Leaves and their Functions

● Concepts:
○ Leaves are large flat green structures involved in photosynthesis.
○ There are numerous types of leaves that are selectively advantageous (modified).
○ Leaf structures and metabolisms are selectively advantageous and different from one
another.
○ Leaves function for photosynthesis (glucose is produced by the plant) and
transpiration (water exits from the plant in the form of water vapor).
○ Leaves are great sources of pharmaceutical compounds and drugs.
○ Leaves and their functions.

● Parts of the Blade or Lamina

○ Midrib
■ Central conducting structure/backbone of the blade.
■ Contains the vascular tissues.
○ Veins
■ Lateral outgrowth of the midrib.
■ Contain the vascular tissues.
○ Apex
■ The tip of the blade.
○ Margin
■ Side of the blade.
○ Base
■ Major criterion for identifying the leaf.
○ Petiole
■ Connection between the bald and the stem.
■ Expose the blade to sunlight.
■ Stalk of dicot leaf.
■ Petiolate - When a leaf is provided by a petiole.
 ■ Apetiolate/Sessile - A leaf without a petiole.
○ Axillary bud
■ When the bud is situated between the petiole and the stem.
■ Axil - The angle formed between the petiole and the stem.
○ Stipule
■ Leaf-like appendages.
■ Can be tendrils or modified into spines.
■ Tongue/spine-like.
■ Stipulate - When a leaf has a stipule.
■ Exstipulate - A leaf without a stipule.

★ There is no distinct petiole in monocot. The blades are instead clasped to the stem by
means of an expanded leaf base known as the leaf sheath.
★ Legules
○ Hair-like projections at the connection between the blade and the leaf sheath.
○ Legulates
■ Monocot leaf provided with legules.
○ Aligulate
■ A monocot leaf without legules.

● Anahaw

● Pothos
○ 2 colored leaf (variegated leaf like Mayana)

● Monstera
○ Fenestrated leaves - Holes on leaves
External structure of foliage leaf
Classification
● Nature of the blade
● Venation pattern
○ Arrangement of veins on the blade.
● Phyllotaxy
○ Arrangement of leaves on the stems
● Leaf margin
● Leaf apex
● Leave bases

Classification: Nature of the blade

● Simple
○ With one blade of just one part.
○ Midrib
■ Counterpart of rachis.
○ Example:
● Compound
○ With a blade divided into leaflets or pinnae or pinnule.
○ Rachis
■ Extension of the petiole in compound leaves.
★ Each leaflet has its own apex, margin, base and midrib.
★ Petiolule - stalk

● Pinnately compound
○ Leaflets are attached to the rachis.
1. Simple pinnate
● The rachis is in primary order.
● Only one rachis.
○ Odd simple pinnate/imparipinnate (one terminal leaflet).
■ Ex. Balimbing/Carambola, Rose
○ Even simple pinnate/paripinnate (two terminal leaflets).
■ Ex. Akapulko/Cassia alata, Ceratonia

2. Bipinnate
● Primary & secondary rachis.
● Two orders of rachis.
● Leaflets are attached to the secondary rachis.
○ Example: Ipil-Ipil, Sampaloc

3. Tripinnate
● Primary, secondary & tertiary rachis.
● Leaflets are attached to tertiary rachis.
○ Example: Malunggay
● Palmately compound leaves
○ Leaflet are attached at the end of the petiole

● Types of palmately compound leaves:

○ Bifoliate
■ Two leaflets

○ Trifoliate
■ Three leaflets

○ Quadri/trifoliate
■ Four leaflets
■ Example: Clover
 ○ Pentafoliate compound
■ With 5 leaflets
■ Example: Lagundi/Vitex negundo

Palmately compound

Heptafoliate Octafoliate (octopus tree)

 Nonafoliate

Phyllotaxy
● Arrangement of leaves on the stem.
● Alternate
○ One leaf per node (side where leaf arises).

● Spiral
○ One leaf per node but they are spirally arranged.

