Statistical Process Control

(SPC)
At the end of the lecture, you will be able to

• Understand basics of statistical process control

(SPC)
• Identify different types of control charts
• Develop control charts and interpret them
• Investigate different control chart patterns
• Understand process capability
What is SPC?
• Controlling a process using statistics or statistical
methods
• Initiated by Walter Shewhart in 1920’s at Bell Labs
• Measures the performance of a process in terms of
variation
• Tests a random sample of output from a process to
determine whether the process is producing items
within a preselected range
• Detects process shifts so that investigation of the
process and corrective actions can be undertaken
before many non-conforming units are produced
What is
SPC?
Main uses are;

to assess performance
of a process in terms of
variation
to provide guidance on
how a process can be
improved by reducing
the variation
to achieve process
stability
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Reducing-process-variation-using-Six-Sigma_fig1_322538278

to provide information
to assist management
in decision making
Managing Variation
• General principle of quality assurance is that
variability to be kept small
• Variations;
- People, Materials, Methods, Measurement, Environment

• It is important to identify
- whether is there any variation
- which type of variations
- areas require further investigation
Basic Forms of Variation
• Assignable variation is caused by factors that can
be clearly identified and possibly managed (Assignable
cause)
– A poorly trained employee that creates variation in
finished product output

• Common variation is inherent in the process. Can

be modified through operator or management action
(Random cause)
– A molding process that always flaws on a molded item
Causes of Variability
Special (assignable) causes: occur intermittently as a
shocks and disturbance to the system; show up as
unusual patterns of variation on a control chart, hence
easier to identify.
Features: Examples:
• Non-random variation • Change in raw material
(unusual)
• May exhibit a pattern • Change in machine setting
• Assignable, explainable and • Broken tool
controllable • Failure to clean equipment
• Adjusting the process • Equipment malfunction
decreases the variation
SPC is used to identify these special causes
that have occurred in a process
Causes of Variability
Common (un-assignable) causes: influence all
measurements in the same way; do not show up as
unique patterns on a control chart, hence they are often
difficult to identify.

Features: Examples:
• Random variation (usual) • Badly maintained machines
• No pattern • Poor lighting
• Inherent in process • Poor workstation layout
• adjusting the process
increases its variation • Poor instructions
• Poor supervision
• Materials and equipment do not
suit the requirements
Types of Quality Measures
• Variable
- a quality characteristic that generates measurable and
continuous data
- results a precise value
e.g. fuel consumption of trucks, operating load of vessels

• Attribute
- a quality characteristic than generates countable and
discrete data
- measures conformance or non-conformance
e.g. no. of items damaged during transportation, no. of
defects per supplies purchased
Statistical Process Control Charts
• To control process variations using statistical
techniques Variable
value
Upper Control Limit
• A process is in
Central Line
control if….
✓ no sample points outside Lower Control Limit
limits
✓ most points near process
average
✓ about equal number of Sample
points above and below
centerline
✓ points appear randomly
distributed
Statistical Process Control Charts

SPC Charts

Variable Attributes
Charts Charts

R Chart ഥ Chart
𝒙 P Chart C Chart
Control Charts for Variables
Variable: A quality characteristic that is continuous and
can be measured

𝑛
𝑥𝑖
Mean 𝑥ҧ = ෍ Main Types
𝑛
𝑖=1
ഥ Charts
𝒙
𝑛
(𝑥 − 𝑥)2
Variability 𝑠 = ෍ R Charts
𝑛−1
𝑖=1
Control Charts for Variables
ഥ Charts
𝒙
• To check the process variation based on Average / Mean

• How to calculate Central Line, LCL and UCL??

Central Line = Grand Average (𝒙

ന)
UCL = 𝒙 ഥ
ന + A2𝑹

LCL = 𝒙 ഥ
ന - A2𝑹
Control Charts for Variables
ഥ Charts
𝒙
𝑚
𝑥𝑗
𝑥Ӗ = ෍
𝑚
𝑗=1

50.09
𝑥Ӗ = 10
= 5.01

𝑅 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚
𝑅𝑗
𝑅ത = ෍ ത 50.09
𝑚 𝑅= = 0.115
𝑗=1 10
Control Charts for Variables
ഥ Charts
𝒙
UCL = 𝒙 ഥ
ന + A2𝑹
UCL = 5.01+0.577*0.115
UCL = 5.076

LCL = 𝒙 ഥ
ന - A2𝑹
LCL = 5.01-0.577*0.115
LCL = 4.944
Control Charts for Variables
R Charts
• To check the process variation based on Variability

• How to calculate Central Line, LCL and UCL??

