SEMINAR 8

REVISION
I. Answer the following questions:

1. What approach to the analysis of language material does stylistics predominantly apply:
- substantial – all of the above
- structural – none of the above
- functional
From the standpoint of the role of the language units of communication
First, it considers units of all language levels. Secondly, it studies these units primarily from a functional point of
view. Thus, although we single out special units of stylistics - expressive means, stylistic devices, tropes, figures,
stylistically marked words and sentence models, etc., stylistics studies not only the structural and substantive features of
the units, it also studies the functioning of individual elements of the language system and individual subsystems of the
language (the so-called "functional styles of the language"), and the entire language system as a whole.
2. What is foregrounding? What functions does it perform? What types of foregrounding do you know?
Foregrounding (Prague linguists, 1930-s) – the ability of a verbal element to obtain extra significance only due to
the specific arrangement of the elements within an utterance.
Functions of foregrounding:
 Actualization
 Defamiliarization ← familiar
 Остранение странный (estrangement)
Foregrounding is meant to draw the reader's attention to the textual elements having major semantic importance and
therefore to protect the information from losses.
Foregrounding the ways of formal text arrangement, focusing the reader's attention on the definite elements of the
message and defining semantically relevant connections between the elements of one or; frequently, of different levels
(I.V. Arnold). more
The main types of foregrounding are:
 convergency/convergence
 coupling
 deceived expectation/defeated expectancy
Convergency – the concentration of stylistic devices with (!) a similar stylistic function in the textual fragment.
M.Riffaterre ("Criteria for Style Analysis"). E.g.: And heaved and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as if its
vast tides were a conscience (H.Melvill "Moby Dick"). Convergency, based on the signal redundancy, is an effective
means of protecting information from losses and hindrances.
Coupling (Samuel Levin) - the usage of (!) similar elements in (!) similar positions imparting integrity to the text.
Coupling may be found at any level of the text and in text fragments of different size.
The similarity of elements can be:
 phonetic (alliteration, assonance, rhyme),
 structural (parallel constructions),
 semantic (synonyms, antonyms, words of the same semantic field, hyponyms, hypernyms).
The similarity of position is based on the place of an element in an utterance or text. E.g. Like father, like son.
Coupling promotes memorizing (makes it easier to memorize things).
Deceived expectation (Roman Jacobson) – breaking of the pattern by the usage of an element of low predictability.
results in the violation of logical continuity that is similar to a psychological push. Deceived expectation provides
hindrance resistance and protects information from losses helping the addressee to notice it. E.g.: Talk all you like about
automatic ovens and electric dishwashers, there is nothing you can have around the house as useful as a .... (Phyllis
McGinley)
3. What are the main components in the information transmission model? What is thesaurus? Why and how is it important
in information transmission?
 The term "message sender" refers to any object capable of perceiving, storing, processing and using information -
primarily a person and electronic computers.
A necessary component of the sender of the message, as well as the recipient of the message, is a memory block, or
thesaurus, which is not only a store of knowledge that a person possesses, but also the totality of his sensory and
aesthetic experience. The message is those thoughts and/or feelings that the sender of the message has and wants to
convey or, more precisely, arouse in the recipient of the message.
In order to make it possible to transfer them to another person, they must be "materialized", i.e., expressed in some
sensually perceived form - an object or action - in a word, utterance, gesture, facial expression, drawing, work of art.
Therefore, a coding device can be defined as a means of translating a message (thoughts, feelings) into a signal, into
sensually perceived objects or actions that carry certain information (message). In the coding device, it is necessary to
distinguish between the coding mechanism itself - the human speech apparatus and the code, or a set of signs and rules for
their use. Codes can be of varying degrees of complexity. The most universal and widespread code is the human
language, which can be defined as the primary semiotic (sign) system, on the basis of which more complex codes are
formed - secondary semiotic systems - - the language of fiction, the language of poetry, painting, music, social etiquette,
etc.
In linguistics, the concept of a communication channel is sometimes associated with "voice apparatus or writing" or
with literature: novels, short stories, stories, poems. By channel, we mean the environment, not only in the physical, but
also in the social, historical and cultural sense, in which the signal functions.
The decoder, which also consists of a reception mechanism and a code similar to the code of the sender of the
message, performs the reverse of the operations performed by the encoder - restoring or "extracting" the message from the
signal; the recipient of the message is a person or a computer.
One of the essential components of the scheme under consideration is noise or interference, which causes distortion
of the message. In the humanities, the concept of "interference" is interpreted more broadly, it includes a possible
discrepancy between the codes of the sender of the message and the recipient of the message, and the inadequacy of the
signal to the message due to the imperfection of the code or incorrect use of it, and changes in the communication
channel, and, finally, purely technical reasons - loss of part of the signal.
 the source of information which makes the message which is to be transmitted to the end.
 transmitter which work out in some way the message into signals which correspond to the character of the give
channel (the author remakes the information and decodes it).
 transmission channel – an environment which is used for the transmission of the signal from the source to the
receiver (literature).
 receiver – restores the message from signals (reader).
 addressee – is a person for whom the message was addressed.
 Code is a system of signs and rules of their combination for the transmission of the message through a particular
channel.
 The sum of the represented in the given period of time peculiarities of the source is called a message. Message is
the information which the speaker intends to transmit to (or, rather, to provoke in) the listener.
 Signal is the information materialised verbally (e.g. in a sound form) or non-verbally (e.g. a dance, a piece of
music etc.), as a text etc.

