Comparison & Contrast Paragraph

The Comparison paragraph compares two subjects and discusses how they are alike and lists a few examples. In the contrast paragraph,
two subjects are discussed as how they are different, again, listing a few examples. There are two ways to write a paragraph, first, there is the
point by point paragraph and there is the blocked paragraph. In the point by point, writing back and forth between the two subjects. First,
talking about topic A. then talk about topic B., then right back to topic A. and so on. Finally, the block paragraph only discusses one topic and
then finishes the paragraph with the other subject that is to be compared or contrasted with the first. Then the conclusion puts what your
comparing or contrasting together.
Transitional expressions used in comparison:
 in the same way
 and, also, in addition
 as well as
 both, neither
 each of
 just as...so
 similarly
 like
 too
 the same
Transitional expressions used in contrast:
 although
 whereas
 but
 however
 conversely
 on the other hand
 in contrast
 while
 yet
 unlike

Examples
1. Although I raised MArcee and Obbie from puppies, they have completely diverse personalities. Obbies is a six year old, male, toy
Pomeranian whereas Marcee is a one year old, female, Boston terrier. Obbie is small and soft, unlike Marcee who has bristly hair and is much
bigger.
2. My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small rural communities. For example, my hometown,
Gridlock, has a population of only about 10, 000 people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11, 000 local residents.

My life now and my life five years ago are similar but there are also some major differences. Five years ago, I was living in Havre and going
to high school. I didn’t have to work because my parents supported me. I went to school every day and spent time with my friends. I babysat
my nieces every day after school because both of my parents were working at the time. I had the responsibility of feeding them and making
sure nothing happened to them while I was watching them. I didn’t really have any major goals five years ago. I wasn’t really thinking about my
future quite yet. On the other hand, now I live in Great Falls and I’m not in high school anymore. I have to work now in order to support
myself. I only work twenty hours a week because I’m in school right now. I have a lot more responsibility now than I did five years ago. I have
to take responsibility for myself now and everything that I do. I have a lot of major goals now. For instance, I want to graduate and get my two
year degree. I want to come back and get a bachelor’s degree. I have a lot of things that I want to accomplish now. Five years ago, I really
wasn’t going anywhere with my life, but now I’m starting to get my life in order and deciding what I want to do. In addition, I am still living at
home with my parents and I still go to school. I still baby sit my nieces every once in a while. I find time to spend with my family and friends. I
still have some of the same responsibilities. I help my mom take care of my oldest niece. She has always lived with us, so I’ve always helped
take care of her ever since she was a baby. Even though she is not a baby anymore ,I still have to baby sit her when my parents are gone
because she is not quite old enough to stay by herself yet. I still have to depend on my parents for transportation because I don’t have a
vehicle right now. My life now has changed a lot in only five years.

CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH

A cause is a reason for, or events leading up to.

An effect is the results of a cause or causes.
Transitional words to show CAUSE
the first cause (second, third), the first reason (second, third), yet another factor, because, is caused by, results from, because (of the fact),
being that, for, for the reason that, in that, inasmuch as, seeing that, since
Transitional words to show EFFECT
One important effect, another result, a third outcome, as a result, consequently, then, next, therefore, thus, so, accordingly, as a consequence,
therefore, hence, consequently
EXAMPLES No. 1
For many teenagers, there are numerous negative factors that can lead them to give up on their education and drop out of school.
The first cause is that many teenagers lack positive role models in their lives. Another factor that causes a student to give up school is a lack of
determination. If they are not determined to graduate, it can be very difficult for them to stay in school. The third and final factor is peer
pressure. Many students give into pure pressure very easily.
EXAMPLE No. 2
Letting alcohol take control over your life has many negative effects on a person and the people around them. One important effect
is the damage you can do to your body. Drinking can lead to severe illness and even eventual death; some health consequences to consider
might be liver disease, kidney failure and, for pregnant women, the loss of their unborn child.
Another detriment is that an addiction could lead to drinking and driving; possibly causing a fatal car accident for either yourself and or an
innocent bystander. Another concern to consider is the relationships alcohol can destroy. Alcohol abuse can have very serious effect on a
person’s temperament, which can lead to spousal and even child abuse. The negative effects of alcohol abuse are overwhelming when
considering the many consequences that drinkers and the people around them have to deal with.
EXAMPLE No. 3
The lack of rain and snow has horrible effects on farmers. With no rain their land dries up, and it is very difficult to grow anything.
When the crops fail, the farmers haven’t any choice but to get a second job in order to make the money they need. Farming is a full time job
and with a second job, farmers are overworked, stressed and even depressed. Many farmers end up selling their land. That is why when it
doesn’t rain, you notice that most of the farmers are very bad-tempered. As farmer’s daughter, I have experienced some good times and some
bad times. I have gained a great respect for farmers everywhere.

