CHAPTER 3 Simple Resistive Circuits

CHAPTER CONTENTS
3.1 Resistors in Series
3.2 Resistors in Parallel
3.3 The Voltage-Divider and Current-Divider Circuits
3.4 Voltage Division and Current Division
3.5 Measuring Voltage and Current
3.6 Measuring Resistance - The Wheatstone Bridge
3.7 Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
△ Be able to recognize resistors connected in series and in parallel and use the rules for combining
series-connected resistors and parallel-connected resistors to yield equivalent resistance.
△ Know how to design simple voltage-divider and current-divider circuits.

△ Be able to use voltage division and current division appropriately to solve simple circuits.

△ Be able to determine the reading of an ammeter when added to a circuit to measure current; be
able to determine the reading of a voltmeter when added to a circuit to measure voltage.
△ Understand how a Wheatstone bridge is used to measure resistance.

△ Know when and how to use delta-to-wye equivalent circuits to solve simple circuits.

3.1 Resistors in Series

It is said to be in series when just two elements
connect at a single node. Series-connected circuit
elements carry the same current. By applying
Kirchhoff’s current law,

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the single closed loop.

1
In general, if k resistors are connected in series, the equivalent single resistor has a resistance equal
to the sum of the k resistances, or

3.2 Resistors in Parallel

When two elements connect at a single node pair, they are said to be in parallel. Parallel-connected
circuit elements have the same voltage across their terminals. From Kirchhoff’s current law,

In general, if k resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent single resistor becomes

By using conductance,

2
As a special case, two resistors are connected in parallel.

3.3 The Voltage-Divider and Current-Divider Circuits

A voltage-divider circuit is to develop more than one voltage level from a single voltage supply.

3
It shows that v1 and v2 are fractions of vs. Because this ratio is always less than 1.0, the divided
voltages are always less than the source voltage.

Consider connecting a resistor RL in parallel with a voltage-divider circuit. The resistor RL acts as a
load that draw power from the circuit. The expression for the output voltage becomes

Another characteristic of the voltage-divider circuit of interest is the sensitivity of the divider to the
tolerances of the resistors as discussed in the following example. By tolerance we mean a range of
possible values.

4
The current-divider circuit consists of at least two
resistors connected in parallel across a current
source to divide the source current.

Because this ratio is always less than 1.0, the divided currents are always less than the source
current.

3.4 Voltage Division and Current Division

The generalization of the voltage divider circuit and the current-divider circuit will yield two
additional and very useful circuit analysis techniques known as voltage division and current
division.

Voltage-division
5
To the right of the box are n resistors connected in series. By using Ohm’s law, the current through
all of the resistors in series is

The voltage drop vj across an arbitrary resistor Rj in

terms of the voltage v is

Current-division
To the right of the box are n resistors connected in parallel. By using Ohm’s law, the voltage drop
across each of the resistors in parallel is

The current ij through the resistor Rj in

terms of the current i is

Note that the constant of proportionality in the current division equation is the inverse of the
constant of proportionality in the voltage division equation!

6
3.5 Measuring Voltage and Current
An ammeter is an instrument designed to measure
current; it is placed in series with the circuit element.
A voltmeter is an instrument designed to measure
voltage; it is placed in parallel with the element.
As shown in the right figure, a short-circuit model for the
ideal ammeter, and an open-circuit model for the ideal
voltmeter

Two broad categories of meters

Digital meters measure the continuous voltage or current signal at discrete points in time, called
the sampling times.
Analog meters are based on the d’Arsonval meter movement which implements the readout
mechanism.

d’Arsonval meter
A d’Arsonval meter movement consists of a movable coil
placed in the field of a permanent magnet.
When current flows in the coil, it creates a torque on the
coil, causing it to rotate and move a pointer across a
calibrated scale.
The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to
the current in the movable coil.
The coil is characterized by both a voltage rating and a
current rating.

An analog ammeter consists of a d’Arsonval movement in

parallel with a resistor which is to limit the amount of
current in the movement’s coil.

An analog voltmeter consists of a d’Arsonval movement in series

with a resistor which is used to limit the voltage drop across the
meter’s coil.

In both meters, the added resistor determines the full-scale reading of the meter movement.

7
8
3.6 Measuring Resistance - The Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to precisely
measure resistances of medium values, that is, in the
range of 1 to 1M.
In commercial models of the Wheatstone bridge,
accuracies on the order of 0.1% are possible.
By adjusting the variable resistor R3 until there is no
current in the galvanometer, the value of the unknown
resistor Rx can be obtained.
When the bridge is balanced, then ig=0. The Kirchhoff’s current law requires that

The Kirchhoff’s voltage law requires that

It gives

3.7 Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits

If we replace the galvanometer with its equivalent
resistance, a resistive network is generated by a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
The interconnected resistors can be reduced to a
single equivalent resistor by means of a delta-to-wye
(△-to-Y) or pi-to-tee (-to-T) equivalent circuit.

Delta (△ or ) interconnection Wye (Y or T) interconnection

9
The △-to-Y (or -to-T) equivalent circuit transformation

The resistance between terminals a and b must be the same

whether we use the △-connected set or the Y-connected set.

For each pair of terminals in the △-connected circuit, the

equivalent resistance can be computed using series and
parallel simplifications to yield

Algebraic manipulation of the above equations yields

10
 Summary
△ Series resistors can be combined to obtain a single equivalent resistance according to the
equation

△ Parallel resistors can be combined to obtain a single equivalent resistance according to the
equation

△ Voltage division is a circuit analysis tool that is used to find the voltage drop across a single
resistance from a collection of series-connected resistances.
△ Current division is a circuit analysis tool that is used to find the current through a single
resistance from a collection of parallel-connected resistances.
△ A voltmeter measures voltage and must be placed in parallel with the voltage being measured.
An ideal voltmeter has infinite internal resistance and thus does not alter the voltage being
measured.
△ An ammeter measures current and must be placed in series with the current being measured.
An ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance and thus does not alter the current being
measured.
△ Digital meters and analog meters have internal resistance, which influences the value of the
circuit variable being measured. Meters based on the d’Arsonval meter movement deliberately
include internal resistance as a way to limit the current in the movement’s coil.
11
△ The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to make precise measurements of a resistor’s value using
four resistors, a dc voltage source, and a galvanometer. Wheatstone bridge is balanced when the
current through the galvanometer is of 0 A.

△ A circuit with three resistors connected in a △ configuration (or a  configuration) can be

transformed into an equivalent circuit in which the three resistors are Y connected (or T
connected).

Assignment
習題節碼
學號尾碼
3.1〜3.2 3.3 3.4 3.6
0 10 12 32, 33, 44 59, 60
1 9 13 31, 34, 45 58, 61
2 8 14 30, 36, 47 57, 62
3 7 15 29, 37, 48 56, 63
4 6 16 28, 38, 49 55, 64
5 5 17 27, 39, 48 54, 65
6 4 18 26, 40, 47 53, 64
7 3 19 25, 41, 45 52, 63
8 2 20 24, 42, 47 51, 62
9 1 21 23, 43, 48 50, 61

12