Sonic log

The sonic or acoustic log measures the travel time of an elastic wave through the formation. This
information can also be used to derive the velocity of elastic waves through the formation. Its main use is to
provide information to support and calibrate seismic data and to derive the porosity of a formation.

The main uses are:

· Provision of a record of “seismic” velocity and travel time throughout a borehole. This information can be
used to calibrate a seismic data set (i.e., tie it in to measured values of seismic velocity).
· Provision of “seismic” data for the use in creating synthetic seismograms.
· Determination of porosity (together with the FDC and CNL tools).
· Stratigraphic correlation.
· Identification of lithologies.
· Facies recognition.
· Fracture identification.
· Identification of compaction.
· Identification of over-pressures.
· Identification of source rocks.
Contents

• Sonic Waves.
• Development of the tool.
• Porosity Calculation.
Sonic Waves

• A wave is a disturbance or variation which travels through a

medium.
• The medium through which the wave travels may experience some local
oscillations as the wave passes, but the particles in the medium do not travel
with the wave.
Types of sound waves

• Body Waves – Compressional and Shear

• Surface Waves – Pseudo-Rayleigh; Flexural, Leaky-P and the
Stoneley
Body Waves
• A vibration may propagate vertically as a
succession of compressions and
extensions – Compressional wave. Here,
the particle moves parallel to the
direction of vibration in this case.
• If one hits on a pole laterally, the vibration
propagates vertically as a flexion of the
pile – Shear Wave. Here, the particle
motion is perpendicular to the vibration
propagation direction.
• Compressional (Primary wave) wave is
faster than the Shear wave (Secondary
Wave)
Particles movement

• Polarization: the direction of particle

oscillation.
• Propagation: direction of wave
• In compressional wave the particle
vibrate with the direction of propagation.
• In Shear wave the particle propagate
perpendicular on wave of propagation.
Porosity
Neutron

1
Applications

Porosity analysis

In clean formations that have pores filled with water or oil, the neutron measurement can
be used to derive liquid-filled porosity. This is done using the hydrogen index (HI) concept.

Gas detection

Gas zones (i.e. not liquid-filled) can often be identified by comparing the neutron porosity
log with another porosity log, such as a density or sonic log. (Neutron porosity reads much
lower than Density and Sonic porosity in gas zones.)

Lithology

By combining the density/neutron tool information, it is possible to get a good estimate of

likely formation lithology.
 Neutron Logging Tool Principle

The tool operates by bombarding the

formation with high energy neutrons.
These neutrons undergo scattering in
the formation, losing energy and
producing high energy gamma rays.
The scattering reactions occur most
efficiently with hydrogen atoms. The
resulting low energy neutrons or
gamma rays can be detected, and
their count rate is related to the
amount of hydrogen atoms in the
formation.
The life of a Neutron

High-energy neutrons
emitted
Neutron’s energy
reduced to 0.025eV
(thermal energy Neutron absorbed.
level) Gamma Ray emitted
 Hydrogen Index
• Hydrogen Index is
the quantity of hydrogen per unit volume

• Fresh water is defined as having a Hydrogen Index of 1

• Oil has a Hydrogen Index which is slightly less than that of water.

• The Hydrogen Index of gas is a much smaller than that of water.

• In a formation, it is generally the fluids that contain hydrogen (but not always!)

where: AH = the atomic mass of hydrogen atoms in the material

Ai = the atomic mass of non-hydrogen element i
nH = the number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule of the material
ni = the number of non-hydrogen atoms of element i in a molecule of the material
Note: i is summed over every non-hydrogen element in the material.
Hydrogen index for some reservoir minerals and fluids.
0% Porosity

Fast
Neutrons

Epithermal & Thermal

Neutrons

Some Captured Neutrons

100% Porosity

Fast
Neutrons

Epithermal & Thermal

Neutrons

Many Captured Neutrons

Fluid filled Pore-Space

Fast
Neutrons

Epithermal & Thermal

Captured due Neutrons
to Matrix
Ratio to Porosity Transform

• Count rates are measured in the

Near and Far detectors
• A ratio of these is then taken
• The ratio is translated into porosity
using a transform (This is a
combination of theoretical and
experimental work).
• The output for the thermal neutron
porosity is called TNPH
Tool Operation

• There are three main types of neutron tool, which are:

· The Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT)
· The Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP)
· The Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)
 Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT)

• This tool has a neutron source and a single detector.

• sensitive to high energy capture gamma rays and thermal neutrons and is non-
directional.
• The tool can be run in either open or cased holes.
• The detected neutrons and gamma rays have to travel through both mudcake
and drilling mud. Hence, this tool is highly sensitive to changes in borehole
quality, temperature, type of drilling mud, and mudcake thickness.
• Correction curves are available from the tool manufacturers to correct the log
data for temperature, hole diameter, and the effect of drilling mud and
mudcake.
Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP)

• This tool is designed for use in open holes only.

