atmosphere
Article
Effects of Air Pollutants on Summer Precipitation in Different
Regions of Beijing
Yan Yang 1,2,3, *, Wei Zhou 1,2,3 , Qian Gao 1,2,3 , Delong Zhao 1 , Xiange Liu 1 and Yongqing Wang 1






Citation: Yang, Y.; Zhou, W.; Gao, Q.;
Zhao, D.; Liu, X.; Wang, Y. Effects of
Air Pollutants on Summer
Precipitation in Different Regions of
Beijing. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
atmos13010141
Academic Editor: Young-Ji Han
Received: 18 November 2021
Accepted: 12 January 2022
Published: 15 January 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13010141
1 Beijing Weather Modification Center, Beijing 100089, China; zhouwei@bj.cma.gov.cn (W.Z.);
gaoq@bj.cma.gov.cn (Q.G.); dg1828019@smail.nju.edu.cn (D.Z.); liuxe@bj.cma.gov.cn (X.L.);
wangyq@bj.cma.gov.cn (Y.W.)
2 Key Laboratory of Beijing for Cloud, Precipitation and Atmospheric Water Resources, Beijing 100089, China
3 Field Experiment Base of Cloud and Precipitation Research in North China, CMA, Beijing 101200, China
* Correspondence: yangy@bj.cma.gov.cn
Abstract: Many studies have shown that air pollutants have complex impacts on urban precipitation.
Meteorological weather station and satellite Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) product data from the
last 20 years, combined with simulation results from the Weather Research and Forecasting model
coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem), this paper focuses on the effects of air pollutants on summer
precipitation in different regions of Beijing. These results showed that air pollution intensity during
the summer affected the precipitation contribution rate (PCR) of plains and mountainous regions in
the Beijing area, especially in the plains. Over the past 20 years, plains PCR increased by ~10% when
the AOD augmented by 0.15, whereas it decreased with lower pollution levels. In contrast, PCR in
mountainous areas decreased with higher pollution levels and increased with lower pollution levels.
Our analysis from model results indicated that aerosol increases reduce the effective particle size
of cloud droplets and raindrops. Smaller cloud raindrops more readily transport to high air layers
and participate in the generation of ice-phase substances in the clouds, increasing the total amount
of cloud water in the air in a certain time, which ultimately enhanced precipitation intensity on the
plains. The removal of pollutants caused by increased precipitation in the plains decreased rainfall
levels in mountainous areas.
Keywords: air pollution; precipitation intensity; WRF-Chem; cloud microphysics
1. Introduction
Complex interactions occur between air pollutants and precipitation. Precipitation
has significant removal effects on air pollutants [1–3], and the removal efficiency is closely
related to the intensity of precipitation [4,5]. At the same time, air pollutants also have an
important impact on cloud formation [6–8]. The interaction between air pollutants and
rainfall is bidirectional and inseparable, and this poses difficulties to their scientific study.
Many studies have indicated that the increase of aerosols caused by air pollution can
reduce the particle size of cloud droplets and raindrops and finally reduce the precipita-
tions [9–13]. However, under the condition of sufficient water vapor supply, a large number
of cloud and rain droplets with reduced particle size may be brought to the upper air, fur-
ther promoting the development of ice-phase cloud microphysical processes in the cloud,
making the development of cloud more vigorous and promoting life cycle growth and the
increase in precipitations and their intensity [14–17]. In addition, the emission of some
special pollutants (such as black carbon) will also affect these dynamic conditions, energy
distribution, and water vapor transmission in the process of cloud system development
and eventually influence the distribution and intensity of precipitations [18–20]. Aerosol
combined with the urbanization effect will also strengthen the formation of storms [21,22].
These effects of pollutant emission on precipitation are very complex and are related to the
type of aerosol, water vapor, dynamic conditions, and precipitation.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/atmosphere
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 2 of 14

As a super big city, Beijing has a high population density. Anthropogenic air pollutant
emission is a factor impacting the environment that cannot be ignored. At the same time,
aerosol changes also greatly participate in the occurrence and development of precipitation
in Beijing [23–25]. Studies have shown that although the South-to-North Water Diversion
Project has improved Beijing’s water resources [26], Beijing’s water resources are still
greatly affected by precipitation, especially that from June to August in summer. Therefore,
analyzing the impact of air pollution on summer precipitation in Beijing has important
significance for urban water resources utilization. In this study, meteorological weather
stations and satellite Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) product collected in the recent 20 years
were used to analyze the changes in precipitation characteristics caused by pollutants.
The Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with the Chemistry model
(WRF-Chem) simulated the emission, transport, mixing, and chemical transformation of
trace gases and aerosols simultaneously with meteorology. The model has been used to
investigate regional-scale air quality [27–29], for field program analyses [30], and to examine
cloud-scale interactions between clouds and chemistry [17,18]. In this work, we focused on
whether air pollution has different effects on summer precipitation in different regions of
Beijing (mountainous and plain areas). We used the WRF-Chem model to simulate a typical
summer precipitation process in Beijing by changing the intensity of pollutant emission,
to check the air pollutants’ effects on cloud and rainfall, and then to further analyze their
impact on cloud microphysics.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Observation Data
2.1.1. Precipitation Data
The hourly precipitation data of 20 national meteorological observation stations in
Beijing were selected for analysis (data obtained from http://data.cma.cn/en (accessed
on 2 January 2021)). According to data effectiveness and continuity, hourly precipitation
data during June and August from 2000 to 2020 were selected (see Figure 1 for station
locations and distributions). The terrain of Beijing is low in the southeast (plain) and
high in the northwest (mountains), corresponding to the East-West Yanshan Mountain
and North-South Taihang Mountain. The water vapor from summer precipitation comes
primarily from the southeast and southwest. In addition to the influence of atmospheric
circulation, topographic uplifts also affect precipitation formation. Accounting for the
characteristics of summer precipitation, geographical location, and the different levels of
air pollutant emission caused by human activities in Beijing, the 20 stations were divided
into three categories: mountainous area (blue circles in Figure 1), foot of the mountains
(green circles in Figure 1), and plain area (red circles in Figure 1; see Table 1 for site location
details and classification information).
Summer precipitation in Beijing occurs primarily as stratiform cloud precipitation and
convective cloud precipitation. The probability of local convective precipitation in different
regions of Beijing during the summer is random and equal, and the impact of stratiform
cloud precipitation in each region is stable over the long run. To eliminate the influence of
drought and flood years, this paper used the formula below to process the summer daily
precipitation, and that data represent the precipitation contribution rate (PCR, %) of each
station to the precipitation in all of Beijing.

Percent (sta,d) = rain (sta,d)/rain (regiontotal,d) × 100% (1)

where percent (sta,d) represents the PCR of the daily precipitation at station sta on day d to
the total precipitation in Beijing on that day, rain (sta,d) is the total precipitation at station
sta on day d, and rain (regionaltotal, d) represents the total precipitation at all stations on
that day.
The percentages (sta,d) were averaged according to the stations classified in Table 1
to obtain the annual average PCR of Beijing’s mountain, foot of the mountains, and plain
areas in the summer.
 tions on that day.
The percentages (sta,d) were averaged according to the station
to obtain the annual average PCR of Beijing’s mountain, foot of the
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 areas in the summer. 3 of 14

Figure 1. Distribution of the 20 selected meteorological stations and topography of the Beijing area.
Figure 1.green,
The blue, Distribution
and red circlesof thefigure
in the 20 correspond
selectedtometeorological stations
the stations on the mountain, at the and
foot oftopogr
Thethe blue,
mountains, and plain
green, and areas,
redrespectively.
circles in the figure correspond to the stations on
of Table
the 1.mountains, andstation
Automatic weather plain areas, respectively.
classification and location information.