Под «отправителем сообщения» понимается любой объект, способный к восприятию, хранению,

переработке и использованию информации — прежде всего человек и электронно-вычислительные машины.
Необходимым компонентом отправителя сообщения, равно как и получателя сообщения, является блок
памяти, или тезаурус, который представляет собой не только запас знаний, которыми обладает человек, но и всю
совокупность его чувственного и эстетического опыта. Сообщение — это те мысли и/или чувства, которыми
обладает отправитель сообщения и которые он хочет передать или, более точно, возбудить у получателя
сообщения.
Для того чтобы сделать возможной их передачу другому человеку, их необходимо «материализовать», т. е.
выразить в некой чувственно воспринимаемой форме — объекте или действии — в слове, высказывании, жесте,
мимике, рисунке, произведении искусства. Поэтому кодирующее устройство можно определить как средство
воплощения сообщения (мысли, чувства) в сигнал, в чувственно воспринимаемые объекты или действия,
несущие определенную информацию (сообщение). В кодирующем устройстве необходимо различать сам
механизм кодирования — речемыслительный аппарат человека и код, или совокупность знаков и правил их
употребления. Коды могут быть различной степени сложности. В качестве наиболее универсального и
распространенного кода выступает человеческий язык, который можно определить как п е р в и ч н у ю
семиотическую (знаковую) систему, на основе которой образуются более сложные коды — в т о р и ч н ы е
семиотические системы —- язык художественной литературы, язык поэзии, живописи, музыки, социального
этикета и пр.
В лингвистике понятие канала связи иногда связывается с «голосовым аппаратом или письмом» или с
литературой: романами, повестями, рассказами, стихами. Под каналом мы подразумеваем ту среду, не только в
физическом, но и в социальном, историческом и культурном смысле, в которой функционирует сигнал.
 Декодирующее устройство, которое также состоит из механизма рецепции и кода, аналогичного коду
отправителя сообщения, выполняет операции, обратные операциям, производимым кодирующим устройством —
восстанавливая или «извлекая» сообщение из сигнала; получателем сообщения является человек или ЭВМ.
Одним из существенных компонентов рассматриваемой схемы является шум или помехи, которые вызывают
искажение сообщения. В гуманитарных науках понятие «помеха» трактуется шире, оно включает и возможное
несоответствие кодов отправителя сообщения и получателя сообщения, и неадекватность сигнала сообщению в
связи с несовершенством кода или некорректностью его использования, и изменения в канале связи, и, наконец,
чисто технические причины — потеря части сигнала.
4. What is the difference between barbarisms and foreignisms?
Foreign words (foreignisms) and expressions are units of another language that are used occasionally, mainly in the
sphere of literary processed speech. Foreign words and expressions are not expressive means of the language, since they
are not included in the system of stylistic oppositions of the recipient language, but can be used to create various stylistic
devices in certain speech or situational contexts.
Barbarisms are words and phrases borrowed from other languages, but to a certain extent “adapted” to the norms of the
recipient language and used in a usual way, although their foreign origin is felt very clearly. These include borrowings
from French: parvenu — выскочка, protégé — протеже, à propos — кстати, bon mot — остроумное выражение, en
route — между прочим, bon vivants — любители хорошо пожить, beau monde — высший свет и др.; Latin: ad ovo
— с самого начала, de novo — сызнова, alter ego — другое «я» и др. Barbarism should also include distorted foreign
words occasionally used in speech and, obviously, cases of incorrect use of borrowed words.
Foreign words do not belong to the vocabulary of the target language. They are not registered by dictionaries. Barbarisms
are words which have already become facts of the language, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary
vocabulary!