● Opposite
○ Two leaves are attached in a node and they are opposite to one another.

● Decussate
○ Leaf pairs are [perpendicular with one another in top view.
○ Adaptation for maximum exposure of the blade to sunlight.
 ● Fascicle
○ Three or more leaves are crowded on 1 side of the node.
○ Found in the spur shoots of pine trees (needle-like leaves).

● Whorled
○ Three or more leaves are attached around a node and each leaf is equidistantly
arranged from one another.
○ Example: Yellow bell

Venation
● Arrangement of veins on the blade.
● 3 types
○ Netted or reticulate
■ With vaneletes or a network of veins.
 ○ Parallel venation
■ Monocot. Parallel to the midrib. No network of veins.

○ Dichotomous
■ The principle veins always fork into two.
■ Present in Ginkgo biloba.
■ Not netted because there is no principle midrib.

Netted venation
● Pinnately netted
○ Lateral veins arise from the midrib.
○ Example: Duhat, Lansones
 ● Palmately netted
○ Veins arise from one point at the base of the leaf.
○ Example: Grapes

● Radiately netted
○ Principal veins radiate at the tip of the petiole.
○ Petiole is attached at the center of the leaf.
○ Like an umbrella.
○ Example: Gabi, Lotus

Parallel venation
● Only for monocot plants.
● 4 types:
○ Veins parallel to the midrib.
■ No intersecting lines.
■ Example: Palay, corn, wheat, bamboo

○ Veins perpendicular to the midrib.

■ Forms 90° angle
■ Example: Banana

○ Veins acute angle to the midrib

■ 30 or 45° angle
■ No network of veinlets.
■ Example: Singuber family/ginger family, insulin plant

○ Palmately parallel
■ Principal veins radiate from the tip of the petiole/base of the leaf.
■ No visible network of veins/no intersection.
■ Example: Anahaw
Internal structure of foliage leaves
● cross section from upper across to lower epidermis

● In the petiole and leaf blade, leaf traves become veins and can branch and merge. As
shown in the cross section of a carrot petie, there are many leaf traces.
● Epidermis
○ Upper epidermis
■ Has thicker cuticle (prevents excessive transpiration/water loss).
■ Sometimes provided with trichomes.
○ Lower epidermis
■ Has more guard cells/stomata.
● Mesophyll region
○ Meso - “Middle”, phyll - “Leaf”
○ Middle photosynthetic layer of the leaf.
○ Made up of chlorenchyma tissues (function for photosynthesis).
● 2 parts of Mesophyll region:
○ Palisade mesophyll
■ Compactly arranged chlorenchyma tissues.
○ Spongy mesophyll
■ Compactly arranged aerenchyma.
■ Air spaces facilitate the diffusion of gases from the environment.
★ Aerenchyma
○ Parenchyma tissues with air spaces.
● Vascular tissues
○ Surrounded by bundle sheath cells (photosynthetic in monocot plants).
○ No vascular cambium because it has only primary growth.
 ● Midrib
○ Upper epidermis > upper collenchyma tissues > upper parenchyma tissues >
xylem region > phloem region > lower parenchyma > lower collenchyma > lower
epidermis
● Bundle sheath is never photosynthetic.
● 2 kinds of midrib in dicot plants:
○ Crescent shape
■ Xylem is above the phloem.
○ Circular
■ Xylem is surrounded by phloem.

Monocot leaf cross section

● Mesophyll is not arranged into palisade/spongy.

● Bundle sheath is photosynthetic.
● Midrib is surrounded by chlorenchyma cells that are not arranged into a palisade and
spongy layer.

● Epidermis
○ Not a parenchyma tissue because it is derived from protoderm.
○ Have uniformly non dignified primary wall
○ Colorless
○ Not photosynthetic cell
○ A layer of living cells
○ Water loss is called transpiration
○ Trichomes
■ Example: Cannabis sativa

○ Guard cells (stomates)

■ The only photosynthetic cells in the epidermis.
■ Limit the exit of water vapor from the leaf.
■ Bean-shaped in dicot. Dumbbell-shaped in monocot.