Classification Station Latitude Longitude

Table 1. Automatic weather station classification
Yanqing 40◦ 260 58”
and location information
115◦ 580 8”
Foyeding 40◦ 360 5” 116◦ 80 5”
Classification
mountain
Tanghekou Station
40◦ 430 53” 116◦ 370 45”Latitude
Shangdianzi 40◦ 390 32” 117◦ 60 42”
Zhaitang Yanqing
39◦ 580 27” 115◦ 410 30”40°26′58″
Xiayunling 39◦ 430 44” 115◦ 440 25”
Foyeding 40°36′5″
Mentougou 39◦ 560 116◦ 60
Haidian Tanghekou
39◦ 590 13” 40°43′53″
116◦ 170 26”
mountain Changping 40◦ 130 24” 116◦ 120 42”
foot of mountains
Miyun Shangdianzi
40◦ 220 39” 40°39′32″
116◦ 510 51”
Huairou 40◦ 210 27” ◦ 0
116 37 38”
Pinggu
Zhaitang
40◦ 100 10” 117◦ 70 4”
39°58′27″
Fangshan Xiayunling
39◦ 460 116◦ 120 39°43′44″
Tongzhou 39◦ 540 48” 116◦ 370 3”
Guanxiangtai Mentougou
39◦ 480 22” 116◦ 280 10” 39°56′
Daxing 39◦ 430 9” 116◦ 210 14”
plain
Chaoyang
Haidian
39◦ 570 9”
39°59′13″
116◦ 300 3”
◦ 560 25” ◦ 0
Shijingshan Changping
39 116 11 59” 40°13′24″
foot of mountains Fengtai 39◦ 520 13” 116◦ 140 43”
Shunyi Miyun
40◦ 70 36” 40°22′39″
116◦ 360 55”

Huairou 40°21′27″
Pinggu 40°10′10″
Fangshan 39°46′
Tongzhou 39°54′48″
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 4 of 14

2.1.2. Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD)

The MODIS AOD product (MCD19A2) was generated by Multi-Angle Implementation
of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) [31], which has a higher spatial resolution (1 km)
than other AOD products (data were downloaded from https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.
nasa.gov (accessed on 20 February 2021)). The high spatial resolution of MCD19A2 shows
more aerosol details [32]. In this paper, only the best-quality (QA.CloudMask = Clear, and
QA.AdjacencyMask = Clear) retrievals of MCD19A2 were used [31,33]. Jia Chen et al. [34]
verified the accuracy and effectiveness of the data product in Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei
regions and suggested that the data product directly indicates air pollution. The reliability
of the product has been confirmed for Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei.
In this study, combined with high-resolution terrain data, AOD data in the Beijing
area were divided into data from mountainous and plain areas. We did not screen the
AOD data related to areas at the foot of mountains since they are hard to define simply
according to terrain’s height. The annual variations of mean AOD during Beijing summers
(June to August, 2000 to 2020) in plain and mountainous regions were calculated.

2.2. Numerical Simulations

The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model is a next-generation mesoscale
numerical weather prediction system designed for both atmospheric research and oper-
ational forecasting applications. WRF can produce simulations based on actual atmo-
spheric conditions (information available online at http://www.wrf-model.org/index.php
(accessed on 20 February 2021)). WRF-Chem is an online model coupling meteorologi-
cal and chemical models consisting of various chemical modules based on the weather
prediction model WRF [35]. The WRF-Chem model comprehensively analyzes aerosol
changes caused by altering anthropogenic emission sources and analyzes the impact of
aerosols on various environmental factors. Model simulations were conducted using the
WRF-Chem v3.5.1 model with the Model for Simulating Aerosol Interactions and Chemistry
(MOSAIC) aerosol model [36] and the Carbon Bond Mechanism (CBM-Z) photochemical
mechanism [37]. The MOSAIC aerosol scheme uses a sectional approach to represent
aerosol size distribution with several discrete size bins (four bins in this study) [38]. BC
absorption improved when internally mixed with sulfate [39,40]. The Optical Properties of
Aerosols and Clouds (OPAC) dataset [41] was used for the shortwave (SW) and longwave
(LW) refractive indices of aerosols, except a constant of 1.53 + 0.003i was used for the SW
refractive index of dust. The optical properties and direct radiative forcing of individual
aerosol species in the atmosphere were diagnosed following the methodology described
by Zhao et al. [42]. Aerosol aging processes such as nucleation, coagulation, and dry
deposition were considered.

2.2.1. Case Introduction

The summer precipitation in Beijing is often affected by the water vapor brought by
the southwest airflow along the mountains. Rainfall that occurred at night on 24 June 2012
was selected for simulation in this study. The wind field and relative humidity conditions
at 850 hPa, 700 hPa, and 500 hPa at 1200 UTC on 24 June 2012 are shown in Figure 2. The
figure shows that moisture came from the south with the southwest airflow. Beijing has
good water vapor and dynamic conditions. After long-distance transportation, low-level
moisture (850 hPa) came from the plains to the mountainous areas via topographic uplift in
Beijing. The westerly wind was relatively dry and not the main source of moisture.
Atmosphere 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 5 of 14

Figure 2. Atmospheric relative humidity and wind field at 850 hPa, 700 hPa, and 500 hPa in North
Figure 2. Atmospheric relative humidity and wind field at 850 hPa, 700 hPa, and 500 hPa in North
China
China at
at 1200
1200 UTC
UTC on
on 24
24 June
June 2012.
2012. The
The color
color map
map in
in the
the figure
figure indicates
indicates the
the relative
relative humidity,
humidity, and
and
the arrows show the wind field.
the arrows show the wind field.

2.2.2. Simulation Design

2.2.2. Simulation Design
A non-nested single-layer calculation area with a resolution of 3 km was designed
A non-nested single-layer calculation area with a resolution of 3 km was designed
for simulation in this paper. The domain covered north and central China to ensure that
for simulation in this paper. The domain covered north and central China to ensure that
the information of the main weather systems was captured, as shown in Figure 2. The
the information of the main weather systems was captured, as shown in Figure 2. The
initial and lateral meteorological boundary conditions came from the National Center
initial and lateral meteorological boundary conditions came from the National Center for
for Environmental Prediction final analysis (NCEP/FNL) data at 1◦ of horizontal res-
Environmental
olution and 6 hPrediction
temporal final analysis
intervals. The(NCEP/FNL)
topographicdata at 1° of horizontal
information was obtained resolution
from
5and 6 h temporalWRF
min-resolution intervals. The topographic
Preprocessing System information was obtained
(WPS) geographical input from
data. 5Themin-reso-
initial
lution WRF
chemical Preprocessing
condition came fromSystem (WPS)
default geographical
profiles input data.
in the WRF-Chem The and
model initial
waschemical
a very
condition came from default profiles in the WRF-Chem model and was
clean condition. The Yonsei University (YSU) planetary boundary layer scheme [43], Uni- a very clean con-
dition. The Yonsei University (YSU) planetary boundary layer scheme
fied Noah land surface scheme [44], Morrison 2-moment bulk microphysics scheme [45,46], [43], Unified Noah
landRRTMG
and surface longwave
scheme [44],
andMorrison
shortwave 2-moment
radiationbulk microphysics
schemes [47] werescheme
used in[45,46], and
this study.
RRTMG longwave and shortwave radiation schemes [47] were used
A cumulus cloud parameterization was not included, since such a parameterization is notin this study. A cu-
mulus cloud parameterization was not included, since such a parameterization
suitable for 3 km resolution. The anthropogenic emission data in 2012 was obtained from is not suit-
ableMEIC
the for 3 kmteamresolution. TheUniversity
of Tsinghua anthropogenic(dataemission data infrom
was acquired 2012http://meicmodel.org
was obtained from the
MEIC team of Tsinghua University (data was acquired from http://meicmodel.org
(accessed on 30 March 2021)). They consider the contribution of electric power, industry, (ac-
cessed
civil, on 30 March and
transportation, 2021)). They consider
agriculture theThe
activities. contribution
data include of electric
SO2 , NOx,power, industry,
CO NMVOC,
civil,
NH 3 , transportation,
PM10, PM2.5, and
BC, agriculture
OC, and CO 2
activities.
[48,49]. The
Table 2 data
shows include
the SO 2, NOx,
information CO
for the NMVOC,
physical
NH3chemical
and , PM10, PM2.5,
schemesBC, OC,inand
used COsimulations.
these 2 [48,49]. Table 2 shows the information for the phys-

