applied
sciences
Article
Strategy Based on Two Stages for IR Thermographic
Inspections of Photovoltaic Plants
Germán Álvarez-Tey * and Carmen García-López
Citation: Álvarez-Tey, G.;
García-López, C. Strategy Based on
Two Stages for IR Thermographic
Inspections of Photovoltaic Plants.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331. https://
doi.org/10.3390/app12136331
Academic Editor: Gaetano Zizzo
Received: 8 June 2022
Accepted: 20 June 2022
Published: 22 June 2022
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136331
Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Universidad de Cádiz, Avenida de la Universidad de Cádiz, 10,
11519 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain; carmen.garcia@uca.es
* Correspondence: german.alvarez@uca.es; Tel.: +34-956483326
Abstract: Aerial infrared (IR) thermography has been implemented in recent years, proving to
be a powerful and versatile technique for performing maintenance at photovoltaic (PV) plants.
Its application speed and reliability using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones make it
extremely interesting at large PV plants, due to the associated savings in time and costs. Ground-level
thermographic inspection is slower and more costly to apply, although it does provide higher optical
resolution, due to being conducted closer to the PV modules being inspected. Both techniques used
in combination can improve the diagnosis. An IR thermography inspection strategy is proposed for
PV plants based on two stages. The first stage of the inspection is aerial, enabling thermal faults
to be detected and located quickly and reliably. The second stage of the inspection is done on the
ground and applied only to the most relevant incidents revealed in the first stage. This inspection
strategy was applied to a 100 kW PV plant, with an improved diagnosis verified via this procedure,
as the ground-level inspection detects one-off thermal incidents from objects creating shade and from
solar reflections. For PV modules with open circuits or open substrings, the use of one technique or
another is immaterial.
Keywords: infrared thermography; aerial thermography; PV system maintenance
1. Introduction
The photovoltaic (PV) industry has experienced unprecedented growth in recent years
as a consequence of the energy policies applied by many countries to drive the change to
renewable energies and the decarbonisation of the economy. Despite the serious impact of
the COVID-19 pandemic on the entire world, global accrued solar capacity had increased
to 773.2 GW by 2020, representing a year-on-year increase of 22%, confirming the trend
of recent years [1]. This growth in the PV sector has been particularly pronounced in the
number of PV power plants and their installed capacity [2]. The PV plants constructed are
increasingly larger and have increasingly larger installed power capacities. This situation
requires specialised and efficient operation and maintenance (O&M) tasks, to ensure peak-
performance operational continuity with the maximum energy use of systems to amortise
the investments made [3,4].
Large PV power plants are normally monitored and have an alert system for contin-
uous supervision of their operations. The measurement and recording of electrical and
atmospheric variables enable the intervention of the maintenance service before incidents
and faults appear in the modules [5]. The monitoring systems can report possible failures if
the measured amount of energy differs from the expected values [6]. The monitoring sys-
tem should be adapted to the size of the PV system and user requirements. The largest and
most costly photovoltaic systems are generally equipped with more monitoring points and
sensors with greater precision than smaller and more economical photovoltaic systems [7].
Conducting infrared (IR) thermographic inspections for PV plant maintenance is
an effective and reliable maintenance technique for detecting and locating incidents that
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 2 of 14

are thermal in nature [8,9]. IR imaging of PV modules permit the identification of early
faults by non-contact surface temperature measurements [10,11]. The procedures for IR
inspections of PV systems are well established in guides and technical specifications [12,13].
The growth in size of PV plants makes manual or ground-level thermographic inspections
complex, due to the large areas and time involved in doing them. Further, the manual
inspection can turn out to be extremely difficult in plants with trackers or modules with
very slight tilt angles due to the height required. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) or drones to conduct these inspections can be done at great speed and reliability,
making them a perfect tool for large plants [14,15]. Reducing inspection times entails a
significant advantage for costs associated with PV plant operation and maintenance.
Different studies have been executed in recent years to evaluate the potential of aerial
IR thermography for inspecting photovoltaic systems. A comprehensive bibliographical
review of different issues of aerial IR imaging is done in [16], where the authors conclude
that this inspection technique for photovoltaic systems is still in its development phase. The
evolution and technological development attained in the sensors and electronic instrumen-
tation employed in aerial thermography has increased the possibilities of this technique [17].
The influence of image resolution on detecting faults in PV modules is studied in [18], with
the results for different inspection heights compared. One study [19] on PV modules with
hotspots compares thermographic results at the back and at different heights via aerial
thermography. A general trend was observed of lower temperature measurements as the
flight height increased.
Automated planning of flight routes and fault detection in defective PV modules was
studied in [20], proposing an automated algorithm for drone flight routes that eliminates
the need to manually control the drones. The evaluation of faults by IR thermography-
based orthomosaics is studied in [21,22], facilitating the location of faults. However, long
flight times are required to create compound images and there is some spatial distortion.
By evaluating three 9.4 MWp PV plants, [23] studies the relationship between the power
generated and the faults found with aerial IR thermography, to perform a quantitative
estimate of the energy produced. In the reference [24] the authors provide a review
of methods reported in the literature to automate different tasks of airborne infrared
thermography for the inspection of photovoltaic systems. Studies related to digital image
processing, classification and deep learning techniques are reviewed.
However, this significant advantage of aerial IR thermography in application time
can lead to specific faults going unnoticed, being misinterpreted or not being assessed
correctly. For example, with aerial IR thermography, it is possible that the appearance of an
intermediate object—such as vegetation or a perimeter fence post—could hide the thermal
fault produced. Another situation is that a one-off thermal anomaly smaller than the PV
cell could be detected at a distance with an insufficient resolution, causing a temperature
value to be taken that is lower than the real temperature. It is also possible that sunlight
reflecting on the surface of the PV modules could be interpreted as a non-factual or unreal
thermal incident.
Two-stage thermographic inspection methods have been applied in other areas. In [25]
the authors compare aerial thermography and ground-based thermography on the envelope
of a traditional wine cellar. Working with UAVs gives great flexibility for the inspection, but
the angle of view strongly must be taken into account to avoid disturbances due to specular
reflections. In [26] a complete literature review of the use of UAVs in bridge monitoring
is carried out and compared with other inspection techniques. The use of hand-held IR
cameras allows the validation of results from aerial thermographic inspections.
Applying ground-level thermographic inspection for the PV plant as a whole can
prevent the problems set out for aerial inspection. Nonetheless, the time required for
inspection and subsequent analysis will increase considerably. The disadvantages posed
can be minimised by employing a two-stage thermographic inspection strategy. The first
stage is carried out as an aerial thermographic inspection while the second stage is carried
out as a thermographic inspection on the ground. The first stage is done quickly to locate
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

can be minimised by employing a two-stage thermographic inspection strategy. The first

