UAM- A.

Permanyer

THE CREATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL ORDER

1. POLITICS AND POWER IN EUROPE (1450-1600)

• The concept of UNIVERSAL MONARCHY

There is an idea not only in Europe but also in Muslim territories and south and East Asia, to create
universal monarchies that govern the whole world. In the Middle Ages there was this aspira on ( c on),
that there should be a monarch to rule the en re Chris an world. However it also existed in the Muslim
world with the caliphate, or in south Asia with the idea of Chakravar n (universal ruler); Genhis Khan
also wanted to be a universal ruler; or the idea of the emperor as son of heaven in China.

This was known as the concept of monarchia universalis, or res publica chris ana: It said that one
monarchy deemed to have sole rule over everywhere or to have a special supremacy over all other
states. . However this was only a concept/ c on, no ruler could achieve this, but it was an important
aspira on.

Good examples of Dominium Mundi are: the Rome and the Byzan um empires, in the Holy Roman
Empire, the gure of the pope as a universal monarch (but not everyone in Europe thought so, even
before M Luther’s post in 1517, and later protestant cri cism). Another example is Charles V and the
Habsburg Empire.

This Europe that shapes nowadays interna onal issues is made up by many uni es and countries. But
this was not necessary at the me, as they thought that a super ins tu on needed to exist to control
everything.

Even though this was a c on, it does not mean that it was not important. This sustained tension and/or
nego a on was created to establish a rela on between the spiritual and the secular power. Example:
the son of heaven was not only a secular ruler but also a spiritual ruler.

There were some voices that said the Pope needed to be the vice of the Chris an world, but at some
point it was the pope itself who decided who was going to be the monarch, and today is the one that
chooses the biggest gures in religion. He held the spiritual power and decided ma ers in secular power.

Ini ally, the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were crowned by the Pope, but its nobility, started to
be opposed to the idea of the Pope being the one that had all the power. It is then when The Doctrine of
the Two Swords was created, sta ng that Christ dispensed the two swords to the pope, but had granted
the temporal sword to rulers; therefore, the papacy had the right to depose kings and emperors.

• The Holy Roman Empire(of the German Na on) (962-1808).

It was a complex composite state that gradually expanded since the Early Middle Ages (it also promoted
the idea of monarchia universalis). They were the heirs of the Carolingian Empire (800), originally from
Gaul, Italy and Germany. Eventually, the German character of its iden ty became more important. And
this is why since the 15th century on, the term used to name it was “German Empire”, to avoid confusion
with the Roman Empire (even though their emperors were not only German and spoke many languages).

At the Treaty of Verdun (843) the Carolingian Empire was parted in three. The Franquish Empire
occupied most of Western Europe, including some parts of Spain (La Marca Hispanica). The German
Empire was a state composed of many states – more than 300 kingdoms and territories (principali es,
duchies, countships, city-states, bishoprics…) Above all the representa ves of the states there was an
emperor elected, that had the authority of all territories. In order to do this an Imperial Diet was created
(Reichstag),where a body represen ng the member states that managed to keep its power vis-à-vis the
emperor.

Many dynas es vied for the posi on of emperor that the Habsburgs retained it since 1438.
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 Ini ally in the early middle Ages un l the 14th century, the emperor was elected by the pope. Since the
year 1356, with the Golden Bull (a cons tu on for the Holy Roman Empire promulgated by the emperor
Charles IV), seven prince-electors appointed the emperor, thus concentra ng the papal authority. Even
though this posi on was elected, this did not mean that there were not many dynas es. If an emperor
died or abdicated, the new one needed to be approved by the seven prince-electors (therefore, the
ruling dynasty had to nego ate with the electors too).

• CRACKS IN THE MONARCHIA UNIVERSALIS.

Throughout the Middle Ages cracks in the monarchia universalis happened, especially in the Catholic
World.

-Western Schism (1378-1417) > Popes in Rome and in Avignon > they will return to Rome in 1420. A
pope in Avignon already existed since the 1305 (early 14th century), not in Rome because they were very
close to the French king so the French monarch managed to decide issues regarding the papacy.
However, a er the Western Schism, there was another one in Rome, which showed the internal
problems in the Catholic Church (even before 1517, the years of the beginning of Protestan sm with
Luther’s le ers), so the image of big unity of the church was contested. The Avignon’s pope was
supported by France, but the one in Rome was supported by the Holy Roman Emperor. But this lasted
un l 1420, were the papacy returned to Rome. Luther was not the only one that cri cized the Catholic
Church.

-O oman conquest of Constan nople (1453): Byzan um was the capital. One of the most symbolic
places in Eastern Chris anity, so its conquest was a blow to Christendom and a turning point for Western
history as well as a symptom of the division inside Chris anity. As for the O oman Empire or the Turkish,
in the 1st decade of the 16th century it expanded a lot. They were closed to the Iberian Peninsula and
Italy. Seaside villages were created (Valencia, Mediterranean...). The fall of the city removed what was
once a powerful defense for Chris an Europe against Muslim invasion, allowing for uninterrupted
O oman expansion into Eastern Europe.

At this point, in the 15th century the Popes revived the crusading ideal, to invade the former Chris an
territories, what were called the Holy Land in the Middle East:

• That meant the inclusion of the known and the unknown world under papal jurisdic on. The
Pope in Rome said that he owned the power to rule all these territories. All of this was c on. It
was valid un l the Treaty of Westphalia.

• i.e., Mar n V granted a bull for the conquest of North Africa (1418), while Alexander VI divided
the world between Cas le and Portugal (last 15th century). Prior to the Tratrado de Tordesillas.

• Also, the Pope called the European monarchs for a crusade when the Italian condo eri (military
men of city states) endangered the Papal States. Many of them, especially the ones of Milan and
Savoy were part of the Holy Roman Empire in a very loose way. They were the facto republics;
several territorial units with their own principles gh ng with each other for hegemony and to
control the Pope.

The father of interna onal European rela ons was born in this context, Machiavelli (1469-1527)
author of The Prince (1514). This all took place in 15th century in Italy! Renaissance, meaning
art. Princesses and princes buying art, the revival of ideas, art, laws. Authors like Machiavelli had
ideas such as the declara on of the moral of poli cal ideas. But the reality was that there were a
lot of wars between states, as this was a great opportunity for backstabbing.

-Meanwhile, the emerging of Western Monarchies were increasing their authority

Thus helping the pope could mean ge ng greater concessions in terms of ecclesias cal governments. All
leads to the crea on of new states with composite monarchies and monarchs that contended all the





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 hegemony around Europe. Which all lead to the rise of the dynas c sovereign states (the new European
monarchies).

• THE “NEW MONARCHIES”: THE RISE OF THE DYNASTIC SOVEREIGN STATE.

An important gure that portraits the idea of universal monarch is Charles V (I of Spain) who ruled over
Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg. The rst two, present him as the defender of the
Chris an faith against the O omans (defendor deo), while in the Habsburgs states he was seen as a
catholic monarch (catholic meant universal). Charles possessed the kingdom of Cas le, of Navarre, of
Aragon (with Naples, Sicily and Sardinia), Burgundy, Austria and Bohemia, the Holy Roman Empire and
some American possessions. The Habsburg Empire was the closest embodiment of the universal
monarchy “the empire in which the sun never sets”. Charles was an heir of this tradi on of catholic and
Chris an unity. Two di erent tradi ons merged together here: it consolidated something that was very
speci c in the Holy Roman Empire that was the monarch being the defendor deo (against the o oman).

1. The Hapsburgs Empire, rst world empire:

-Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Charles V (r. 1519-56).

-Iberian union (1580-1640) was the dynas c union of the Kingdoms of Cas le and Aragon and
the Kingdom of Portugal under the Cas lian Crown, which brought the en re Iberian Peninsula, as well
as Portuguese overseas possessions, under the Spanish Habsburg kings Philip II, Philip III and Philip IV.

Philip II (r. 1556-98), Philip III (r. 1598-1621), and Philip IV (r. n1621-65), kings of Spain and Portugal.
Therefore giving it the name of Iberian Union (1580-1640) which lasted un l Philip IV. This had some
consequences in the colonies (especially in Asia and America), even though the Portuguese and
Spanish possessions never merged into a single one. They had a great degree of power based on the
monopoly of trade with the Americas. But going back to Charles the V it was a me of expansion not
only in the Iberian territories but also in America (great expansion in the early 16th century in only 30
years). Not only had Spain and Portugal invaded a great por on of America but they also imposed a
power there. The richest exploita ons in America were the Iberians ones, what explains the great
mari me expansion of Portugal and Cas le since the late 15th century; which also lead to the
alliance of the nobility with the Church, and a military technology and e cient administra on.

All reinforced by the Alexandrine Bulls (1493), which granted overseas territories to Portugal and
the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.

Later, the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between
the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire (Crown of Cas le), along the west of the Cape
Verde islands, o the west coast of Africa. These two, set a line of demarca on.

And later it was created the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529), which divided the Paci c Ocean (an
meridian of Tordesillas).

-The contested Habsburgs Hegemony: rather than the crusade against the O omans (siege of Vienna,
1529; ba le of Lepanto, 1571), the Emperor’s foremost concern was inside Chris anity, with Valois
France, Northern Europe and the Protestant reforma on.

2. Valois France:
Valois France was the other dynas c monarchy in France at the me, which ruled during three di erent
periods (14th and 16th centuries). It has its origin in the Carolingian Empire.
It had a close and violent rela onship with England during the middle Ages (100 years’ war). This
occasioned con ict in the borders, between Burgundy and Flanders which will eventually unite by
marriage alliances.
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 The French king of Valois, Francis I (r.1515-47) had a compe on going on with Charles V (r.1519-56),
from the Habsburg dynasty, for the imperial hegemony. They confronted each other in the imperial
elec ons of 1519, when Francis tried to become Holy Roman Emperor. Francis I feared that the
Habsburgs would subsume all the sovereigns in Europe. This was known as the “Habsburg encirclement”.
Therefore, France regarded the encirclement as a permanent threat, and intervened in several years, to
prevent an Austrian-Spanish dominance in Europe. This resumed in the Italian Wars (1494-1559), also
called the Habsburg-Valois Wars.
• Italian Wars (or Habsburg-Valois Wars, 1494–1559) During the Italian Wars (or Habsburg - Valois Wars
1494-1559), there was already a con ict with the Northern Italy’s feudal es with the Holy Roman
Empire as well as France and Aragon claimed the kingdom of Naples and Sicily in the late 15th century.
This escalated with the con ict between Francis I and Charles V, leading to the Italian War of 1521-26.
We have to take into account that the Pope supported Charles in the 1519 elec ons as he promised to
help in gh ng Luther.
During the Italian War, there was a French invasion of Navarre and of Italy (1522), but nally Charles
defeated the French in Pavia. Finally, with the Treaty of Madrid (1526), Francis, imprisoned, made an
agreement, with Charles V which led to his release in March. Francis undertook to surrender the
duchy of Burgundy and renounce his claims to Naples, Milan and Genoa. Once Francis was freed
and back in France, he and his council reneged on the treaty, with the blessing of the pope. Indeed,
with the King of France free, Pope Clement went further, and he was instrumental in forming a new
alliance against Charles and the emperor’s aspirations for Northern Italy.

Clement concluded negotiations and on May 22, 1526 the Holy League of Cognac was formed.
Even though England was not a member, it agreed to subsidize the alliance and was named as its
protector. Its aim was to drive the Imperial army from northern Italy, to confront Charles the V and
his hegemony. Charles V responded by sacking Rome (1527). Later, France declared war and invaded
Milan and Naples (1528), and this was known as War of the League of Cognac. With the Treaty of
Cambrai (1529), or “La Paix de Dames”, there was temporally con rmed the Habsburg hegemony in
Italy, and therefore, Francis I renounced his claims to Italy, Flanders, and Artois. In return, Charles V
agreed not to advance in his claims to Burgundy.
The wars nally ended with the Peace of Cateu-Cambrésis (1559) when Henry II of France abandoned
his claims to Italy. This was facilitated by the previous division of the Habsburg domains a er Charles V’s
abdica on in 1556. Therefore, the Habsburg domains were divided between Philip II (Spain (Cas le and
Aragon, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia and the Americas) and Ferdinand I (Austria and Holy Roman Empire).
In Northern Europe, con ict was about the rejec on of the Iberian mari me monopoly, there was a
erce rivalry for the control of interna onal trade which was controlled by the principle of e ec ve
occupa on and of the freedom of the seas.

3. The Protestant reforma on:

-Luther posted the Ninety- ve theses, on the main door of All Saints’ Church in Wi enberg (Saxony) on
October 31, 1517, or as they were later called the Disputa on on the Power and E cacy of Indulgences,
as it a acked the issue of indulgences. The theses furthered Luther's arguments against what he saw as
an abuse of the clergy's prac ce of selling plenary indulgences that cer cated, according to Catholic
belief; they reduced the temporal punishment of purgatory for sins commi ed by purchasers. The
Catholic Church needed nancing for the construc on of St Peters Church in Rome, and started ‘selling’
these indulgences.