ical and chemical schemes used in these simulations.

Table 2. Physics and chemistry schemes used in the simulations.
Table 2. Physics and chemistry schemes used in the simulations.
Physics/Chemistry Options Parameterization
Physics/Chemistry Options Cloud microphysics Parameterization
Morrison 2-moment scheme [45,46]
Cloud microphysics SW and LW radiation Morrison 2-moment schemetransfer
Rapid radiative [45,46]model [47]
SW and LW radiation Land surface model Rapid radiativeNoah Landmodel
transfer Surface[47]
Model [44]
Land surface model Planetary boundary layer Noah Land SurfaceYSU scheme
Model [44][43]
Photolysis CBM-Z [37]
Planetary boundary layer Gas-phase chemistry YSU scheme [43]
MOSAIC [36]
Photolysis CBM-Z [37]
Gas-phase chemistry MOSAIC[36]
Two simulations were designed in this study for the case described in Section 2.2.1.
One (named “Polluted” in this paper) simulated the case with the actual pollution emission
Two simulations were designed in this study for the case described in Section 2.2.1.
conditions by using emission source data from 2012. In the other simulation, the emission
One (named “Polluted” in this paper) simulated the case with the actual pollution emis-
source intensity was reduced by multiplying by 0.33 based on the Polluted case to simulate
sion conditions by using emission source data from 2012. In the other simulation, the
the process under clean conditions (named “Clean”).
 The PCR in plain and mountainous areas showed opposite trends, as seen in Figure
3a. The PCR in plain areas significantly fluctuated upward from 31% to nearly 40% from
2000 to 2009 before decreasing, finally approaching a level in 2020 similar to 2000. In con-
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 trast to the plain areas, PCR in the mountains initially decreased from 30% to ~24%
6 of 14
(around 2010) and then increased to ~31% in 2020. The PCR for areas at the foot of the
mountains showed no obvious change trend over the last 20 years, so we decided to ignore
this element in subsequent analyses. As seen in Figure 3b, from 2000 to 2009 (especially
3. Results
after
3.1. 2004), the AOD
Observation in the plains increased from 0.85 to 0.96, then gradually decreased to
Results
approximately
3.1.1. Changes of 0.83
PCR inand
2020.
AODThe AOD value in mountainous areas fluctuated around 0.7
for allThe
20 years.
PCR in plain and mountainous areas showed opposite trends, as seen in Figure 3a.
TheOver
PCR in theplain
last areas
20 years, PRC and
significantly AOD trends
fluctuated upward in plains areas
from 31% to appeared
nearly 40%similar,
from first
rising,
2000 to then
2009falling.
before This indicated
decreasing, thatapproaching
finally air pollution may in
a level vary
2020the precipitation
similar to 2000. in In plains
contrast
areas. to the plain
In contrast, theareas,
AODPCR in the mountains
in mountainous initially
areas did notdecreased
changefrom 30% to ~24%
significantly, but PCR
(around 2010) and then increased to ~31% in 2020. The PCR for areas at the foot
in these areas contrasted with plain areas, falling initially before rising. Since the contri- of the
mountains
bution rate showed no obvious
is a percentage change trend
probability, theover the last
change in20 years, so we decided
mountainous PCR may to ignore
correspond
this element in subsequent analyses. As seen in Figure 3b, from 2000 to 2009 (especially
to changes in the plains. On the other hand, changes in air pollution in plain areas may
after 2004), the AOD in the plains increased from 0.85 to 0.96, then gradually decreased
also indirectly affect the PCR change in the mountains. Further analysis is necessary to
to approximately 0.83 in 2020. The AOD value in mountainous areas fluctuated around
confirm this
0.7 for all 20 hypothesis.
years.

Figure 3. Annual variation of (a) PCR and (b) AOD at 550 nm from 2000 to 2020 in different regions
Figure 3. Annual
of Beijing. The redvariation of (a)square,
triangle, dark PCR and
and (b) AOD
green atcorrespond
circle 550 nm from 2000 toin2020
to stations in differentatregions
the mountains,
ofthe
Beijing.
foot ofThe red triangle,
the mountains, anddark square,
plains, and green
respectively. circlebar
The error correspond to stations
marks the 95% in the
confidence mountains,
interval.
at the foot of the mountains, and plains, respectively. The error bar marks the 95% confidence inter-
val. Over the last 20 years, PRC and AOD trends in plains areas appeared similar, first
rising, then falling. This indicated that air pollution may vary the precipitation in plains
areas. In contrast, the AOD in mountainous areas did not change significantly, but PCR in
these areas contrasted with plain areas, falling initially before rising. Since the contribu-
tion rate is a percentage probability, the change in mountainous PCR may correspond to
changes in the plains. On the other hand, changes in air pollution in plain areas may also
indirectly affect the PCR change in the mountains. Further analysis is necessary to confirm
this hypothesis.
Atmosphere 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 7 of 14

3.1.2. Changes of PCR for Different Rainfall Intensities.

ToChanges
3.1.2. further ofanalyze
PCR forthe impactRainfall
Different of different rainfall intensities in different regions on
Intensities
the contribution rate, hourly precipitation results from ground meteorological stations in
To further analyze the impact of different rainfall intensities in different regions on
mountainous andrate,
the contribution plain areasprecipitation
hourly were divided intofrom
results three categories
ground accordingstations
meteorological to the inprecipi-
tation intensity, i.e., less than 5 mm h −1, 5–10 mm h−1, and > 10 mm h−1. Figure 4 shows the
mountainous and plain areas were divided into three categories according to the precipita-
contribution rates
tion intensity, of different
i.e., less than 5 mm h−1 , 5–10
rainfall mm h−1 ,in
intensities different
and h−1 . Figure
>10 mm regions. For4 plain
showsareas,
the the
contribution
curves shownrates of different
in Figure rainfallthat
4b indicate intensities
heavyinrainfall
different regions.(greater
changes For plainthan
areas,
10the
mm h−1)
curves shown in Figure 4b indicate that heavy rainfall changes (greater than 10 mm h −1 )
caused most of the PCR changes shown in Figure 3a. This implied that increased air pol-
caused
lution ledmost of the PCRinchanges
to increases heavy shown in Figurewhich
precipitation, 3a. This ledimplied
to thethat
totalincreased air pollu-
precipitation increase
tion led to increases in heavy precipitation, which led to the total precipitation increase in
in the plain areas. Figure 4a shows the annual PCR variation at different rainfall intensities
the plain areas. Figure 4a shows the annual PCR variation at different rainfall intensities in
inmountainous
mountainous areas. The PCR trend in the mountains shown in Figure 3a corresponded
areas. The PCR trend in the mountains shown in Figure 3a corresponded to
tothe
thevariation
variation of precipitation
of precipitation in mountain
in mountain areas
areas and and implied
implied thewas
the change change was due
primarily primarily
due to rainfall
to rainfall intensity
intensity changes
changes of lessofthan
less5 than
mm h5 mm
− 1 andhgreater
−1 and greater thanh10. mm h−1.
than 10 mm − 1