II. Supply the missing definitions:

1. Signal predictability – in science and technology, there is a concept of predictability of the whole signal or its
components. Predictability refers to the degree the probability of occurrence of some element depending on the
nature the preceding element. So, for example, in English orthography after the letter q is always followed by the
letter and, i.e. the appearance of the letter and in this case is completely predictable. After the word "cat" in position
of the subject, we have a high degree of probability to predict the appearance of words in the position of the
predicate “sleeps”, “eats”, “drinks”, “purrs”, but the appearance of the words “reads a newspaper”, “talks on the
phone”, “goes to lectures” is unlikely unpredictable.
2. Signal redundancy is – the quality of the signal, which is that the value of a unit of a message or of the entire
message is encoded not by one unit of the expression plan, but by several, or, more simply, when the same value is
encoded in a signal several times by different ways or in the same way. Let's take the simplest examples: a signal
distress BOB is transmitted not once, but in a series - BOB, BOB, BOB, although all these signals have the same
meaning. In the sentence "The boy went to cinema yesterday" - the past tense form of the verb and the adverbial
tense "yesterday". Signal redundancy is a means of improving noise immunity signal, its ability to transmit a
message even in conditions of strong interference. However, the meaning of redundancy is not limited to this. In
the human communication - in everyday life, in literary texts, redundancy is a factor that contributes to an increase
in the expressivity of the signal, its pragmatic effectiveness.
3. Paradigmatics is – is a set of non-linear relations between the language units of one class which are based on
association (by similarity/ non-similarity); the set of multidimensional relationships between language elements of
the same level, united in the language by associations by similarity. Aggregates such elements - paradigms - can be
formed from elements of any language levels: phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, sentence models, text models. It
should be noted that these elements are included in the paradigm as integral formations, although in themselves
they can be divided into elements of more low level. Paradigmatics realizes first of all the needs cognitive-
reflective, or nominative, function of the language, and therefore relationships between members of the paradigm
are seen as oppositions, or relations "either - or" - from a number of homofunctional elements that serve the
purposes of nomination, the speaker chooses either one or the other element. From two or more members of the
opposition, the member of the opposition who contains more information than another or others is treated as a
labelled member of opposition.
4. Syntagmatics is – is a set of linear relations between the speech units of one language level within a unit of higher
level. They are based on contiguity. Sets of such units - syntagmas - can be formed from units of speech any level -
allophones, allomorphs, words, statements, text segments. It should be noted that units of the same level are
included in the syntagma as parts whole, forming a unit of another, higher level. Syntagmatics serves primarily the
needs of the communicative function of language, and, since one and the same situation can be said in different
ways, the relations between the members of the syntagma are considered as a contrast, or the relationship "and -
and" - in the syntagma, the presence of both one and the other unit is obligatory, which forms higher level unit
 5. Context is – in the most general sense may be defined as a set of formally fixed conditions under which different
properties of a language unit manifest themselves
6. Speech synonyms are – exist in the language system at all its levels, or, in other words, exist in a “finished form”.
The largest number of language synonyms is observed in vocabulary and syntax. Speech synonyms are
distinguished on the basis of paradigmatic relations that unite one or another synonymous series. Each word, as a
rule, is included in one or more paradigms, the members of which are connected by relations of a lexical or lexical-
stylistic nature. Let's consider this situation with specific examples