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 3 of 14
stage is carried out as an aerial thermographic inspection while the second stage is carried
out as a thermographic inspection on the ground. The first stage is done quickly to locate
relevant incidents. The second stage of the inspection is applied to detect relevant inci-
relevant
dents incidents.the
to improve The second stage of the inspection is applied to detect relevant incidents
diagnosis.
to improve the diagnosis.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1.
2.1.Materials
Materials
To
To apply
apply the
theIRIRinspection
inspectionstrategy
strategyposed
posedin inthis
thisstudy,
study,twotwodifferent
differentthermographic
thermographic
cameras will be used that are suitable for each of the two stages.
cameras will be used that are suitable for each of the two stages. Stage one Stage one
of of
thethe inspec-
inspection
tion with aerial IR thermography employs a Workswell WIRIS
with aerial IR thermography employs a Workswell WIRIS 2nd-gen 336 camera installed on 2nd-gen 336 camera in-

stalled
a droneon[27]
a drone
as shown[27] in
as Figure
shown1.inThisFigure 1. This
camera withcamera with anmicrobolometer
an uncooled uncooled microbolom-detector
eter
has a spectral range of 7.5–13.5 µm, a resolution of 336 × 256 pixels336
detector has a spectral range of 7.5–13.5 µm, a resolution of and×weighs
256 pixels and
less than
weighs
400 g. less
Thisthan 400 g. This
inspection inspection
entails an initialentails
sweep anto
initial
detectsweep to detect
relevant relevant
incidents incidents
quickly. The
quickly. The drone used was an ATYGES FV8 octocopter. Flight
drone used was an ATYGES FV8 octocopter. Flight plans were programmed and executed plans were programmed
and executed
at heights of 15atm,
heights
flight of 15 m,from
speeds flight
1 tospeeds
2 m/sfrom
and a1thermographic
to 2 m/s and arecording
thermographic
intervalre-
of
cording interval of 2, 3 and 5 s. To calculate the maximum inspection
2, 3 and 5 s. To calculate the maximum inspection height, the thermal imaging camera height, the thermal
was
imaging
equipped camera
with awas 45◦ equipped
FOV lens,with withaa45° FOVfocal
9 mm lens,length
with aand9 mm anfocal
IFOVlength andmrad.
of 1.889 an IFOV
The
of 1.889 mrad.
maximum Theresolution
spatial maximumisspatial resolution
3 cm per pixel, asisrequired
3 cm perinpixel, as required
specification in specifica-
IEC-62446-3 [12].
tion IEC-62446-3
Therefore, IFOV × [12]. Therefore,
h (m) IFOV
= pixel-side × h(mm),
size (m) =resulting
pixel-side insize (mm), resulting
a maximum length ofin15a metres
maxi-
mum
from length
the PV of 15 metres from the PV modules.
modules.

Imagesof
Figure1.1.Images
Figure ofthe
thedrone
droneused
usedfor
forthe
theaerial
aerialIR
IRthermographic
thermographicinspection.
inspection.

Stage two
Stage two of
of the
the inspection
inspection isisdone
donebybyground-level
ground-levelIRIRthermography,
thermography, butbut
only for for
only the
most relevant faults. This second sweep was done with a ThermaCam S60
the most relevant faults. This second sweep was done with a ThermaCam S60 [28]. This [28]. This camera,
equipped
camera, with an with
equipped uncooled microbolometer
an uncooled detector,detector,
microbolometer has a spectral range ofrange
has a spectral 7.5–13ofµm,
7.5–a
resolution of 320 × 240 pixels and a weight of 2 kg. The thermographic camera
13 µm, a resolution of 320 × 240 pixels and a weight of 2 kg. The thermographic camera is is positioned
facing the facing
positioned PV module
the PVatmodule
an angle thatangle
at an prevents the influence
that prevents of solar of
the influence reflection during
solar reflection
the test.
during the test.
2.2. Methods
2.2. Methods
The proposed inspection process aims to make full use of the advantages of aerial IR
The proposed inspection process aims to make full use of the advantages of aerial IR
thermography for speed, and ground-level IR thermography for its resolution and precision.
thermography for speed, and ground-level IR thermography for its resolution and preci-
This strategy is based on a mixed thermographic inspection done in two stages. Aerial IR
sion. This strategy
thermographic is based is
inspection ondone
a mixed thermographic
in the inspection
first stage, while done inIR
ground-level two stages. Aer-
thermographic
ial IR thermographic inspection is done in the first stage, while ground-level
inspection is done in the second stage, only for significant incidents detected by IR the
thermo-
aerial
graphic inspection is done in the second stage, only for significant incidents
IR thermography. This second stage with greater detail will improve the previous diagnosis detected by
the aerial IR thermography. This second stage with greater detail will improve
conducted in the first aerial inspection. This two-stage thermographic inspection strategy the previ-
ous
maydiagnosis conducted
be suitable in which
for cases in the first aerial inspection.
inadequate This istwo-stage
maintenance thermographic
done, either in-
due to technical
spection strategy may be suitable for cases
reasons or due to excessive time delays in doing it.in which inadequate maintenance is done, ei-
ther due to technical reasons or due to excessive time delays in doing it.
For proper IR thermographic inspections of photovoltaic plants, specific configura-
tion and positioning issues for the thermography equipment must be kept in mind [29].
The surface emissivity of the modules and the reflected apparent temperature must be
determined experimentally. Both parameters enable the configuration of the thermography
equipment. The modules’ surface emissivity can be determined with the help of a contact
 tion and positioning issues for the thermography equipment must be kept in mind [29].
The surface emissivity of the modules and the reflected apparent temperature must be
determined experimentally. Both parameters enable the configuration of the thermogra-
phy equipment. The modules’ surface emissivity can be determined with the help of a
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 contact sensor. Typical emissivity values are 0.85 for glass and 0.95 for the polymer 4 of 14 on the
back cover [13]. The reflected apparent temperature is required to offset the radiation re-
flected on the object from the sky. The reflected apparent temperature can be determined
by a Lambertian
sensor. radiator values
Typical emissivity in a horizontal position
are 0.85 for glass and in the
0.95shade
for theso that it isondirectly
polymer the backexposed
to the [13].
cover sky [14,30].
The reflected apparent temperature is required to offset the radiation reflected
on the
Theobject from theof
positioning sky.theThe reflected apparent
equipment temperature
for the inspection mustcanalso
be determined
be borne inby a
mind [29].
Lambertian radiator in a horizontal position in the shade so that it is directly
The ideal location so that the emissivity value can be considered constant is to inspect exposed to
the sky
with an[14,30].
angle slightly greater than 0° from the perpendicular with the PV module sur-
The positioning of the equipment for the inspection must also be borne in mind [29].
faces, to prevent reflection, but without exceeding 40° as the upper limit for doing the
The ideal location so that the emissivity value can be considered constant is to inspect with
inspection. Moreover,
an angle slightly greaterthe thanideal thermographic
0◦ from inspection
the perpendicular angle
with the will besurfaces,
PV module that whichto mini-
mises solar reflection and does not increase
◦ reflectivity. A suitable
prevent reflection, but without exceeding 40 as the upper limit for doing the inspection.position may be when
the thermographic
Moreover, the ideal camera is situated
thermographic with the
inspection sunwill
angle behind it at
be that an inspection
which minimises anglesolar of less
than 45°. Further,
reflection and does to notminimise reflectionsAfrom
increase reflectivity. theposition
suitable sky, themay
inspection
be when must be done at a
the thermo-
graphic height,
specific camera is situated
while with the sun
maintaining thebehind
required it atoptical
an inspection angleTo
resolution. of obtain
less than 45◦ .
high-quality
Further, to
images, minimise
taking reflections
IR images from
with the solar
high sky, the inspection
radiation ismust be done at a (>600
recommended specificW/mheight,
2), as well
while
as maintaining
constant the required
environmental optical resolution.
conditions (no clouds, Tolowobtain high-quality
wind speed andimages,
stable taking
ambient tem-
IR images with high solar radiation is recommended (>600 W/m2 ), as well as constant
perature). Figure 2 shows the flow chart to be considered for the proposed two-step ap-
environmental conditions (no clouds, low wind speed and stable ambient temperature).
proach.
Figure 2 shows the flow chart to be considered for the proposed two-step approach.