Figure
Figure4.4.Annual
Annualvariation of PCR
variation of PCRfromfrom2000
2000toto 2020
2020 in (a)
in (a) mountain
mountain and and (b) plain
(b) plain regions
regions in Beijing
in Beijing
forfor
different
differentrainfall densities.The
rainfall densities. The yellow
yellow circle,
circle, green
green square,
square, and redand red triangle
triangle marks correspond
marks correspond to
to the
the<5< mm
5 mmh− 1h, −15–10
,5 –mm h− 1 , h
10 mm −1, and
and > 10h−mm
>10 mm 1 rainfall
h−1 rainfall intensities,
intensities, respectively.
respectively. Themark
The error bars error bars
mark the 95%
the 95% confidence
confidence interval.
interval.

3.2. Simulation
3.2. Simulation
Based on analyses from the collected data, air pollution may alter the precipitation
Based
in plain andonmountainous
analyses from theof
areas collected data, air
Beijing during thepollution
summer, and mayair
alter the precipitation
pollution sources in
plain
occurand mountainous
mainly areasThe
in the plains. of Beijing during
total amount ofthe summer,
heavy rainfalland
(>10air
mmpollution
h−1 ) in sources
plain oc-
cur mainly in the plains. The total amount of heavy rainfall (>10 mm h −1) in plain areas
areas increased with the aggravation of air pollution, while the total rainfall intensities in
increased with the
the mountains aggravation
decreased with airofpollution
air pollution, while the
enhancement. To total rainfall
confirm intensities
the impact of air in the
pollutant emission
mountains decreased onwith
typical
airsummer
pollution precipitation
enhancement.in Beijing, we used
To confirm thethe WRF-Chem
impact of air pollu-
model
tant to simulate
emission the typical
on typical summer regional precipitation
precipitation in Beijing.
in Beijing, weByused
changing the intensitymodel
the WRF-Chem
of anthropogenic emission sources, this paper compared and analyzed the impacts of air
to simulate the typical regional precipitation in Beijing. By changing the intensity of an-
pollutants on rainfall intensities in different regions of Beijing (See Section 2.2 for the design
thropogenic emission sources, this paper compared and analyzed the impacts of air pol-
and details of the simulation schemes).
lutants on rainfall intensities in different regions of Beijing (See Section 2.2 for the design
and details of the simulation schemes).
 Atmosphere 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 8 of 14

3.2.1. Verification of the Simulation Results

3.2.1. Verification of the Simulation Results
This study chose precipitation that occurred on 24 June 2012. We checked the simu-
This study chose precipitation that occurred on 24 June 2012. We checked the simulated
lated precipitation results by using data from 245 rain gauge stations (data from
precipitation results by using data from 245 rain gauge stations (data from http://web.
http://web.dataportal.bepk.cn/weatherServer/index.jsp;
dataportal.bepk.cn/weatherServer/index.jsp; accessed on 1accessed
May 2016). on 01 May52016).
Figure showsFigure
the
5 shows the total amount and distribution of precipitation from
total amount and distribution of precipitation from 0400 UTC to 1800 UTC on 24 June.0400 UTC to 1800 UTCTheon
24 June.simulation
Polluted The Polluted simulation
captured captured
the total rainfallthe total rainfall
features features
better than bettersimulation.
the Clean than the CleanAs
simulation. As shown in Polluted and Observation, the rainfall
shown in Polluted and Observation, the rainfall center was distributed in a belt center was distributed
along thein
a belt
foot along
of the the footfrom
mountains of the mountains
southwest from southwest
to northeast. to northeast.
The maximum The maximum
cumulative cumu-
precipitation
lative precipitation
exceeded 60 mm, andexceeded 60 mm,precipitation
the cumulative and the cumulative precipitation
in the mountain areainwastheless
mountain
than
area was less than 30 mm. The simulated rainfall in the plain area
30 mm. The simulated rainfall in the plain area Polluted simulation was ~5 mm lower Polluted simulation was
~5 mm lower than the observed results, but the distribution matched the
than the observed results, but the distribution matched the actual situation well, while the actual situation
well,case
Clean while justthe Clean an
showed case just showed
isolated rainfallancenter
isolated rainfall
at the foot ofcenter at the footin
the mountains ofthe
thenorth.
moun-
tains in the north. Compared with the Polluted scheme, the total rainfall
Compared with the Polluted scheme, the total rainfall in the plains and mountainous areas in the plains and
ofmountainous areas of the
the Clean simulation Clean simulation
decreased. Therefore, decreased.
we thinkTherefore, we think
that simulation that simulation
results from the
results scheme
Polluted from thebetterPolluted scheme
reflect betterprocess.
the actual reflect the actual process.

Figure 5. Accumulated precipitation from 0400 UTC to 1800 UTC on 24 June 2012 based on Polluted
Figure 5. Accumulated precipitation from 0400 UTC to 1800 UTC on 24 June 2012 based on Polluted
(left), Clean
(left), (middle),
Clean andand
(middle), rainrain
gauge observations
gauge (right).
observations The dark
(right). Thecircles in the Polluted
dark circles and Clean
in the Polluted and
images
Cleanmark themark
images location
the of the 20 of
location national stations. stations.
the 20 national
3.2.2. Effects of Air Pollution on Rainfall Intensity
3.2.2. Effects of Air Pollution on Rainfall Intensity
This study focused on the Beijing area; therefore, the analysis area was fixed at
This study focused on the Beijing area; therefore, the analysis area was fixed at 115°
115◦ E–118◦ E and 39◦ N–41◦ N. At the same time, the grid points at altitudes below 300 m
E–118° E and 39° N–41° N. At the same time, the grid points at altitudes below 300 m were
were defined as plain (plains) areas, and areas at altitudes above 1000 m were defined as
defined as plain (plains) areas, and areas at altitudes above 1000 m were defined as moun-
mountain (mountainous) areas. The rainfall intensities in mountainous and plain areas
taindivided
were (mountainous)
into fourareas. The rainfall
categories, intensities
i.e., <0.1 mm h−1in mountainous
, 0.1–5 mm h−1 ,and 5–10plain
mm areas were
h−1 , and
divided into four categories, i.e., < 0.1 mm h−1, 0.1–5 mm h−1, 5–10 mm h−1, and >10 mm h−1.
>10 mm h−1 . Since the observation resolution of the automatic observation station is
0.1Since
mm, the observation
rainfall intensities resolution
below 0.1ofmm thehautomatic observation
−1 were viewed station is 0.1inmm,
as no precipitation rainfall
this study.
intensities below 0.1
The histogram mm h6 shows
in Figure
−1 were viewed as noprobabilities
the different precipitationforinthe
thisfour
study.
rainfall intensity
The histogram in Figure 6 shows the different probabilities
categories between Polluted and Clean in mountainous and plains areas, which for the four rainfall
meansinten-
the
sity categories between Polluted and Clean in mountainous
probability of occurrence for Polluted minus that for Clean. Those results showed that and plains areas, which
an
meansinthe
increase airprobability
pollutants inofplain occurrence for Polluted
areas reduced minus that
the probability for Clean.
of rainfall belowThose
10 mmresults
h−1 .
Theshowed that an
probability of increase in air pollutants
no precipitation (<0.1 mminhplain areas reduced
−1 ) increased the probability
by approximately 7%,of rainfall
precipi-
below
tation 10 mm0.1–5
between h . The
−1
mmprobability
− 1
h decreased of nobyprecipitation (< 0.1 mm h−1between
23%, while precipitation ) increased
5–10bymmapproxi-
h−1
mately 7%,
decreased precipitation
by ~12%. Only the between 0.1–5ofmm
probability h decreased
−1
precipitation by 23%,
greater while
than 10 mmprecipitation
h−1 increased be-
tween 5–10 mm h −1 decreased by ~12%. Only the probability of precipitation greater than
and did so by nearly 10%. The mountainous areas showed total rainfall decreases. The
10 mm h−1of
probability increased and did increased
no precipitation so by nearly by10%.
~15%, The
andmountainous areasof
the probabilities showed
0.1–5 mm −1 ,
totalhrain-
fallmm
5–10 − 1
decreases.
h , and The probability
>10 − 1 of no precipitation
mm h rainfall decreased by increased
11%, 24%,by and
~15%,5%, and the probabilities
respectively.
of 0.1–5 mm h−1, 5–10 mm h−1, and >10 mm h−1 rainfall decreased by 11%, 24%, and 5%,
respectively.
 slightly decreased probability for 5 mm h−1 rainfall in the plains. In contrast, the observed
probability of precipitation above 5 mm h−1 increased significantly. Although precipitation
enhancement values were inconsistent, both observation and simulation indicated the en-
hancement of pollutant emission inhibited weak precipitations and promoted the occur-
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 rence of heavy precipitations in plain areas. 9 of 14