Central Line = Average Range ഥ)

(𝑹
ഥ
UCL = D4𝑹

ഥ
LCL = D3𝑹
 Control Charts for Variables
R Charts
ഥ
UCL = D4𝑹
UCL = 2.114*0.115
UCL = 0.243

ഥ
LCL = D3𝑹
LCL = 0*0.115
LCL = 0
If the no. of observations is
small, the lower limit on
the range chart is ‘0’
Control Charts for Variables
ഥ Charts
𝒙 R Charts

A2, D3 and D4– constants based on the no. of

observations of a sample
Sample
Number
1
1
1.3335
2
1.4228
3
1.6844
4
1.4673
5
1.7014 Example:
2 1.4414 1.3692 1.6175 1.4766 1.6209
3 1.4384 1.4971 1.5032 1.4424 1.5774
4 1.5128 1.6452 1.3941 1.2931 1.5607 • A manufacturing process
5 1.5704 1.2835 1.5365 1.4463 1.6541
6 1.6055 1.5551 1.3674 1.3381 1.4298
7 1.6374 1.5164 1.8466 1.4277 1.5244 • Twenty samples, each with 5
8
9
1.429
1.3984
1.4403
1.7377
1.6737
1.5455
1.6167
1.5276
1.5619
1.3788
observations, have been
10 1.4139 1.6797 1.5189 1.4727 1.532 taken when it is assumed
11 1.4258 1.7767 1.4378 1.6028 1.4281 that the process is in control
12 1.5921 1.3455 1.5877 1.4008 1.7659
13 1.2956 1.4206 1.4547 1.6498 1.2028
14 1.5051 1.4136 1.5993 1.6558 1.5069
15
16
1.3689
1.5847
1.2963
1.5401
1.6096
1.5271
1.2597
1.1939
1.5571
1.8762 Analyze statistical
17
18
1.378
1.4263
1.7369
1.3964
1.4057
1.3157
1.5114
1.631
1.4549
1.5673
control of the process
19
20
1.5896
1.7206
1.4285
1.4512
1.6641
1.2461
1.5216
1.392
1.7347
1.7701
ഥ and R charts
using 𝒙
Sample
Number 1 2 3 4 5 x-bar R
1 1.3335 1.4228 1.6844 1.4673 1.7014 1.52188 0.3679
2
3
1.4414
1.4384
1.3692
1.4971
1.6175
1.5032
1.4766
1.4424
1.6209
1.5774
1.50512
1.4917
0.2517
0.139
𝑥Ӗ = 1.5089
4 1.5128 1.6452 1.3941 1.2931 1.5607 1.48118 0.3521
5
6
1.5704
1.6055
1.2835
1.5551
1.5365
1.3674
1.4463
1.3381
1.6541
1.4298
1.49816
1.45918
0.3706
0.2674
𝑅ത = 0.352
7 1.6374 1.5164 1.8466 1.4277 1.5244 1.5905 0.4189
8 1.429 1.4403 1.6737 1.6167 1.5619 1.54432 0.2447
9 1.3984 1.7377 1.5455 1.5276 1.3788 1.5176 0.3589
10 1.4139 1.6797 1.5189 1.4727 1.532 1.52344 0.2658 Control Limits
11
12
1.4258
1.5921
1.7767
1.3455
1.4378
1.5877
1.6028
1.4008
1.4281
1.7659
1.53424
1.5384
0.3509
0.4204
ഥ Charts
𝒙
13 1.2956 1.4206 1.4547 1.6498 1.2028 1.4047 0.447
14 1.5051 1.4136 1.5993 1.6558 1.5069 1.53614 0.2422 UCL = 𝒙
ന + A2𝑹ഥ
15 1.3689 1.2963 1.6096 1.2597 1.5571 1.41832 0.3499
16 1.5847 1.5401 1.5271 1.1939 1.8762 1.5444 0.6823 = 1.5089+0.577*0.352
17 1.378 1.7369 1.4057 1.5114 1.4549 1.49738 0.3589 = 1.712
18 1.4263 1.3964 1.3157 1.631 1.5673 1.46734 0.3153
19 1.5896 1.4285 1.6641 1.5216 1.7347 1.5877 0.3062
20 1.7206 1.4512 1.2461 1.392 1.7701 1.516 0.524
Sum 30.1777 7.0341 LCL = 𝒙 ഥ
ന - A2𝑹
Mean 1.508885 0.351705
= 1.5089+0.577*0.352
= 1.306
Sample
Number 1 2 3 4 5 x-bar R
1 1.3335 1.4228 1.6844 1.4673 1.7014 1.52188 0.3679
2
3
1.4414
1.4384
1.3692
1.4971
1.6175
1.5032
1.4766
1.4424
1.6209
1.5774
1.50512
1.4917
0.2517
0.139
𝑥Ӗ = 1.5089
4 1.5128 1.6452 1.3941 1.2931 1.5607 1.48118 0.3521
5
6
1.5704
1.6055
1.2835
1.5551
1.5365
1.3674
1.4463
1.3381
1.6541
1.4298
1.49816
1.45918
0.3706
0.2674
𝑅ത = 0.352
7 1.6374 1.5164 1.8466 1.4277 1.5244 1.5905 0.4189
8 1.429 1.4403 1.6737 1.6167 1.5619 1.54432 0.2447
9 1.3984 1.7377 1.5455 1.5276 1.3788 1.5176 0.3589
10 1.4139 1.6797 1.5189 1.4727 1.532 1.52344 0.2658
Control Limits
11
12
1.4258
1.5921
1.7767
1.3455
1.4378
1.5877
1.6028
1.4008
1.4281
1.7659
1.53424
1.5384
0.3509
0.4204
R charts
13 1.2956 1.4206 1.4547 1.6498 1.2028 1.4047 0.447
14 1.5051 1.4136 1.5993 1.6558 1.5069 1.53614 0.2422 UCL = D4𝑹
ഥ
15 1.3689 1.2963 1.6096 1.2597 1.5571 1.41832 0.3499
16 1.5847 1.5401 1.5271 1.1939 1.8762 1.5444 0.6823
= 2.114*0.352
17 1.378 1.7369 1.4057 1.5114 1.4549 1.49738 0.3589
18 1.4263 1.3964 1.3157 1.631 1.5673 1.46734 0.3153 = 0.744
19 1.5896 1.4285 1.6641 1.5216 1.7347 1.5877 0.3062
20 1.7206 1.4512 1.2461 1.392 1.7701 1.516 0.524
Sum 30.1777 7.0341
ഥ
LCL = D3𝑹
Mean 1.508885 0.351705
= 0*0.352
=0
X-bar Chart 1.75
UCL
1.7