Luther also put forward other ideas such as the corrup on of the doctrine of the Church, the cult of
Mary and other saints diminished the o ce of Christ as the mediator between God and the believers,
also he focused a lot on the issue of Eucharist. As for the Church, he didn’t make a dis nc on between
clergy and laity, prelates and councils could err, and celibate was fruitless in controlling human nature
and also demanded that secular leaders should reform the Church. However he wasn’t the only one
saying such things at the me.


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 -Calls for reform in the late middle ages: The Western Chris anity in the mid-15th century was a
powerful, poli cal, intellectual and economic ins tu on and also a lively experience of rituals, prac ces
and beliefs. Thus, the power of the Church was accepted by most people, yet there were some
dissa s ed minori es, for example, some voices like John Wycli e (England, 1320–84) and the Lollards
or Jan Hus and Bohemian Reforma on (were pre gura ons of Luther in many ways). Luther’s ideas fell
on fer le ground. They could be a rac ve to some rulers, as breaking with the Roman Church could lead
to the establishment of local churches controlled by the princes, which came to be labeled as Protestant
in 1529.

On secular government: Luther understood the important rela onship of the secular power. He lived in
a territory ruled by the Elector of Saxony, and therefore he worked really closely to poli cal authori es.
This is the main reason of why he was that original, di erent and therefore successful. In this period, he
wrote the Address to the Chris an Nobility of the German Na on (1520), in which he developed two
ideas: The doctrine of the two kingdoms and the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. Also he
stated that the break of the rela onship with Rome was unavoidable. Rulers should control and/or
reform the Church in their di erent territories, which may seem a li le bit contradictory, but he added
that all Chris ans should obey their rulers, whom Luther saw as divinely ordained to maintain order.

A er his proposal, some communi es and even rulers started changing the religious situa on in some
territories. Rulers switched to Luther, but why they would want to turn their back to Rome’s Church? For
instance, the reason behind England’s decision was to ght the Spanish Empire’s strong rela on with the
papacy. All of this was like a counter reac on, in order to put an end to the papal economic and poli cal
power in their territories. In other cases, the mo va ons were more local advantages, spiritual aims too.
Some mes they switched their religion just to have a reason to ght the neighbor, who remained
Catholic. This led to Confessionaliza on and persecu ons in the Catholic world. In 1521, with the Diet
and Edict of Worms, Luther was summoned to the Diet to recant, and as he refused, was declared
here c and excommunicated by the Pope – this could be considered certainly the beginning of the
schism (rather than 1517).

-Reformed ideas and confessionaliza on: Lutheranism developed in central and Northern Germany,
Scandinavia and the Bal c. At the same me, Uriah Zwingli in Zurich developed similar ideas to those of
Luther at the same me. In terms of religion, the same happened with the Huguenots in France, the
Puritans in England, the Calvinism in the Netherlands too and John Knox in Scotland, where
Presbyterianism was developed. In England we must highlight the Act of Supremacy (1534) by Henry
VIII, which led to the occurrence of the English Reforma on and the Anglican Church. Here we also have
to men on the crea on of radical groups such as Anabap sm in Switzerland and elsewhere, as well as
Puritan groups in the English speaking world.
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 2. THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR AND THE TREATY OF WESTPHALIA
According to interna onal rela ons theorists this is the origin of modern interna onal rela ons. The
modern state system comes from the breakup of the monarchia universalis.

A er Luther’s and Calvin’s reforms, there was something that broke into Europe at the me! the unity
of religion, the no on that all the people should have the same religion. Europe had no concep on of
tolera on. Since there was not no on of tolera on, it explains the expulsion of the ones that did not
want to adopt the same religion as the majority (the religion that was established).

• European Wars of Religion since mid-1520s onwards (which were social and poli cal wars too):
-First wave: Lutherans and Catholics in Germany; Zwinglians in Switzerland—>German Peasants’ War
(1524–25) and the Schmalkaldic Wars (1546–47; 1552–55), in which Charles V trying to control the war
in order to turn himself into an absolute monarch.
-Second wave: Calvinists and Catholics in France and the Netherlands—>French Wars of Religion (1562–
98), and the Eighty Years’ War or Dutch Revolt (1566–1648).
-Third wave: The Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) involved nearly all Europe.
-Also Wars of the Three Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland (1639–51).

We should start talking about Protestants in this context. In the Diet of Augsburg (1530), Charles V
wanted to address the rising tensions due to the Reforma on. Therefore, it was created: Confessio
Augustana: Protestant statement of belief and proposal of defending themselves from the imperial
ac on. As an answer to this, Charles the V established the Confuta o Augustana that said that all
religious innova ons not authorized by the Diet must be abandoned.
Therefore, the Schmalkaldic League (1531) was formed by Protestant rulers who wanted to defend
themselves from the imperial ac on (formed by Lutheran princes that perceived Charles the V as a
threat), and it included Luther’s right of resistance. This league would lead to two wars: The
Schmalkaldic War of 1546 and the Second Schmalkaldic War in 1552.
• The Peace of Augsburg (1555)
It put an end to the religious struggle and established legal divisions between Catholics and Lutherans.
But how? With the principle Cuius regio, eius religio (“whose realm, his religion”). This set the basis of
religious tolerants in Europe. Each ruler of the Holy Roman Empire could decide the religion of their
territories (they thought that each ruler’s dominion should share the same source of legi macy). It was a
ques on of legi macy, cohesion and uniformity between the ruler and his subdites. And if you didn’t
agree with your ruler you could leave. It was established that Lutheran princes who had secularized
bishoprics before 1552 were to retain them, but not a er, according to the principle of reservatum
ecclesias cum. However the Declara o Ferdinandei exempted knights and some ci es. And Calvinists
were not contemplated. The consequences of this were: a) the end of Charles V’s aspira ons to the
monarchia universalis, but the imperial order was preserved. b) the separa on of religious and poli cal
orders, and the religious was le in the hands of the ruler.

THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618-48)

• From religious issues to interna onal poli cs:

-Since the Peace of Augsburg (1555) switching changes in the religious map of the Holy Roman Empire –
Lutheranism, Catholicism, and Calvinism
-Protestant Union (1608) and Catholic League (1609)
-Focused mainly inside the Holy Roman Empire, the Thirty Years’ War pi ed the Habsburgs (Spanish and
Austrian) against Protestant princes, Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and France thereby a ec ng most of
Western Europe.
-Religious lines? Or a dispute between “par cularists” and “universalists”?
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 • Four phases :

1. From the Bohemian revolt to the pala nate campaign (1618–23)

The bohemian crisis: Ferdinand II vs. Bohemian rebels

Ferdinand was elected by the Diet of Bohemia as their king in 1617 (even though Bohemia was
overwhelmingly Protestant). Ferdinand, however, was an intransigent Catholic, and resolutely
repressed Protestan sm. We have to bear in mind that at this point (thinking about the balances
of the Empire) the German princes sanc oned Ferdinand II, even those who were Protestant,
and even thought they were the ones who elected them; because they started to think he
wasn’t as reliable as they thought. Ferdinand II however, wiped out Protestant movements from
Bohemia (through forced conversions) and con nued ba ling Protestan sm. He was doing what
was expected from him as a Catholic ruler, even though Bohemian territory was really immersed
in Protestan sm. An answer to this intolerance was the Defenestra on of Prague (23 May 1618),
when two of the imperial representa ves were thrown by Bohemian o cials out of a window of
the Prague Castle.

The revolt triumphed and the Diet of Bohemia deposed Ferdinand and elected Frederick V of the
Pala nate (1619-20). Frederick was the ruler of the Electoral Pala nate, and also a Calvinist and
leader of the Protestant Union. The Hungarian estates had elected a Protestant to replace
Ferdinand and the Habsburg (as Ferdinand was also its emperor) posi on in central Europe was
thus jeopardized.

As a consequence of the revolt, Ferdinand II (that was also elected Holy Roman Emperor in
1619) with the help of his cousin, Philip II of Spain, declared war to the rebels. This was called
the Pala nate Campaign. Finally the Habsburgs defeated the Bohemians in the Ba le of the
White Mountain (1620), in consequence, Frederick V was deposed, and Ferdinand occupied
Bohemia, Moravia and the Pala nate, and crushed, of course, the revolt. Ferdinand achieved his
aims, and Bohemia became Catholic too. With this background, the prospect of a strong Catholic
Habsburg Empire concerned a lot not only Protestants, but also Catholic opponents. This led to
several French, Danish or Swedish interven ons.

2. Danish interven on (1625–29)

In this ba le against Protestan sm, it seemed as if Ferdinand II was about to accomplish Charles
V’s monarchia universalis. At this point, the Protestant territories were in danger, par cularly
regarding the North German bishoprics which had passed into Protestant hands (illegally, from
the catholic point of view). They argued that the situa on that existed in 1522 needed to be
maintained, the Catholic bishoprics had to remain Catholic and the Protestant’s ones
Protestants, with no further change; but there were. Saxony and Brandenburg became
concerned, and in 1625 they called Chris an IV of Denmark-Norway (r. 1577–1648) for help.

Also, as the Spaniards were distracted in the Low Countries, an a ack to the Catholic League
seemed feasible. This led to Denmark-Norway to declare war to the Catholic League, in which
England and the United Provinces provided nancial support. Albrecht von Wallenstein,
commander of the imperial troops, vanquished the Danes, so returned to the status quo ante
and Chris an IV renounced the bishoprics. As we see, the Thirty years war was German, but it
involved a lot of di erent countries.
The Dutch Revolt or Eighty Years’ War (1566–1648)
The United Provinces had become de facto independent in 1581, and maintained their
resistance against Philip II.There had been a twelve-year truce since 1609, but as it was coming
to an end, the Dutch were eager to resume war. Therefore, Chris an IV took advantage while the
Spanish mercenaries could not help the imperial armies. Finally, as the Spanish troops took
Breda (1625), this allowed the imperial forces to vanquish the Danish king. The revolt was ended
with the Treaty of Münster (1648), in which the United Provinces became de jure independent.

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 Ferdinand II was too con dent in his victories, so he created:

-Edict of Res tu on (1629), in which was stated the prohibi on of Calvinism, and reversion to
Catholicism of all lands which had become Protestant since 1552.
-At the Diet of Regensburg (1630), Ferdinand II tried (unsuccessfully) to reimpose hereditary
succession to the imperial throne. Why? The protestant German princes wouldn’t elect him at
that point.

3. Swedish interven on (1630–34)

Gustav II Adolf of Sweden declared war to the Holy Roman Empire, bankrolled by the French.
Why? Sweden, another Protestant power, competed with Denmark-Norway for the control of
the Bal c (commerce). However, Gustav II Adolf did not obtain support from the German
princes, as they feared the consequences of this a ack to the fragile balance of power of the
Holy Roman Empire.
At rst, there were some Swedish victories, in which Sweden took parts of Denmark-Norway and
northern Germany. However, Wallenstein nally vanquished the Swedish in 1634.
At the end, they reached an agreement in the Treaty of Prague (1635) which consisted of:
o Revoca on of the 1629 Edict of Res tu on, moving the limit year to return proper es to
1627 (previously 1552).
o Prohibi on of formal alliances between principali es inside the Empire. This led to the
dissolu on of both the Protestant Union and the Catholic League.

4. France joins the war (1635–48)

The French joined the war (even though it’s true they had intervened before), in the last stage of
the war (1635-48). France, ruled by Louis XIII and his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, did not
only want to wipe out the Habsburg supremacy but also to establish itself as hegemonic power,
which produced an indirect con ict un l 1635.
French alliance with the Swedish, the Dutch and some German princes against the Holy Roman
Empire and the Spanish Union(1635), led to an almost European War. But things became more
complicated, especially in the Iberian Peninsula with troops against Spain and the Emperor
which led to a European-wide war. It all started in the Low Countries, Franche-Comté, Alsace
and Lorraine, and Italy.

There were ini al Habsburg victories, but the French managed to isolate the various imperial
territories, which led to the French victories in the Low Countries and the United Provinces
(1639). At the same me, rebellions in Portugal and Catalonia, due to the discomfort that the
war was causing, (1640), led the French to enter to help them. This ended with Portuguese
independence and the Reapers’ War (Guerra dels Segadors) in Catalonia. The French emperor
qui ed all ba le in 1647, while Spain s ll fought for its possessions.
The war came to an end on German soil. Finally, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a er
three decades of war, decided to resign war opera on that led to the peace of Westphalia
(1648). This peace was composed also by collateral trea es such as ‘the peace of Münster’ (30
January 1648) between the United Provinces and the Spanish Hapsburgs pu ng an end to the
Dutch revolt, in this, Spain recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic (which revolted
against Philip the II when they perceived a foreign emperor).

But there is another treaty that is the Peace of Westphalia properly (24/10), which took place in two
ci es giving the name to two trea es: The ‘Treaty of Münster’ in October (between the Holy Roman
Empire and France) and the ‘Treaty of Osnabruck’ (between Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and the
German princes).

