GEN BIOLOGY 2 (REVIEWER) traits is known as selective
These enzymes search mutations are often similar to
GENETIC ENGINEERING
- is the direct altering of an
organism's genome. This is
achieved through manipulation
of the DNA.
Genetic engineers have
developed genetic recombination
techniques to manipulate gene
sequences in plants, animals and
other organisms to express
specific traits. The following are
the most notable ancient Greek
philosophers.
DNA AND PROTEINS
DNA is a large biomolecule that
contains the complete genetic
information for an organism.
Every cell of living organisms and
many viruses, contains DNA.
The basic building block of a DNA
molecule is called a nucleotide,
and a single strand of DNA may
contain billions of nucleotides.
Although each DNA molecule
contains many of these building
blocks, only four unique
nucleotides are used to create the
entire DNA sequence; these are
written as adenine (A), cytosine
(C), guanine (G), thymine (T).
Analogous to how the 26 letters
of the alphabet can be arranged
to create words with different
meanings, these four nucleotides
can be arranged in sequences to
"spell" the genetic instructions
to create all of the different
proteins organisms need to live.
Proteins perform all of the
work in organisms. Some
functions of proteins include:
- Serving as catalysts for
reactions
- Performing cell signaling
-Transporting molecules
across membranes
- Creating structures
How is DNA used in Genetic
Engineering?
➢ The process of using plants or 3. Remove this gene from the
animals with specific traits to rest of the DNA. One way to do
reproduce offspring’s with those this is by using a restriction
breeding, something that has
been practiced since the early
times.
➢ In the early 1970s, biologists
have realized that they can
manipulate and deliberately
recombine the DNA molecules
from different species in
laboratory.
➢ The technique, genetic
engineering, allow scientist to
produce more complex solutions
to problems in the society. The
term “biotechnology” came from
the words biology and
technology.
➢ It was coined in the 1970s
when the first genetically
engineered bacteria were
reported. Since then,
biotechnology has often been
associated with genetic
engineering, specifically in the
development of genetically
engineered microorganisms.
➢ Genetic engineering based on
recombination was pioneered in
1973 by American biochemists
Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert
W. Boyer, who were among the
first to cut DNA into fragments,
rejoin different fragments, and
insert the new genes into E. coli
bacteria, which then reproduced.
➢ In practice, since DNA
contains the genes to build
certain proteins, by changing the
DNA sequence, engineers are
able to provide a new gene for a
cell/organism to create a
different protein.
➢ Genetic engineering can also
be accomplished in other ways.
Two popular methods, as
opposed to adding a DNA
sequence, are removing a gene
or using gene targeting. The
latter is a method that can be
used to have a cell undergo
mutations.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
PROTEIN
➢ The process for genetic
engineering begins the same for
any organism being modified.
1. Identify an organism that
contains a desirable gene.
2. Extract the entire DNA from
the organism.
enzyme.
for specific nucleotide sequences
where they will "cut" the DNA by
breaking the bonds at this
location.
4. Insert the new gene to an
existing organism’s DNA. This
may be achieved through a
number of different processes.
Genetic Engineering Technique
1616
5. When modifying bacteria, the
most common method for this
final step is to add the isolated
gene to a plasmid, a circular
piece of DNA used by bacteria.
This is done by "cutting" the
plasmid with the same restriction
enzyme that was used to remove
the gene from the original DNA.
The new gene can now be
inserted into this opening in the
plasmid and the DNA can be
bonded back together using
another enzyme called ligase.
➢ Mutations are changes in
the nucleotide sequence of an
organism’s genome and can
have immense implications
regardless of how small they may
seem.
➢ Mutations are a fundamental
part of genetic engineering: their
existence can have various
different impacts, from wreaking
havoc in an organism to not
producing any discernible
changes, to having abundant
benefits. There are two main
types of mutations: gene
mutations, which occur to DNA
bases, and chromosomal
mutations, which affect entire
chromosomes.
➢ Gene mutations can be
classified into the following types:
substitution (point mutation),
insertion, and deletion.
➢ Substitution, also known as
point mutation, occurs when
any single base is replaced by
another base.
➢ Insertion is when one or
several extra nucleotide bases
are added to a DNA strand.
➢ Deletion are mutations in
which a section of DNA is lost, or
deleted; sometimes just one
protein may be removed, and
other times all the proteins will
change due to the removal of a
base.