Figure 2. Flowchart for two-stage strategy.

Figure 2. Flowchart for two-stage strategy.
2.3. Case Study
2.3. Case
The Study
proposed inspection process was applied to a real PV plant. The PV plant where
the inspection was done
The proposed has a nominal
inspection process power of 100 kWtoand
was applied is located
a real in southern
PV plant. The PVSpain.
plant where
It is south facing and its tilt angle from the horizontal is 32 ◦ . The solar panels are p-Si type,
the inspection was done has a nominal power of 100 kW and is located in southern Spain.
ItScheuten
is southmodel
facingPS54,
and although after the initial commissioning other different PV modules
its tilt angle from the horizontal is 32°. The solar panels are p-Si type,
were added with different technology of m-Si by LYNX Industries model LYNX175M36.
Scheuten model PS54, although after the initial commissioning other different PV mod-
The m-Si solar panels were installed later due to thefts at the power station. The use of PV
ules
modules werewithadded with
different differentleads
technologies technology
to differentof m-Si characteristics
electrical by LYNX Industries
and thus a model
technical decision that restricts the energy yields at the PV plant. Figure 3 shows that they
are mainly located at the ends of the strings.
 LYNX175M36. The m-Si solar panels were installed later due to thefts at the power
The use of PV modules with different technologies leads to different electrical chara
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 and thus a technical decision that restricts the energy yields at the PV plant.
5 of 14 Figure

that they are mainly located at the ends of the strings.

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Aerial
Aerial viewview
of 100ofkW
100PVkW PV
plant in plant
southernin Spain.
southern
It canSpain.
be seenItthat
canPVbemodules
seen that
withPV mod
different technologies are located at the ends of the arrays.
different technologies are located at the ends of the arrays.
Environmental parameters (irradiance, ambient temperature and wind speed) are
obtainedEnvironmental
from the weatherparameters
station located(irradiance, ambient
at the test site. temperature
The thermographic and is
inspection wind sp
obtainedwith
conducted from the weather
irradiance station
conditions located
over the atthe
plane of themodules
test site. The than
greater thermographic
700 W/m2 , insp
low wind speeds
conducted with(<1irradiance
m/s) and a conditions
lack of cloud over
cover the
(oktaplane
level 0),
ofasthe
specified
modules in IECgreater t
62446-32 [12]. With the aim of having a proper configuration to reduce measurement errors,
W/m , low wind speeds (<1 m/s) and a lack of cloud cover (okta level 0), as spe
the surface emissivity and reflected apparent temperature were determined by experiment
IEC 62446-3
as detailed [12].
in [29]. With
The frontthe aim ofvalue
emissivity having a proper
determined was configuration
0.88 and the valueto reduce
of the meas
errors, temperature
reflected the surfacefrom emissivity and reflected
the sky before apparent
and after finishing thetemperature
test was −30 ◦wereC. Thedetermine
IR
◦
periment
camera as detailed
was also positionedinat[29]. Theslightly
an angle front greater
emissivity
than 0value determined
to prevent wasand
self-reflection 0.88 and t
less
of the 40◦ from the
thanreflected perpendicular
temperature so that
from theemissivity
sky before couldandbe considered constant.
after finishing theTotest was
offset atmospheric transmission during the thermographic inspection, average atmospheric
The IR camera was also positioned at an angle slightly greater than 0° to prev
temperature, distance and humidity values were logged. These values will be used as
reflection and
configuration less than
parameters by40°
the from theinperpendicular
software the thermographic so that emissivity
equipment as theycould
are be con
constant. To
radiometric offset atmospheric transmission during the thermographic inspection,
measurements.
atmospheric temperature, distance and humidity values were logged. These value
3. Results
used as configuration parameters by the software in the thermographic equipmen
IR thermographic inspection was done by centring the thermographic log on a time
are radiometric
interval starting at measurements.
noon and ending at 1.30 p.m. In this time range, the sun’s position
expressed by solar elevation/azimuth was at the start time: 30.18◦ N/−18.81◦ W; and at
end time: 32.42◦ N/−2.59◦ W. The results are presented by classifying them by the
3. Results
the
type of incidents or faults detected, showing aerial IR thermography and ground-level
IR thermographic inspection was done by centring the thermographic log o
IR thermography. The analysis of results was done by considering this classification of
intervalincidents:
standard starting at noon and ending at 1.30 pm. In this time range, the sun’s pos
1.pressed by solar
Incidents elevation/azimuth
with broken was at the start time: 30.18°N/−18.81°W; and a
glass in PV module.
2.time: 32.42°N/−2.59°W.
Incidents The
involving partial results are presented by classifying them by the type
shading.
3.dents
Incidents involving PV module
or faults detected, showing technology.
aerial IR thermography and ground-level IR t
4. Incidents with open-circuit PV modules.
raphy. The analysis of results was done by considering this classification of stan
5. Other incidents.
cidents:
Bear in mind that the previous classification is not strict with regard to the incident
1. given
type, Incidents
that inwith
some broken glass in
thermographic IR PV module.
images several types of incidents can be seen.
The purpose of classification is to organise
2. Incidents involving partial shading. the information according to the most prominent
incidents observed.
3. Incidents Then, the PV
involving results obtained
module are analysed and presented, considering
technology.
an identification matrix for the PV modules at the plant where the incident occurred and
4. Incidents with open-circuit PV modules.
the individual identification of each cell in each PV module as shown in Figure 4. The
5. Other of
identification incidents.
the array number is shown in Figure 14.
Bear in mind that the previous classification is not strict with regard to the
type, given that in some thermographic IR images several types of incidents can
The purpose of classification is to organise the information according to the most pr
incidents observed. Then, the results obtained are analysed and presented, consid
identification matrix for the PV modules at the plant where the incident occurred
 individual identification of each cell in each PV module as shown in Figure 4. Th
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 6 of 14
cation of the array number is shown in Figure 14.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

individual identification of each cell in each PV module as shown in Figure 4. The identifi-
A1 B1 C1
cation of the array number isAA1
shownAB1 XX1
in Figure 14.