III. Indicate the instances of sound-instrumenting (alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia) in the given examples.
Specify the effects they create.
1. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed free (Coleridge)
\ðə\ \feə\ \briːz\ \bluː\, \ðə\ \waɪt\ \fəʊm\ \fluː\, \ðə\ \ˈfʌrəʊ\ \ˈfɒləʊd\ \friː\
Alliteration – repetition of the consonant “F” in close succession to achieve the specific sound and content effect of
peaceful atmosphere.
Assonance – deliberate repetition of the stressed vowel (long u) in close succession aimed to create a specific sound
like howling wind.
Indirect onomatopoeia based on alliteration which to certain degree imitates the sounds of nature and creates an
atmosphere of the sea beach.

2. All the time they had been talking, the bell from the church tower had continued its tolling. Bong, Bong Bong,
out across the countryside. Now, abruptly, it stopped (R.Pilcher)
\ɔːl\ \ðə\ \taɪm\ \ðeɪ\ \hæd\ \biːn\ \ˈtɔːkɪŋ\, \ðə\ \bɛl\ \frɒm\ \ðə\ \ʧɜːʧ\ \ˈtaʊə\ \hæd\ \kənˈtɪnju(ː)d\ \ɪts\ \ˈtəʊlɪŋ\. \bɒŋ\, \
bɒŋ\ \bɒŋ\, \aʊt\ \əˈkrɒs\ \ðə\ \ˈkʌntrɪˌsaɪd\. \naʊ\, \əˈbrʌptli\, \ɪt\ \stɒpt\
Alliteration – repetition of the consonant “T” in close succession.
Assonance – deliberate repetition of the stressed vowel “O” in close succession.
Indirect onomatopoeia based on alliteration and Direct onomatopoeia
All are used to achieve the specific sound of bell tolling.

3. They hammered the tabletops with their knife-butts when Soldier and Velion appeared, and a loud, grating
“Zzzzzzzzuuuzzzzzzzzz” noise filled the air. This was a sound of appreciation for their current hero, Soldier.
\ðeɪ\ \ˈhæməd\ \ðə\ \ˈteɪblˌtɒps\ \wɪð\ \ðeə\ \naɪf\-\bʌts\ \wɛn\ \ˈsəʊlʤər\ \ænd\ Velion \əˈpɪəd\, \ænd\ \ə\ \laʊd\, \
ˈgreɪtɪŋ\ “Zzzzzzzzuuuzzzzzzzzz” \nɔɪz\ \fɪld\ \ði\ \eə\. \ðɪs\ \wɒz\ \ə\ \saʊnd\ \ɒv\ \əˌpriːʃɪˈeɪʃ(ə)n\ \fɔː\ \ðeə\ \ˈkʌrənt\
\ˈhɪərəʊ\, \ˈsəʊlʤə\.
Indirect onomatopoeia based on alliteration of sound Z and Direct onomatopoeia which to certain degree imitates the
sounds hammering the tabletop with a knife.

IV. State the functions of graphical and phono-graphical stylistic devices in the following examples:
1. “Here, lemme handle this, kiddar,” said George (Chaplin)
Graphon helps to convey the atmosphere of true to life communication
2. He missed our father very much. He was s-l-a-i-n in North Africa. (S.)
Spacing of the grapheme – hyphenation – emphasize the fact of murder and speaker’s sorrow
3. Help. Help. HELP (A.Huxley)
Capitalization – emphasizes certain things (help is needed) and draws readers’ attention towards them – expressing
emotion (desperation)
4. The b-b-b-b-bastard – he seen me c-c-c-c-coming. (R.P.Warren)
Spacing of the grapheme – hyphenation – emphasising words and drowwing attention to them - expressing emotion
(anger or fear)
5. "Oh, well, then, you just trot over to the table and make your little mommy a gweat big dwink." (E. Albey)
Graphons – supplies information about either speaker’s physical defect of speech (cannot pronounce sound “r”) or
his/her very young age.