➢ Mutations can also affect
entire chromosomes, which
house hundreds to thousands of
genes inside. Chromosomal
gene mutations, though their
effects are considerably more
pronounced.
➢ The first real success of
genetic engineering happened in
1978 when Genentech, a
company said to have founded
the biotechnological industry,
created the first synthetic
human insulin.
APPLICATIONS AND
ECONOMICS
 The number of applications
for genetic engineering are
increasing as more and
more is learned about the
genomes of different
organisms.
 Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs)- With
the ability to insert gene
sequences, comes the
possibility of providing new
traits for these target
organisms. This has allowed
the development of GMOs.
A number of other genes can
be combined with crops to
produce desirable
properties such as:
➢ Herbicide-, drought-,
freeze- or disease-
resistance
➢ Higher yield
➢ Faster growth
➢ Improved nutrition
➢ Longer shelf life
 The Flavr-Savr (“Flavor
Savor”) tomato was the first
genetically modified
organism that was licensed
for human consumption. The
trait modified in this tomato
is its ripening process,
 A gene for an enzyme that
causes the degradation of
pectin in the cell walls (i.e.
polygalacturonase)
normally softens the fruit as
it ripens. In Flavr Savr
tomatoes, an inhibitor (i.e.
antisense RNA) disrupts the
expression of this gene,
thereby delaying the
softening of the fruit and
extending the time it may be
kept in storage and
transported to markets.
 Bt-Corn was developed to unfamiliar DNA into plasmids. Use of recombinant DNA FOSSILS-
incorporate the production - bacteria have been created that technology. ◦ FOSSILS are confirmations of
of a toxin (i.e. Bt-endotoxin) are capable of synthesizing creatures that lived previously.
from Bacillus thuringensis in human insulin, human growth 1. Production of Transgenic They can be genuine stays like
corn plants. This toxin hormone, alpha interferon, Plants. 2. bones, teeth, shells, leaves, seeds,
results in the death of pests hepatitis B vaccine, and other Production of Transgenic spores or hints of past exercises,
that feed on these plants like medically useful substances. Animals- 3. for example, creature tunnels,
the corn borer larvae. - Recombinant DNA technology Production of Hormones 4. homes and dinosaur impressions
also can be used for gene Production of Vaccines or even the waves made on an
ETHICS therapy, in which a normal gene 5. Biosynthesis of Interferon ancient shore.
The main reason genetically is introduced into an individual’s 6. Production of Antibiotics ◦ In excellent protection, fine
modified organisms are not more genome in order to repair a 7. Production of Commercially subtleties, for example, unique
widely used is due to ethical mutation that causes a genetic Important Chemicals shading and individual muscle
concerns. Some issues to disease. 8. Application in Enzyme strands are held, includes
consider when deciding whether - The added gene is called a Engineering regularly obvious in electron
to create and/or use GMOs transgene, which can be passed 9. Prevention and Diagnosis of magnifying lens. This is alluded
include: to progeny as a new component Diseases to as the "Medusa effect."
- Safety: This generally arises in of the genome. 10. Gene Therapy
the case of GMO foods. Are the -The resulting organism carrying 11. Practical Applications of THE SIX WAYS OF
foods safe for human the transgene is called a Genetic Engineering FOSSILIZATION
consumption? Is GMO feed transgenic organism or a 12. Applications of forensic
healthy for animals? - genetically modified organism science
(GMO). 1. Unaltered preservation –
Environmental Impact: 13. Biofuel Production Small life form or part caught in
Consider that genetic engineers 14. Genetically steady high amber, solidified plant sap
have the ability to create trees TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA creating microorganisms 2. Permineralization/
that grow faster than their TECHNOLOGY 15. The vitality crop plants Petrification - The natural
unmodified counterparts 16. Environment Protection substance of bone and wood are
- Humans: Should humans be ➢ The enzymes - which supplanted with silica, calcite or
genetically engineered? Doing so incorporate the restriction Genetic Engineering vs pyrite, shaping a stone like fossil
could have medical applications enzyme-help to cut, the Recombinant DNA Technology 3. Replacement - hard parts are
that reduce or prevent genetic polymerases-help to integrate disintegrated and supplanted by
disorders such as Down's and the ligases-help to tie. different minerals, similar to
syndrome. Genetic engineering is an area
➢ The vectors – help in of molecular biology which deals calcite, silica, pyrite, or iron
conveying and coordinating the with the manipulation of the 4. Carbonization or
RECOMBINANT DNA ideal gene quality. genetic material (DNA) of an Coalification - different
Recombinant DNA technology ➢ Host organism - into which organism for valuable components are taken out and
is the joining together of DNA the recombinant DNA is characteristics. Recombinant just the carbon remained
molecules from two different presented. DNA technology is the 5. Recrystallization - Hard parts
species. techniques used for making are changed over to more steady
- Since the focus of all genetics is recombinant DNA. During both minerals or little precious
the gene, the fundamental goal of Steps in Recombinant DNA processes, manipulation of the crystals transform into bigger
Technology:
laboratory geneticists is to
i. Selection and isolation of DNA genetic material of an organism is crystals
isolate, characterize, and occurring. Although there is a 6. Authigenic preservation -
manipulate genes. Recombinant insert difference between genetic Molds and projects are shaped
DNA technology is based ii. Selection of suitable cloning after a large portion of the
vector engineering and recombinant
primarily on two other DNA technology, they are creature have been devastated or
technologies, cloning and DNA iii. Introduction of DNA-insert broken down.