What was agreed in Westphalia? 3 main issues were se led:

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 -Territorial issues: Gains to France and Sweden (which also obtained votes in the Reichstag) and the
Habsburg hegemony was called into ques on. Also, the United Provinces and Swiss Confedera on were
con rmed as independent republics.
-Ecclesias cal se lement: with the con rma on of the Peace of Augsburg, it was granted religious
tolerance to Lutherans (and was extended to Calvinists too). The di erence with the previous situa on is
that now, it doesn’t correspond to the ruler of the territory to choose the religion; it became a totally
free decision (private worship, liberty of conscience and right of emigra on). It was also reinstated 1624
as the year of reference for the bishoprics.
-Cons tu onal changes within the Holy Roman Empire: many argued that the no on of sovereignty and
the con rma on of the authority of the emperor were stated in Westphalia, but this rela onship was
already there, the problem of the war is that many princes felt that the rela onship between the
emperor and the principali es was not respected by the emperor. So this is why, it was established that
the emperor should not intervene on internal a airs. Instead, the authority of the princes was
con rmed, and therefore their right to sign trea es with foreign powers provided that the emperor
su ered no prejudice. The treaty of Westphalia con rmed something that already existed.
This is an example of something bigger going on in Europe at the me. According to the historical point
of view, we need to understand the complex process that was actually going on. The treaty of
Westphalia was one of the many trea es that were signed in the middle years of the 17th century.
The Thirty Years’ War was a part of a wider pan-European (or even world) con ict, with deeply
embedded problems:
-The dynas c antagonisms (like France vs. the Habsburgs or Sweden vs. Poland) and succession
problems.
-Poli cal con icts too (Spanish vs. United Provinces and Bohemia Vs. Habsburgs).
-Also brought territorial expansion as a solu on to domes c problems (Denmark, Norway, France,
Sweden and Spain, among others).
-We must not forget religious con icts (really determined by poli cal di erences).
-Moreover it created con ict far beyond Germany (like the Dutch Revolt or Eighty Years’ War, the Franco-
Spanish War, also the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Anglo-Dutch
Wars since 1652, Anglo-Spanish War and Northern Wars (1655–61)).

• The Franco-Spanish War (1635-59):

The Franco-Spanish war is some mes called the h stage of the Thirty Years’ War (as it con nued a er
1648). France helped the Catalans while Spain helped in the Fronde Revolt (1648–53), which was against
the absolu sm of Louis XIV. The French allied with the Bri sh (1657), as they were enemies of the
Spanish crown too. Finally, an agreement was reached at the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, in which
Spain recognized the French gains in Westphalia, which developed a new territorial logic ( rst me being
seen in interna onal rela ons). Franco-Spanish borders were xed, thus many Catalan territories were
given to France: Roussillon and Upper Cerdagne. Also they were xed in the north, Luxembourg, Artois
and other pieces of Flanders. However, they ended up deciding to unite both crowns by a marriage
alliance between the Spanish Habsburgs and the Bourbons (however, Louis XIV renounced to his claims
to Catalonia).

The Legacies of Westphalia // A Westphalian myth? Andreas Osiander

This treaty le a new culture for this mid-17th century countries, leaving behind tradi on and
underlined di erences de ned by force and military success. New manners start to take shape in the
prac ce of diplomacy (where realism prevailed). The feeling of disorder and the lack of norms built a
new language of interest and devoid of an que ethics. Thus a consensus towards a new system
with some more guarantees. Territorially speaking, there was le a struggle to get rid of external
threats. New no on of balance, called concert, begins to take place, all towards sovereignty. Here
appearing the concept of arbitra on, ques oning the role of the Papacy and Patrimonial heritage.
Towards the way to a new modern state, a territorial and centralized state (with administra on), armies
and nance was created. Also domes c peace and commercial compe on/colonial trade were
fomented.
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 3. FROM NATURAL LAW TO INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Interna onal Law

Within a system of changing rela onships between independent human groups, there is a norma ve
regula on of these rela onships between poli cal socie es. It’s origin rely on the late an quity and the
Middle Ages. The coloniza on of America set up a new framework, leading to the crea on of a new
poli cal framework which encompasses both colonizers ands na ves. Also the collapse of the medieval
order and the origin of modern states towards sovereignty made a big impact.

An intensi ca on of war in general had several consequences as humanist movements calling for peace,
discussions among theologians about just war theory, and a debate between the autonomy of poli cs
(Machiavelli) versus a moral order.

With the Peace of Westphalia, we started a patch towards its publicum Europaerum or ius gen um
Europaeum. Crea ng a suprana onal regula on of mul lateral character and a more stable and frequent
diploma c rela ons (at the same me there was s ll a compe on for the colonial trade). However at
the me interna onal legisla on was ambiguous.

• THE IUS GENTIUM OR ‘LAW OF NATIONS’

Its origin is found in Roman Law, since an quity it was the law of peoples (thus considering all humanity,
Ius Gen um was interpreted as part of the Ius Naturale. As such, it was supposed to be opposed to the
civil law ( ius civile vs. ius gen um). There was always beee a systema c analysis of interna onal society
since Middle Ages by the ecclesias cal thinkers (canon law). With Humanism and Schola cism (moral
theology+natural law, highligh ng gures as Thomas Aquinas and Thomism). Jurists of Roman Law.
Shared concept of ius gen um among all Christendom.

Later it appeared the School of Salamanca in the 16th century, which combined Thomism with new
prac cal problems. With the incorpora on of new territories to the crown of Cas le, the theological and
juridical order extended and its prompted the theory of Interna onal Community and its juridical order.
Some of the innova ve contribu ons that were made in the School of Salamanca are: sovereignty,
natural law and human rights, cri que to absolu sm, ius gen um and interna onal law, jus ca on of
the war, re ec on of the conquest of America, economics… of course, there was a subsequent
interna onal in uence such as Alberto Gen li, Hugo Gro us, and Samuel Von Pufendor. Some examples
of the School of Salamanca are Francisco de Vitoria, the economist Domingo de Soto o Luis de Alcalá,
Azpilicueta, etc…

However, without doubt, the most important thinker of this school of thought might be Francisco de
Vitoria, the so-called father of interna onal law, and establish the seed of it under the concept of ius
gen um toward the modern the law of na ons. How did he do that? By two main ideas. First, the Orbis
or Universal community (it jus es that an universal community of all men and all peoples united. by the
common bond of human nature, so it is based of natural law and not on force, resul ng from natural
sociability of humankind, and of universal reach, ‘naturalis societa s et communica onis’) . And the
other main idea is the Law of Na ons as a bond of the universal community. The LON is an universal law
of humanity which rules the whole world, is the law among peoples in their rela onships (interpeoples,
interna onal). And also Victoria says this common rule should be over all the par cular communi es’s
laws (for the good of the Orbis). Natural Law+posi ve law. Thus there is a moral concep on of both
state power and interna onal law, while common good is superior to each state’s good.

• How did this a ect to America?

There were many issues arising when the Cas lian arrived to America. Many jurists and Teologists talked
about the “Just Titles” (Justos Títulos) over the legi macy of the Cas lian conquest. These tles apart
from being established over the nature of the na ve peoples, they imposed the right to preach the
gospel, and to enslave them. Some people like G. de Sepulveda assumed that the na ve peoples were
cannibals that needed to be enslaved. On the other hand, Bartolomé de las Casas saw them as humans
not savages.
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 This is what led to the crea on of the Laws of Burgos (1512) by Ferdinand II, which regulated rela ons
between Spaniards and the conquered Indians, par cularly to ensure the spiritual and material welfare
of the la er, who were o en severely treated.

Later in me, in the Valladolid Debate (1550–51) was treated the so-called 'Controversy of the Na ves',
to o er a theological and legal basis on the proceeding with the indigenous during the discoveries and
conquest of new overseas territories.

According to the Law of Na ons, the Pope was not the one who should decide who ruled the world. This
is why Vitoria and others claimed against the legi macy of the expansion in the New World and
therefore, against the Alexandrine Bulls, saying that the na ves could not be (as they were considered
people by the School of Salamanca) considered as sinners- and the Spaniards did not carry any
legi mate tle to occupy territories which already had legi mate owners. Rather, Vitoria and his
followers claimed the na ves’ natural rights of property. In addi on, the right to preach the Gospel did
not authorize to exert violence. Vitoria and his followers were thus against forced conversion.

However, Vitoria tried to jus fy the conquest in natural law – he thus iden ed eight legi mate “ tles of
dominion” among which were, a) Ius peregrinandi et degendi (“right to travel and spend me there [ie.
To trade]”), b) right to humanitarian interven on, assistance to allies in case of just war, right to
tutelage…

As for the debates over the nature of the na ves, already in December 1511, the Dominican friar
Antonio de Montesinos denounced the maltreatment of the na ves in a prominent sermon in Santo
Domingo.

As for the famous 1550–51 Valladolid debate (Junta de Valladolid), which pi ed Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda
and Bartolomé de las Casas:

-The two pillars of the juridical framework of the colonial power were discussed: the encomienda system
and the repar miento de indios.

-Sepúlveda claimed that war against the na ves was just due to their cannibalism and human sacri ce,
as well as for their alleged cultural inferiority, as well as to avoid wars amongst them.

-De las Casas asserted that the na ves were human beings equal to the Europeans (thus they could also
be cruel), and their civiliza ons were highly developed (especially talked in his famous text A Short
Account of the Destruc on of the Indies (Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias)). De las Casas
described the terrible consequences of the arrival of the Spanish to the na ve popula ons, and
underlined the importance of “moral conscience”. “Universal Protector of the Indians”. Highly cri cal of
the encomienda system. He was a precursor of the Human Rights.Dispute over the “Just Titles”.
Promoter of the “New Laws” or Laws of the Indies (1542) to put an end to slavery and to the
encomienda system. It is also said that De las Casas did not have any moral issues with African slavery.

• THE SCHOOL OF SALAMANCA AND THE JUST WAR THEORY

The just war theory was established to ensure that war was morally tolerable and jus able. It defended
that war was only jus ed by its need, which was establishing jus ce. According to the school of
Salamanca, war should not be resorted to unless it avoids a greater evil (sugges ng that agreements are
preferable).

The only reasons for war are: self-defense and always with possibili es of success (otherwise would be a
bloodshed), a preven ve war against tyrants about to a ack, and puni ve war against a guilty enemy.

There are some addi onal “rules” for a jus able war according to the school of Salamanca: Mandatory
arbitra on before any declara on of war, propor onality between both sides (otherwise it would be
unjust), rulers declare war but if the popula ons oppose it is no longer legi mate and thus rulers can be
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 deposed, expansionist wars, pillage, conversion of in dels or pagans, or seeking glory are all unjust –
neither just war allows transgressing property rights of the na ve people.

This implied that there was a code of conduct, not everything was jus ed.

The discovery of the Europeans of America led to a reconsidera on of the reconstruct the Ius naturalis
and the Ius Gen um.

• Towards a European law of Na ons

-School of Salamanca: 1) Francisco de Vitoria (c. 1483–1546). 2) Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca–

liberty, equality; poli cal authority derived from the consent of the governed (social contract); towards
mare liberum. 3) Francisco Suárez – concept of interna onal community.

-Alberico Gen li (1552–1608) Italian, Protestant, and professor of civil law at Oxford, also a lawyer. Is
considered one of the fathers of interna onal law (with Vitoria and Gro us). De Iure Belli (1589):
applica on of concepts of domes c civil law to interna onal cases.

-Hugo Gro us (1583–1645): he was one of the founders of interna onal law, and one of the greatest
thinkers of his age. He wrote some books referring to Ius Gen um, just war, natural law, etc. He was a
Dutch jurist and also worked as a lawyer, represen ng big monarchs and companies such as Dutch India
Company or “VOC”. He has a long produc on of juridical thought. He was a Calvinist of Humanist
heritage, but also very cri cal with some of the main ideas of Calvinism, especially regarding
Predes na on (which says that some people are predes ned and e ectually called in due me
(regenerated/born again) to faith by God, all others are reprobated), considering it an o ense.

Rather, he defended order based on peace that should come from natural reason, called irenicism. As a
humanist, he had a deep understanding of both the scriptures and the classics. He didn’t stay in his
mother land, the United Provinces, because he had some problems with the government, being
imprisoned for life sentence in 1619, but he escaped to France and worked for Louis XIII, as well as a
diploma c representa ve of Sweden to France. Some me later, he was allowed to come back to the
United Provinces.

• Main features of Gro us’ thinking:

His thinking became the rst systema c re ec on over the Ius Gen um and social contract. It’s
important to bear in mind that he was an inheritant of the School of Salamanca, but he went further the
scholas c tradi on. Moreover, he transi oned from scholas cism to Ius naturalism, then laiciza on. He
therefore defended reason as the guiding principle of his theory, even over theological postulates,
becoming the creator himself of the ra onalist school in natural law. Also, we can appreciate strong
in uences from the School of Salamanca, for sure; authors like Vitoria, Vázquez de Menchaca or Suárez
are very present in his thinking.
Following reason, man is social by nature, thus norms for communal living are needed. For them to be
formed, states are legi mate to acquire territory, while recognizing the sea as an endless free good. He
contributed to the juridical de ni on of war and its problems. He considered natural law as what right
reason shows, as conforming to the social nature of man, an ensemble of absolute principles (the
existence of natural law does not depend on God) and also as an a priori knowledge that is acquired
through reasoning, while the a posteriori knowledge would be through common opinion of civilized
peoples. He introduced, that reason is one of the driving forces of natural law.
As for the Ius Gen um, he argued that it is based on natural law, concretely between natural (we don’t
decide it, we don’t create it) and posi ve law (wri en and created). He understood Ius Gen um as a
body of law maintained between states and conceptually dis nct from the civil law of each state – and
grounded in “the law of nature and na ons”. Also, he considered that, as a posi ve law, the Ius Gen um
is the result of human will, and therefore an explicit (treaty) or tacit (custom) agreement between
individuals – pacta sunt servanda.
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 De iure belli ac pacis (On the Law of War and Peace, Paris, 1625): This oeuvre gives a juridical analysis
of war (something that was an obsession for the jurists and the rulers at the me in Europe), and
contains fundamental work of interna onal law, pu ng forward a system in order to provide
governments with means of nego a on within a juridical framework. Inspired by Francisco de Vitoria
(but with a formalist turn saying that legality towards certain formali es has to be accepted by both
par es), it is based on the humaniza on of the law of war, defending law being preserved during
con icts. It argues that war among civilized na ons is made so as to a ain peace, thus it needs to avoid
perpetual resentment hindering future poli cal coexistence among peoples, meaning there has to be an
equality of belligerents and some modera on, justus hos s (“just enemy”). For that modera on to
happen, third par es should arbitrate in order to give neutrality – medii in bello.