• The tool has a source and a single detector with a 16 inch spacing.
• The detector is sensitive to epithermal neutrons.
• Because the tool is pressed against the borehole wall, the drilling mud
does not affect the measurement, and the attenuation due to the
mudcake is reduced. However rough holes can cause misalignment of the
either the source of the detector with the borehole wall, and hence give
erroneous readings.
 Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)

• This tool is designed to be sensitive to thermal neutrons.

• It has two detectors situated 15 in and 25 in from the

source. The detector further from the
source is larger to ensure that adequate count rates are
observed.

• The CNL tool has a very strong source of neutrons to ensure

that the measured count rates are sufficiently high to
obviate any significant errors associated with statistical
fluctuations.

• affected by the chlorine effect.

• Dual- Energie Neutron log (DNL ):

 Fluid Effects
It will read less in oil and even less in gas
for the same porosity zone.
The presence of hydrocarbon liquid (oil) does not
effect the tool response as it has approximately
the same hydrogen index as fresh water.
Hydrocarbon gas, however, has a much lower
hydrocarbon index resulting from its low density,
and its presence will give rise to underestimations
in porosity.

gas

light oil

water
 Neutron Shale Effect

• The neutron tool detects:

• Water bound to the surface area of the clay
particles

• OH- ions within the clay lattice

• Shale contain clays that have a significant

amount of bound water molecules on their
surfaces. This increases the hydrogen index of
the formation.

• Even very low porosity shales can give

erroneously high porosity readings due to the
presence of these bound waters.
Net Effect: The neutron porosity to reads too high in
shales
Lithology Effects

• Shale – Neutron reads too high

• Lithology

1) Limestone

2) Sandstone

3) Dolomite

• Parameter MATR (OP &

GeoFrame) must be set to
‘Limestone’ to get and accurate
porosity in a limestone formation,
etc…
Neutron: Environmental Corrections

• Stand-off

• Borehole size

• Mud cake

• Borehole salinity

• Mud weight

• Temperature

• Pressure

• Formation salinity
Neutron Porosity: LQC

• Washouts – neutron reads too high

• Air Drilled Holes – measurement won’t work
• Strong Neutron Absorbers
• Shales - neutron porosity to reads too high
• Bound Water
• OH- ions in clay lattice

• Matrix Transform (Parameter = MATR)

– Limestone, Dolomite, Sandstone
N-D Combination

• By combining these 2 logs we can:

• Identify lithology
• Compute porosity
• Qualitative Identification for fluid.
N-D Combination
• In well log interpretation we always need to combine logs together to come
out with interpretation solution.
• N-D combination is the most common method, these curves always displayed
together and there scale is adjusted in such away that we can give quick
answers just by looking on them.
D-N Compatible scale

• First consider Neutron scale as reference.

• Find the bulk density value that is corresponding to the neutron
value in one end of the scale.
• MATR parameter should already be match with compatible
scale and with the formation matrix.
N-D Compatible scale

 ma −  log
 =  −
D
B

ma f
N-D logs quick lock (Lime scale and Lime Formation)

Increment direction
• When Neutron and density are in the same Track
with compatible scale(and correct MATR), it is
possible to identify fluid type.
• In water zone they will be over each other.
• In oil zone they will separate neutron to the lower
value and density to the lower value as well.
• In gas zone there will big separation toward the
lower values of each other
N-D log Lime scale in sandstone formation case
• If we have N-D track are on compatible Increment direction
scale for limestone and the logging
interval in sandstone there will be
separation between them all the way of
the log interval.
But it will be less in water, and
higher in gas and oil between them.
N-D log quick lock interpretation in case of Lime
scale in dolomite formation
• In case of lime scale and the logging
interval in dolomite zone there will be
cross over between N-D. So neutron will
go to the higher value and density as well.
The cross over is higher in water zone less
in oil zone and the gas effect will be lees
appeared on the log
Lithology Identification
• Cross plot method between
N and D is the most common
method.
Production Logging is one of a number of cased hole services that includes cement monitoring, corrosion
monitoring, monitoring of formation fluid contacts (and saturations)
Production Logging
PL and basic sensors
Field Examples

Part 1

1
Production Logging - Principal Activities

• production logging is measurement of fluid parameters on a zone-by-zone basis to yield

information about the type and movement of fluids within and near the wellbore.

• Well diagnostics often leads to intervention to remedy a production problem. The

most common goal is the detection of water breakthrough, with a workover decision to
be made.

