test fails to apply. We may use the Divergence
n   3n  1 3
 1
n n  3 , if n is odd
Test as follow. im an  lim (1) 
n n 3n  1  1
, if n is even
 3
n
Hence, im (1) n doesn’t exist. Therefore, by Divergent Test the series
n 3n  1
 
n n n

n 1
( 1)
3n  1
diverges. (Here you can see that the series  (1) n
n 1 3n  1
is neither
converges absolutely nor converges conditionally). 

Remark: If a series a
n 1
n diverges then it converges neither absolutely nor conditionally.
d) Since  cos n   cos  , cos 2 , cos 3 , . . . ., the series


cos n 1 1 1 1 
( 1) n

n 1 n  1
    
2 3 4 5
 . . . . . =
n 1 n  1
1 1 1
is alternating terms series. Let bn  . Then bn  0 for all n  1 and bn   .
n 1 (n  1)  1 n  1

 1 
That is the sequence   it decreasing sequence of positive terms.
 n  1n  1

cos n
Moreover, im
1
n n 1
 0 . Then by Alternating Series Test, the series 
n 1 n  1
converges.
 
cos n 
(1) n 
1
Now,  n 1
an  
n 1 n 1
= 
n 1 n 1
= 
n 1 n  1
which is non-negative terms
sequence. For any n  1, we have 2n  n + 1. This implies that

1 1
0   for all n  1.
2n n 1
  
1 1 1
Since the series 
n 1 n
is divergent, the series n 1 2n
=
1
2

n 1 n
diverges.

cos n
Therefore, the given series 
n 1 n  1

(1) n 1
e) The series 
n2 n n n
is alternating series. bn 
n n n
. Then b n > 0 for all n  2.

 1 
To check the monotonicity of the sequence   we may use differentiation as follow. Let
 n n n  n  2
1
f ( x)  , for x  2 . Then f (n)  f ( x) , for n  2
x n x


 1  n x  1 
Then f ' ( x )   0 for all x  2. Thus,   is decreasing sequence.
x n x 2  n n n  n  2
1

(1) n
im bn  im
n n   n n n
 0 . Hence by Alternating Series Test, the series 
n2 n n n
converges.
 
(1) n 
1
Now, 
n2
an  
n2 n n n
= 
n2 n n n
.
  c
1 1
 f ( x)dx = 
2 2
x nx
dx = im
c 
 x nx dx = imnn x 
2
c
c
2
= imnn c   nn2    .
c

1
That is the improper integral  x nx dx
2
diverges. Therefore, by Integral Test, the series

(1) n 
(1) n

n2 n n n
diverges. Hence, the series 
n2 n n n
Exercises 4.2.4
In Exercises 1 – 5 determine whether the series converges or diverges.

2n  3
n

n

(1) n
1) 
n 1
(1) 2
n  n 1
2) 
n 1
(1) cos
n
3) 
n 1 n 5
n
 
n n n 1  n  1 
4)  (1) 5)  ( 1) 
n

n 1 n3  2 n 1  
In Exercises 6 – 8 determine which series diverges, which converges conditionally or which
converges absolutely.
  
n 1 1 n! n
6)  (1)
n0
n
3 5
7) 
n0
( 1)
3n
n
8)  (1) n
n4 n3

4.2.5 The Generalized Convergence Tests

By combining Theorem 4.2.10 with the convergence tests for non-negative series, we obtain
convergence tests that can be apply for any series.
Theorem 4.2.11 Generalized Convergence Tests


a) Generalized Comparison Tests: Let a
n 1
n be a series and an  bn for all n  1. If
 

n 1
b n converges, then a n converges (absolutely).
n 1
  an
b) Generalized Limit - Comparison Test: Let a
n 1
n and b
n 1
n
be two series. Suppose im
n bn
L,
 
where L is fixed positive number. If  bn converges, then
n 1
a n converges (absolutely).
n 1

c) Generalized Ratio Test: Let a n be a series and assume that an  0 for all n  1. Let
n 1
a n 1
 im  r (possibly r =  ).
n  an

 If r < 1, then a
n 1
n converges (absolutely).

 If r > 1 or r = , then a
n 1
n diverges. If r = 1, then from the Ratio Test alone we cannot

draw any conclusion about the convergence and divergence of a n
.
n 1

d) Generalized Root Test: Let a n
be a series and assume that an ≠ 0 for all n  1. Let
n 1
lim n a n  r (possibly r =  ).
n

 If r < 1, then a
n 1
 If r > 1 or r = , then a
n 1
n diverges.
 If r = 1, then from the Root Test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the

n 1
n .