Last but not least, it also gives diploma c recogni on to embassies, working as a principle of
extraterritoriality and diploma c immunity – this is explained through the concept of Ius lega onis.
Mare liberum (The Freedom of the Seas, 1609): following the concept of Vázquez de Menchaca, it
re ects the Santa Catarina incident in the Straits of Malacca (1603), as well as it disputes over the
concepts of mare liberum and more clausum.

-Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–94): Inheritor of Hobbes and Gro us. His main works were: Elementa
iurispruden æ universales (1660) and De iure naturæ et gen um (1672).

He stated that natural law should only concern to nThe present and this life and thus it con nes to
regula ng external acts only. Contrary to Hobbes he argue that the state of nature is not one of war but
of peace (however it is fragile and insecure, and some mes war is necessary). He introduced some ideas
that would appear in the Enlightenment one century before. As for the public law, he suggested that
states were moral persone, and that the will of the state is the sum of teh individuals that cons tute it.
How does it a ect this to interna onal rela ons? Again law of na ons/ ius gen um as part of the natural
law, which develop rela ons within powers. And again in such rela ons, rather that theological
principle, is reason the main guiding principle in interna onal order. Paci c life between men as a
fundamental law of reason.

The tradi on of iusnaturalism pointed reason as the principal element in the cons tu on of the
European order a er Westphalia. This implied that princes and States behaved for the sake of their own
as well as common interest (rather than moral or theological issues. Accep ng the same laws, consensus
on a set of norms deducted from natural law, and bringing together a community is what led to
legi macy. In this sense, the no on of contract as the minimum element over which law should be built
gained new vigour. Such way of nding a minimum guarantee, (a er the trea es of Westphalia) started
to be perceived as inviolability. Thus there was a need to compile them in an orderly fashion, for
reference in diploma c nego a ons.

How was this re ected? In trea es that already existed.

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 4. The War of Spanish Succession and the Treaty of Utrecht
The mid-17th century trea es le behind tradi on and underlined di erences de ned by force and
military success. New manners started to take shape in the prac ce of diplomacy where realism
prevailed. The feeling of disorder and of lack of norms led to a new language of interest, devoid of
ethics. Thus a consensus towards a new system built on some guarantees.

In terms of territoriality they struggled to get rid of external threats. In addi on to this, a new no on of
balance began to take shape, called “concert”, and all of this towards sovereignty. Territoriality was
shaping at the me. Economy and mercan lism also helped shaping interna onal rela ons. As there was
this idea of interna onal community, this a ected to the territories, and the ones who owned them.

Towards the building of the modern state, they established a territorial, centralized state (equal to the
administra on), armies and nance. All of this contributed to the maintenance of domes c peace, but
we must not forget that commercial compe on and colonial trade were essen al here.

There was another idea or way of thinking that stated that the ruler should rule no ma er what
(absolu st principle). By this new principle, rulers were not expected to respect inheritance and they
could be the owners of the territories, therefore, they could split them up. Firstly, they needed to
respect how people and territoriali es where inherited and the preexis ng laws.

Regarding to territorial spaces and borders, we have the crea on of a new territorial state and a more
de ned no on of border. As we said before, the term “Concert” was introduced, and it can be de ned as
a set of poli cal beliefs that emerged in the nineteenth century at the Congress of Vienna but con nue
to be in uen al to interna onal rela ons even in the present day. Also we have the sense of
interna onal community a ec ng the poli cal percep on of space and border. It was also established
the customary integrity of pre-modern principali es and respect to the consent of the governed give
way to the rulers’ right of property.

They did all of this because borders needed to be more clear and de ned, because before they were all
blurry. They wanted them to be perceived as objec ve and natural borders.

• Na onal interest and mercan lism.

The war meant a struggle for power and survival and the Foreign policy was a part of such struggle. Here
we observe the transi on from “reason of state” to na onal interest. Therefore, power and survival
could be assured by the safeguard of interest and religion displaced by interest too. Now there is a more
overall vision that includes the countries, its territories, produc ve forces, etc. Wealth was seen as a
source of power, and it in uenced the domes c as well as foreign policy. In this context economics were
integrated in the diploma c language.

Mercan lism: If wealth was something xed, the government should incorporate economic policies
based on hoarding in order to ensure its country’s wealth and debilitate the enemies. So this is why the
concepts of Balance of trade and overbalancing started to be crucial by the late 17th century. Especially
England and the Dutch Republic started to use trade as a search for means of power. To ensure that your
balance is prevailing over other’s balances, the ruler should not only apply market forces but poli cal
power, armies and diplomacy. In such concep on there was not a thing as common progress, rather big
monopolies, customs taxes (imposed just as a mean of war to contain your enemy), cash accumula on,
etc.

TOWARDS THE WAR OF SPANISH SUCCESSION AND A NEW EUROPEAN ORDER IN THE LATE 17TH
CENTURY

This moment prepared us for the War of the Spanish Succession that started in the year 1700 and
nished in 1714. It de ned the European map of the 18th century. But this con ict was a result of some
processes that were going on since the Peace of Westphalia.
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 This war was caused by the French expansion (especially during the rule of Louis XIV). In the second half
of the 18th century European powers went against France at the me, and to do so they created The
Triple Alliance, a military alliance (agreement to ght together) between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Italy, that promised to help each other if another country a acked them.

Also one of the main aspects of French expansion was based on what to do with Charles II (that had one
of the worst reputa ons as king). The thing is that the health and incapability of the king was perceived
as a metaphor of the Spanish crisis. As he had no heirs most of the European governments were
expectant to see what was going to happen a er his death. This deeply a ected Europe’s balance of
power.

France was very interested in taking the Spanish throne and all its possessions, and this was considered
as a threat by the Spaniards, therefore, this led to the war of Spanish Succession, that started as a very
local war (civil war among those who were with the House of Augsburg and the other with the French),
even though it ended to be a total war. The accession to the Spanish throne of Philip V, grandson of King
Louis XIV of France, antagonized England and Holland, which were in growing compe on with
France.The war was concluded by the trea es of Utrecht (1713) and Rasta (1714). As a result, Philip V
remained King of Spain but was removed from the French line of succession, thereby aver ng a union of
France and Spain. The Austrians gained most of the Spanish territories in Italy and the Netherlands.

Also during this period we have to highlight the occurrence of the Glorious Revolu on in England (1688)
and the rise of Britain as an arbiter in the 18th century.

• French expansion and hegemony:

Prior to Louis XIV, France was not expansionist, rather it was stuck to a police of conten on and security
built on the no on of balance.However with Louis XIII (with Richelieu and Mazarin) started to receive a
foreign pressure with the Habsburg encirclement (surrounded by two sides, Spanish and Holy Roman
Empire), French Wars of religion (1562-98), Franco-Spanish war (1635-59) and The Fronde (1648-53),
this added to the domes c turmoil. Both religious wars and the other con icts were solved by the me
Louis was an adult. By the 1660s all this domes c problems ended, so it was then when Louis engaged
on an expansionist project to extend and consolidate the French supremacy campaign. He was
considered as Rex Chris anissimus (as the expansion of the French military glory added to propaganda).

This ght for supremacy and expansion was contested and overlapped with the issue of what to do with
the Spanish crown, as France wanted to in uence over the succession to the Spanish throne (it became a
main point in interna onal poli cs.) All Europeans powers were watching out, so it became one of the
main interna onal poli cs’ topics (the War of Spanish Succession (1701-14)).

The majority of the European powers were against France, which led to the forma on of several
alliances like:
-The Tripe Alliance (Dutch Republic, England and Sweden in 1667), which tried to contain the War of
Devolu on, when France wanted to control the Spanish Netherlands and the French-Comté. The
explanatory cause was the inheritance and dowry of Maria Theresa de Austria (Louis XIV’s wife). This can
be explained because as a result of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, Maria Theresa de Austria married Louis
XIV, therefore the two empires were united (inheritance and dowry), but when the Spanish kings didn’t
pay the dowry, the French declared war to Spain. The city of Lille was a Spanish territory but in this
ba le it became French. So the Triple Alliance intervened to se le peace between them in Aachen
(1668), and made the French to return most of the Spanish territories they acquired.

-As for the Grand Alliance (Dutch Republic, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Brandenburg, Denmark-Norway,
some German princes in 1673, and later England in 1674). A new war resulted from the French
economic, diploma c and military pressure against the others, especially to the Dutch. This one ended
with the Trea es of Nijmegen (1678), where the Dutch maintained its integrity, and the French-Comté
and part of the Spanish Netherlands were given to France.
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 -League of Augsburg (Holy Roman Empire, German princes, Dutch Republic, England and Spain in 1688).
Louis XIV was not sa s ed, so he engaged in a juridical war, in which the French lawyers tried to take
back territories by the force of law that according to him, were part of the French, which of course, their
enemies (most of Europe) were not keen on. This War of the League of Augsburg or the Nine Years’ War
(1688-97) ended by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), in which Louis XIV renounced to these reunions
(except Strasbourg) and accepted the territorial integrity of the Spanish Netherlands.

As Charles II of Spain was close to death, France stopped hos li es.

• The glorious revolu on in England (1688)

The interna onal poli cs changed, and England became one of the main characters and one of the
protagonists in the Peace of Utrecht. To achieve this, some changes happened. In the early 17th century,
a er Elizabeth I died, with no heirs, her successors were the House of Stuart (Sco sh, and related to
catholic and absolu sts French), which led to the union of the crowns of England and Scotland. However
the Bri sh society (with Anglicans and puritans trends) was not happy with the ecclesias cal policies of
this house. Which resulted on a con nuous English Civil War (1642-51) based on poli cal and religious
elements and that led to execu on of Charles I. This was followed by the Commonwealth of England
(1649-60), being the main protagonist of this Oliver Cromwell. In this, the Protectorate of Oliver
Cromwell (1653-59) that began in 1653 had a very important place, when the dissolu on of the Rump
Parliament and then Barebone's Parliament allowed Oliver to be appointed Lord Protector of the
Commonwealth under the terms of the Instrument of the Government.

Some me a er this, there was a Restora on of the monarchy in England in 1660. It marked the return
of Charles II as king (1660–85) following the period of Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth. The bishops
were restored to Parliament, which established a strict Anglican orthodoxy. This led to the Glorious
revolu on (1688) when some parliamentarians asked to William of Orange (married to Mary II of Stuart,
princess of England) to invade England and depose the king, so he could become himself king. They
underwent a huge poli cal reform; in which England truly became a parliamentarian monarchy ( rst one
in Europe).

This new regime, ruled by William III and Mary II, managed to ght things up with the Bill of Rights
(1689) were the rela on of the Parliament and the King was established (the king couldn’t decide
anything without the supervision of the parliament). Also a Tolera on Act (religious tolera on) was
published, trying to put away the religious issues (other religions aside the Anglican religion were
tolerated, but always respec ng the English church). However the most important was the Law of
Se lement (1701) which banned any catholic king to rule England, no catholic would ever be the king of
England (as the king of England is also the head to the Church of England). On the other hand, Mary II
had a half-brother which was catholic and married to a French princess, so the French tried to impose
Catholicism, pu ng him as successor of the throne of England and achieve a French in uence there
(thus the Law of Se lement was published).

In 1707, the Acts of Union were published where England and Scotland became a uni ed kingdom
conforming Great Britain.