Figure
Figure6.6.Different
Differentprobabilities
probabilitiesofofthe
theoccurrence
occurrenceofofthe
theclassified
classifiedrainfall
rainfallintensities
intensitiesunder
underpolluted
polluted
conditions
conditionscompared
comparedwithwith clean conditions
conditions ininplain
plainand
andmountainous
mountainousareasareasof of Beijing.
Beijing. TheThe histo-
histogram
gram represents
represents the simulation
the simulation results
results for plain
for plain (black)
(black) and and mountain
mountain (grey
(grey grid)grid) areas,
areas, and and the line
the line with
with triangles
triangles andand circles
circles indicates
indicates the observed
the observed results
results for plain
for plain and and mountain
mountain areas,areas, respectively.
respectively.

3.2.3. Changes
To verifyof Aerosol
those and Cloud
simulation Microphysical
results, observation data from 2009 and 2020 were selected
as representative of polluted and clean
The 850 hPa wind field in Figure 2 shows conditions. The in
that wind differences in probability
Beijing blows for the
from the plains
four rainfall intensities during those two years were calculated using
to the mountain. Therefore, low-level pollutants and moisture also move in the same di- observed hourly
precipitation
rection. data; thoseresults
The simulation resultsshowed
are shown thatindifferent
the line diagram
emissionofsources
Figure 6.
ledThese results
to aerosol
showed an
transport increasechanges
efficiency in the probability of no precipitation
from the plains to mountainous andareas.
decreases in the probabilities
of the
Theother three rainfall
histogram in Figureintensities
7 showsinthe mountain
averageareas;
hourly this agreed withinthe
precipitation simulation
plain areas.
Plain_ rain_ P corresponds to polluted conditions, and plain_ rain_ C indicates clean and
results well. Our observations also showed an increased probability for no rain con- a
slightly decreased probability for 5 mm h −1 rainfall in the plains. In contrast, the observed
ditions. Plain_rain_P was significantly higher than plain_rain_C, which once again con-
probability
firmed of precipitation
that pollution above
increases mm h−1 increased
also5increased significantly.
rainfall intensities Although
in the precipita-
plains. The line
tion enhancement values were inconsistent, both observation and simulation
diagram in Figure 7 shows the PM2.5 mass ratio between the mountains and plains under indicated
the enhancement
polluted and clean of pollutantatemission
conditions the sameinhibited weak
time, which precipitations
reflects and promoted
the proportion the
of aerosols
occurrence
moving fromoftheheavy
plainsprecipitations
to mountainous in plain areas.
areas. The gap between the two lines is not obvi-
ous in the initial stage of precipitation (before 0600 UTC on 24 June). As the rainfall system
3.2.3. Changes of Aerosol and Cloud Microphysical
developed, the ratio for the Polluted case gradually decreased from 40% (0600 UTC on 24
The
June) to 22%850(1000
hPa UTC
windonfield in Figure
25 June), 2 shows
while that for
the values wind
thein Beijing
Clean caseblows from the
fluctuated plains
between
to the mountain. Therefore, low-level pollutants and moisture also move
45% and 38%. Previous studies showed that heavy precipitation very effectively removed in the same
direction. The simulation results showed that different emission sources led to aerosol
atmospheric pollutants, while the removal efficacy of weak precipitation was quite minor
transport efficiency changes from the plains to mountainous areas.
[2,3]. Therefore, we believe that air pollution increases rainfall intensities in plains areas,
The histogram in Figure 7 shows the average hourly precipitation in plain areas.
which also improves the removal of air pollutants, reduces the number of pollutant
Plain_ rain_ P corresponds to polluted conditions, and plain_ rain_ C indicates clean
conditions. Plain_rain_P was significantly higher than plain_rain_C, which once again
confirmed that pollution increases also increased rainfall intensities in the plains. The
line diagram in Figure 7 shows the PM2.5 mass ratio between the mountains and plains
under polluted and clean conditions at the same time, which reflects the proportion of
aerosols moving from the plains to mountainous areas. The gap between the two lines
is not obvious in the initial stage of precipitation (before 0600 UTC on 24 June). As the
rainfall system developed, the ratio for the Polluted case gradually decreased from 40%
(0600 UTC on 24 June) to 22% (1000 UTC on 25 June), while the values for the Clean
case fluctuated between 45% and 38%. Previous studies showed that heavy precipitation
very effectively removed atmospheric pollutants, while the removal efficacy of weak
precipitation was quite minor [2,3]. Therefore, we believe that air pollution increases rainfall
intensities in plains areas, which also improves the removal of air pollutants, reduces the
number of pollutant particles transported into mountain areas, and subsequently alters the
precipitation characteristics in mountainous regions.
 particles transported into mountain areas, and subsequently alters the precipitation char-
acteristics in mountainous regions.
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 10 of 14