Strategies For Testing Infinite Series
You have now studied eight Convergence and Divergence Tests for an infinite series. Skill in
choosing and applying the varies tests will come only with practice. Below are the guidelines for
choosing an appropriate test.
Guidelines for Testing a Series for Convergence or Divergence

1. Is the series one of the special types: geometric, p-series or telescopic?
2. Is the series non-negative terms series? If so, can the Integral, Comparison Test, Limit-
Comparison, Ratio or Root Tests be applied?
3. Is the series Alternating Series? If so, can the Alternating Series Test applied?

Is a
n 1
n converges? Can the Divergence Test applied? Can the Generalized
Convergence Tests applied?
4. Is the series neither non-negative terms series nor alternating terms series?
5. Can the Divergence Test or Generalized Convergence Tests applied?
Remark: In some infinite series more than one test will be applicable. However, your
objective should be to learn to choose the most efficient.
Example 4.2.30 Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.


sin n 
 12 n (2 n)!
a)  2 b) 
n 1 n  1 n 1 n!
Solutions

sin n sin n
a) The series n
n 1
2
1
is neither non-negative nor alternating. Let an  2
n 1
.
2 2
Since sin n  1 and n  1  n for all n  1, then we have

sin n sin n 1 1 
1
an  2  2  2
n 1 n 1 n 1 n
 2 , for all n  1. We know that n
n 1
2
is
convergent p-series with p = 2 >1. Therefore, by the Generalized Comparison Test,


sin n
the series n
n 1
2
1
converges (absolutely). 

 12 n (2 n)!
b) The series 
n 1 n!
is alternating.
 12 n (2n)!
Let a n  .
n!
 im
a n 1  12 n  1 2 n  1) ! n!
Then r  =  im .
n  an n  n  1 !  12 n ( 2 n )!
 12 2n  2(2n  1)
=  im
n  n 1
=  im  (2n  1) =  im ( 2n  1) = 
n  n 

 12 n (2 n)!
Therefore, by the Generalized Ratio Test, the series 
n 1 n!
diverges. 
2n n 
Example 4.2.31 For what value of x, the series  x

n 1 n
i) diverges ii) converges absolutely iii) converges conditionally?
2n n 2 n 1 n  1
Solution: Let an  x . Then a n  1  x
n n 1
a n 1 2 n 1 x n 1 n 2 n .2 . x n . x . n 2n
r   im =  im . n n =  im n n =  im x
n  an n  n 1 2 x n   ( n  1).2 . x n  n 1
2n  2n 
=  im x =  im   x =2 x .
n  n 1 n 
 n  1 
Then by the Generalized Ratio Test,
i) the series converges if r = 2 x < 1. This implies that x  12 or  12  x  12
ii) The series diverges if r = 2 x > 1. This implies that x  12 .

That is the series diverges if x   12 or x  1

2
iii) r = 1 iff x   12 or x  1
2
. That is the test fails to apply for x   12 or x  1
2
n
2n n
1
 
2n  1  
(1) n
a) Now, if x   then  x 
2
n 1 n
 
n 1 n 
 
2
 
n 1 n
which is convergent
(alternating harmonic) series ( See Example 4.53(b)).

n
1 
2n n 
2n  1  
1
b) If x  then
2

n 1 n
x     
n 1 n  2 
n
n 1
which is divergent (harmonic) series.

2n n 1 1
Therefore, series 
n 1 n
x converges for  12  x  12 and diverges for x   or x  . 
2 2
Exercises 4.2.5
In Exercises 1 – 4, determine whether the series converges or diverges.

 
2n  1
n n 1
1. 
n 1
(1)
3n  1
3.  (1)
n 1
4
n


(n n) 3 cos n
2.  (1) n 1
n
4. 
n 1 n
n2
In Exercises 5 – 8, find the possible values of x for which series converges.

n 

x n!
2 xn
5.  2   7. n
n0  3  n 1
n  n

 x  2  n  2n
6.    8.    x
n 0 4  n  1  2n  1 

4.3 Unit Summary


 A number is called the limit of an infinite sequence un n m if for any positive number 
there exist a positive integer N depending on  such that un  L   for all integer
n  N . In such case we write lim un  L

n  
 If such a number exists we say that un n m Converges (or converges to L) or lim an
n  
exists. If such a number does not exist, we say that the sequence a n n  m Diverges or
lim an does not exist.
n  
 If the limit of a sequence exists, then it is unique.
 For three sequences a n n  m , bn n  p , cn n  k , if lim an  L  lim bn and there
n   n
exists an integer N such that an  cn  bn for all n > N then lim cn  L .

n
 For the sequence a n n  m , if lim a n  0 then lim a n  0 .