• Towards the war of the Spanish succession:

There were several diploma c se lements over the future of the Spanish throne and possessions, as this
a ected the European Balance of Power. Already in 1668 there was a se lement between Louis XIV and
Leopold I that led to the division of Spanish possessions in Europe, being Navarre, Italy and the
Philippines given to France and Navarre and American Possessions to Austria. Also in 1698, Treaty of
Hague or First Par on Treaty between France, England, and the Dutch Republic, put Joseph Ferdinand
of Bavaria as heir of the Spanish throne. In this treaty, Spain, the Indies, and the Southern Netherlands
were given to Joseph Ferdinand; and Italy and Gipuzkoa to France and Milan to Austria. Finally in 1700 it
was published the Treaty of London or the Second Par on between France, England, and the Dutch
Republic. The Archduke Charles (son of Leopold I) would inherit the Spanish throne. Spain, the Indies
and Southern Netherlands were conceded to Charles; and Italy, Gipuzkoa and Milan were given to
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 France. However, Charles II (and Spain) rejected the terms of the treaty. There was a similar par on of
the Spanish territories between France and the Habsburgs (but they were problema c). Charles II
amended his will several mes, rst in favor of the Archduke Charles, and then of Philip of Anjou,
grandson of Louis XIV, as Spain wanted to maintain the en rety of its possessions. When Charles II died
in 1700, his will stated Philip of Anjou as the heir (grandson of Louis XIV). As we said before, Spain
wanted to maintain all of his possessions, but Austria refused to recognize Philip as King of Spain, and
due to this Europeans forces helped him. Austria, England, Dutch provinces defended the Archduke
Charles’ candidacy to the Spanish throne. Therefore, Austria joined the triple alliance crea ng the
Quadruple Alliance By the Treaty of The Hague (1701), the allies forced Philip to renounce his claims in
Italy; Victor Amadeus II of Savoy gave up Sicily to Austria in exchange for Sardinia.

The War of Spanish Succession (1701–14)

The early stages of the war involved mainly Savoy, Spanish Netherlands and Italy. It all began
a er the death in 1700 of Charles II of Spain, as he had no sons, in his will Charles gave the
crown to Philip, Duke of Anjou, and grandson of King Louis XIV of France.
This had some consequences for Spain as the Bri sh took Gibraltar in 1704. Then, a division
between the Austracistas and Felipistas happened, as the Austrians opposed to admit Philip as a
new king, and supported the archduke Charles of Austria, which resulted in a civil war. In 1705
occurred the famous Catalan Revolt due to the French invasions, in which the Habsburgs alleged
compliance with Catalan ins tu ons. As the result of this revolt, Catalonia broke es with Philip
V and proclaimed Charles III king.
As a consequence, Philip V ied from Madrid to Burgos (1706), but in the countero ensive
retook Cas le, leaving the Austrian forces cornered in Aragon. Finally, the Ba les of Brihuega
and Villaviciosa (1710) con rmed the Bourbon control of Spain. However, pro-Habsburg
resistance ended with the Siege of Barcelona (1713-14) and capture of Mallorca in 1715, which
in uenced in a way the publica on of Nueva Planta Decrees (1706-16).
During these years there was also a decomposi on of the European map: the Tories gained the
1710 elec on in Britain, which meant their re rement from the war in 1711. And the death of
the Emperor Joseph I led to Archduke Charles took up the Imperial throne as Charles VI.

• Trea es of Utrecht (1713) and Rasta (1714)

These trea es were based on ‘Balance of Power’ and ‘Liberty and safety of Europe’. In these, Philip V
was ra ed as king of Spain, but the union of the crowns of Spain and France (as they were ruled under
the same monarch) was prohibited. Territorial changes happened too of course. They also caused the
dismemberment of the Spanish monarchy, with the loss of all its European possessions. S ll, Philip V
obtained guarantees over his possessions in Spain and the Indies.

However, there were Bu er states (estados tapón) between France and the Habsburgs (Southern
Netherlands, Savoy, Bavaria and Cologne), and Spain had to give commercial privileges to the Bri sh
(Asiento de Negros + navío de permiso). This made Britain to become a prominence and a new arbiter of
Europe, star ng the path to what would be the future Bri sh commercial and imperial hegemony.




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 5. THE 18TH CENTURY: EUROPEAN AND COLONIAL WARS

• 18th-century Europe: from Utrecht to the Peace of Paris (1783)

This was considered as “The Age of Reason” and interna onal rela ons in Europe. There was a principle
that kept each dynasty within their territories, but the principle of balance of power let them intervene
in other power’s territories.

It is why we can observe a series of wars due to the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), the War of
the Polish Succession (1733–38) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48).

In the 19th century we could see a shi ing in the European hegemony from Spanish to France, with
Britain as arbiter. We would see that apart from France, Great Britain and Austria, other powers started
to be more important like Russia, as well as Prussia (ancestor of the modern Germany).

The principle of balance of power was exible as rulers could adapt things to their own interests that
caused a shi ing in alliances and rivalries. Due to this, colonial compe on increased, leading to the War
of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–48) and the Seven Years’ War (1756–63). The 7 years’ war made that Britain
prevailed over France, deple ng resources, so due to this they needed to raise taxes. The French king
raised taxes in metropolitan areas meanwhile, the Bri sh increased taxes in the colonies. Therefore,
some people were not okay with this, leading to the American Revolu onary War and the peace of Paris.

THE “AGE OF REASON” AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN EUROPE

Europe was seen as a norma ve space and balance of power (Va el, Voltaire, Hume…). “Europe forms a
poli cal system, an integral body, closely connected by the rela ons and di erent interests of the na on
inhabit this part of the world.” (Emer de Va el, Le droit des gens, 1758)

In this period, a new no on of neutrality was developed in order to limit the impact of wars on the
interna onal system. There was also a dilemma between “Ra onality” vs. tradi on and Hierarchy vs.
balance of power. So far borders had been a blank space where jurisdic ons overlapped. This led to the
control of the state, out of scal need (we tend to see poli cal units like na onali es or iden es but
there was not such a thing at that me). The territory became the main standard of poli cal
organiza on. This led to the crea on of the state, the consolida on of borders and scality.

According to this economic model the state should control the economy, so they needed to control de
borders so the products could be sold outside the country (monopolies, protec onism, customs, etc.).
This territory clearly de ned, also needed to control its wealth and popula on, the de ni on of the
administra ve circumstances, etc. So the links between the ruler and the ruled were built upon not on
tradi on but administra on and scality. Frederick II of Brandenburg-Prussia is going to become the new
leading actor in the 18th century of Prussia (modern Germany is the descendant of Germany), with the
house of Hohenzollern who ruled Brandenburg.

There was also a diploma c revolu on that led to the establishment of diplomacy as a profession. In the
18th century it started to be part of an ins tu on and be considered as ra onal. Rather than be based in
the law of na ons, led to a percep on of the Interna onal rela on as a natural science.

Poli cal reasons were truly developed in the 18th century; especially in the overseas empires such things
began to be important part of IIRR (at least European).

• Mercan lism, produc on, and overseas trade

Mercan lism conceived wealth as something xed, that could not grow or decrease. Some economists
said that the state (not totally developed un l the late 19th century) should control wealth.

As wealth was xed, economic policies were focused on ensuring wealth, hoarding and debilita ng the
enemies; not only by poli cal means but also through the armies and diplomacy. By the means of
controlling foreign trade, new terms such as balance of trade and overbalancing (they should try to
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 export as much merchandise as they could in order to allow wealth to get into the country. This wealth
may come either from European countries or from the colonies) were star ng to be popular.

There was no common progress, control by monopolies, customs and so on. This doctrine had been
applied since the Middle Ages. Asia at that me produced the most sophis cated products in the
markets, so the Europeans began to be more interested in it. Some Europeans powers (Spain, Portugal)
arrived to America by trying to reach Asia through the Atlan c to obtain Asian spices and manufactures.

Capitalism was based on trade and nance but also on the produc on of cash crops (sugar, co ee,
cocoa, tobacco...) and precious metals produced for the market. Co ee, cocoa and tobacco could not be
grown in Europe; therefore the Europeans established planta ons abroad, meaning the increase of
forced labor (slavery). This served as a subsidiarity to the European economy.

• The State control of the economy

It was di cult but the State tried to monopolize the colonial trade in Seville, Spain, in which was
established the tobacco manufactory.

Colber sm appeared in Spain with the Bourbons, but it was most in uen al in France. It was an
economic and poli cal doctrine of the 17th century created by Jean-Bap ste Colbert. In both countries, it
was perhaps more fully developed by the control of foreign trade and its protec on. Domes c resources
were used to increase wealth and make the state more powerful. It was the economic driving force of
the absolu sts’ states and it gave state credits to entrepreneurs. The manufactures for exports were
mostly luxury ar cles. According to Colbert, there were some requirements for Colber sm: great
territory and popula on, centraliza on of the government (=e cient administra on), powerful armies
and navy, colonial empires.

The Bourbons tried to develop big factories to set an example for other entrepreneurs to create
products for the Spanish consump on and to export. Spanish exports were not that powerful in
comparison to France.

• From Utrecht to the War of Jenkins’ Ear

Philip V (contender of the Spanish succession) never fully accepted the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht.
Thus, Spain tried to retake Italian (Sicily and Sardinia but it failed) possessions, and to in uence over the
French throne (they were family but it was considered that the crowns should be separated). This led to
the Pacte de Famille between Spain and France, that was a part of the se lement of the War of the
Spanish Succession that brought the House of Bourbon of France to the throne of Spain, and in which
Spain and France made a series of agreements that did not unite the two thrones, but did lead to
coopera on on a de ned basis (1733, 1743, 1761).

During this me, there were 3 wars of succession:

1. War of the Polish Succession (1733–38), and when we say Polish, we refer to the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth.
2. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was one of the main powers in Europe during the early
modern period and was a composite monarchy, mostly, made of Poland and the Great Duchy of
Lithuania. Among the many popula on and religion, being the catholic the most important, the
composite monarchy ruled over those territories. Apart from Poles and Lithuanians, Ruthenians
(habitants of Russia in Byelorussia and Ukraine) were also a very important part of its popula on. This
was not a uni ed country. The Western regions of the Eastern lands were more related to Poland and to
Europe. There was an issue regarding to interna onal poli cs in order to decide of who should rule in
the polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There were some contestants for this:
3. Stanislaus I Leszczyński (supported by France by family es) vs. Augustus III of Saxony (supported by
Austria that was the enemy of France and Russia). We see something that we already saw in the Spanish
Succession War, other European powers trying to intervene in the future and decisions of the Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth.
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 Spain was involved because it wanted to take advantage of the situa on and take its territories in Italy
back. This is why, thanks to the First Pacte de Famille, Philip V took advantage and retook Naples (before
Sardinia) and Sicily and succeeded. However in the end of this war with the Treaty of Vienna (1738),
Stanislaus renounced to the throne of Poland and it con rmed the Spanish conquest over Naples and
Sicily, with the condi on that the kingdom would remain separate (Spain, Naples and Sicily). Charles the
3rd was the king of the 2 Sicilies but he had to renounce to it to be the king of Spain, and that is the
origin of the 2 Sicilies.

The war of Jenkins’ Ear:

In 1731, Spanish sailors boarded the Bri sh brig Rebecca o the coast of Cuba and sliced o the le
ear of its captain, Robert Jenkins. This was used as a pretext by the Bri sh to declare war on Spain in
1739. The War of Jenkins’ Ear or Guerra Del Asiento (1739–48) was the rst important colonial war of
the 18th century. It all started with an Anglo-Spanish rivalry, as the Bri sh put pressure to open the
Spanish colonial trade.

This war took place in the West Indies, the Caribbean and New Granada (Cartagena de Indias or
Colombia nowadays). This was a naval war in which Blas de Lezo was the main commander. Since 1742
it merged with the War of the Austrian Succession.

• From the War of the Austrian Succession to the Seven Years’ War

War of the Austrian Succession (1740– 48)

There was a dispute over Maria Theresa’s succession, Empress of Austria (r. 1745–65). Not just because
women were not allowed to rule but rather several European powers were trying to impose their
dominion. All the European powers wanted to impose their own successor to the throne: Austria
(supported by Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia) vs. Bavaria, Saxony, France, Spain, Sardinia,
and Prussia. Charles VII (prior to Maria Theresa, he was emperor) (Charles Wi elsbach, Prince Elector of
Bavaria, r. 1742–45), married to Maria Amalia of Habsburg. Behind this dispute over the succession there
were clusters of power over the in uence of Austria.

In this context Prussia annexed Silesia (1740). However, Austria was not happy about this. France would
also declare war to Austria as it wanted to impose its hegemony on the territory (1743). In the Peace of
Aachen (1748) a se lement was reached but none of the members of it were happy and sa s ed about
it. A consequence of this was the rise of Prussia and the recomposi on of the European map and the
systems of balance of power. However, the rise of Prussia and recomposi on of the European map led to
a Prussia-Austria enmity.

The Bri sh kings were also Hanoverian Prince-Electors (Hanover was not a big power in Europe but their
princes elector that were protestors became governors), and as they feared a French invasion of
Hanover, Britain allied with Russia and France and Prussia renewed their alliance (it will change again
later). As Britain could prevent Russia and Austria from taking Silesia, while Prussia could prevent France
from intervening in Hanover, as a result, Prussia and Britain allied in the Treaty of Westminster (1756)
which marked the beginning of the Seven Year’s war.

France and Austria had no other choice but to ally, thus pu ng an end to one of Europe’s oldest
rivalries. This set the stage for the seven years’ war. This, however, deepened Austro-Prussian and mostly
Anglo-French tensions, thus leading to the Seven Years’ War. This was a shi ing movement of rivalries
and alliances.

The Seven Years’ War (1756–63):

It was the most destruc ve and extensive war in the 18th century that changed the rules of the game
also in the European colonies. It was here when the colonial stage became important. As for the
European stage, it seemed that in Europe the Bri sh and Prussian were defeated; Hanover was occupied
by the Bri sh while Russia invaded eastern Prussia. Whereas Prussia and the Bri sh were defeated, in
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 the colonies the Bri sh were the most powerful, unlike Prussia. Only the French, the Bri sh and the
Spaniards fought in the colonies.