1.65

1.6 1.5905 1.5877

SAMPLE MEAN
1.55 1.54432 1.5444
1.53424 1.5384 1.53614
1.52188 1.5176 1.52344
1.5 1.50512 1.49816
X-bar-bar 1.49738
1.516
1.4917
1.48118
1.46734
1.45918
1.45
1.41832
1.4 1.4047

1.35
LCL

1.3

1.25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
SAMPLE NO.

R Chart 0.8
UCL
0.7 0.6823

0.6
0.524
SAMPLE RANGE

0.5
0.447
0.4189 0.4204
0.4
0.3679 0.3706
0.3521 0.3589 0.3509 R-bar 0.3499 0.3589
0.3153 0.3062
0.3
0.2674 0.2658
0.2517 0.2447 0.2422
0.2
0.139
0.1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
SAMPLE NO.
Using x- bar and R-Charts Together
• Both process average and process variability must be in
control
• Samples can have very narrow ranges, but sample
averages might be beyond control limits
• Or, sample averages may be in control, but ranges might
be out of control
• R-chart might show a distinct downward trend,
suggesting some non-random cause is reducing variation
Interpretation of the Results
• First determine whether or not the R chart is in control
• If both charts are out of control first eliminate the
assignable causes of R chart
• Never interpret the x-bar chart when R chart is out of
control

What control limits interpret?

• Check whether the process was in control in past
• Whether trial control limits are suitable for future
Control Limits vs. Specification Limits
Specification Limits - The largest and the smallest
allowable value for a quality characteristic

Control Limits –
The largest and the smallest
allowable variation of a
process
Control Limits vs. Specification Limits
Control Limits Specification Limits

Control limits of a process Allowable spread of a given measurement

Voice of the process variation Voice of the customer

Calculated from data Defined by customer/engineer

Appear on control charts Appear on histograms

Apply to several items, in averages Apply to individual items, for one unit

Guidance for process control To separate good items from bad

What the process is doing What we want the process to do

Process Capability
• How capable the process is…
• Three standard deviations on either side of the
process normal distribution
• Natural capability of a process is 6𝜎

Capability = 𝑥ҧ ± 3𝜎 Capability = 𝑥Ӗ ± 3𝜎

ഥ
𝑹
𝝈=
𝒅𝟐
Process Capability
• 6𝜎 - interval containing 99.73% of the output of
the process
Process Capability
Process Capability Ratio (PCR): Cp
How well items being produced, fit into design
limit specifications