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PARAGRAPH

A problem solution pattern - organizes ideas into problems and proposed solutions.

Signal words for Problem – Solution

 But
 First, second ...
 Nonetheless
 One reason for the
 One solution is
 One way is....

EXAMPLE
Today most of the energy resources we have are generated from coal, oil, and natural gas. However these resources are limited. If
continuously consumed at an alarming rate, fossil fuels necessary for generating power to operate vehicles and factories will run out before
long. Nonetheless, this problem can be resolved through the use of alternative sources of energy and conservation efforts. First, using
alternative sources of energy such as solar energy and fusion energy would lessen pollution. These alternatives are actually more accessible
and cost – efficient. Although there are some potential risks in using fusion energy, these risks can be mitigated by implementing strict safety
measures. The second solution that governments can adopt is the enhancement of conservation efforts. To do this, governments need to
make the public more aware of the benefits of conservation, as well as ways of conserving energy, such as recycling. Laws can also be passed
to mandate the public and all stakeholders to recycle energy.
Two Kinds of Information:
 Explicit Information is the information is stated in the text. Readers can see the piece of information stated in the given passage.

 Implicit information is the information not directly presented in the text. As readers, we need to read between the lines to
understand the details that the writer is trying to tell us.

 Sometimes, we read because we need to perform a particular task after reading. The different kinds of information we have
gathered through reading may be used as a basis for our next task. We can sufficiently discuss our opinion depending on the
evidence that we have collected from the texts we have read. Proofs, or claims can be used based on the type of presentation or
argumentation that you wish to do.

Three Kinds of Claims:

Claims of Fact
 Claims of fact are pieces of information which are grounded on reliable authority such as science or history.

Example:
 The devastation experienced by the Philippines during Typhoon Yolanda shows the readiness of disaster relief protocols established
by the government.
Explanation:
This claim can be defended or refuted using events as proof, and the existence or non-existence of the protocols may be discussed
using specific incidences as evidence.

Claims of Value
 Claims of value are pieces of information that are focused on relative judgment such as goodness or badness, and these are usually
addressed based on standards.

Example:
 Stem cell research is wrong.
Explanation:
 This claim attempts to prove the badness of one idea based on a moral judgment as specified by various standards (may be religious
or even political).

Claims of Policy
 Claims of policy are specific statements on procedures or laws that need to be modified based on certain issues or conditions. Most
of the time, claims of policy ask for plans of action to solve current problems.

Example:
Censorship in the Philippines must be strengthened.

Explanation:
This claim demands that additional amendments on a specific policy be adopted because present circumstances are no longer
sufficient.

Example:
Childhood obesity in our country has more than tripled in the past 30 years. Today, one in six children in our country is obese. This is
unacceptable. As parents, we try to provide a better future for our children, better than we’ve ever had. We need to stand up and do
what we can. We can start by supporting the passing of the anti-junk food bill in schools and other child-friendly areas.
Adapted from Sample Op-Ed on Childhood Obesity

Explanation:
Information such as the tripling of the amount of obesity is used in an explicit manner. Also, the author uses this claim of fact to base
his ideas on reliable authority, which, in this instance is a statistic. The author also uses the standard of providing a better life to
children as a claim of value before leveraging a change in policy as stated in this sentence “supporting the passing of the anti-junk
food bill in schools and other child-friendly areas. “ These pieces of information explicitly tell us that obesity is a problem, and this
passage is implicitly informing us that we can contribute to solving this issue.

Summary
 Critical reading is necessary for judging the reliability of the text through the study of implicit and explicit information. These pieces
of information may lead to various claims such as one rooted in history or science (claims of fact). There are claims that demand
action because the present conditions for certain policies are no longer effective (claims of policy). Also, claims that assert the
morality of an idea based on certain standards or preferences (claims of value).
Identify the kinds of information and types of claim made in the written text.

Childhood obesity in our country has more than tripled in the past 30 years. Today, one in six children in our
country is obese. This is unacceptable. As parents, we try to provide a better future for our children, better than we’ve ever
had. We need to stand up and do what we can. We can start by supporting the passing of the anti-junk food bill in schools
and other child-friendly areas.
Adapted from Sample Op-Ed on Childhood Obesity

Textual Evidence
In formulating assertions and counterclaims about a text, it is important that you support your statements with textual
evidence. Textual evidence is information gathered from the text that supports your assertion or counterclaim about the text.