A1 B1 C1 AA1 AB1 XX1

A2 B2 C2 AA2 AB2 XX2

A2 B2 C2 AA2 AB2 XX2

AN BN CN AAN ABN XXN

AN BN CN AAN ABN XXN

(a)
(a) (b) (b)
Figure
Figure
Figure 4.4. Coding
4. Coding system
systemfor
Codingsystem for identification
foridentificationof
ofPV
identificationPVmodules
modules and
andcells.
of PV modulescells.(a)
(a) Identification
and cells. (a)matrix
Identification matrixof
ofplant
plant
Identification ma
PVmodules,
PV modules,andand(b)
(b)the
thecells
cellsinineach
eachPV
PVmodule
modulefrom
fromaafront
frontview.
view.
PV modules, and (b) the cells in each PV module from a front view.
1.1. Incidents
Incidents with
with broken
broken glass
glass in
in PV
PV module
module
1. Incidents
Figure
Figure 5a 5awith
depicts
depicts broken
the
theaerial
aerialglass in PV module
thermographic
thermographic analysis
analysis of of the
the PV
PV module
module with with aabroken
broken
front cover (array 5, position E10), which reaches a temperature of 57.0 ◦ C. The temperature
front cover (array 5, position E10), which reaches a temperature of 57.0 °C. The temperature
Figure 5a depicts the aerial thermographic analysis of the PV module with
difference
difference with
with respect
respect toto the
the adjacent
adjacent PV PV module
module is is around
around 19 19 ◦°C.
C. Figure
Figure 5b 5bshows
shows the
the
frontground-level
cover (array
ground-level 5, position
thermographic
thermographic E10),for
analysis
analysis which
for thesame
the reaches
same module.
module. aIntemperature
In this
this case,case, ofmaximum
the
the maximum 57.0 °C.
tem-The te
◦ C. This abnormality is one-time
difference
peraturewith
temperature of respect
of the the toatthe
PV module
PV module at adjacent
position
position E10 isE10PV module
is °C.
86.6 86.6 This is around
abnormality 19 °C. and
is one-time Figure
is 5b
and is obtained
obtained in the in the
cell cell indicated
indicated in the in the analysis
analysis chart. chart.
The The average
average temperature
temperature of ofcell
this thisis
ground-level◦ thermographic analysis for the same module. In this case, the maxi
cell
63.7is°C.
63.7
TheC. The difference
difference in the results
in the results obtained obtained for maximum
for maximum values isvalues
nearlyis30 nearly 30 ◦ C
°C between
perature
between ofboth
the thermographs.
both thermographs.
PV module at position
This
This difference difference
is due to the
E10
is due isto86.6
fact thatthe °C.
thefact
This
that
abnormality theabnormality
abnormality is is
is a one-off with a one-t
obtained
one-off in thethan
with
a size smaller a cellthe
size indicated
smaller than the
cell, and thus,in the
cell, andanalysis
thus,
the aerial the chart.
aerial
inspection The provides
inspection
distance averagea spatial
distance temperature
provides a
reso- of
spatial resolution
lution that that is insufficient
is insufficient for this typefor of this
fault.type of fault.
63.7 °C. The difference in the results obtained for maximum values is nearly 30 °
both thermographs. This difference is due to the fact that the abnormality is a on
a size smaller than the cell, and thus, the aerial inspection distance provides a sp
lution that is insufficient for this type of fault.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.5. Thermographic
Figure Thermographic analysis
analysis for
forananincident
incidentofofbroken
brokenglass:
glass:(a)(a)
aerial IR IR
aerial inspection, andand
inspection, (b)
ground-level IR inspection. The red circle in (a) identifies the affected PV module.
(b) ground-level IR inspection. The red circle in (a) identifies the affected PV module.

Figure 6a
Figure 6a depicts
depicts another
another PVPV module
module with with aa broken
broken front
front cover
cover (array
(array 6,6,position
position
AK11),
AK11),which
whichreaches
reachesaatemperature
temperature of 66.0 ◦°C.
of66.0 C. Figure
Figure 6b
6b shows
shows the
the ground-level
ground-level thermo-
thermo-
graphic
graphic analysis for the same PV module. The top temperature in the
for the same PV module. The top temperature in the PV module with PV module with
po-
position AK11 is 89.6 ◦ C and is reached inindicated
the indicated cell
sition AK11 is 89.6 °C and is reached in the cell via anvia an analysis
analysis chart
chart as as a
a one-off
one-off abnormality.
abnormality. (a)
The difference
The difference in theobtained
in the results results obtained for maximum
for maximum values isvalues (b)is33nearly
nearly °C be-
33 ◦ C between both thermographs. Like in the previous
tween both thermographs. Like in the previous case, thiscase, this difference
difference is due toisthe
due to that
fact the
Figure 5. Thermographic analysis for an incident of broken glass: (a) aerial IR inspecti
ground-level IR inspection. The red circle in (a) identifies the affected PV module.

Figure 6a depicts another PV module with a broken front cover (array 6

Appl.
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Sci.2022,
2022, 12,6331
12, xx FOR
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fact
the that the abnormality
the abnormality
abnormality is is awith
is aa one-off
one-off one-off
with with
aa size
size a sizethan
smaller
smaller smaller
than thanand
the cell,
the cell, thethus,
and cell, and
thus, thus, inspection
the aerial
the aerial the aerial
inspection
inspection distance
distance provides
distance provides
provides aa spatial a spatial
spatial resolution resolution
resolution that
that is that is
is insufficient insufficient
insufficient for
for this
this type for
type of this
of fault.
fault.type of fault.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 6.
Figure
Figure 6. Thermographic
6. Thermographic analysis
Thermographic analysis for
analysisfor an
foran incident
anincident ofofbroken
incidentof broken glass:
brokenglass: (a)(a)
glass:(a) aerial IR IR
aerial
aerial IR inspection, andand
inspection,
inspection, and (b)
(b)
ground-level
ground-level
(b) IR
ground-level inspection.
IR IR
inspection. The red
TheThe
inspection. circle
redred
circle in (a)
in (a)
circle identifies
identifies
in (a) the affected
thethe
identifies affected PV
PVPV
affected module.
module.
module.

2.
2.
2. involving partial
Incidents involving partial shading
shading
Figure
Figure 7a
Figure 7a shows
7a shows
shows the the thermographic
thethermographic analysis with
thermographic analysis
analysis with incidents
with incidents due
incidents due to
due topartial
to partialshading
partial shadingin
shading in
in
cell AV6
cell
cell AV6in
AV6 inarray
in array3.3.
array 3.AA
Amaximum
maximumtemperature
maximum temperature of
temperature of 68.6
of 68.6 ◦
68.6 °C
°C was reached
C was
was reached in
reached in this
in this PV
this PV module.
PV module.
module.
Figure 7b
Figure
Figure 7bshows
7b showsthe
shows theground-level
the ground-levelthermographic
ground-level thermographic analysis
thermographic analysis for
analysis for the
for the same
the same PV
same PVmodule.
PV module. The
module. The
The
temperature
temperature
temperature in this PV module (location AV6) for the cell to the right attained
PV module (location AV6) for the cell to the right attained values upup
module (location AV6) for the cell to the right attained values
values up to
to
111.8
to 111.8 °C ◦and
C and an average temperature of 88.6 °C. ◦
The cell on the left reached values of 108.4
111.8 °C and an an average
average temperature
temperature of 88.6
of 88.6 °C. TheC. The cellthe
cell on onleft
thereached
left reached
valuesvalues of
of 108.4
°C and
108.4and◦ Can
andaverage
an averagetemperature of 85.9
temperature 85.9 °C.
of°C.
85.9 ◦ C.temperature
The The temperature was notnot
was homogenous
not homogenous in either
either
in
°C an average temperature of The temperature was homogenous in
shaded
either
shaded cell. The
shaded
cell. The high
cell.high temperature
Thetemperature value may
high temperature
value may bemay
valuebe duebe
due todue
to the fact
the fact that
to the fact
that the
the vegetation
that has no
the vegetation
vegetation has no
appreciable
has separation
no appreciable
appreciable separation over the
theover
separation
over module,
module, so that
that the
the module,
so the shading
soshading effect
that theeffect on the
shading
on the cellson
effect
cells is fixed,
is fixed, with-
the cells is
with-
out
fixed,influence
without from the
influence sun’s
from
out influence from the sun’s position. position.
the sun’s position.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure7.
Figure
Figure 7. Thermographic
7. Thermographic analysis
Thermographic analysis for
analysis for an
foran incident
anincident
incidentofofofpartial
partial shading:
partialshading: (a)(a)
shading:(a) aerial
aerial IRIR
IR
aerial inspection,
inspection, andand
and
inspection, (b)
(b)
ground-level IR
ground-level IR inspection.
inspection. The
The red
red circles
circles in
in (a)
(a) identify
identify the
the affected
affected PV
PV modules.
modules.
(b) ground-level IR inspection. The red circles in (a) identify the affected PV modules.