During the wars in the colonies, in which the Bri sh demonstrated to have an obvious naval supremacy,
they took the French possessions in India, Canada, Senegal and the An lles. Spanish belated support to
France with the Third Pacte de Famille, 1761, had the result of the Bri sh taking Florida, Spanish
An lles, Manila, Philippines (1762).

The Seven Year’s War ended when Russia re red from Western Europe a er the ascension to the throne
of Peter III, thus forcing se lements between Austria and Prussia with the Treaty of Hubertusburg
(1763), and between France and Spain, and Britain and Portugal with the Treaty of Paris (1763).

In addi on, the Bri sh ra ed their hegemony while the French lost almost all its colonial empire with
the excep on of some territories in the Caribbean and Saint Doming. The Bri sh had the biggest
victories in this war but had heavy material loss. Both countries’ treasuries were depleted, so they
raised taxes. Britain raised taxes in the colonies and overseas, while France did the same in the
metropolitan area. All of this triggered a huge reform process in the European Empire that impacted all
the European powers, but especially Spain. The French power had hegemony in north America,
territories that will be ceded to Britain in the Treaty of Paris (New France (Canada), Ohio valley, Le
bank of the Mississippi, French An lles (Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,
Tobago…), Some possessions in India and Senegal)

As a consequence, Spanish ceded Florida (to Britain), some territories east and southeast of the
Mississippi (to Britain), Sacramento (to Portugal) Spain obtained French Louisiana (not the current state
of Louisiana) as compensa on.

• From the Triple Alliance to the American Revolu onary War

Meanwhile in central Europe main changes were about to happen. In Eastern Europe the Russian
advanced in O oman territory (since 1768) in mes of Catherine II the Great. This forced an Austro-
Prussian alliance (thus breaking former rivalry); in which Russia joined to avoid con ict and expand (they
had a common enemy and a common goal, Poland and Lithuania). Therefore, they made the Triple
Alliance (1772). They decided that they should take por ons of the country, so they made the Par ons
of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793, and 1795), but eventually it wrenched un l the
country disappeared.

American Revolu onary War/the Rebellion of the Thirteen Colonies (1776)

In this war, The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the Bri sh
gaining independence from the Bri sh Crown and establishing the cons tu on that created the United
States of America, the rst modern cons tu onal liberal democracy. French supported the US since
1778, and received Spanish and Dutch help.

This war ended with the Peace of Paris (1783) that was a blow to the Bri sh and caused the end of the
“ rst” Bri sh Empire. It supposed the ra ca on of the independence of the United States. As a
consequence, Minorca and Florida returned to Spain and Tobago and Senegal to France. However, both
par es were exhausted, and the deple on of the French treasury worsened.
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 7. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
This should be understood on an interna onal framework, especially the French Revolu on that was a
result of the foreign power’s threat. The State needed to be powerful and needed to de ne their
resources to compete with each other.

18th century states and interna onal rela ons:

Apart from the Fiscal and strategic concerns there was also the issue of balance of power, that was put in
ques on. The Age of Revolu ons had consequences in interna onal rela ons; especially with the issue
of Self-determina on (each people had to the right to decide how to be governed) and sovereignty but
also the French expansion and wars also a ected the interna onal rela ons at the me. However there
were also several revolu ons going on that we might categorize as the Age of Revolu ons!The Age of
Revolu ons as a category.

This period had consequences in Europe and in interna onal rela ons, as these events were
interconnected. The French Revolu on was very much in uenced by the American Revolu on; most of
the representa ves present in the American Revolu on were also present in the French. The French,
American, Hai an revolu ons (it was highly in uen al in the La n American space, especially to the
people of color); and all of them in uenced the independence of La n America. There were many
interconnec ons between them.

Geographical boundaries? Tradi onal narra ves in the Age of Revolu ons focus in the place of origin
and then they spread, but some historians had focused on how it in uenced in other places rather than
Europe and the Western World. The Age of Revolu ons changed the rela ons between Europe and its
overseas empire, as well as other places in the world.

Europe vs. extra-European world

There were changes in how empires were ruled. In the American Revolu on there was a change in how
the American territories were dealt with. There was a process of (Bri sh Empire) New Imperialism over
the American popula ons and other peoples and was based on the sake of the people. Even though
India was ruled by the East India Company, all of the Indian issues were overseen by the parliament on
how the Indian company behaved in Indian soil. All this based on how they could obtain economic
bene ts from the colonies.

There are some recent debates in the direc on of the processes. Rather than seen a focus spreading
outwards, we need to see it as a network of processes, as bidirec onal processes metropolises-colonies.

Who was part of the new “na on”? !How all these revolu ons and specially the American and the
French and also the other liberal revolu ons in the 18th century in Europe, iden fy a na on formed by
people and the source of the power, but there is a paradox as the European na on, that ruled huge
popula ons and overseas empires, were outnumbered by the colonists (slaves were not in the na ons,
and there were discussions saying if the mes zos were part of the na on). Only the WASPs and white
ascendency could be part of the new na on in the US. There was a speci c set of laws to rule this people
excluding them from being part of the na on.

• “Na onal” vs. “imperial” iden es

The na on of the 19th century was the base of legi macy and sovereignty, but in this extraterritorial
Europe, in the Spanish speaking world. There was a debate whether they should be considered as
na onal or imperial iden es. We see that all these concepts had triggered changes in interna onal
rela ons ll today.
In the 7 year’s war not only North America was divided, but also we saw that the English obtained the
American colonies (13 colonies) and the ones in the north, as well as it expanded in the le bank of the
Mississippi river, while the right was ceded to Spain. This war ended with the victory of the Bri sh that
became one of the most important powers at the me while the French lost almost all of their
territories. The a ermath of the Seven Years’ War was based on the urge to reform in the colonies and
to more taxes at home. They implemented a new administra on, new defenses and new taxes to pay.
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 All of these empires had a high degree of autonomy. Through this reformed period, all the European
powers thought that they needed to govern their colonies closely, underlining what’s already exis ng,
that was that all the interests of the colonies should be subsumed to the colonial economy, increasing
metropolitan control. The modern 13 colonies especially New England had already developed a
manufactured system increasing subsidiarity of the colonial economy; metropolitan manufactures vs.
colonial cash crops. France, in order to revive the economy, established more taxes at home, and frail
dependence on Saint Domingue. In Portugal occurred the “Pombaline reform”, in which New Lisbon was
built from the resources coming from the colonies.
The most important reform of the Bourbons was the Free Trade Regula ons by which the monopoly of
trade of Cadiz was dissolved and all the Spanish ports were allowed to trade with other American ports.
However, it was s ll a mercan lists system. Many La n American colonies were not happy with that
because they did not only want to trade with the Spaniards but also with the Bri sh and French.

• As for the American Revolu on, it came from the independence of the 13 colonies.
Those 13 colonies un l the mid-19th century were ruled in a “relaxed way”, with a high degree of
authority. Compared to others they had a high degree of representa on and were ruled by the
Salutary Neglect, in which the king did not paid much a en on to what was going on the other side
of the Atlan c. In the Salutary Neglect, trade regula ons for the colonies were laxly enforced and
imperial supervision of internal colonial a airs was loose as long as the colonies remained loyal to
the Bri sh government. The breakup of the colonies with the metropolis was out of scal and
commercial concern.
During the Seven Years’ War or “French and Indian War” (in the thirteen colonies), the colonies
were obliged to pay the bills for the wars (stamp act and quartering act, the law by which the
colonies needed to pay for the armies in 1765). This raised an issue as these new taxes broke up
what was stated in the salutary neglect. “No taxa on without representa on”, they would not pay
taxes unless they were represented in the English parliament. This led to the Boston massacre
(1770): the moment in which some Bri sh soldiers shot at the colonists killing 5 of them; as well as
the Boston tea party (1773), a poli cal protest in Boston, Massachuse s, in which American
colonists, frustrated and angry at Britain for imposing “taxa on without representa on,” dumped
342 chests of tea, imported by the Bri sh East India Company into the harbor. The colonies
mobilized and there were some congresses, so that the representa ves of the 13 colonies gathered
in the First Con nental Congress in 1774.
The declara on of independence was not the most expected outcome. They had in mind to put an
end to the abuses and gain representa on for the colonies. The patriot forces were formed in the
colonies against the Bri sh Empire. However, the Bri sh did not listen to the colonies, this leading to
the declara on of independence (Second Con nental Congress in Philadelphia, 4th July 1776).
Following the Locke Doctrine they would break all the rela ons with the Bri sh.

Peace of Paris (1783):

It was an Anglo-American conven on in which the Bri sh accepted the independence of the US and it
ended the American Revolu onary War and overall state of con ict between the two countries. The
US-Canadian borders were xed. The consequences of this were the altera on of the European state
system, the transi on from the ‘ rst’ to the ‘second Bri sh’ empire and the vision of independence as a
way out to commercial problems and end of mercan lism. However, the most important consequence of
all is the US cons tu on that ensured the principle of self-determina on (the right of the peoples to
decide their des ny) and this was a direct precedent of the French Revolu on. This was against the
dynas c legi macy. They had the right to develop their own poli cal structure.

• The French revolu on and its interna onal consequences:

It was the most crucial event in history and the origin of the modern world. It was a poli cal and social
revolu on that integrated the concept of universalism, based on a belief that, to be treated equal and
be free, ci zens should surrender their personal a lia ons and that no group should be given special
treatment. This liberal revolu on put an end to the Old Regime and of the principle of dynas c
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 legi macy. This led to a radicaliza on of this liberal project since the Na onal Assembly was composed
by radical people and based on a general will and self-determina on of peoples; as well as it would
establish Cons tu ons and the Rights of Man and of the Ci zen.

Also, there would be consequences referred to the annexa ons and conquests: Con nuous revolu on,
also the People’s War, and the crea on of an armed na on, as the “country was in danger” (la Patrie en
danger), being the French popula on constantly prepared to ght for their state (levée en mass). It was a
crucial event in the foreign policies of European states that led to the breakup of the principle of balance
of power.

France’s expansionist military power caused the transi on from the defensive to the o ensive war.
However, Britain was determined to stop the French hegemony.In Spain, Charles IV’s (r. 1788–1808)
established a foreign policy de ned by the Revolu on changing posi ons ( rst it was neutral, then
declared war against France (1793– 95), and then, alliance (Directory and Consulate)).Austria, Prussia,
and Russia developed an absolu st alliance to contain revolu onary France.

As a result of this, there were seven interna onal Coali ons against France based on: Ideological
solidarity, reac on against expansion and Ideology as a new element in interna onal rela ons >
absolu sm vs. liberalism. The causes of the revolu on were nancial, agrarian and ideological.

• Stages of the Revolu on:

1. The Liberal Revolu on and the end of the ancient régime (1789–92)

France, defeated by the Bri sh in the Seven Years’ War, had to pay the taxes as a consequence of its
loose, un l the point in which the na on entered on the verge of bankruptcy, causing a nancial crisis.
This was added to an agrarian crisis, with poor grain harvest, soaring prices, and therefore,
unemployment; increasing the bad situa on of the working class. Poli cally speaking, there was also an
ideological crisis, in which the Enlightenment began to spread among French peoples and to endanger
the gure of the absolu st king, in this moment Louis XVI. In that sense, a middle class up-rose
demanding a legal representa on and supposedly the Third State ones, the Sans-culo es. These
demands of rights would reach the Estates General, which caused the beginning of the Revolu on, that
would be completely manifested with the Storming of the Bas lle (14th July 1789), the Declara on of
the Rights of Man and of the Ci zen (27 August 1789), the aboli on of the nobility and reorganiza on
of the religious rights, and the Cons tu on of 1791, which stated the ambivalent response of the
monarchy.

• Interna onal reac ons during the ini al stages of the Revolu on:

When all this was happening, the reac ons of the rest of the interna onal powers were basically of
surprise and fear: they feared that this could happen in their monarchies, although Revolu onary
France renounced to war as an instrument of foreign policy, as it was stated in its cons tu on and in
prac ce breaking up with Spain and their third Pacte de Famille. At rst, they welcomed the
revolu on as it weakened France (especially Austria, Prussia and Russia which were gh ng for the
East), but they took it for real when they realized its magnitude and the fear of contagion through
the revolu onary propaganda.