○ Bulliform cells/ motor cells (monocot)

■ Epidermis in monocot has a row of large vacuolated cells.
■ Store large amounts of water.
 ○ Cutin layer
■ Protects the surface of the leaf to prevent water loss.

Internal structure dicot leaf

● Mesophyll layer
○ The photosynthetic region of the leaf.
1. Dorsiventral or bifacial
○ Where there is an upper palisade and lower spongy layer.
○ Dorsal and ventral side of the leaf.
○ Horizontally aligned.
○ The upper epidermis is exposed to sunlight.

2. Isobilateral or equifacial
○ Two palisade layers. Upper Palisade, Middle Spongy, Lower Palisade
○ Both sides are exposed to sunlight.
 ○ Seen in vertically oriented leaf
○ Example: Santan - Opposite decussate

Upper epider > upper palisade > spongy > lower palisade > lower epidermis

Internal structure of monocot leaf

● Kranz, Halo, or Wreath Anatomy

● Mesophyll
○ Chlorenchymatous cells surrounding a photosynthetic bundle sheath - C4
Photosynthesis
● Upper epidermis > mesophyll > lower epidermis.
● Bulliform cells
Internal structure of a midrib
● Upper epidermis > upper collenchyma > upper parenchyma > xylem > phloem > starch
sheath > lower parenchyma > lower collen > lower epidermis.

● Vascular tissue
○ Midrib of a dicot leaf
○ Minor veins

Internal structure of gymnosperm leaf

● Remain green for more than 5 years (up to 15 years).
● Pine needle leaf is evergreen and xeromorphic.
○ Sunken stomata.
○ Thick cuticle.
● Hypodermis
○ Composed of 2-3 layers of collenchyma tissues.
● Endodermis
○ Found in roots.
● Transfusion tissues
○ Look like parenchyma cells with tracheids with thin lignin.
○ Responsible for the transport of materials between the vascular region and the
mesophyll region.
● Resin Duct
○ Internal secretory structure.
○ Secrete flammable substance called resin.

★ Deciduous
○ Opposite of evergreen

● Leaf aging
○ Senescence
■ Leaf aging due to the breakdown of chlorophyll (xanthophyll - yellow, carotene -
orange), sugars and loss of photosynthetic ability.

● Abscission zone
○ Detachment area of leaves from the stem.
 ○ Leaf scar
■ Due to the formation of suberized cells of protective layer to seal off the wound.

Morphology and Anatomy of Other Leaf Types

Leaf modification
1. Succulent Leaves
○ Thick and fleshy leaves, reduced surface-volume ratio.
○ For water retention.
○ Example:
■ Senecio - Spherical succulent leaves.

■ Dinteranthus - Pair of succulent leaves.

 ■ Lithops - Pair of translucent leaves acting as optical fiber.

2. Sclerophyllous Foliage
○ For protection
○ Thick sclerenchyma
○ Resistant to animals, fungi, freezing temp and UV
○ Very thick cuticle
○ Example:
■ Agave

■ Yucca (tequila)
 ■ Barberry

3. Spines
○ No blade and needle shaped (derived from stipules).
○ Example: Colitis, Cactus - Green stems are the leaves

4. Tendrils
○ Sensing contact with other objects, no lamina for support.
 ○ Stipule that is modified into a structure that is used by the plant to coil another object
for support.
○ Thigmotropism
■ Positive response to touch.
○ Example:
■ Pea plant

■ Squash plant

5. Motile leaves
○ For support and protection.
○ Thigmonasty
■ The response is away from the direction of the stimulus.
○ Example: Makahiya

6. Insect traps
○ Digest insects and obtain nitrogen for their amino acids.
○ Passive
 ■ Example: Nepenthes - pitcher plant

○ Active traps
■ Active glandular hairs or sensory hairs to produce secretions
■ Example:
● Sundew - With stalked glands

■ Venus fly trap - Traps insects

7. Adventitious buds
○ Produce plantlets for asexual reproduction.
○ Example:
■ Kalanchoe/Katakataka - With plantlets along the leaf margin.