USL: Upper specification Limit

LSL: Lower specification Limit When (USL - LSL) = 6σ
σ : Standard deviation
Cp = 1
Sample
Number 1 2 3 4 5 x-bar R
1
2
1.3335
1.4414
1.4228
1.3692
1.6844
1.6175
1.4673
1.4766
1.7014
1.6209
1.52188
1.50512
0.3679
0.2517
Example:
3 1.4384 1.4971 1.5032 1.4424 1.5774 1.4917 0.139
4 1.5128 1.6452 1.3941 1.2931 1.5607 1.48118 0.3521 Width Measurements (in mm)
5 1.5704 1.2835 1.5365 1.4463 1.6541 1.49816 0.3706 for the heated iron bars
6 1.6055 1.5551 1.3674 1.3381 1.4298 1.45918 0.2674
7 1.6374 1.5164 1.8466 1.4277 1.5244 1.5905 0.4189
8 1.429 1.4403 1.6737 1.6167 1.5619 1.54432 0.2447 Given that
9 1.3984 1.7377 1.5455 1.5276 1.3788 1.5176 0.3589 USL =2.00, LSL = 1.00
10 1.4139 1.6797 1.5189 1.4727 1.532 1.52344 0.2658
Calculate the process
11 1.4258 1.7767 1.4378 1.6028 1.4281 1.53424 0.3509
capability
12 1.5921 1.3455 1.5877 1.4008 1.7659 1.5384 0.4204
13 1.2956 1.4206 1.4547 1.6498 1.2028 1.4047 0.447
14 1.5051 1.4136 1.5993 1.6558 1.5069 1.53614 0.2422
15 1.3689 1.2963 1.6096 1.2597 1.5571 1.41832 0.3499
16 1.5847 1.5401 1.5271 1.1939 1.8762 1.5444 0.6823
17 1.378 1.7369 1.4057 1.5114 1.4549 1.49738 0.3589 ഥ
𝑅 0.3517
18 1.4263 1.3964 1.3157 1.631 1.5673 1.46734 0.3153 𝜎ො = =
19 1.5896 1.4285 1.6641 1.5216 1.7347 1.5877 0.3062 𝑑2 2.326
20 1.7206 1.4512 1.2461 1.392 1.7701 1.516 0.524
Sum 30.1777 7.0341 𝜎ො = 0.1512
Mean 1.508885 0.351705

2.00−1.00
C p=
6×0.1512
Cp = 1.102
 2.00 − 1.00
Given that 𝜎ො = 0.1512 = Cp = 1.102
USL =2.00 6 × 0.1512
LSL = 1.00

Estimate the fraction of nonconforming iron bars produced

𝑝 = 𝑃 𝑥 < 1.00 + 𝑃 𝑥 > 2.00
1.00−1.5089 2.00−1.5089 About 0.097 percent of the
𝑝=ϕ +[1− ϕ( ) ]
0.1512 0.1512 iron bars produced will be
𝑝 ≅ ϕ(−3.3657) + [ 1 − ϕ(3.2480) ] out-side of the
𝑝 ≅ (1 − 0.99961) + [ 1 − 0.99942] specifications
𝑝 ≅ (0.00039) + [ 0.00058] = 0.00097
Process Capability Ratio (PCR): Cp

process uses up much less than 100%

of the tolerance band, relatively few
non-conforming units will be produced
by this process

process uses up all the tolerance band

process uses up more than 100% of the

tolerance band, a large number of
nonconforming units
will be produced
Process Capability Ratio
Assuming that the process has both upper and lower
specification limits;

For one-sided specifications, one-sided process-capability

ratio are used
Process Capability Index Cpk
• Cp does not take into account where the process mean is
located relative to the specifications
• Cp only measures the spread of the specifications relative
to the six-sigma spread in the process
• Cp is concerned primarily with precision, not the accuracy

Same Cp but in reality, below graph has

lower process capability than in the above;

How to differentiate such situation?

The answer is Cpk

Process Capability Index Cpk
• Cpk takes into account how process is centering
• Cpk takes into account of both accuracy and precision
• Defined as “process performance capability” measure, that
gives the estimate of how the process actually performs
• Cpk is the one-sided process capability ratio for the
specification limit nearest to the process
Process Capability Index Cpk

= min (1.5, 2.5)

= 1.5
Cp measures potential capability in the process, but
Cpk measures actual capability
Process Capability
Cp < 1.0 – not capable
Cp = 1.0 – just capable
Cp > 1.0 – highly capable

Cpk < 1.0 – many defectives

Cpk = 1.0 – just acceptable
Cpk > 1.0 – less or almost no defectives