The PV
The
The PVmodules
PV modules at
modules at cell
at cellpositions
cell positions AQ4
positions AQ4 and
AQ4 and AR4
and AR4 (in
AR4 (in array
(in array 2)
array 2) in
2) inFigure
in Figure7a
Figure 7aare
7a arehidden
are hidden
hidden
behind
behindthe
behind the vegetation,
thevegetation, so
vegetation,sosothat that no overtemperature
thatnonoovertemperature
overtemperature of
ofof these
these
these PV
PVPV modules
modules
modules is observed
is observed
is observed due
duedue
to
to obstruction
to obstruction
obstruction by the
by object.
by the object.
the object.
FigureFigure
Figure 8 depicts
8 depicts
8 depicts the visual
the visual
the visual image
imageimage and ground-level
and ground-level
and ground-level thermo-
thermo-
thermographic
graphic with
graphic
analysis analysis
analysis with incidents
with
incidents incidents in PV
in
in PV modules PV modules
modules at positions
at
at positions positions
AQ4 andAQ4AQ4 and
AR4and AR4 (in
AR4
(in array (in array
2). array 2). The
2).
The highestThe
highest temperature
temperature
highest temperature in these
in these modules
in these modules
modules
at AQ4 and at AQ4
at AQ4 and
AR4, and
whichAR4, which
arewhich
AR4, are
shadedare shaded
byshaded
vegetation,
by is 49.6 ◦ C.
by vegetation,
vegetation,
is 49.6
The
is 49.6 °C.
top°C. The
areaThe
with top
top area
thearea
diodewith
with thewas
case
the diode case
not case
diode was not
considered.
was notThe
considered.
temperature
considered. Thedifference
The temperature
temperature differ-
compared
differ-
ence
to
ence compared
thecompared
previous caseto the
to the previous
(module
previous case
AV6) (module
casemay be due
(module AV6) may
to the
AV6) be due
separation
may to the
be due tofrom separation
the vegetation
the separation from the
fromthat
the
vegetation
caused that
a moving
vegetation caused
shadow
that caused a moving
depending
a moving shadow depending
on the
shadow on the
sun’s position.
depending sun’s position.
on the sun’s position.
Appl.
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(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure8.
Figure 8.Ground-level
Ground-levelthermographic
thermographicanalysis
thermographic analysiswith
analysis withan
with anincident
an incidentinvolving
incident involvingpartial
involving partialshading:
partial shading:(a)
shading: (a)visual
visual
image, and
image, and (b)
(b)ground-level
ground-levelIR
ground-level IRinspection.
IR inspection.
inspection.

Figure9a
Figure 9adepicts
depictsthe theaerial
aerialthermographic
thermographicanalysis analysisof ofthe
thePV
PVmodule
moduleat atposition
positionAC12AC12
(array 6),
(array 6),which
which reached
reached a a temperature
temperature of
of 63.7
63.7 ◦°C.
C. This
This overtemperature,
overtemperature, or
or hotspot,
hotspot, was
which reached a temperature of 63.7 °C. This overtemperature, hotspot, was
was
caused
causedby by the
thepartial
the partialshading
partial shading
shading from
from metal
metal fence
fence posts
posts on on
the the perimeter
perimeter and
from metal fence posts on the perimeter and occurred in other and occurred
occurred in in
other
other
PV PV modules
PVmodules
modules inthe
in in the bottom
thebottom
bottom rowof
row ofrow
array
array of66array
forthe
for the6 same
for
samethe same reason.
reason.
reason. Figure9b
Figure Figure
9b 9bthe
depicts
depicts depicts
the the
ground-
ground-
ground-level
level thermographic
level thermographic
thermographic analysis analysis
analysis with with incidents
with incidents
incidents in the
in PVinmodule
the PV the PV at
module module
at position
position at AC12
position
AC12 (arrayAC12
(array 6)
6)
(array
that 6) thataareaches
that reaches
reaches maximum
maximum a maximum
temperature
temperature temperature
of 77.5
of 77.5 °C,°C, 77.5 ◦ the
ofwhere
where C,
thewhere
average
averagethetemperature
average temperature
temperature of the
of the hot
hot
of the hot ◦ C. The difference in the maximum values obtained of nearly 15 ◦ C
cell
cell is 56.2cell
is56.2 °C. is
°C.The
The56.2
difference
difference inthe
in themaximum
maximumvalues valuesobtained
obtainedof ofnearly
nearly15 15°C°Cbetween
betweenbothboth
between
thermographsboth thermographs
may be due tomay
the be due
effect of to the effect
concealment ofbyconcealment
the post.
thermographs may be due to the effect of concealment by the post. It could also be due to It by the
could post.
also beIt could
due to
also be
the fact
the due
fact that to
that thethe fact
the shade that
shade moves the shade
moves with
with the moves
the movementwith
movement of the movement
of the
the sun
sun so of
so thatthe
that the sun so
the value that the
value changes value
changes over
over
changes
time. over time.
time.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure9.
Figure 9.Thermographic
9. Thermographicanalysis
Thermographic analysiswith
withananincident
incidentof
incident ofpartial
of partialshading:
partial shading:(a)
shading: (a)aerial
aerialIR
IRinspection,
IR inspection,and
inspection, and
(b)
(b) ground-level
ground-level IR
IR inspection.
inspection. The
The red
red circle
circle in
in (a)
(a) identifies
identifies the
the affected
affected PV
PV
(b) ground-level IR inspection. The red circle in (a) identifies the affected PV module. module.
module.