V. Comment on the function(s) of morphological grammatical categories and parts of speech that create stylistic
effects:
1. <…> she loved him. Not the Stanley whom everyone saw, not the everyday one; but a timid, sensitive, innocent
Stanley who knelt down every night to say his prayers. (Dolgopolova)
SDs based on the use of nouns (category of definiteness and indefiniteness): the definite article used with a
proper name may become a powerful expressive means to emphasize the person's good or bad qualities which
are either temporary or permanent
2. “I love you mucher.” “Plenty mucher? Me tooer.” (Braine)
 Morphemic foregrounding – repetition – to focus attention on, emphasize and stress the logical meaning of sufix -er
(comperative form of adjectives)
Morphemic foregrounding – occasionalism - extension of the normative valency – unusual combination of
morphemes that results in formation of occasionalisms - for the creation of additional information is extension of its
normative valency – neoligsm, special communicative situation
SDs based on the use of adjectives (degree of comparison): the unexpected comperative adjective degree forms
lend the sentence a certain rhythm and make it even more expressive. The commercial functional style makes a
wide use of the violation of grammatical norms to captivate the reader's attention:
3. She unchained, unbolted, unlocked the door (A.Bennet)
Morphemic foregrounding – repetition – to focus attention on, emphasize and stress the logical meaning of prefix
un- “not”
Morphemic foregrounding – repetition– to focus attention on, emphasize and stress the logical meaning of suffix -
ed “having the characteristics of”
4. I must not think nonsense, he thought. Luck is a thing that comes in many forms and who can recognize her?
SDs based on the use of nouns: personification
5. David, in his new grown-upness, had already a sort of authority. (І.М.)
Morphemic foregrounding – occasionalism - extension of the normative valency – unusual combination of
morphemes that results in formation of occasionalisms - for the creation of additional information is extension of its
normative valency – neoligsm, special communicative situation
6. I met Takeda yesterday. It was terrible! He is drunk. He speaks to anybody around him and says he is ready to
make them happy. (Araki)
SDs based on the use of verbs (category of time, transposition): change of time plans (past simple to present
simple) in order to revive the story. The present tense forms are used instead of the past or
of the future to give actions vividness and demonstrativeness (наглядність)

VI. State the type (literary or colloquial words) in the following examples. Identify the subgroup within the defined
group. Specify the effect created:
1. “Good,” Abbey said suddenly. He took up a specimen – it was an aneurism \ˈænjʊərɪz(ə)m\ of the ascending \ə
ˈsɛndɪŋ\ aorta \eɪˈɔːtə\– and began in a friendly manner to question Andrew. (Cronin). \ən\
Literary vocabulary – terms and nomenclature words - In the language of fiction, their usual
the function is characterological, they seem to “tie” the described events to a specific place and time; creating a
realistic background (supplying information about character’s occupation)
2. When Denny came home from the army he learned that he was an heir and owner of property. The viejo, that is
the grandfather, had died leaving Denny the two small houses on the Tortilla Flat. (Steinbeck)
Literary vocabulary – foreignism – illustrates the speaker's desire for a kind of sophistication in speech or his
speech mannerism or shows his background; depicting individual peculiarities of the character’s nationality:
3. “Here we are now,” she cried, returning with the tray. “And don’t look so miz”. (Priestley)
Colloquial vocabulary – colloquialism/slang – helps to convey the atmosphere of true to life communication;
The use of these forms in colloquial speech is not associated with the performance of any stylistic function, but is
due to the tempo of speech, economy of pronunciation efforts, reliance on situational and speech context. These
words do not have a lexical-stylistic paradigm, they have functional-stylistic meaning and mark the statement as
colloquial.
4. “Also it will cost him a hundred bucks as a retainer.”
“Huh?” Suspicious again. Stick to basic English.
“Hundred dollars,” I said. (R.Chandler)
Colloquial vocabulary – colloquialism – helps to convey the atmosphere of true to life communication;
The use of these forms in colloquial speech is not associated with the performance of any stylistic function, but is
due to the tempo of speech, economy of pronunciation efforts, reliance on situational and speech context. These
words do not have a lexical-stylistic paradigm, they have functional-stylistic meaning and mark the statement as
colloquial.
5. “Then, of course, there ought to be one or two outsiders – just to give the thing a bona fide appearance. I and
Aileen could see to that – young people, uncritical, and with no idea of politics. (Christie)
Literary vocabulary – barbarism – illustrates the speaker's desire for a kind of sophistication in speech or his
speech mannerism; depicting individual peculiarities of the character’s level of education
6. “There we were, in the hell of a country – pardon me – a country of raw metal”. (J.Galsworthy)
Literary vocabulary – borrowing (French) – Illustrates the speaker's desire for a kind of sophistication in speech
or his speech mannerism; depicting individual peculiarities of the character’s level of education
VII. Comment on the usage of phraseology