There were two events that began to change the e: First the aboli on of feudal and ecclesias cal
privileges with the Avignon Plebiscite (1791), that was an annexa on of the Comtat Venaissin.
People from this Comtat (county) were asked if they wanted to be part of France or not. This
decision was part of self-determina on (new principle of interna onal law) in which sovereign
people decided to change things. More in uen al to the revolu on was the Flight to Varenness
(June 1791), when the royal family tried to y to Eastern France in order to avoid being arrested,
however, they were captured in Varenness. The incident showed Louis XVI’s non-compliance with
the Revolu on and, according to some, his foreign counter-revolu onary connec ons, leading to the
imprisonment of the royal family. That’s why, with the Declara on of Pillnitz (August 1791), Austria
and Prussia reacted with the willingness to intervene in France to restore Louis XVI’s rule, being this
the beginning of interna onal entanglements.
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 2. The Republic and the Na onal Conven on (1792–95)

This period is characterized by the radicaliza on of the Revolu on resul ng from the fear of foreign
a ack. It was the second period inside this revolu on in which the reign of terror was imposed. Soon
a er in the next year, France declared war to Austria; and Prussia declared war to France. This was the
beginning of interna onal problems for France.
The Austro-Prussian invasion led to the proclama on of the Brunswick Manifesto (25 July 1792), (by the
Duke of Brunswick, commanding general of the Austro-Prussian Army) that established that if the king or
the royal family of Brunswick su ered any consequence during these con icts, they would invade
France. One month later, on august 10 1792, the A ack on the Tuileries took place, that led France to
abolish the monarchy and establish a Republic. As a consequence, the Legisla ve Assembly imprisoned
the king and called for a new cons tu onal assembly.
The French defeat at Verdun (2 September 1792) led to the September Massacres. The French victory at
the Ba le of Valmy (20 September 1792), had as a consequence that the recently elected Na onal
Conven on (which replaced the Legisla ve Assembly) proclaimed the French Republic the next day.
Meanwhile the king and the royal family were imprisoned.
To take control of what was perceived as “Natural borders” (this was totally new at the me), a er
Valmy, the French armies invaded Savoy and captured Nice (they perceived that these territories
belonged to France), they also moved into the German Rhineland, and by November 1792 were
occupying the en re Austrian Netherlands.
There was a polariza on among the Jacobins, Girondins and Montagnards a er the king was convicted
of treason. Finally Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793; Marie Antoine e in October. This
alarmed Austria, Prussia, etc., the Interna onal threats had as a result the crea on of the First Coali on
(1792–97) and the Domes c turmoil led to the war in the Vendée. They tried to establish a 1793
Cons tu on in June, but it was never implemented, and the introduc on of The Commi ee of Public
Safety, the rise of Maximilien Robespierre (“the Incorrup ble”), and the “Reign of Terror” (1793–94).
In this situa on, Robespierre planned an egalitarian economy with supplies for the army, as it was
invaded by all its borders, so the conscrip on of the people was needed (levée en masse) to take the war
against foreign opponents. This would mean a new sense of na onal iden ty and the birth of modern
na onalism.
• The “Reign of Terror” and the War of the First Coali on
There were other powers that were allied with Austria and Prussia that were shi ing through the
mes. First Coali on (1792–97): Austria and Prussia (already since the Declara on of Pillnitz) and
other changing allies. Austria and Prussia invaded France against the cons tu onal kingdom,
however, the French succeeded, proclaiming the French Republic (21 September 1792). In this
con ict France repelled the invaders and advanced beyond its borders. In February 1793 the
Na onal Conven on, already at war with Austria and Prussia, declared war on Britain, the Dutch
United Provinces, and Spain.
These would lead to di erent con icts: War of the Conven on (or War of the Pyrenees, or War of
Roussillon, 1793–95) as part of the War of the First Coali on.
In this context, the Treaty of Aranjuez (May 1793) between Britain and Spain was signed in order to
get rid of the French. This led to the French occupa on of the Dutch Republic, and of the Basque
provinces and Catalonia, which ended with the Peace of Basel (1795, already with the Directory), by
which Prussia recognizes French control of the west bank of the Rhine, whereas Spain ceded Santo
Domingo to France (Hispaniola) to get back Gipuzkoa.

3. The Thermidorian Reac on and the Directory (1795–99)

It was a liberal conspiracy to howl down Robespierre, not only deposing him but also execu ng him. It
was a moderate revolu on. Some ideas of the rst revolu on were implemented pu ng an end to the
terror.
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 Thermidorian Conven on: the parliamentary revolt ini ated on 9 Thermidor, year II (July 27, 1794),
resulted in the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the collapse of revolu onary fervor and the Reign of
Terror in France.
The Cons tu on of the Year III (1795) established a liberal republic, indirect democracy and a bicameral
legisla ve system (conformed by the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders) in order to avoid
“New Robespierre” giving the French poli cs. Also, the execu ve power was in the hands of the
Directory.
The White Terror was a period during the French Revolu on in 1795 when a wave of violent a acks
swept across much of France. The vic ms of this violence were people iden ed as being associated
with the Reign of Terror – followers of Robespierre and Marat, and members of local Jacobin clubs.

• Impacts in the interna onal arena:

During the Directory the war with Britain and Austria con nued, and French advanced beyond its
borders (advancements to Vienna and Italian Campaigns (1796–97). Most important of them were the
campaigns before the coup the êtat, in which France was capable of establish satellite states, as well as
other republics in Italy. The ideas of the French revolu on were applied to this territories. Eventually the
Treaty of San Ildefonse breaks with Britain, and Spain allies with France submi ng to the Directory.

In the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), between Austria and France, the Austrian Emperor accepted the
Rhine border and the French annexa on of the Austrian Netherlands, he also recognized the Cisalpine
Republic (in the duchy of Milan). All this meant the collapse of the First Coali on, with Britain only
gh ng against France. During the French campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) Napoleon aimed at
cu ng the Bri sh colonial trade to India, but it failed. This led to the Second Coali on (1798–1801):
Britain, Russia, Austria, O oman Empire, Portugal, and Naples.

• Napoleon’s Domes c Policy

As the Directory was going through several problems, Napoleon made a Coup d’état the 9th of November
1799, becoming “ rst consul”, being accepted by the French because of his charisma and civil order (as
he appeased hos le groups by promising them favours in return for royal service (in the view of
most historians this ended the French Revolu on):
-Civil Code (“Napoleonic Code”), March 1804 (assured equality before the law as well as security of
wealth and private property)
-Bank of France (1800)
-Security of property acquired by the peasants during the Revolu on
-New bureaucracy granted the posi ons to people from the dissolute revolu onaries.
-He created new nobility coming from military ranks. He imposed an amnesty to the old nobility and
created this new nobility
-He reached a Se lement with the Church through the Concordat of 1801, at the expense of civil
liber es.
However, during Napoleon’s period, the authoritarian rule and the curtailment of rights were at its hay
day. He went against his poli cal enemies and imprisoned people that went against him. This domes c
policy allowed Napoleon to expand while the revolu on had already begun. Now we see something
new! idea of making something big (not only to protect France but to create a pan European empire
and he prac cally succeeded on it).

• The beginnings of the Napoleonic expansion in Europe and the Second Coali on

The French campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) against the Bri sh led to the crea on of the Second
Coali on (mostly Britain and Austria). Napoleon tried to nego ate with them but they declined them so
he decided to a ack. In February 1801, the Austrians were defeated in the Treaty of Lunéville and
they agreed to the cession of the le bank of the Rhine to France (originally a provision of the Treaty of
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 Campo Formio) and recognized the French domina on of the Austrian Netherlands, Switzerland, and
Italy.

They would also make a se lement with the Bri sh through the Treaty of Amiens (1802). In this treaty,
Austria accepted the loss of almost its Italian possessions and Great Britain allowed Napoleon to control
the Batavian Republic, the Australian Netherlands, the west bank of the Rhine, and most of the Italian
peninsula.

These trea es would mean the end of the Second Coali on and the triumph of Napoleon, what le him
con dent enough to start expanding France’s in uence, trying to control the German-speaking lands and
Italy, with the con nental Blockade to Great Britain and proclaiming himself emperor in 1804.

• From the Third to the Fourth Coali on (1803–1807)

A new coali on was formed against Napoleon, especially as he tried to contain Britain and to control the
German speaking territories. This was the so called Third Coali on (1803-06) between Britain, Austria,
Russia and Sweden In the Ba le of Trafalgar in October 1805, the French and Spanish lead was
destroyed near Cadiz, by Lord Nelson, thereby hindering any e ort of trying to conquest the Bri sh
islands; thus rendering the French invasion of Britain impossible.

Napoleon was s ll controlling Italy, so Russia and Austria reacted against him as they considered him a
threat to the European balance of power. But Napoleon defeated them at the Ba le of Austerlitz
(December 1805), that meant the collapse of the Third Coali on Prussia was not intervening at the
moment (even though it intervened in the First Coali on). However, it joined the Fourth Coali on
(1803-06) with Britain, Austria, Russia, and Sweden, against France within months of the collapse of the
previous coali on.

A er Napoleon dissolved what was le of the Holy Roman Empire, as he wanted to become the ruler of
Europe; he would try to defeat the contenders that could take this posi on form him. He kept Prussia as
a separate en ty and also the western parts of Germany were integrated inside France. Therefore, the
Confedera on of the Rhine (1806) was established, that was an alliance of various German states
that served as a satellite and major military ally of the French Empire with Napoleon as its
“Protector,” and was created as a bu er state from any future aggression from Austria, Russia, or Prussia
against France.The elements of Napoleon's main force encountered Hohenlohe's troops near Jena, this
alarmed the Prussians but Napoleon defeats them at Jena and Auerstädt (1806).

There was s ll a War with Prussia, now joined with Russia, but Napoleon defeated them again. A er
crushing Austria, Russia, and Prussia in Vienna, he signed the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) with Prussia and
Russia and in which Prussia lost almost half of its territory (Poland revived shortly) and Russia accepted
Napoleon’s reorganiza on of Western Europe and promised to enforce the con nental system.

• The Grand Empire

Napoleon increasingly perceived himself as emperor of Europe and not just France, leading to what he
called the Grand Empire, establishing the French hegemony over much of con nental Europe; having
three parts, which changed through me:

-France (including expanding territories: Austrian Netherlands, Dutch Republic, parts of Germany and
Italy, Illyria, Catalonia…)
-Satellite kingdoms (Spain, Italy, Naples, Confederacy of the Rhine, and Duchy of Warsaw…)
-Independent but allied states (Austria, Prussia, Russia)
With this organiza on, Napoleon tried to enforce the Con nental System a er 1806, which would make
a big impact in all popula ons of Europe: the aboli on of serfdom but with the interests of France
behind, the Napoleon increasingly percep on as a conquering tyrant, and the patrio c upheavals around
Europe and reac ve na onalism.
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 • Against the Grand Empire: towards the Fi h Coali on.

The Fi h Coali on was created as a consequence of what was happening in Spain. There was a
resistance in Spain. This emerged as a consequence of the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) that allowed
the French troops to cross the Iberian Peninsula to invade Portugal, but this nally ended with the
invasion of Spain. Spain was su ering from an economic crisis which was heightened a er it lost its navy
in the Ba le of Trafalgar, so this led to Mu ny of Aranjuez (March 1808), to depose Charles IV in favor of
Ferdinand VII, but Napoleon nally put his brother Joseph instead on the Spanish throne. This, as we
have said before, led to a Spanish resistance, with guerrilla warfare, juntas (local assemblies), and nally
the establishment of the Cádiz Cortes and the 1812 Cons tu on.

Fi h Coali on (1809) – Austria and Britain

The war of the Fi h Coali on (with Austria and Britain) started when Britain, in order to renew their
campaign in Spain, helped the resistance in Portugal and Spain against the French. However, the French
won, signing the Treaty of Schönbrunn in Vienna. On June 1812, Napoleon failed the invasion of Russia,
as the Russian army refused to engage with Napoleon's Grande Armée of more than 500,000 European
troops. However, Napoleon wanted to advance promptly into Moscow. As a consequence, the Ba le of
Borodino (September) happened ending in a draw. It meant the retreat from Moscow (October) and the
French defeat (with 370,000 dead, 200,000 imprisoned).

• The end of Napoleon

A er the defeat of Napoleon, Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia would create the Sixth Coali on
(1813-14) that would lead to the “War of libera on” of Europe against Napoleon. In this situa on,
Napoleon would be forced to abdicate in April 1814 and was exiled to the island of Elba. Louis XVIII
would take the French throne, star ng the Bourbon restora on with the Cons tu onal Charter.
However, Napoleon staged a scape and came back to Paris with several followers in 1815, taking
command of France during 100 days. The rest of powers would react again with the Seventh Coali on,
crushing Napoleon in Waterloo the 18th of June 1815, imprisoning him in the island of St Helena and
reposing Louis XVIII in the French throne.
Europe would su er several consequences a er the Napoleonic Era, but also there would be overseas
ones, as Napoleon had ini al plans in order to nance his empire from the colonies: In Hai , the St
Domingue revolt in August 1791 happened, which was ini ated by slaves. There was a tension between
Royalists vs. patriots; whites vs. gens de couleur; slaves vs. owners
As Paris needed support; rst, it engaged a poli cal movement with white colonists to seek the support
of the gens de couleur (1792) and then, freeing slaves (1794), in order to stop the revolt. Napoleon, in
need of cash, reversed such measures and in 1802, as he sent an army to restore order. Despite
everything, the new Republic of Hai was proclaimed in 1804.

La n America
The French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (which was then allied with Napoleon’s France) to invade
Portugal caused a crisis of legi macy that led to social tensions in La n America between creoles vs.
mes zos, Indians, and peoples of color. This was all in contradic on of Cádiz liberalism.

As a consequence, a poli cal turmoil happened in Spain a er 1814 and a resistance of both liberals and
absolu sts was created in order to grant rights to the colonies.
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 8. The Concert of Europe (1815–1914)
The Congress of Vienna gathered a lot of powers, among them Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia
(Quadruple Alliance). They were already certain that the French Revolu on and the Napoleonic Empire
changed Europe and mentali es, so interna onal rela ons were not the same as they were before.