3.
3. Incidents involving
Incidents involving PV
involving PV module
module technology
technology
PVmodules
PV modulesof oftype
typem-Sim-Siin inarray
array111reveal
array revealan
reveal anirregular
an irregulartemperature
irregular temperaturepattern,
temperature pattern,reaching
pattern, reaching
values
values of of 53.5
of 53.5 °C,
◦ as shown
53.5°C,C,asasshown shown in
in inFigure
Figure
Figure10a. This
10a.10a. pattern
ThisThis
pattern is characteristic
is characteristic
pattern of a module
of a module
is characteristic of a module in aashort
in short
in
circuit
acircuit according
shortaccording to IEC-62446-3.
to
circuit according IEC-62446-3. RememberRemember
Remember
to IEC-62446-3. that for
that for the
thethat
m-Sifor
m-Si type
type module
themodule
m-Si type its IIscscmodule
its == 5.22
5.22 A
Aitsis
is
less
Iless
sc = than
than
5.22 I
AImp
mp is== 7.57
7.57
less AA
than for
forI mpthe
the = p-Si
p-Si
7.57 type
type
A formodule,
module,
the p-Siso
so the
the
type series
series
module, connection
connection
so the of
of
series both
both modules
modules
connection
ofcauses
causes this
boththis situation.
situation.
modules Thethis
The
causes heatsituation.
heat pattern observed
pattern observed
The heat is characterised
is characterised
pattern observed byaa short
by short circuit. The
circuit.
is characterised The max-
max-
by a
imum temperature
imumcircuit.
short temperature reached is 63.5
reached is temperature
The maximum °C according
63.5 °C according to Figure
to Figure
reached ◦
10b.
is 63.510b. C InIn this case,
this case,to
according the
the ground-level
ground-level
Figure 10b. In
thermograph
thermograph
this lets us
lets
case, the ground-levelus see
see the
thethermograph
irregular temperature
irregular temperature pattern
lets us seepattern with higher
with
the irregular higher resolution.
resolution.
temperature pattern with
higher resolution.
Appl.
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(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure10.
Figure
Figure 10.Thermographic
10. Thermographicanalysis
Thermographic analysisfor
analysis foran
for anincident
an incidentinvolving
incident involvingPV
involving PVmodule
PV moduletechnology:
module technology:(a)
technology: (a)aerial
(a) aerialIR
aerial IR
IR
inspection, and
inspection,and
inspection, (b)
and(b) ground-level
(b)ground-level
ground-level IRIR inspection.
IRinspection.
inspection.

4.4. Incidents
4. Incidentswith
Incidents withopen-circuit
with open-circuitPV
open-circuit PVmodules
PV modules
modules
Themodules
The
The moduleswith
modules withopen
with opencircuits
open circuitsdo
circuits donot
do notproduce
not produceenergy.
produce energy.All
energy. AllPV
All PVmodules
PV modulesin
modules inthe
in thestring
the string
string
that
thatareare observed
are observed
observedin in array
inarray 1
array11 are are
are inin
in anan open
an open circuit
open circuit
circuit withwith
with an an overtemperature
an overtemperature
overtemperatureof of some 555°C
some
of some ◦°C
C
that
with regard
with regard
with regard to to operational
to operational
operational PV PV modules,
PV modules,
modules, as as depicted
as depicted
depicted in in the
in the analysis
the analysis lines
analysis lines
lines inin Figure
in Figure
Figure 11a.11a. All
11a. All
All
PVPVmodules
PV modulesininthe
modules the
the string
string
string that
thatthatare
areareobserved
observed
observed ininarray
array4 4(bottom
in array (bottom
4 (bottompart)are
part) arealso
part) also
areinin anopen
also
an open
in circuit
ancircuit
open
withan an overtemperature ◦ regard
circuit
with with ofofsome
an overtemperature
overtemperature someof5 5°C°Cwith
some with C withtoto
5 regard operational
regard PVmodules,
modules,
to operational
operational PV asasdepicted
depicted
PV modules, as
in the analysis lines in Figure 10b. In this case, the ground-level thermograph
in the analysis lines in Figure 10b. In this case, the ground-level thermograph is not neces-is
depicted in the analysis lines in Figure 10b. In this case, the ground-level is not
thermograph neces-
sary,
not
sary, asasititdoes
necessary,doesnot
asnot provide
itprovide
does any
notany additional
provide information.
any additional
additional information. information.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure11.
Figure
Figure 11.Aerial
11. AerialIR
Aerial IRthermographic
IR thermographicanalysis
thermographic analysiswith
analysis withan
with anincident
an incidentof
incident ofopen-circuit
of open-circuitPV
open-circuit PVmodules:
PV modules:(a)
modules: (a)in
(a) in
in
array
array 1,1, and
and (b)
(b) inin array
array
array 1, and (b) in array 4. 4.
4.

5.5. Other
5. Otherincidents
Other incidents
incidents
The
The modules canpresent
presentopen
opensubstrings,
substrings,whichwhichlimits
limitstheir
theirpower
powergeneration.
generation.Fig-
Fig-
Themodules
modulescan can present open substrings, which limits their power generation.
ure
ure 11a shows
11a 11a
shows the aerial
the aerial thermographic
thermographic analysis in which
analysisanalysis some
in whichinsome PV modules
PV modules have substrings
Figure shows the aerial thermographic which some PVhave substrings
modules have
withtemperature
with temperaturegradients
gradientsofofup uptoto5 5°C
°Cwith
withrespect
respect
◦ totoadjacent
adjacentsubstrings
substringsininthethesame
same
substrings with temperature gradients of up to 5 C with respect to adjacent substrings
module.This
module. Thisisisseen
seenininarrays
arrays 2,3 3and
and 4,asasindicated
indicatedby bythe
the analysislines.
lines.Figure
Figure12b
12bshows
shows
in the same module. This is 2,
seen in 4, arrays 2, 3 and 4, as analysis
indicated by the analysis lines.
the
the temperature
temperature gradient corresponding to open-circuit substrings from testing with
Figure 12b showsgradient corresponding
the temperature gradienttocorresponding
open-circuit to substrings from
open-circuit testing with
substrings from
ground-level
ground-level thermography.
thermography.
testing with ground-level thermography.
Sunlight reflections due to an improper inspection angle can cause significant reflected
glare on the inspection equipment. In Figure 13a, the maximum temperature values
reached in the PV modules located at AK11, AR12 and AU12 (array 6) are influenced
by solar reflection, as verified in Figure 13b, meaning that they are not real values. The
existence of solar reflections is more likely with aerial thermography, as the flight path may
lead to some areas being inspected at an unsuitable angle with regard to the sun’s position.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2022, 12,x6331
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14

(a) (b)
Figure 12. Thermographic analysis with an incident of PV modules with open-circuit substrings: (a)
aerial IR inspection, and (b) ground-level IR inspection.

Sunlight reflections due to an improper inspection angle can cause significant reflected
glare on the inspection equipment. In Figure 13a, the maximum temperature values reached
in the PV modules located(a) at AK11, AR12 and AU12 (array 6) are influenced (b) by solar reflec-
tion, as verified in Figure 13b, meaning that they are not real values. The existence of solar
Figure
Figure12.
12.Thermographic
reflections is more likely analysis
Thermographic analysis
with with
with
aerial anan
incident
thermography, of PV
incident of modules
asPV flightwith
themodules open-circuit
with
path substrings:
open-circuit
may lead to (a)
substrings:
some areas
aerial
(a) IR inspection,
aerial IR and and
inspection, (b) ground-level
(b) IR inspection.
ground-level IR inspection.
being inspected at an unsuitable angle with regard to the sun’s position.
Sunlight reflections due to an improper inspection angle can cause significant reflected
glare on the inspection equipment. In Figure 13a, the maximum temperature values reached
in the PV modules located at AK11, AR12 and AU12 (array 6) are influenced by solar reflec-
tion, as verified in Figure 13b, meaning that they are not real values. The existence of solar
reflections is more likely with aerial thermography, as the flight path may lead to some areas
being inspected at an unsuitable angle with regard to the sun’s position.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure13.
13.Thermographic analysis
Thermographic (a) (a)
analysis andand
image (b) with
image an incident
(b) with of PVofmodules
an incident with solar
PV modules with
reflection.
solar reflection.