n   n  
 The geometric sequence r  n 

nm is i) Convergent if 1  r  1 and
ii) Divergent if r  1 or r  1.
 Let a n n 1 be an infinite sequence. Then the sum


a
n 1
n  a 1  a 2  a 3  .........  a n .......... is called an Infinite Series (or simply a series). The
numbers a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . . . are called the Terms of the series.

 n
 For the infinite series a n the sum S n  a1  a2  a3  . . . . .  an  a k
is called the nth
n 1 k 1
partial sum of the series. If the sequence S n n 1 of partial sums is convergent and

lim S n  S exists as a real number, then we say that the infinite series
n  
a
n 1
n is convergent
and we write

a1  a2  a3  ...........  S or a
k 1
k S

The number S is called the sum of the series. If the sequence S n n 1 is divergent then we

say that the series a
n 1
n diverges.

n
 A geometric series cr
n  m
cr mn
i) converges if 1  r  1 and has sum S  cr  .
1 r
ii) diverges if r  1 or r  1 .
 Divergence Test

a) If the series a
n  1
n is convergent, then lim a n  0 .
n  

b) If lim a n  0 or lim an does not exist, then the series
n   n  
a
n  1
n is divergent.
 Let a n n 1 be a non-negative sequence and let f be a continuous, decreasing function


defined on [1, + ) such that f (n)  an for n 1 . Then the series
n  1
a n is convergent if

and only if the improper integral  f ( x) dx is convergent.
1
 For a given real number p, the series of the form


1 1 1

n 1 n
p
 1  p  p  ............. is called a p-series.
2 3

1
 The p-series n
n 1
p
i) converges if p > 1. ii) diverges if p  1.
 Let 0  an  bn for all n  1.

 
1. If  bn converges, then a n converges.

n 1 n 1
 
2. If a
n 1
n diverges, then b
n 1
n diverges.

 
an
 Let a
n 1
n and b
n 1
n be two non-negative series. Suppose im
n b
 L where L is fixed
n
positive number.
 
1. If b
n 1
n converges, then a
n 1
n converges.
 
2. If bn 1
n diverges, then a
n 1
n diverges.
a n1
3. If lim fails to exist then no conclusion can be drawn from the Root Test about the
n  a
n

convergence or divergence of the series a

n 1
n .
 A series is said to be alternating series if the terms of the series are alternately positive and
negative.

 Let bn n 1 be a decreasing sequence of positive terms such that im bn  0. Then the
n
 
n n 1
alternating series  (1)
n 1
bn and  (1)
n 1
bn are convergent series.
 
 If the series 
n 1
a n converges, then a
n 1
n converges.
 Let a
n 1
n be convergent series.
 
a) If a
n 1
n converges then the series a
n 1
n is called Absolutely Convergent or we say
that the series a

n 1
n Converge Absolutely.
 
b) If a
n 1
n diverges then the series a
n 1
n is called Conditionally
Convergent or we say that the series a

n 1
n Converge Conditionally.

 
 Let a
n 1
n be a series and an  bn for all n  1. If b
n 1
n converges, then
a
n 1
 
an
 Let  a n and b n be two series. Suppose n
im  L , where L is fixed positive
n 1 n 1
 bn
 
number. If  bn converges, then a n converges (absolutely).

n 1 n 1

 Let a
n 1
n be a series and assume that an  0 for all n  1. Let
a n 1
 im  r (possibly r =  ).
n  an

- If r < 1, then a
n 1
- If r > 1 or r = , then a
n 1
n diverges.
- If r = 1, then from the Ratio Test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the


n 1
n .
 Let a
n 1
n be a series. Let  im
n 
n a n  r (possibly ).
- If r < 1, then a
n 1
- If r > 1 or r = , then a
n 1
n diverges.
- If r = 1, then from the Ratio Test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the


n 1
n .

4.4 Review Exercises

In Exercises 1  4, evaluate the limits of the sequence,
2 1 3. lim
lim n
n
1. n
 e x dx
1 1
n
lim
n
2. lim 4.
n
In Exercises 5 – 11, determine whether the sequence converges or diverges. If it converges,

find its limit.
5. 8. n e p
1
n

n 1 for any p > 0
 9.
1.3.5......(2n  1) 
6.  
 ( 2n ) n n  1
10.

 (1)n 1 
7.  n  11.
 (0.7) n  0
In exercises 12 – 16 check whether the sequence is bounded, monotonic and the limit exist.
12. 15.
13. 16.
14.
In Exercises 17 - 20 , using Divergence Test, if applicable, check whether the series

diverges,
 
17. 
n  1
19. 
n  1
 
18. 
n  1
20. 
n  1

In Exercises 21 – 24, find the formula for the partial sum of the series. Using lim
n
determine whether the series converges or diverge. If it converges find the sum of the series.
 