In expressing your judgment about the text,

1. First, state your idea about the text.

2. To determine evidence from the text, look for clues and keywords that support your idea about the text.
3. Quote or paraphrase the part of the text that helped you come up with your idea.
4. Use quotation marks to quote a part of the text. If it is from a book, indicate the page number at the end of your
sentence.
5. Lastly, express how the quote supports your idea.

Below are types of textual evidence:

Paraphrasing is restating the text in your own words.

Summarizing is restating the text in a shorter way using your own words.

Referencing is mentioning a specific section of the text.

Quoting is stating a part of a text in the exact way it was written.

Support your statements with textual evidence to come up with strong or solid arguments, and make your ideas more credible.
You can come up with good textual evidence by selecting the most relevant section of the text that strongly supports your
statement about the text.

Example:
An excerpt of Meat Culture

By Steve Pavlina

When I see a piece of flesh on someone’s plate, I also see the processes that brought it to their plate. Some people argue that
plants may be harmed by being eaten. I happen to agree. If we care about minimizing harm to plants, then we’ll do much less
harm by eating them directly as opposed to grinding them up, feeding them to animals, and then grinding up and eating the
animals. If we stopped growing crops to feed to animals and fed those crops to people directly, it’s estimated that we’d have
enough food to feed the whole planet five times over. So if you do actually care about plants, then you can greatly reduce your
plant harm by eating plants directly. Another way to reduce harm to plants is to favor fruits that can be eaten without killing the
plants. You can eat a wide variety of fruits, both sweet and non-sweet, without seriously hurting the plant that spawned it. And
that same plant will often continue to bear even more fruit. I think a more sensible and realistic approach is to keep leaning
towards a more conscious, compassionate, and ecologically sound way of eating.

If you want to argue that we should model predators’ diets to justify meat culture, I encourage you to go ahead and try being a
truly predatory person for a while. Do it consciously. Prey on the weak. See where that takes you.
Source: 
(Pavlina, 2014) 

Explanation:
Determining textual evidences in the excerpt of Meat Culture:

I agree with the writer that animals are being subjected to cruelty when they are killed to become our food. This claim of the
writer is reflected in the first part of the text wherein the writer makes the readers think of how the meat ended up on their
dinner plates. The writer deliberately chose to say that whenever he looks at the food on his plate, he also has mental images of
what had to be done to the animal for it to become someone’s food. By using the phrase “processes that brought it to their
plate,” the readers are made to imagine what an animal goes through just to end up on our dinner plates.

In the assertion above, the reader starts by saying that he or she agrees with the claim of the writer in the text. This dictates that
the statement is an assertion. The reader used referencing, paraphrasing, and quoting to support his or her statement. Of all the
words in the text, the reader chooses “processes that brought it to their plate.” to support his or her assertion. It is effective
because the reader explains how the quote supports his or her assertion about the text.

I disagree with the writer when he challenged some people to copy predatory behavior of animals and prey on the weak. This is
reflected in the sentence “Prey on the weak. See where that takes you.” Although he might have been sarcastic to prove a point
when he said this, it paints an unnecessary violent mental picture for the readers and some readers might actually take it
literally.

In the counterclaim above, the reader states his or her counterclaim and identifies the statement of the writer that he or she
opposes. The reader determines the textual evidence that would support his or her counterclaim by quoting a portion of the
text and explaining how the sentences “Prey on the weak. See where that takes you.” supports the counterclaim that the
sentences are too violent. Of all the types of textual evidence, the reader chose quoting to make his or her statement credible.

Tips

 In locating textual evidence, decide which type of textual evidence will best support your statement before locating
textual evidence.
 Always look for clues and keywords that support your evaluative statement/s about the text.

Evaluative Statement

An evaluative statement is a statement that you can make to reflect your judgment and generalization about a text that you have
read.

You may use evidence from the text in formulating evaluative statements. One way of formulating evaluative statements is by
formulating assertions or positive statements about the content of a text and properties of a text that you have read. Another way of
formulating evaluative statements is by formulating counterclaims. In this lesson, we will focus on formulating assertions.

For you to be able to formulate assertions about the properties and content of a text read, you must identify the claim or claims
made in the text. A claim suggests an idea to the reader who may or may not agree with it. It is an arguable statement that reflects
the writer’s position about a topic. It is usually supported by reasons by the writer.