1. Angus read it at a sitting, or a lying really. He read it in bed on Christmas night, staying awake till three to do
so. (R.Rendell)
At a sitting - at one time, during one period.
Expansion of the PhU - clarification, strengthening the meaning of the entire phraseological unit in order to achieve
a certain stylistic effect (emphasizing on the body’s position)
2. Paco came and went. Pablo came and went. Each complained Ann was ungenerous with him on his departure.
And then there was Paul. <…> It was, for Ann Grenville, lust at first sight. (D.Dunne).
Love at first sight - on first seeing or meeting someone; from an initial impression.
Replacement of the component = Lust at first sight
3. Blackie’s expression altered radically. “She was just being catty, Emma. Edwina’s got a chip on her shoulder
the size of that old oak tree out younder in my garden. She’ll never change” (B.T. Bradford)
Have a chip on your shoulder – to seem angry all the time because you think you have
been treated unfairly or feel you are not as good as other people.
Expansion of the PhU = got a chip on her shoulder the size of that old oak tree out younder in my garden –
strengthening the meaning of the entire phraseological unit in order to achieve a certain stylistic effect (more effect)

VIII. Analyse the following sentences and classify syntactical EM and SDs:
1. Never wonder. By means of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, settle everything somehow, and never
wonder (Dickens)
• Enumeration – intensification of the context of the utterance
• Framing/ring repetition - to emphasize the phrase “never wonder”
• Nominative sentence – logical emphasis to fix attention on the key words of the utterance
• Parcellation – to put emphasise on the phrase
2. If everyone at twenty realized that half his life was to be lived after forty … (Waugh)
• Aposiopesis – speaker’s unwillingness to proceed for various reasons (to keep intrigue)
3. In he got and away they went. (Waugh)
• Inversion (prepositional) – aims at giving logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the utterance
• Complete parallelism – communicative and expressive intensification of the utterance, rhyme
4. The sky was dark and gloomy, the air damp and raw, the streets wet and sloppy (Dickens)
• Enumeration – intensification of the context of the utterance
• Asyndeton – creates rhythmical arrangement, gives dynamism to the narrative (без сполучників)
• Ellipsis – to lay emphasis on the remaining parts of the sentence (omission of verb)
• Incomplete parallel constructions – communicative and expressive intensification of the utterance, rhyme
5. She watched the butler whisper in her husband’s ear, and she kept on talking. She saw her husband nod his head, and
she kept on talking. She met her husband’s eye as he glanced furtively at her and looked away again, and she kept on
talking. She followed with her eyes as her husband left Edith Bleeker’s drawing room, and she kept on talking.
(D.Dunne)
• Complete parallelism – communicative and expressive intensification of the utterance, rhyme
• Ordinary repetition – to emphasize the phrase and pay attention to it
• Epiphora – to emphasize the phrase and pay attention to it, rhyme
6. But who wants to be foretold the weather? It is bad enough when it comes, without our having the misery of knowing
it beforehand. (Jerome)
• Rhetorical question – to make the implied statement much stronger than it would be if expressed directly.
• Detachment – underlining the importance of the phrase
7. The first supper – there would be another one after midnight – was now being served (F. Scott Fitzgerald).
• Parenthesis/Parenthetic clause – explaining certain points and emphasizing some fact, giving additional
information about the supper.
8. What I had seen of Patti didn't really contradict Kitty's view of her: a girl who means well, but. (D. Uhnak)
• Emphatic construction (what I had seen) – to intensify some part of the sentence, giving it an emotional charge
• Aposiopesis – speaker’s unwillingness to proceed for various reasons (to keep intrigue)
• Parenthesis/Parenthetic clause – explaining certain points and emphasizing some fact, giving additional
information about the supper.