• Production monitoring is often carried out on a periodic basis to quantify zonal

contributions to the total well production. The information is used in reservoir
simulation studies for production history matching and material-balance calculations.

• Injection monitoring is carried out to determine the amount of water or gas being
taken by each layer in the reservoir. This is important for reservoir simulation. These
surveys are usually quite straightforward to carry out.

• Well testing applications of PL provide both pressure and flow rate data during well
tests.
PL Applications

* Evaluation of Flowing Wells

-Production profile distribution
-Zonal productivity & Skin Factors
%?

%?

%?
PL Applications

• Diagnosis
– Source of High
• GOR (Gas-Oil Ratio) or

• Water Cut

– Detection of leaks and crossflow P1

High Permeability
Layer P3>>P2

P2

P3
PL Applications

• Production Enhancement
– Data for workover planning:
• Repair the well

• Improve productivity Casing

Leak

– Completion and treatment effectiveness

Corroded casing allows fluids to

escape back into reservoir
Production Logging Sensors:

Telemetry
Interfaces

Casing Collar Locator

Gamma Ray Detector

-Pressure
-Temperature Quartz Pressure
Gauge
Gradiomanometer Caliper
O- Probes (GHOST)
Flowmeter (fullbore)
E- Probes (FloView)

In line flowmeter

Standard Optional
Sensors Sensors
Flowrate Definitions:

Flowrate
is given by the product of velocity, hold-up and pipe
area.

Velocity, v:
This is actual mean velocity of the phase of interest.

Q = VA
Q : The flowrate
V : fluid velocity
A: pipe area
 Flow

• In a single phase flow a laminar flow is one in which the layers glide
smoothly over adjacent layers.

• In a turbulent flow the fluid exhibits very erratic motion with a violent
interchange of momentum across the pipe.

• The nature of the flow - turbulent or laminar - and its relative position
along a scale indicating the relative importance of turbulent to laminar
tendencies - are indicated by the Reynold’s number.
Laminar flow is a smooth flow in which fluid elements follow paths that are straight and parallel to
the walls containing the fluid. The velocity of the fluid varies from 0 at the container wall to a
maximum at the center for a pipe or wellbore. The velocity profile shape is parabolic.

Turbulent flow is characterized by random, irregular movement of the fluid elements throughout
the fluid except at the container wall. The velocity again varies from 0 at the wall to a maximum
at the center, but with a much flatter profile.
What is Measured

Dye

• The spinner is centred in the casing, hence measures the flow at that point, usually the
maximum.

• A correction has to be applied to get the average flowrate.

Reynolds number

The Reynold’s number (R) is a dimensionless parameter that

represents the ratio of intertial forces to viscous forces and is
defined by:

R = Dv

•  = fluid density
• D = pipe diameter
• v = fluid velocity
•  = fluid viscosity
 Reynolds number

• From experiments the range of Reynold’s numbers for a flow to be laminar,

turbulent or transitional are given by:
• R less than 2000 - laminar flow (Reynold’s lower critical pipe number).
• R between 2000 and 4000 - transition from laminar to turbulent
• R greater than 4000 - turbulent flow
• The majority of flows encountered in oil wells are turbulent
 Flow in the Casing

• in the borehole, sees only the middle part of this flow as the blade is not
the full casing diameter The spinner, centred r.
• The fluid velocity measured is called Vapp
• This has to corrected for the flow pattern to give an average mixture
velocity, Vm
Spinner correction factor

Vaverage = C x Vf

q = C x Vf x A
where,
C = velocity profile correction factor, commonly 0.83. Better, use
chart.
A = Area of flow. Use chart to convert ft/min to flowrate for
given casing.
Vf = Fluid velocity from zone calibration line.
Velocity Correction
Spinner Factor
Flowrates

The velocity has to be converted into a flow rate using the area of
the casing.

Qt = Vfluid * Area

The area can be found using standard tables or a caliper

measurement.

In Oilfield units this can be written

Qt = Vfluid * 1.4 * Di2
 Flowmeters Types
The simplest and most important tool in the string Measures the fluid flow rate.

In line Flowmeters
- small spinner
- good for high flowrates Full bore Flowmeters
- maximum spinner blade size
- best for wide range of flowrates

In line Full bore

Why

Flowmeters measure flow..

Hence are used to detect flow phenomena

- where is the flow coming from

- are all perforations flowing

- is there crossflow

- are there any leaks

 Calibration of Spinners

The raw spinner measurement is rps.

The spinner is reacting to fluid flowing across the blades

The actual rps are also dependent on the speed and direction of the tool.

In a typical production well the spinner reads higher running into the well than running
out at the same speed.

To find the actual fluid velocity the spinner has to be calibrated

 Example log

Several passes have been made at different speeds.