The content of a text includes the information in the text and the claim/s of the writer. It is important to know about the properties of
a well-written text so that you would know what to look for in a text in evaluating it.

In formulating evaluative statements, you must express your judgment of the text. State if you liked the text and what you liked
about how it was written. Always quote parts of the text to support your assertions about it. When quoting, do not forget to use
quotation marks and cite the page if it is from a book or article.

Assertion
An assertion is a statement used to make a declaration or to express strong belief on a particular topic, often without evidence. An
assertion can be formulated after reading a story or a poem, and even after watching a play. The purpose of writing an assertion is
for the writer to convey directly an idea or feeling and to convince the reader to accept the writer’s interpretation of a particular
literary work.

Before Writing

Before writing an assertion in literature, the author must comprehensively read or watch the literary work. He must take down the
part he is for, or he is opposed to, followed by his explanation of it. It is also best to collect evidence from the same or other literary
authors that have the same assertion as with the writer.

Forming Assertions

Different types of assertion can be used in formal or informal writing. This includes Basic Assertion, Emphatic Assertion and I-
Language Assertion.

Example:

Read and examine the text below before forming assertions.

Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the culture and values of the Filipinos are still in tacked. Precolonial Philippines has their own
form of government and social structure. Every local community is composed of small kingdom or tribe headed by a chieftain called
the ‘rajah’ or ‘datu’. Social structure also exists and is composed of three classes namely – the ‘maharlika’ or freeman, ‘timawa’ or
the middle class and the ‘alipin’ or the slaves. Judicial, legislative and executive systems, also known as the branches of the
government, are also present during precolonialism. The ‘datu’ formulates the law, ‘village elders’ help the datu in deciding and
promulgating laws and the ‘umalohokan’ or town crier is the one who disseminates new law or ordinances.

Philippines is also known as sea travellers with the use of their ‘balangay’ or Butuan boat. They also had smooth foreign relation
because of the trading of minerals and goods. Literacy rate is also high because of the existence of the ‘baybayin’ or the ancient
writing method. All of these advances were abolished as the Spaniards fully colonized the country.

Let us use this short text in formulating different types of assertion.

Basic Assertion

Basic Assertion is a statement used to express the writer's feelings, beliefs, and opinions directly. This type of assertion is usually
used in writing formal papers like thesis and dissertation.

Example:

The Philippines has an advanced civilization before the colonization of Spain. Form and branches of government, social structure
and the existence of ancient writing are some of the evidence that proves the advancement of the p`recolonial period.

Explanation:

This first sentence is considered as the basic assertion. The second sentence contains evidence that support the assertion.

Emphatic Assertion

Emphatic Assertion is a statement used to express empathy or on how a person understands the feelings and emotions of the
literary author. This can be used on writing a formal or informal paper.

It is usually composed of two parts: 1) the first part is the statement that recognizes the situation or even the feelings of the
characters on the text being read followed by 2.) the second statement where the writer states his stand about the situation.

Example:

I know that the Philippines, before pre-Spaniard colonization, has their system of writing called the ‘baybayin’. This alone proves
that the Filipinos are literate as opposed to the Spaniards claim.
Explanation:

The first part recognizes the situation based on the text being read. The second part contains the writer’s stand on the situation
presented.

I - Language Assertion

I - Language Assertion is a statement used to express the feeling and preference of the writer. It is called I-Language because it
focuses on the writer and is using the pronoun ‘I’. This type of assertion is recommended if the author wants to express negative
feelings and opinion. This is best used in writing a review or reflection paper.

It is composed of three parts. The first part contains the accurate information from literary work, especially the topic the writer
disagrees with (When you. . .). The second part includes the effect or feeling of the writer towards the topic (It affects/I feel...). The
last part includes the preference or recommendation of the writer (Therefore, I prefer/I want...).

Example:

Upon reading that the ancient Filipino civilization is divided into three social classes namely the ‘maharlika’, ‘timawa’ and ‘alipin’, I
feel proud because of the civilization social advancement and at the same time sad because of the promulgation of social
differentiation. With this finding, I want to do further research on the existence of these social classes’ stigma.

Explanation:

The example given is divided into three parts that includes the feelings and preference of the writer.

Tips

• There are two (2) factors that must be considered before formulating assertion. First is to determine the type of paper you
are going to write – and can either be formal or informal paper. Second is to determine the type of literary work you are going to
examine including novel, poem, journal article or theatre play.

• It is best to include facts and evidence after every assertion. This is done to make a strong stand on every claimed
assertion.