4.4.Discussion
Discussion
IRthermographic
IR thermographicinspection
inspectionwaswas conducted
conducted with
with clear
clear skies
skies (okta
(okta levellevel 0) and
0) and the
the ab-
absence
sence of wind
of wind (<1(<1 m/s),
m/s),
(a) which
which are highly
are highly favourable
favourable weather
weather conditions
conditions
(b) for inspection.
for inspection. In
In general, the PV installation has maintenance deficiencies that affect its performance.
general, the PV installation has maintenance deficiencies that affect its performance. The The
Figure
comments13. Thermographic
belowmerit analysis (a)
meritmention
mention andregard
with image (b)two-stage
with an incident of PV modules with solar
comments
reflection. below with regard tototwo-stage thermographic
thermographic inspection:
inspection:
•• Forone-off
For one-offincidents
incidents duedue to hotspots,
to hotspots, spatial
spatial resolution
resolution may be may be insufficient
insufficient with
with aerial
aerial
IR IR thermography.
thermography.
4. Discussion Ground-level
Ground-level IR IR thermography
thermography enables enables
greater greater
precision precision
for for
deter-
determining
mining thermal thermal
behaviour.behaviour.
IR thermographic inspection was conducted with clear skies (okta level 0) and the ab-
•• Heat
Heatincidents
incidentsfromfromshading
shading may
may bebe totally
totally or or partially
partially concealed
concealed by bythethe
itemitem caus-
causing
sence of wind (<1 m/s), which are highly favourable weather conditions for inspection. In
ing the shadow (vegetation or post) with aerial IR thermography.
the shadow (vegetation or post) with aerial IR thermography. Ground-level IR ther- Ground-level IR
general, the PV installation has maintenance deficiencies that affect its performance. The
thermography
mography prevents
prevents any possible
any possible blocking.
blocking.
comments below merit mention with different
regard to fromtwo-stage thermographic inspection:
•• PV PVmodules
modules with
with technology
technology different from m-Si m-Si reveal
reveal an irregular
an irregular temperature
temperature pat-
• For one-off
pattern. incidents due to hotspots, spatial resolution may be insufficient with aerial
tern. ThisThis pattern
pattern is characteristic
is characteristic of a of a module
module in a in a short
short circuit.
circuit. For this
For this reason,
reason, all m-all
IR
m-Sithermography.
type PV Ground-level
modules are IR thermography
operating in a state enables
close to a greater
short precision
circuit as a for deter-
consequence
Si type PV modules are operating in a state close to a short circuit as a consequence of
miningthe thermal
of intensity
intensity behaviour.
values produced
the values produced by the by
p-Sithetype p-Si
PV type PV modules,
modules, which are which are series
series connected
• Heat incidents
connected from
within shading
each may
string. Thisbeincident
totally or is partially
seen concealed
indistinctly byby
boththethermography
item causing
within each string. This incident is seen indistinctly by both thermography types, alt-
the shadow
types, (vegetation or post) with aerial IR thermography. Ground-level IR ther-
hough atalthough at ground
ground level level
the behaviour the behaviour
is viewed withisgreater
viewed with
sharpness greater sharpness
and definition.
mography
and definition.prevents any possible blocking.
•• PV Formodules
PV modules with intechnology different
open circuit, from m-Si
the thermal reveal an
behaviour is irregular
some 5 totemperature
7 ◦ C higher pat-
than
tern. This pattern is characteristic of a module in
temperatures in operational modules. These modules do not producea short circuit. For this reason,
power.allThis
m-
Siincident
type PVdoes modules are operating in a state
not depend on the thermography type. close to a short circuit as a consequence of
the intensity values produced by the p-Si type PV modules, which are series connected
within each string. This incident is seen indistinctly by both thermography types, alt-
hough at ground level the behaviour is viewed with greater sharpness and definition.
 types, although at ground level the behaviour is viewed with greater sharpness and
definition.
• For PV modules in open circuit, the thermal behaviour is some 5 to 7 °C higher than
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 temperatures in operational modules. These modules do not produce power.11This of 14
incident does not depend on the thermography type.
• For PV modules with open-circuit substrings, thermal behaviour is some 5 to 7 °C
• higher
For PVthan operational
modules substrings.
with open-circuit These PV
substrings, modules’
thermal powerisproduction
behaviour some 5 to 7at ◦ Cthe PV
higher
plant is very limited. This incident is observed interchangeably in
than operational substrings. These PV modules’ power production at the PV plant isboth thermography
types.
very limited. This incident is observed interchangeably in both thermography types.
•• In
In the
the stage
stage one of the thermographic
thermographic inspection,
inspection, itit is
is necessary
necessary toto determine
determine the the
specific
specific location
location ofof the
the PV
PV modules
modules withwith faults
faults and
and toto identify
identify them
them correctly.
correctly. This
This is
is
essential
essential for
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Figure 14
Figure 14summarises
summarisesthethe
incidents detected
incidents afterafter
detected a two-stage thermographic
a two-stage inspec-
thermographic
tion and their
inspection andlocations for thefor
their locations PVthe
plant
PVinspected, considering
plant inspected, the identification
considering matrix
the identification
by module.
matrix by module.

ARRAY 1: 3 STRING OF 24 FV MODULES

A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1 J1 K1 L1 M1 N1 O1 P1 Q1 R1 S1 T1 U1 V1 W1 X1 Y1 Z1 AA1 AB1 AC1 AD1 AE1 AF1 AG1 AH1 AI1 AJ1

A2 B2 C2 D2 E2 F2 G2 H2 I2 J2 K2 L2 M2 N2 O2 P2 Q2 R2 S2 T2 U2 V2 W2 X2 Y2 Z2 AA2 AB2 AC2 AD2 AE1 AF2 AG2 AH2 AI2 AJ2

ARRAY 2: 4 STRING OF 24 FV MODULES

A3 B3 C3 D3 E3 F3 G3 H3 I3 J3 K3 L3 M3 N3 O3 P3 Q3 R3 S3 T3 U3 V3 W3 X3 Z3 AA3 AB3 AC3 AD3 AE3 AF3 AG3 AH3 AI3 AJ3 AK3 AL3 AM3 AN3 AO3 AP3 AQ3 AR3 AS3 AT3 AU3 AV3 AW3

A4 B4 C4 D4 E4 F4 G4 H4 I4 J4 K4 L4 M4 N4 O4 P4 Q4 R4 S4 T4 U4 V4 W4 X4 Z4 AA4 AB4 AC4 AD4 AE4 AF4 AG4 AH4 AI4 AJ4 AK4 AL4 AM4 AN4 AO4 AP4 AQ4 AR4 AS4 AT4 AU4 AV4 AW4