into vector to form rec DNA interrelated, and genetic
sequencing. engineering would be
- Cloning is undertaken in order molecule impossible without the use of DATING FOSSILS
to obtain the clone of one iv. rDNA molecule is introduced
recombinant DNA technology. - Knowing the age of a fossil can
particular gene or DNA sequence into a suitable host. enable a scientist to set up its
of interest. The next step after v. Selection of transformed host
M2: HISTORY OF LIFE ON situation in the geologic time
cloning is to find and isolate that cells. scale and discover its
clone among other members of vi. Expression and multiplication EARTH (Geologic Time Scale)
relationship with different fossils.
the library (a large collection of of DNA-insert in the host. There are two different ways to
clones). Once a segment of DNA Geologic Time Scale (GTS) gauge the age of a fossil: relative
has been cloned, its nucleotide How is Recombinant DNA - Earth's record of the presence dating and absolute dating
sequence can be determined. made? of living things and topographical
Knowledge of the sequence of a occasions.
DNA segment has many uses. - To develop the GTS, geologists RELATIVE DATING
There are three unique I. In light of the investigation of
- Recombinant DNA was first techniques by which have inspected the diverse rock
accomplished in 1973 Herbert Recombinant DNA is made. layers and fossil records all layer of rocks.
Boyer, of the University of through the world, and II. Doesn't tell the specific age:
They are Transformation, Non- just analyze fossils as more
California at San Francisco, and Bacterial Transformation, and submitted rocks in the request of
Stanley Cohen, at Stanford relative age utilizing radioactive seasoned or more youthful, relies
Phage Introduction. upon their situation in rock layer
University, who utilized E. coli dating.
limitation compounds to embed III. Fossils in the highest rock
layer/strata are more youthful
while those in the lowermost
statement are most established.
ABSOLUTE DATING
I. Determines the real age of the
fossil
II. Through radiometric dating,
utilizing radioactive isotopes
carbon-14 and potassium-40
III. Considers the half-life or the
time it takes for half of the
molecules of the radioactive
component to decay
IV. The decay results of
radioactive isotopes are steady
atoms.
◦ The Geologic time scale is
separated into four huge sections
called Eons: Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
The Phanerozoic is isolated into
Eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic. Elimination occasions
and presence of new living things
portrayed the divisions among
Eras. Smaller divisions, called
Periods, portrayed by a solitary
sort of rock framework, make up
every Era. A few Periods are
additionally separated into
smaller time span called Epochs.
Our planet has been a central
point in the rise and vanishing of
numerous living beings that
broaden into different structures
just to endure. From single celled
microbes to greatest whale, all
give uniqueness to Earth's vivid
scenes.
M2.2: MECHANISMS OF
EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
and Genetic Equilibrium
In 1908 Godfrey Hardy and
Wilhelm Weinberg, working
freely, indicated the connection
between genotype frequencies
and allele frequencies that must
happen in such a romanticized
population in
harmony/equilibrium.
A population is in hereditary
equilibrium or harmony when
allele frequencies in the gene
pool stay consistent across ages.
A gene pool will be in
equilibrium if it qualifies in the
following conditions:
• mutations never occur
• the population is very large in
number
• individual species in the
population randomly mate
• no migration (enter or exit) of
the certain population
• allele frequencies are the same
with males and females
• on any definite genotypes,
natural selection do not occur
 Hardy’s and Weinberg’s
knowledge was that when a
population is in harmony or
great equilibrium, genotype
frequencies can be
determined from allele
frequencies.
Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium question can
be solved by the two
equations below:
p is the dominant allele
frequency.
q is the recessive allele
frequency.
p2 is the individuals with
the homozygous dominant
genotype frequency.
2pq is the individuals with
the heterozygous genotype
frequency.
q2 is the individuals with
the homozygous recessive
genotype frequency.
Mechanisms of
Evolutionary Change
(Natural Selection, Genetic 
Drift, Mutations and Gene
Flow)
◦ The Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium/Principle says
that allele frequencies in a
populace will stay steady
without the four factors that
could transform them. Those
elements are natural
selection, mutation,
genetic drift, and
migration (gene flow).
Indeed, we realize they are
likely continually influencing
the entire population.
NATURAL SELECTION
(Survival of the Fittest)
Alfred Wallace who is a
British naturalist, co-
developed the theory of
natural selection and
evolution with Charles
Darwin. Natural Selection
prompts a
transformative/evolutionary
change when a few
individuals with specific
qualities in a populace have
a higher endurance and
regenerative rate than
others and give these
inheritable hereditary
highlights to their posterity.
GENETIC/RANDOM DRIFT
Genetic/Random Drift
comprises of arbitrary
changes in the frequency of
appearance of a gene, as a
rule, in a little population.
The cycle may make gene
variations vanish totally,
along these lines lessening
hereditary fluctuation. The
impact of genetic drift is
bigger in small population
and more modest in huge
population.
The population bottleneck
and a founder effect are
two instances of random
drift that can have huge
impact in small populations.
Genetic drift chips away at
all changes or mutations and
can in the end add to the
production of another
species by methods for the
gathering of non-versatile
mutations that can
encourage population
subdivision.
MUTATION
Mutation can be
characterized as an
adjustment in the DNA
succession inside a gene or
chromosome of a living
form.. The phenotype can
be affected by mutations and
in turn, lessen the fitness of
an organism and increase
the vulnerability to several
sicknesses and disorders.
Beneficial mutations
however can lead to the
reproductive success and
adaptability of an organism
to its environment.
GENE FLOW
 Gene Flow as emphasized in
population genetics in
which otherwise it is called
as gene migration, denotes
to the transmission of genes
from the gene pool of one
specific population to
another population
◦ Maintained gene flow
likewise acts against
speciation by recombining
the gene pool of various
populaces and in such a
manner, fixing the creating
contrasts in hereditary
variety. Gene flow in this
way has the impact of
limiting the hereditary
differences between
populations.
◦ Migrations of human
being have happened since
 the commencement of
humankind and are
characterized as the
development of individuals
starting with one spot then
onto the next.
In outline, there are four
factors that can change the
allele frequencies of a
population. Natural
selection (survival of the
fittest) works by choosing
for alleles that give valuable
characteristics or practices,
while choosing against those
for pernicious
characteristics. Mutations
bring new alleles into a
population. Genetic drift
comes from the event that a
few individuals have more
posterity than others and
results in changes in allele
frequencies that are
arbitrary in course. At the
point when people leave or
join the population, allele
frequencies can change
because of gene flow.
DESCENT WITH
MODIFICATION
 Evolution happens when
there is a change in gene
frequency within a
population over a period of
time. Moreover, Charles
Darwin defined evolution
as descent with
modification, proposing
that Earth’s many species
have descended from
ancestors that were
altered compared from
those alive today.
 The passing of attributes
from parent organisms to
their posterity is termed as
descent with modification of
Charles Darwin.
REPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATING MECHANISMS
 A biological species is
characterized as a gaggle
of similar life forms
prepared to interbreed to
supply fertile, viable
offspring. Biological species
are reproductively isolated
from each other. The
definition typically reached
out to require that such
multiplication must occur
under regular or natural, not
artificial (e.g., captive)
conditions.
 The evolution of
reproductive isolating
mechanisms prevents
promising species from
multiplying. Basically,
isolating mechanisms can
operate at two basic levels.
• Prezygotic Mechanisms
prevent formation of viable
zygotes.
• Postzygotic Mechanisms
prevent hybrids from
passing on their genes.
Pre-Zygotic Reproductive
Isolating Mechanisms
 It includes Behavioral
Isolation, Ecological
Isolation, Temporal
Isolation, Mechanical
Isolation and Gametic
Isolation.