21. 
n  1
23. 
n  1
 
22. 
n  2
24. 
n  2
In Exercises 25 – 28, determine whether the series converges or diverges. In converge, find
its sum.
 
25. 
n  1
27. 
n  0
 
26. 
n  1
28. 
n  3
 
29. It is known that 
n  1
. Using this find the sum 
n 1
.

30. Show that 
n  0
.
In Exercises 31 – 38 use the Integral Test, the Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison
test to determine whether the series converges or diverges.

n 
n3 
2  ( 1) n
31) 
n 1 2n 3  1
32) 
n2 n4 1
33) 
n 1 n n

n 1 
cos 2 n 
n
34) 
n 1 n 4n
35) 
n2 n2  1
36) 2
n 1
n
 
3  sin n 2n
37)  38) 
n2 n2 1 n 1 n 3
1  3
7

In Exercises 39 – 40 find those values of p for which the series converges.
 
1
39)    p
n 1  n2 40)  n ln nlnln n  p
n 1 n3
In Exercises 41 – 47, determine whether the series converges or diverges. In some cases you
may need to use tests other than the Ratio and Root tests.


nn (2n  1)!
41)  n 44)  2n 1
n  2 (n n) n0 2
n

10 n 
 n 1
45)    
42) 
n  0 (n  1) 4
2 n 1 n  1  k 1 k 

 n2
43) 

n ! ( 2n) n
46) ne
n2
n 1 (2n)!
 0 for even n
47) a n

, where an   n  n
n 1   for odd n
 2n  1 

1
 
 1 1  n 1  1 
n
n
48) 
n 1
( 1) sin  
n
49) 
n 1
(1)  
n

n 1
50)  n
n0 4
In Exercises 51 – 52, determine which series diverges, which converges conditionally or

which converges absolutely.

n n2 
2n
51)  (1) 52)  (1)
n
3n  1
n 1 5
n3 n 1


 n 
 1  n
53. 
n 0
( 1)n
 
 2n  1 
54.  (1) n1
n2 n n

(1) n arctan n
55. 
n 1 n2
56. 1 
1. 3 1. 3 . 5 1. 3 . 5 . 7
3!

5!

7!
. . . . .

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Defence University; College of Engineering

REAL SEQUENCES AND SERIES

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to

4.1.1 Sequences; Convergent Sequences

Although a sequence is a function, it is common to represent a sequence by subscript notation

and the entire sequence is denoted by .

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 325

Table 4.1 Terms of sequences.

Definition 4.1.2 (Formal Definition of Limit of a Sequence)

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 326

Remark: If the limit of a sequence exists, then it is unique.

Choose . Then 1   . It follows that

Therefore, the sequence is convergent (or converges to 0)

Note: The sequence is known as Harmonic Sequence.

Expressing n in terms of , we obtain

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 327

Now, choosing , we see that

That is for all , so that lim and the proof is

Definition 4.1.3 (Intuitive Definition of Limit of a Sequence)

if goes close to whenever is sufficiently large.

close to a fixed number that is lim

Therefore, the sequence is convergent and it converges to 0 .

Example 4.1.4 Find the limit of the sequence

Solution: - The nth term of the sequence is .

Then for all ,

That is the sequence agrees with a function at every positive integer .

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 328

Example 4.1.5 Show that the sequence diverges.

Therefore, the sequence diverges. 

Example 4.1.6 Show that lim

Solution For , the terms of the sequence are

This implies that lim . Thus the sequence diverges.

Theorem 4. 1.1 Limit of a Sequence

Let be a real number and a function defined on such that lim .

1. If is a sequence such that f (n)  an for every , then

2. If lim f ( x)    or lim f ( x)    then a n nm diverges and

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 329

In Exercises 9 – 12, using the definition 4.1.2, verify the equation

10. lim 12. lim

13. Find the least positive integer such that if

In Exercises 19-26, evaluate the limits of the sequence,

19. lim 23. lim

20. lim 24. lim

21. lim 25. lim

22. lim 26. lim

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 330

In Exercises 27 –36, determine whether the sequence converges or diverges. If it converges,

4.1.2 Convergent Properties of Sequences

Theorem 4.1.2 Properties of Limits of Sequences

4. lim , for any c 

5. lim , where lim

6. lim , for any exists.

7. lim , for any , if exists.

Applied Mathematics I Real Sequence and Real Series 331

Remark: Let lim and lim

1. If then lim does not exist.

3. If then lim may or may not exist.

Example 4.1.7 Check whether the sequence converges or diverges.

The terms of the sequence are that oscillate between and .

Therefore, lim does not exist. So the sequence diverges. 

Example 4.1.8 Show that the sequence whose term is converges.

Let f be a function of real variable x given by .