ARRAY 3: 4 STRING OF 24 FV MODULES

A5 B5 C5 D5 E5 F5 G5 H5 I5 J5 K5 L5 M5 N5 O5 P5 Q5 R5 S5 T5 U5 V5 W5 X5 Z5 AA5 AB5 AC5 AD5 AE5 AF5 AG5 AH5 AI5 AJ5 AK5 AL5 AM5 AN5 AO5 AP5 AQ5 AR5 AS5 AT5 AU5 AV5 AW5

A6 B6 C6 D6 E6 F6 G6 H6 I6 J6 K6 L6 M6 N6 O6 P6 Q6 R6 S6 T1 U6 V6 W6 X6 Z6 AA6 AB6 AC6 AD6 AE6 AF6 AG6 AH6 AI6 AJ6 AK6 AL6 AM6 AN6 AO6 AP6 AQ6 AR6 AS6 AT6 AU6 AV6 AW6

ARRAY 4: 4 STRING OF 24 FV MODULES

A7 B7 C7 D7 E7 F7 G7 H7 I7 J7 K7 L7 M7 N7 O7 P7 Q7 R7 S7 T7 U7 V7 W7 X7 Z7 AA7 AB7 AC7 AD7 AE7 AF7 AG7 AH7 AI7 AJ7 AK7 AL7 AM7 AN7 AO7 AP7 AQ7 AR7 AS7 AT7 AU7 AV7 AW7

A8 B8 C8 D8 E8 F8 G8 H8 I8 J8 K8 L8 M8 N8 O8 P8 Q8 R8 S8 T8 U8 V8 W8 X8 Z8 AA8 AB8 AC8 AD8 AE8 AF8 AG8 AH8 AI8 AJ8 AK8 AL8 AM8 AN8 AO8 AP8 AQ8 AR8 AS8 AT8 AU8 AV8 AW8

ARRAY 5: 4 STRING OF 24 FV MODULES

A9 B9 C9 D9 E9 F9 G9 H9 I9 J9 K9 L9 M9 N9 O9 P9 Q9 R9 S9 T9 U9 V9 W9 X9 Z9 AA9 AB9 AC9 AD9 AE9 AF9 AG9 AH9 AI9 AJ9 AK9 AL9 AM9 AN9 AO9 AP9 AQ9 AR9 AS9 AT9 AU9 AV9 AW9

A10 B10 C10 D10 E10 F10 G10 H10 I10 J10 K10 L10 M10 N10 O10 P10 Q10 R10 S10 T10 U10 V10 W10 X10 Z10 A A 10 A B 10 A C10 A D10 A E10 A F10 A G10 A H10 A I10 A J10 A K10 A L10 A M 10 A N10 A O10 A P 10 A Q10 A R10 A S10 A T10 A U10 A V10 A W10

ARRAY 6: 4 STRING OF 24 FV MODULES

A11 B11 C11 D11 E11 F11 G11 H11 I11 J11 K11 L11 M11 N11 O11 P11 Q11 R11 S11 T11 U11 V11 W11 X11 Y11 Z11 A A 11 A B 11 A C11 A D11 A E11 A F11 A G11 A H11 A I11 A J11 AK11 A L11 A M 11 A N11 A O11 A P 11 A Q11 A R11 A S11 A T11 A U11 A V11 A W11

A12 B12 C12 D12 E12 F12 G12 H12 I12 J12 K12 L12 M12 N12 O12 P12 Q12 R12 S12 T12 U12 V12 W12 X12 Y12 Z12 A A 12 A B 12 AC12 A D12 A E12 AF12 A G12 A H12 AI12 A J12 A K12 AL12 A M 12 A N12 AO12 A P 12 A Q12 AR12 A S12 A T12 AU12 A V12 A W12

Polycrystalline PV module Broken PV module Shaded PV module

Monocrystalline PV module Open-circuit PV module PV module with open-circuit substring

14. Location
Figure 14.
Figure Locationand
andtypes of incidents
types in the in
of incidents PV the
plantPV
after thermographic
plant inspection, considering
after thermographic inspection,
the identification
considering matrix of Figure
the identification matrix4a.of Figure 4a.

The Table 1 summarises the incidents detected during inspection, where the temper-
ature value is extrapolated at STC (1000 W/m2 ) conditions and calculated according to
IEC-62446-3, with a comment on each incident.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 12 of 14

Table 1. Summary of incidents detected during inspection.

Temperature Value
Incident Type Affected Temperature Value Irradiance Value Extrapolated at Comment
PV Modules (◦ C) (W/m2 )
1000 W/m2
AF6 55.6 890 61.2 Required
Broken cover E10 86.6 922 94.6 replacement of
AK11 89.6 940 97.9 PV modules
AL12 60.2 921 66.2 Post
AV6 111.8 941 118.5 Vegetation
AQ4 49.6 941 54.6 Vegetation
Partial shade AR4 49.6 941 54.6 Vegetation
AC12 77.5 945 85.3 Post
Several array 6 - - - Post
PV module All m-Si type Measurement of
63.5 944 69.9
technology PV modules max. temperature

String in 2 to 7 ◦ C for 2 to 7 ◦ C for

Open circuit operational operational Electrical
arrays 1, 4 and 5 verification required
PV modules PV modules
Open-circuit Many p-Si type 2 to 7 ◦ C for - 2 to 7 ◦ C for Electrical
substrings PV modules adjacent substring adjacent substring verification required

5. Conclusions
Aerial IR thermographic inspection of operational PV plants is a powerful and versatile
tool for detecting abnormalities that affects its operation. Its application to large PV plants
entails a significant saving of time and cost compared to ground-level IR thermographic
inspection. However, some incidents may not be observed or may be misinterpreted when
the inspection is done in the air. One-off thermal abnormalities of sizes smaller than the cell
are determined with greater resolution and precision when the thermographic inspection
is at ground level. Further, the problem of obstacles such as vegetation or a perimeter fence
can be avoided with ground-level inspections. The existence of solar heat reflections can
also be captured more easily from the air.
Applying a two-stage thermographic inspection improves maintenance if the advan-
tages of both techniques are employed. Stage one with aerial IR thermographic inspection
will detect incidents and faults, as well as their locations, quickly and reliably. Additionally,
stage two with ground-level IR thermographic inspection, applied only to relevant inci-
dents from the previous stage, assures greater precision and resolution in the results. This
two-stage thermographic inspection strategy will improve the diagnosis conducted.
The integration of the proposed approach in the flight planning of automatic detection
systems can have a significant advantage in the maintenance of large PV plants and in
the reduction of the corresponding execution time. This innovative approach may be the
subject of future research.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; methodology, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.;
validation, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; formal analysis, C.G.-L.; investigation, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; data
curation, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, G.Á.-T.; writing—review and edit-
ing, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; visualisation, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; supervision, G.Á.-T. and C.G.-L.; project
administration, G.Á.-T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6331 13 of 14

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
IFOV Instantaneous Field of View
IR Infrared
PV Photovoltaic
STC Standard Test Conditions
UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

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