Figure 7. Hourly PM2.5 concentration ratios between mountainous and plains (lines) areas and
hourly 7.
Figure rainfall
Hourlyin plains
PM2.5areas (histogram)
concentration during
ratios the time
between of heaviest rainfall
mountainous (1200 (lines)
and plains UTC toareas
1800 UTC
and
on 24 June). The black line with triangle marks and the dashed line with circle marks
hourly rainfall in plains areas (histogram) during the time of heaviest rainfall (1200 UTC to 1800 indicate the
UTC on 24 June). The black line with triangle marks and the dashed line with circle marks
Polluted and Clean results for plain areas, respectively. The histogram indicates the results for plainindicate
the Polluted
areas under and Clean(plain_rain_P,
Polluted results for plain areas,
black) andrespectively. The histogram
Clean (plain_rain_C, indicates
grey grid) the results for
conditions.
plain areas under Polluted (plain_rain_P, black) and Clean (plain_rain_C, grey grid) conditions.
The discussion above indicates that air pollution from plains areas affects both the dis-
The discussion
tribution and intensity above indicates that
of precipitation air pollution
in plain from plains
and mountainous areas
areas. affects both
Increased the
pollution
distribution
increases the and intensity of moderate
probability precipitation in plain
to heavy and mountainous
rainfall intensity, andareas.
lightIncreased pol-
rain decreases
lution
in theincreases
plains areas,the probability
while both of moderate
the to heavy
total rainfall amountrainfall
andintensity,
intensityand light
in the rain de-
mountains
decrease.
creases Theplains
in the physical parameters
areas, while both ofthethetotal
clouds during
rainfall the primary
amount precipitation
and intensity period
in the moun-
(1200decrease.
tains UTC to 1800 TheUTC on 24parameters
physical June) from of thethe
simulations were analyzed
clouds during the primaryto determine how
precipitation
air pollution
period (1200 UTCchanges the physical
to 1800 UTC on 24 characteristics
June) from the of the cloud andwere
simulations the final precipitation.
analyzed to deter-
mine Figure
how air8a shows the
pollution average
changes the microphysical mass concentration
physical characteristics of the cloudvertical
and theprofiles in
final pre-
Beijing
cipitation.plain and mountains under Polluted and Clean conditions. The mass mixing ratios
of cloud,
Figurerain, snow, the
8a shows graupel and microphysical
average ice crystal are mass shown from left to right.
concentration verticalFor Polluted
profiles in
conditions,
Beijing plaintotal clouds in mountainous
and mountains under Polluted areas
anddropped significantly
Clean conditions. Thesince
massthe massratios
mixing ratios
also
of dropped
cloud, rain, significantly
snow, graupel (except for crystal
and ice the ice are
ratio) as compared
shown from lefttotothe Clean
right. Forconditions.
Polluted
This could directly reduce the precipitation in mountainous areas.
conditions, total clouds in mountainous areas dropped significantly since the mass Except for cloud droplets,
ratios
the values for the Polluted conditions in plain areas increased significantly.
also dropped significantly (except for the ice ratio) as compared to the Clean conditions. The mass of ice
clouds (including snow, graupel, and ice) in plain areas more than doubled
This could directly reduce the precipitation in mountainous areas. Except for cloud drop- compared with
the Clean conditions. The increase of pollutants in plain areas likely led
lets, the values for the Polluted conditions in plain areas increased significantly. The massto additional cloud
development
of in the upper
ice clouds (including snow,atmosphere,
graupel, and increased
ice) inice-phase
plain areas cloud
moreformation,
than doubledand finally
com-
enhanced rainfall in these areas.
pared with the Clean conditions. The increase of pollutants in plain areas likely led to
additional cloud development in the upper atmosphere, increased ice-phase cloud for-
mation, and finally enhanced rainfall in these areas.
Figure 8b shows the average microphysical number concentration vertical profiles of
the same cloud particles as Figure 8a. An important way air pollution physically affects a
cloud stems from changes to the number of cloud condensation nuclei caused by the
change of aerosol particles. The number of raindrops, snow, graupel and ice crystals in

Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141
at high altitudes in mountainous clouds did not change significantly, which confirmed
that clouds in mountainous areas did not develop upward to form more ice clouds. The
number of cloud drops, rain, and graupel particles at low altitudes decreased significantly
due to fewer aerosol particles transported from the plain areas (see Figure 7), which re-
duced the efficiency of cloud formation and ultimately decreased the precipitation11 of 14 in
mountainous areas.

Figure 8. Vertical profiles of cloud microphysical parameters (a) mass concentration and (b) number
Figure 8. Vertical profiles of cloud microphysical parameters (a) mass concentration and (b) number
concentration
concentration in Beijing plains
in Beijing andand
plains mountainous
mountainous areas under
areas Polluted
under Polluted (red line)
(red andand
line) Clean (black
Clean (black
line) conditions. Data were averaged for the main rainfall period (1200 UTC to 1800
line) conditions. Data were averaged for the main rainfall period (1200 UTC to 1800 UTC on 24 UTC on 24 June).
June).
TheTheunit of of
unit mass
massconcentration
concentrationinin
Figure
Figure8a8aisis0.1 ·kg−−11 for
0.1gg·kg formountain
mountainareasareasand g·kg
andg·kg −1 − 1
forfor plain
plain areas.
areas. × 10−16, and −1 , and the units
#·kgthe
TheThe
unitunit of number
of number concentration
concentration in Figure
in Figure 8b 8b
forfor cloud
cloud drops
drops is 1#·kg
is 1e6 units of number
concentration
of number in Figurein8b
concentration for rain,
Figure snow,
8b for rain,graupel, and ice and
snow, graupel, are 1e3 #·kg1−1.× 103 #·kg−1 .
ice are

4. Figure 8b shows the average microphysical number concentration vertical profiles of

Conclusions
the same cloud particles
Precipitation and as Figureobservation
satellite 8a. An important
AOD way
data air
frompollution
the lastphysically affects
20 years of Beijing
a cloud stems from changes to the number of cloud condensation nuclei caused
summers showed similar variations as data related to plains areas. Both mountainous by theand
change of aerosol particles. The number of raindrops, snow, graupel and ice crystals in
plains areas saw an initial increase followed by a decrease, and the inflection point oc-
plain areas increased significantly in the Polluted conditions. After spectral confirmation,
curred in 2009. The difference between the maximum and minimum PCR for the plains
the particle sizes of clouds in the primary stage decreased in the Polluted case. More
was close to 10%, and the maximum difference of AOD was ~0.15. The PCR for mountain
particles were carried to the upper air by the updraft flow, which increased ice-phase
areas showed no obvious correlation with AOD changes.
microphysical processes, as reported previously [16]. This ultimately resulted in plains
Both observation and simulation results showed that air pollution affected rainfall
area precipitation increases. However, Figure 8b shows that the number of snow and
intensity and precipitation amount and distribution. When anthropogenic emissions in-
ice crystals at high altitudes in mountainous clouds did not change significantly, which
creased by a factor of three, as observed for the Polluted conditions compared with the
confirmed that clouds in mountainous areas did not develop upward to form more ice
clouds. The number of cloud drops, rain, and graupel particles at low altitudes decreased
significantly due to fewer aerosol particles transported from the plain areas (see Figure 7),
which reduced the efficiency of cloud formation and ultimately decreased the precipitation
in mountainous areas.