Postzygotic Isolating
Mechanisms
 It includes Hybrid
Inviability, Hybrid Sterility,
Hybrid Breakdown, and
Interspecies Hybridization
MODES OF SPECIATION
Speciation is the manner by
which another sort of plant
or animal species is
developed. Speciation occurs
when a member within a
species separates from
different individuals from its
species and builds up its
own remarkable attributes.
There are five types of
speciation: allopatric,
peripatric, parapatric, and
sympatric and artificial.
Modern species developed
from earlier species and that
the connection of living
being is the outcome of
common ancestry. This can
be supported by
morphological and
anatomical information,
homology, biogeography,
DNA and protein sequences
(molecular data), and
embryology. All these
evidences of evolution
(descent with modification)
will be discussed in a
separate topic.
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Darwin and other 19th-
century scientists found
compelling prove for natural
advancement within the  The skeletons of turtles,
comparative consider of
living life forms, in their
geographic dispersion, and
within the fossil remains of
terminated life forms.
Natural disciplines that
developed more recently—
genetics, organic
chemistry, physiology,  Comparative life structures
biology, creature conduct
(ethology), and
particularly atomic
biology—have provided
effective extra prove and
point by point affirmation.
THE FOSSIL RECORD
 Paleontologists have
considered the fossil
remains of numerous
thousands of life forms that
lived within the past. This
fossil record appears that
numerous sorts of
terminated life forms were
exceptionally distinctive in
shape from any presently
living.
 The primary vertebrates,
creatures with spines,
showed up around 400
million a long time back; the
primary well evolved
creatures, less than 200
million a long time prior.
The history of life recorded
by fossils presents
compelling proof of
advancement.
 The fossil record is
fragmented. Of the little
extent of life forms
protected as fossils, as it
were a modest division have
been recouped and
examined by
paleontologists.
 One case is the advancement
of the horse. The horse can
be followed to a creature the
measure of a canine having a
few toes on each foot and
teeth suitable for browsing;
this creature called the first
light horse (sort
Hyracotherium), lived more
than 50 million a long time
prior.
 The foremost later shape,
the advanced horse (Equus),
is much bigger in a measure,
is one-toed, and has teeth
suitable for brushing

STRUCTURAL
SIMILARITIES
steeds, people, feathered
creatures, and bats are
strikingly comparative, in
show disdain toward the
diverse ways of life of these
creatures and the
differences of their
situations.
uncover why most
organismic structures are
not idealized. Just like the
forelimbs of turtles, steeds,
people, fowls, and bats, an
organism's body parts are
less than flawlessly adjusted
since they are modified from
an acquired structure
instead of outlined from
totally "raw" materials for a
particular reason. The
blemish of structures is
proving for advancement
and against antievolutionist
contentions
that conjure brilliantly plan.
EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT AND
VESTIGES
 A near developmental
relationship between life
forms that show up radically
distinctive as adults can in
some cases be recognized by
their embryonic homologies.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
 The field of molecular
biology provides the most
detailed and convincing
evidence available for
biological evolution. In its
unveiling of the nature of
DNA and the workings of
organisms at the level of
enzymes and other protein
molecules, it has shown that
these molecules hold
information about an
organism’s ancestry.
 The precision with which
these events can be
reconstructed is one reason
the evidence from molecular
biology is so compelling.
 This unity reveals the
genetic continuity and
common ancestry of all
organisms. The genetic
code serves as an example.
Each particular sequence of
three nucleotides in the
 nuclear DNA acts as a
pattern for the production
of the same amino acid in all
organisms
 The degree of similarity
reflects the recency of
common ancestry.
SYSTEMATICS BASED ON
EVOLUTIONARY
RELATIONSHIPS: TREE OF LIFE
AND SYSTEMATICS
Organisms come in different
forms.
Organisms - from the microbes
in our skin, plants in our yards,
insects in a rotten log, to the
birds aloft - developed from a
different species as asserted by
the Theory of Evolution by
Charles Darwin. The Theory of
Evolution yields as much
questions as there are answers.
THE PHYLOGENETIC TREE OF
LIFE
 To infer evolutionary
relationships, systematists
use information ranging
from fossils to molecules
and genes These data are
utilized to build the
phylogenetic tree of life.
 A phylogenetic tree is a
diagram used to reflect
evolutionary relationships
among organisms or groups
of organisms known as taxa
(singular: taxon). It
represents the phylogeny of
organisms, the history of
organismal lineages as
they change through time.