Spinner Calibration

If the tool was perfect a plot of the spinner against the cable
velocities in the zero flow region (D) would give a plot like this.
The line goes through zero.
 Spinner Plot Effects

There are two effects that make the plot deviate from the perfect one (blue
line)
The first is the effect of viscosity.
There is a threshold velocity before the tool starts to react.
This can be different in the two directions resulting in the red lines.
 Mechanical effects at low flowrates

The second effect is mechanical, due to the nature of the tool itself.
The resultant shows the lines curving slightly as they approach zero flow.
The total deviation from the zero point is called the threshold of the tool.It is
different for tool types and for changing environments.
 Non-zero flow
Spi nner
rps

Vf
M idpoi nt
Flow
ro
Ze
Tool V eloci ty
UP Tool V eloci ty
Vf
DOWN
Vf
Flow
ro
Ze

The green line represents the the next zone up the well (C)
The well is flowing
The line is shifted away from the zero flow line by an amount relative to the fluid velocity, Vf.
Other Inputs-caliper
W ell
Sk etch

W ha t happens he re ?

Spinner RPS
Caliper 2
Caliper

Casing/ hole size

change

Spinner RPS
PFCS Caliper

Application: Q = v x Area
- X and Y caliper: PFC1 and PFC2
Production Logging
PL and basic sensors
Field Examples

Part 2

1
Pressure

• What is Measured
• The pressure measurement is a continuous profile of the pressure
in the wellbore.
• The curve reflects changes in the borehole fluid composition
(density).
• Pressure can also be recorded at stations in the well versus time
 Why

• The major reason to measure the pressure is to be able to accurately predict

the PVT (Pressure-Volume-Temperature) properties of the fluids.

• It is possible to use the pressure as a density measurement. (derivative)

• Station measurements are used to compute permeability, skin and other

reservoir properties.
How

• There are two major ways to measure pressure in the well

- strain gauge
- crystal gauge

• The selection of a specific tool depends on the accuracy required and the
survey type.

• Strain gauges are less accurate but have a better response time to changes
in pressure and temperature.

• New varieties of gauge have the accuracy of crystal gauges and the
response of the strain gauge.
 Temperature Measurement

(the original Production Log!)

Temperature sensor:

• Applications:
– Downhole reservoir temperature
– Fluid properties conversion to surface conditions
– Flow detection behind casing
– Gas entry detection

Platinum RTD Type resistor

Temperature exchanges in a well:
Temperature log: Well producing gas

Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient
Temperature log: Gas channeling

Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient

Flow
behind the
casing
Temperature log: Well producing liquid

Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient
Temperature log: Liquid channeling

Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient

Water Flow
behind
casing
Leak
A leak may show a drop in temperature
as fluid is entering into the formation
leaving less fluid in the borehole.

Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient

Flow
behind the
casing
Density Measurement

What is Measured

• The objective of these tools is to measure the fluid density or the mixture
hold up.

• Tool types are:

Fluid Density
•- gradiomanometer

• Hold - up
•-FloView
•GHOST
Why

The hold up/fluid density is essential when dealing with anything other than
the injector (single phase)

The measurement gives answers to;

- which fluids are coming from which perforations

Gradio-manometer

• Application
– Measurement of phase density and mixture density.
• Typical phase densities:
– Fresh water= 1 gm/cc
– Oil=around 0.65 gm/cc
– Dry gas= around 0.1 gm/cc
• Typical mixture density:
– From 0.1 to 1.0 gm/cc
Gradiomanometer
The tool measures the
PA PB = PA + gh
pressure at two points a
P2 = PA + gh fixed distance apart
Silicone P1 = PA + SOgh
P2 - P1 = gh -  SOgh
The differential pressure
Oil
sensor gives the density.
h P2 - P1
= + S O
97.0 gh
Diaphragm S O =
aT + (95.4 - 2.95x10-4P)
P1 a = 0.0536 - 3.22x10-6P + 8.73x10-11P2
P2 PB SO = Silicone oil density (g/cm3)
T = Temperature (degF)
P = Pressure (psia)
Gradiomanometer & deviation

Silicone PA P2 - P1
Oil = + SO
gh
θ

Y=h cos(θ)
h

P2 - P1
= + SO
PB gh cos(θ)

Diaphragm
Gradiomanometer & deviation

Differential Gradiomanometer Response to Deviation

0.9
Deviation Limits

Uncorrected Density (gm/cc)

0.8
◼ Oil-Water holdup 0.7
up to around 60-
0.6
65 degrees
0.5
◼ Gas-Water holdup 0.4
up to 70 degrees w ater
0.3
oil
0.2
gas
0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Well Deviation (deg)
Appendix

Charts and formulae

Chart
Main PL Formulae
Total Rate - Metric