4. Conclusions
Precipitation and satellite observation AOD data from the last 20 years of Beijing
summers showed similar variations as data related to plains areas. Both mountainous
and plains areas saw an initial increase followed by a decrease, and the inflection point
occurred in 2009. The difference between the maximum and minimum PCR for the plains
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 12 of 14

was close to 10%, and the maximum difference of AOD was ~0.15. The PCR for mountain
areas showed no obvious correlation with AOD changes.
Both observation and simulation results showed that air pollution affected rainfall
intensity and precipitation amount and distribution. When anthropogenic emissions in-
creased by a factor of three, as observed for the Polluted conditions compared with the Clean
conditions, heavy precipitation instances (greater than 10 mm h−1 ) increased by nearly 10%,
and precipitations at other intensities decreased by nearly to 30% in the plains. This agreed
with the observation that indicated precipitation greater than 5 mm h−1 increased by about
28% when the AOD difference increased by 0.15. Both simulation and observation showed
that air pollution from plain areas affected mountainous areas, and rainfall decreased due
to the enhancement of air pollution and increased after improvements in air quality.
In plain areas, the increase of aerosols decreased the effective particle size of cloud
droplets and raindrops; smaller cloud raindrops more readily transfer to high air layers and
generate ice-phase substances in the clouds, which promotes strong precipitation events.
Aerosols reach the mountain mainly from plain areas. In polluted conditions, cloud forma-
tion and rainfall consume most aerosols in plain areas. Aerosols reaching the mountain
areas from the plain decrease, which leads to rainfall reductions in mountainous areas.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.Y.; methodology, Y.Y., W.Z. and Q.G.; software, Y.Y. and
W.Z.; investigation, Y.Y., X.L. and Y.W.; data curation, Y.Y. and D.Z.; writing—original draft prepa-
ration, Y.Y.; writing—review and editing, Y.Y. and Q.G.; visualization, Y.Y.; project administration,
Y.Y., W.Z. and D.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.Y., W.Z. and D.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National key research and development program (grant
number: 2017YFC1501405) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant numbers:
41805113; 42075084).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Rain gauge data were from China Meteorological Data Service Centre
(http://data.cma.cn/en; accessed on 2 January 2021). Anthropogenic emissions data were from
the MEIC team of Tsinghua University (http://meicmodel.org/?lang=en; accessed on 30 March
2021). The MODIS AOD product (MCD19A2) can get from https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov
(accessed on 20 February 2021).
Acknowledgments: The authors are sincerely grateful to all organizations that provided observa-
tional and simulation data mentioned in this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Sharma, S.; Kumari, N. Modeling the Impact of Rain on Population Exposed to Air Pollution. Int. J. Nonlinear Sci. Numer. Simul.
2020, 21, 363–370. [CrossRef]
2. Oduber, F.; Calvo, A.I.; Blanco-Alegre, C.; Castro, A.; Alves, C.; Cerqueira, M.; Lucarelli, F.; Nava, S.; Calzolai, G.; Martin-
Villacorta, J.; et al. Towards a Model for Aerosol Removal by Rain Scavenging: The Role of Physical-Chemical Characteristics of
Raindrops. Water Res. 2021, 190, 116758. [CrossRef]
3. Elperin, T.; Fominykh, A.; Krasovitov, B.; Vikhansky, A. Effect of Rain Scavenging on Altitudinal Distribution of Soluble Gaseous
Pollutants in the Atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45, 2427–2433. [CrossRef]
4. Zhou, Y.; Yue, Y.; Bai, Y.; Zhang, L. Effects of Rainfall on PM2.5 and PM10 in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River.
Adv. Meteorol. 2020, 2020, 2398146. [CrossRef]
5. Shin, J.; Gil, K. Effect of Rainfall Characteristics on Removal Efficiency Evaluation in Vegetative Filter Strips. Environ. Earth Sci.
2014, 72, 601–607. [CrossRef]
6. Twomey, S. Pollution and the Planetary Albedo. Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41, 120–125. [CrossRef]
7. Altaratz, O.; Koren, I.; Remer, L.A.; Hirsch, E. Review: Cloud invigoration by aerosols—Coupling between microphysics and
dynamics. Atmos. Res. 2014, 140–141, 38–60. [CrossRef]
8. Ramanathan, V.; Crutzen, P.J.; Kiehl, J.T.; Rosenfeld, D. Aerosols, Climate, and the Hydrological Cycle. Science 2001,
294, 2119–2124. [CrossRef]
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 13 of 14

9. Penner, J.E.; Dong, X.; Chen, Y. Observational Evidence of a Change in Radiative Forcing Due to the Indirect Aerosol Effect.
Nat. Cell Biol. 2004, 427, 231–234. [CrossRef]
10. Albrecht, B.A. Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness. Science 1989, 245, 1227–1230. [CrossRef]
11. Brenguier, J.L.; Pawlowska, H.; Schuller, L.; Preusker, R.; Fouquart, Y. Radiative Properties of Boundary Layer Clouds: Drop-Let
Effective Radius Versus Number Concentration. J. Atmos. Sci. 2000, 57, 803–821. [CrossRef]
12. Yunfei, C.; Jing, Z.; Chungang, F.; Xu, Z.; Wenhao, X.; Hu, X.; Duan, J.; Li, W.; Gao, Y.; Lu, G.; et al. Aerosol and Cloud Properties
over a Coastal Area from Aircraft Observations in Zhejiang, China. Atmos. Environ. 2021, 267, 118771.
13. Chen, Y.C.; Wang, S.H.; Min, Q.; Lu, S.; Joseph, E. Aerosol Impacts on Warm-Cloud Microphysics and Drizzle in a Moderate-Ly
Polluted Environment. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2021, 21, 4487–4502. [CrossRef]
14. Fan, J.; Leung, L.R.; Rosenfeld, D.; Chen, Q.; Li, Z.; Zhang, J.; Yan, H. Microphysical Effects Determine Macrophysical Response
for Aerosol Impacts on Deep Convective clouds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, E4581–E4590. [CrossRef]
15. Li, Z.; Niu, F.; Fan, J.; Liu, Y.; Rosenfeld, D.; Ding, Y. Long-Term Impacts of Aerosols on the Vertical Development of Clouds
Andprecipitation. Nat. GeoScience 2011, 4, 888–894. [CrossRef]
16. Fan, J.; Rosenfeld, D.; Zhang, Y.; Giangrande, S.E.; Li, Z.; Machado, L.A.T.; Martin, S.T.; Yang, Y.; Wang, J.; de Souza, R.A.F.; et al.
Substantial Convection and Precipitation Enhancements by Ultrafine Aerosol Particles. Science 2018, 359, 411–418. [CrossRef]
17. Fan, J.; Rosenfeld, D.; Yang, Y.; Zhao, C.; Leung, L.R.; Li, Z. Substantial Contribution of Anthropogenic Air Pollution to
Catastrophic Floods in Southwest China. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2015, 42, 6066–6075. [CrossRef]
18. Yang, Y.; Fan, J.; Leung, L.R.; Zhao, C.; Li, Z.; Rosenfeld, D. Mechanisms Contributing to Suppressed Precipitation in Mt. Hua of
Central China. Part I: Mountain Valley Circulation. J. Atmos. Sci. 2016, 73, 1351–1366. [CrossRef]
19. Khain, A.; Rosenfeld, D.; Pokrovsky, A. Aerosol Impact on the Dynamics and Microphysics of Deep Convective Clouds. Q. J. R.
Meteorol. Soc. 2005, 131, 2639–2663. [CrossRef]
20. Lin, J.C.; Matsui, T.; Pielke, R.A.; Kummerow, C. Effects of Biomass-Burning-Derived Aerosols on Precipitation and Clouds in the
Amazon Basin: A Satellite-Based Empirical Study. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 2006, 111, 19204. [CrossRef]
21. Kawecki, S.; Henebry, G.M.; Steiner, A.L. Effects of Urban Plume Aerosols on a Mesoscale Convective System. J. Atmos. Sci. 2016,
73, 4641–4660. [CrossRef]
22. Lin, Y.; Fan, J.; Jeong, J.-H.; Zhang, Y.; Homeyer, C.R.; Wang, J. Urbanization-Induced Land and Aerosol Impacts on Storm
Propagation and Hail Characteristics. J. Atmos. Sci. 2021, 78, 925–947. [CrossRef]
23. Zhou, S.; Yang, J.; Wang, W.-C.; Zhao, C.; Gong, D.; Shi, P. An Observational Study of the Effects of Aerosols on Diurnal Variation
of Heavy Rainfall and Associated Clouds over Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 2020, 20, 5211–5229. [CrossRef]
24. Guo, C.; Xiao, H.; Yang, H.; Wen, W. Effects of Anthropogenic Aerosols on a Heavy Rainstorm in Beijing. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 162.
[CrossRef]
25. Yu, R.; Zhou, T.; Xiong, A.; Zhu, Y.; Li, J. Diurnal Variations of Summer Precipitation over Contiguous China. Geophys. Res. Lett.
2007, 34, 223–234. [CrossRef]
26. Chang, H.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, Q.; Wang, J.; Li, H.; Zhai, J.; Han, J.; Jiang, S. Available Water Supplies in Beijing, China, Under Single-
and Multi-Year Drought. JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2020, 56, 230–246. [CrossRef]
27. Jena, C.; Ghude, S.D.; Kumar, R.; Debnath, S.; Govardhan, G.; Soni, V.K.; Kulkarni, S.H.; Beig, G.; Nanjundiah, R.S.; Rajeevan, M.
Performance of High Resolution (400 M) PM2.5 Forecast over Delhi. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 4104. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Zhang, Y.; Shindell, D.; Seltzer, K.; Shen, L.; Lamarque, J.-F.; Zheng, B.; Xing, J.; Jiang, Z.; Zhang, L. Impacts of Emission Changes
in China from 2010 to 2017 on Domestic and Intercontinental Air Quality and Health Effect. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 2021,
21, 16051–16065. [CrossRef]
29. Hung, W.-T.; Lu, C.-H.S.; Alessandrini, S.; Kumar, R.; Lin, C.-A. Estimation of PM2.5 Concentrations in New York State:
Understanding the Influence of Vertical Mixing on Surface PM2.5 Using Machine Learning. Atmosphere 2020, 11, 1303. [CrossRef]
30. Crawford, J.H.; Ahn, J.-Y.; Al-Saadi, J.; Chang, L.; Emmons, L.K.; Kim, J.; Lee, G.; Park, J.-H.; Park, R.J.; Woo, J.H.; et al. The
Korea–United States Air Quality (KORUS-AQ) Field Study. Elem. Sci. Anth. 2021, 9, 00163. [CrossRef]
31. Lyapustin, A.; Wang, Y.; Korkin, S.; Huang, D. MODIS Collection 6 MAIAC Algorithm. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 2018, 11, 5741–5765.
[CrossRef]
32. Chudnovsky, A.A.; Kostinski, A.; Lyapustin, A.; Koutrakis, P. Spatial Scales of Pollution from Variable Resolution Satellite
Imaging. Environ. Pollut. 2013, 172, 131–138. [CrossRef]
33. Jing, L.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, M.; Wang, L.; Zhao, S.; Pu, X.; Chen, X. Estimation of Monthly 1 Km Resolution PM2.5 Concentrations
Using a Random Forest Model over “2 + 26” Cities, China. Urban Clim. 2021, 35, 1000734.
34. Jia, C.; Sun, L.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, X. Accuracy Validation of 1 Km Resolution AOD Products in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region and
Correlation Analysis with Air Pollution. Laser Optoelectron. Prog. 2020, 57, 232802. [CrossRef]
35. Grell, G.A.; Peckham, S.E.; Schmitz, R.; McKeen, S.A.; Frost, G.; Skamarock, W.C.; Eder, B. Fully Coupled “online” Chemistry
within the WRF Model. Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39, 6957–6975. [CrossRef]
36. Zaveri, R.A.; Easter, R.C.; Fast, J.D.; Peters, L.K. Model for Simulating Aerosol Interactions and Chemistry (MOSAIC). J. Geophys.
Res. Space Phys. 2008, 113, 13204. [CrossRef]
37. Zaveri, R.; Peters, L.K. A New Lumped Structure Photochemical Mechanism for Large-Scale Applications. J. Geophys. Res. Space
Phys. 1999, 104, 30387–30415. [CrossRef]
Atmosphere 2022, 13, 141 14 of 14