Each branch point
represents the divergence of
two taxa (groups of species).
A rooted tree includes a
branch to represent the last
common ancestor of all taxa
(group) in the tree
 cladistics is the most
accepted method for
constructing phylogenetic
trees. It sorts organisms into
clades (groups of entities
that are most closely related
to each other and the
ancestor from which they
descended.
 Phylogeny is the
evolutionary history and the
evolutionary relationships
among a species or group of
species. In other words, it is
the description of an
organism’s own
evolutionary journey
through time and how it is
related to other species in
the evolutionary pathway.
 Morphologic evidence.
Living things that share
similar physical
characteristics and
DNA/genetic sequences tend
to be more closely related.
 Homology is similarity due
to shared ancestry, while
analogy is similarity due to
convergent evolution.
Similar structures in
different species regardless
of their functions are known
as homologous structures.
Homology seems to show
lineage from common
ancestor.
 Genetic evidence.
Phylogeny can be inferred
from molecular data. The
use of DNA and other
molecular data to determine
evolutionary relationships is
termed as Molecular
systematics. It applies the
use of information at
molecular level and has
flourished due to the
advancement of DNA
technology.
What is Systematics?
To construct phylogenies,
biologists apply systematics.
Systematics is the study
organisms with the purpose of
deriving their evolutionary
relationship. One of the goals of
systematics is tracing phylogeny;
hence, it is considered as the
study of biological diversity in an 
evolutionary context.
 Molecular systematics, as
described is a breakthrough
approach for tracing
evolutionary history. It uses
comparisons of nucleic acids
(DNA and RNA), genes,
amino acids, proteins and
other molecules to infer
relatedness.
Carl Woese and the
Phylogenetic Tree of Life
Life on Earth has evolved along
three lineages, now called
domains based on the work of
American Microboiologist Carl
Woese—Bacteria, Archaea, and
Eukarya. He suggested the
domain as a new taxonomic level
and Archaea as a new different
domain, to mirror the new
phylogenetic tree.
Lines of evidence to infer
evolutionary relationships: The
following are the four (4)
evidence that support
relatedness of species: 1.
Fossil evidence. Experts say that
fossil provides direct evidence
for evolution because it can tell
what has occurred. In other
words, it can prove that change in
time has occurred. 2.
Homologies. Phenotypic and
genetic similarities due to share
ancestry is known as homology.
Comparing the anatomies of
different living things,
homologies can be revealed by
looking at cellular similarities
and differences, studying
embryological development and
vestigial structures within
distinct organisms. Homology is
categorized into two:
morphological homology and
molecular/genetic homology.
 Morphological homology.
Basically, each leaf has a
variety of physiological
shape and morphological
function, yet all are
homologous structures
which derived from a typical
ancestral form.
 Developmental biology is
the science in studying the
embryological development
of living things.
Molecular/Genetic
Classification is linked to
homology. Like anatomical Phylogeny
and morphological
structures, the structures of
the molecules of life reflect 
descent with modification. In
general, the connection of
sets of organisms is
mirrored in the similarity of
their DNA sequences.
3. Biogeography. The study of
the distribution of the world’s
species both in the past and in
the present is known as
biogeography
The geographic distribution of
species in time and space are
influenced by many factors and
that includes Continental Drift
and log distance dispersal.
Basically, biogeography has been
divided into two (ecological and
historical biogeography)
different approaches; ecological
biogeography, the study of the
environmental factors shaping
the distribution of individual
organisms at local scale, and
historical biogeography, aims
to elaborate the geographical
distribution of such organisms in
terms of their evolutionary
history. Historical
biogeography involves longer
time scales, (millions of years),
larger spatial scales (e.g.,
continental landmasses), and the
distribution patterns of species
or higher taxa.
4. Molecular clocks help track
evolutionary time. The concept of
a molecular clock is useful in a
way that it determines
evolutionary relationships
among organisms, and it
indicates the time in the past
when species started to diverge
from one another
 Application of a molecular
clock to one strain of HIV
proposes that the strain
spread to humans during the
1930s. Phylogenetic analysis
infers that HIV is descended
from viruses that infect
chimpanzees and other
primates. Comparison of HIV
specimen throughout the
epidemic shows that the
virus progressed in a very
clocklike way.
Biologists use phylogenetic
trees for many purposes,
including: testing
hypotheses about evolution,
learning about the
characteristics of extinct
species and ancestral
lineages, and classifying
organisms.