■ Sansiviera - “Mothers in law tongue”, reproduce by leaf cutting

8. Floats
○ Aerenchymatous leaf base for buoyancy and support.
○ Example: Water hyacinth

9. Colored leaves
○ For attraction
○ Example:
■ Poinsettia - Has small yellow flower.

■ Bougainvillea - Has small flowers.

 ■ Dona aurora - Has small yellow/white flowers.

■ Anthurium - Leaf - Spathe, Flower (Spike) - Sausage-like

10. Supporting leaf bases

○ “Pseudotrunk"
○ For support
○ Example: Banana - Expanded leaf sheath. Stem is under the ground (sucker).
11. Expanded leaf-like petiole and stipule
○ For additional photosynthesis.
○ Example:
■ Leaf of pomelo

■ Rose leaf (odd simple pinnate, pinnately netted)

Leaves, food and death
● Food
○ The leafy greens are among the most nutritious of foods.
○ Examples: Malunggay, spinach, kangkong
● Herbs
○ The mint family is a popular hern family.
○ Example: Volatile oil
● Beverages
○ Teas (Camellia sinensis)

● Drug uses
○ Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)

○ Marijuana (Cannabis sativa)

 ○ Cocaine (Erythroxylum coca) - Used before for cancer patients.

● Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)

● Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)

● Celery (Apium graveolens)

● Spinach (Spinacia oleracea)

 ● Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

● Onion (Allium cepa)

Herbs and Spices, Volatile oils

● Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

● Bay leaves (Laurus nobilis)

● Marjoram (Origanum majorana)

● Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)

● Sage (Salvia officinalis)

● Tarragon (Artemisia dranunculus)

Flavoring mints, Volatile oils
● Spearmint (Mentha spicata)

● Peppermint (Mentha piperita)

Alkaloids: Tropane
● Cocaine
○ Erythroxylaceae
■ Another plant family rich in tropanes.
○ Coca leaves
■ Source of the alkaloid cocaine.

Alkaloids: Pyridine
● Tobaccos
 ○ Nicotiana tabacum (Family: Solanaceae)
○ The leaves of the tobacco plant are used for the production of cigarettes.
○ They are toxic plants which contain alkaloids, chiefly represented by nicotine.
○ Other close structurally alkaloids have been found such as nornicotine, the N-oxidized
derivatives of nicotine
■ E.g. Nicotyrine, anabasine, anatabine

Deadly Nightshade
● Atropa belladonna L., Solanaceae
○ It was used in traditional treatment for centuries for an assortment of conditions
including:
■ Headache
■ Menstrual symptoms
■ Peptic ulcer disease
■ Inflammation
■ Motion sickness
■ Mydriatic pupil dilator - In Cleopatra's time, they put extracts to eyes to dilate
pupils/make eyes bigger.
● Plant occasionally used as a recreational drug because of the vivid hallucinations and
delirium that it produces.
○ Unpleasant hallucinations.
○ Recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of
unintentional fatal overdose.
○ The CNS effects of atropine include memory disruption, which may lead to severe
confusion.
● Hyoscyamus niger - Solanaceae
○ Hyoscyamus leaf consists of dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus
niger. It should contain at least 0.05% alkaloids — hyoscyamine.
○ Common name: Henbane
○ Used for the GI disorder and motion sickness.

● Insecticides
○ Rotenone
○ Citronella (lemon grass, tanglad)
● Waxes
○ Carnauba from Copaiba
■ For M&M and kiwi/shoe polish

● Aromatic Oils
○ For incense, aroma therapy, cognitive behavioral.
● Medicinal uses
○ Aloe
■ Mild topical anesthetic.

○ Lagundi
■ For cough.

○ Tsaang-gubat
■ Carmona retusa
■ Used for stomachic.