38. Fast, J.D.; Gustafson, W.; Easter, R.C.; Zaveri, R.; Barnard, J.C.; Chapman, E.G.; Grell, G.A.; Peckham, S.E. Evolution of Ozone,
Particulates, and Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing in the Vicinity of Houston Using a Fully Coupled Meteorology-Chemistry-
Aerosol Model. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 2006, 111. [CrossRef]
39. Zhang, X.Y.; Gong, S.L.; Shen, Z.X.; Mei, F.M.; Xi, X.; Liu, L.C.; Zhou, Z.J.; Wang, D.; Wang, Y.Q.; Cheng, Y. Characterization of
Soil Dust Aerosol in China and Its Transport and Distribution During 2001 ACE-Asia: Network Observations. J. Geophys. Res.
2003, 108, 4261. [CrossRef]
40. Zhao, C.; Leung, L.R.; Easter, R.C.; Hand, J.; Avise, J. Characterization of Speciated Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing over
California. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2013, 118, 2372–2388. [CrossRef]
41. Hess, M.; Koepke, P.; Schult, I. Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds: The Software Package OPAC. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.
1998, 79, 831–844. [CrossRef]
42. Zhao, C.; Chen, S.; Leung, L.R.; Qian, Y.; Kok, J.F.; Zaveri, R.A.; Huang, J. Uncertainty in Modeling Dust Mass Balance and
Radiative Forcing from Size Parameterization. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 2013, 13, 10733–10753. [CrossRef]
43. Hong, S.-Y.; Noh, Y.; Dudhia, J. A New Vertical Diffusion Package with an Explicit Treatment of Entrainment Processes. Mon.
Weather. Rev. 2006, 134, 2318–2341. [CrossRef]
44. Chen, F.; Dudhia, J. Coupling an Advanced Land Surface-Hydrology Model with the Penn State-NCAR MM5 Modeling System.
Part I: Model Implementation and Sensitivity. Mon. Weather Rev. 2001, 129, 569–585. [CrossRef]
45. Morrison, H.; Gettelman, A. A New Two-Moment Bulk Stratiform Cloud Microphysics Scheme in the Community Atmosphere
Model, Version 3 (CAM3). Part I: Description and Numerical Tests. J. Clim. 2008, 21, 3642–3659. [CrossRef]
46. Morrison, H.; Pinto, J.O. Mesoscale Modeling of Springtime Arctic Mixed-Phase Stratiform Clouds Using a New Two-Moment
Bulk Microphysics Scheme. J. Atmos. Sci. 2005, 62, 3683–3704. [CrossRef]
47. Mlawer, E.J.; Taubman, S.J.; Brown, P.D.; Iacono, M.J.; Clough, S.A. Radiative Transfer for Inhomogeneous Atmospheres: RRTM, a
Validated Correlated-K Model for the Longwave. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 1997, 102, 16663–16682. [CrossRef]
48. Li, M.; Liu, H.; Geng, G.; Hong, C.; Liu, F.; Song, Y.; Tong, D.; Zheng, B.; Cui, H.; Man, H.; et al. Anthropogenic Emission
Inventories in China: A Review. Natl. Sci. Rev. 2017, 4, 834–866. [CrossRef]
49. Zheng, B.; Tong, D.; Li, M.; Liu, F.; Hong, C.; Geng, G.; Li, H.; Li, X.; Peng, L.; Qi, J.; et al. Trends in China’s Anthropogenic
Emissions since 2010 As the Consequence of Clean Air Actions. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2018, 18, 14095. [CrossRef]