The Vienna se lement, also called the Concert of Europe, stood in the middle of the Napoleonic Empire
and the 19th century systems; it was designed to bring together the "major powers" of the me in order
to stabilize the geopoli cs of Europe a er the defeat of Napoleon in 1813–1814, and contain France's
power. It exhorted during the 19th century a collec ve hegemony in Europe, which had somehow,
(Austria and Prussia) ac ve stands.

As for the congress, it gathered the representa ves of the quadruple alliance, France and other minor
powers (as Pedro Gómez Labrador, the representa ve of Spain, or Klemens Von Me ernich of Austria,
and Talley Rand for France). It was the rst me that we see something that it is known today as summit
of leader rather than ambassadors. As for Gomez de Labrador, he could not engage in this summit
culture because he did not have the means to do that. The Congress of Vienna was established at the
same me as Napoleon was trying to get back the throne of France.

Post Napoleonic Europe:

During the Napoleonic wars, Russia and Britain defeated Napoleon and were never occupied by the
French armies. However, Austria and Prussia were eventually vanquished and became satellite
kingdoms. In the War of the Sixth Coali on (March 1813 – May 1814), a coali on of Austria, Prussia,
Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States defeated France
and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba.

Meanwhile, in France, the Bourbons were restored, with Louis XVIII. With the Second Treaty of Paris
(end of the Sixth Coali on) France was restored and it maintained its territories especially in the North
East. With this treaty, France had enough force to pay indemniza ons. This was a rather lenient treaty.
This new system re ected things from the 18th century. Rather than establishing one’s powers
hegemony, there were 5 major powers that balanced each other (Quadruple Alliance + France). It was a
collec ve exercise of a di use hegemony.

They wanted to guarantee that the system worked. The powers wanted to revert back to the system of
the 18th system. Napoleon changed the minds of many people but not the mind of these powers. This
liberal revolu onary heritage is what they wanted to get rid of. There was a second lesson from
Napoleon, interven onism, that became a cardinal principle of the 18th century! other powers should
not intervene in domes c a airs of other countries. But with the example of Napoleonic France, the
Quadruple alliance, wanted to intervene into the domes c issues of other countries, breaking up with
one of the main principles that was established a er Utrecht. They worked collec vely to maintain this
concept. They tended to create a collec ve ins tu on to maintain this balance (quadruple alliance)

The Holy Alliance, created at the Congress of Vienna, was the defender of the king; it was based
on conserva sm, against the rising forces of na onalism and democracy (which meant revolu on),
which sprung up in the wake of the French Revolu on. These powers managed to enforce this concert.
The congress of Vienna led to a new European map and the considera on of Europe as a system. Despite
the legacy towards France, also strong defensive measures were taken. A United Kingdom of the
Netherlands was created, as it became a united country (Belgium and Netherlands). It was not out of
these na onal principles that this happened, it was actually because they wanted to create a ba e zone
to avoid France from expanding. France had expanded in west Germany that were returned to Prussia
that was expanding at the me, therefore a new German Confedera on was created, in which the
former principali es were fused into 38 German states.

There were territorial gains, especially to Britain that won colonies and strategic outposts during the
wars, including Malta, the Cape Colony, and Ceylon; that led to the Bri sh hegemony. Austria had to give
up territories like Netherlands and Southern Germany but it expanded to the south as well, obtaining
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 some regions in the North of Italy, Salzburg, and the Eastern Adria c, which were Polish possessions.
Austria and Prussia retained most of its territories and the Russian part was created as a state (puppet
state) which retained high degree of authority. Russia would also claim on Poland with the Congress of
Poland. At the same me, Prussia would obtain a part of Poland (including Poznan), Swedish Pomerania,
and Rhine territories (Westphalia) and they would claim on Saxony, defending a par on of it.

• The evolu on of the European Concert:

Phases:
1. From 1815–48 characterized by harmony between the powers, and repression of any hint of social
and/or poli cal revolu on. During this period there were three revolu onary waves: 1820, 1830, and
1848.
2. The second period was between 1848–71, characterized by revolu onary na onalism and wars of
adjustment.
3. Last one, from 1871–1900, again a period of peace, with the concert largely dominated by O o von
Bismarck.

The progress of liberalism had also three revolu onary waves:

-The rst one during the 1820s: which mainly involved Spain (Liberal Triennium), Portugal, Two Sicilies,
Piedmont, Greece and Russia (Decembrists).
-The second in 1830 in which their main par cipants were Belgium, France (July Revolu on or Trois
Glorieuses); Congress Poland, Italian states, Portugal, Switzerland.
-The last one in 1848 with France, Italy, German confedera on, Austria (also Bohemia, Hungary…),
Poland…

• Conserva sm and the Concert of Europe

Me ernich (also known as the Concert of Europe) was the statesman at the me of this absolu st power
as it established that human nature was imperfect so humanity needed an absolu st monarch to guide
them. It was believed that the French Revolu on represented that this human nature needed to be
guided. It used the new bourgeoisie to steering the masses.

Conserva sm a ected the way in which European powers were deployed. It said that liberalism and
na onalism were dangerous because they ques oned the privileges of the rulers (as they defended the
equality of ci zens and the sovereignty of deciding the future of their territory), therefore they went
against conserva sm. The idea that a speci c na on needed a speci c government a part from the
na on, led to the crea on of dynas es (like the Russian and Austrian).

The Holly Alliance (formed by Austria, Prussia and Russia) was against na onalism and liberalism. It was
created a er Vienna with the principle of Chris an morality and it was against revolu ons. However they
learned something from them, that the people had changed their minds, and also that they could
intervene in other countries’ domes c issues. And that’s what they did.

France and Britain somehow, were outsiders and most of their interests were outside Europe. While
Russia decided to extend its power through the East of Asia; which was a change on how thing had been
so far. While Britain wanted to maintain peace and stability in Europe, it abstained form directly
intervening in it, as it was easier to expand eastwards; Russia intervened to the rescue of Austria, and
wanted to expand southwards at the expense of the O oman Empire. Britain and Russia were the most
powerful countries in Europe at the me and the crushed outside of it. In central Asia, in the territories
between India and the O oman Empire, Russia fought for the dominance of the regions there and the
central ones in Asia. Finally, the Bri sh, not absolu sts, as the Glorious Revolu on ended with the idea
of absolu sm and imposed the one of parliamentarism; the Russians represented the absolu sm at its
apogee. During these years, there were periodic congresses that were very common un l 1848.
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 The congresses of the Quadruple Alliance a er Vienna:

-Congress of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818): They discussed about the interna onal status of France, as
it was an observa on on interna onal law and interna onal trea es. The disagreement about the
emancipa on of Spanish America was genera ng as well.
-Congresses of Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary, 1819) and Vienna (1820): They took measures against na onalist
and liberal revolu ons that were striking in German territories.
-Congresses of Troppau (Opava, Silesia, 1820) and Laibach (1821): They gave a response to the
revolu onary agita on that was occurring in Southern Europe (Spain, Portugal and Italy).
The Congress of Verona (1823)- the last one of the Holy Alliance: In the Spanish case, it took a while un l
the Duke of Angouleme and the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis intervened in the country in
defence of absolu sm, as France and Russia were in favor of an armed interven on while GB opposed.

However, the Congress system outlived the Holy Alliance. A er the end of the Holy Alliance,
revolu onary na onalism had its place and there were wars of adjustment in order to consolidate the
map of Europe, as France went separate ways in 1830, leaving the core of Russia, Austria, and Prussia as
the Central-Eastern European block, which again, congregated to suppress the Revolu ons of 1848.
Some domes c developments raised by the bourgeoisie and their radical agendas happened, trying to
eradicate the Me ernich system and dynas c legi macy, having limited results but relevant
interna onal outcomes.
Na onalism and democracy a ected external a airs as well, as the na on, became the basic poli cal
unit, supposing a threat to the European balance. Also, an Interna onal society was established passing
from a sovereigns’ club to a family of independent na ons. Some movements like Pan-Germanism, Pan-
Slavism and Pan-Italianism began to take importance. Pan-Slavism began much like Pan-Germanism,
which grew from the sense of unity and na onalism experienced within ethnic groups a er the French
Revolu on and the consequent Napoleonic Wars against European monarchies. These na onalisms were
trying to transcend tradi onal boundaries of basic na onal iden es, in order to create a "higher" pan-
na onal iden ty, based on various common denominators.

These led to the Uni ca on of Italy (1859–70) and Germany (1864–71) at the expense of Austria. During
this me, as the Hapsburgs were forced to reconcile with Hungary, in order to save their empire and
dynasty, the arranged the Austro-Hungarian Compromise (1867), that regulated the rela ons between
Austria and Hungary and established the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

The 1848 revolu on in France: from the Second Republic to the Second Empire:

The 1848 revolu on in France would nish with the end of Louis-Philippe’s “bourgeois monarchy”.
However, there would be divisions among the revolted, which would be eradicated through a new
cons tu on with a strong execu ve that would be materialized with the rise of Louis-Napoleon
Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon).

Since 1853, Napoleon III reigned and the Second Empire was established. As his uncle, he would focus
on France’s grandeur, to make France the foremost power in Europe, being in this way France the
“champion” of na onal aspira ons. They would promote also Italy’s libera on from Austria, and also had
military campaigns in Crimea, Mexico, China, and against Prussia in 1870. As Napoleon defeated Austria
in Italy, this was an opportunity for Prussia to rise.

However, there was a revolu on and reac on in the Austrian Empire – Hungary, Lombardy-Vene a,
Vienna: Ferdinand I’s did some (r. 1835–48) reforms, as a consequence of Me ernich’s resigna on due
to unsuccessful revolu ons that broke out in the Austrian Empire in 1848, and in which Me ernich, the
"last great master of the principle of balance," became the target of angry mobs. Forced to resign, he
went into exile in England before returning to Vienna in 1858. As a consequence of the revolu on the
crown responded establishing Franz Joseph I as king.
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 Meanwhile, Prussia, the German Confedera on, and the Frankfurt Na onal Parliament had an aspira on
in order to create a uni ed na on-state, in addi on to a radical agenda

Also, the Prussian Cons tuent Assembly in Berlin came in prac ce a er the revolu on of 1848 and was
tasked with drawing up a cons tu on for Prussia. With all this, Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia was asked
to become German emperor, but he only wanted to do so on authoritarian terms, consequently, popular
upheavals crushed, and the disbandment of the Prussian Cons tuent Assembly occurred. Then he tried
to convince the small German monarchies to elect him as emperor, but Austria opposed. Russia
supported Austria and forced Prussia to renounce uni ca on in late 1850. The Confedera on was re-
established in 1851, but a decade of reac on followed.

All this would lead to the eventual rise of Prussia as the conductor of the new German state.

• The Crimean War (1853-56)

Among these wars of adjustment, we nd the Crimean War, where GB, France, Sardinia and the O oman
Empire (and the Austrian support) confronted the Russian empire and its expansionist inten ons. These
inten ons crushed with many interests: rstly, Britain and Austria would see their interests in the region
nished if Russia gets it, as well as Napoleon III’s aspira ons to restore French aspira ons.

A er subsequent ghts for the gain of the territory, both parts would sign the treaty of Paris in 1856:
The O omans would have to cede southern Bessarabia to Moldova, which would get its autonomy with
Wallachia and their consequent independence in 1877. And also sign a neutrality of the Black sea, what
means the opening of the Danube for the rest of powers.
This war would nish with France and GB as great powers and the O omans at the mercy of these
powers. Na onalisms would take bene t too, as Sardinia gains pres ge suppor ng the Allies and this
would lead to the uni ca on of Italy. However, Austria, which did not support his ally Russia, would lose
his backing, entering in a crisis that would be evident in respec ve losses against Sardinia in 1859 and in
1866 against Prussia.

• OTTO VON BISMARCK (Chancellor 1867-90) and the rise of Prussia towards the new German State:
The Austro-Prussian or Seven Weeks’ War (1866) provoked the dissolu on of the German Confedera on
and the uni ca on of Northern Germany, and consequently, the rise of Prussia as a major power in
Europe. This power gained by Prussia would increase their expansive interests, manifested in the Franco-
Prussian War (1870-71), as they wanted to have a say on the issue over the throne of Spain, which
needed a king since 1869. The French overcon dence would mean a fatal defeat at the Ba le of Sedan,
that a er the Treaty of Frankfurt, France would have to cede Alsace and half of Lorraine to Prussia, apart
from paying huge indemni es to it.
This war would have several consequences in the long term: the beginning of the French III Republic,
a er the Paris Commune (March-May 1871); the adhesion of today’s southern Germany to the German
Empire and the proclama on of Wilhelm I as emperor; the comple on of the uni ca on of Italy, with
Victor Manuel II as king; the rise of militarism in Germany and French révanchisme, some of the causes
of the “imminent” Great War.
This in uence Prussia reached would be possessed by its chancellor un l 1890, O o von Bismarck. The
skillful diplomat would build a European order, trying to prevent con icts against the other two great
powers GB and Russia. This uneasy peace, together with the second industrial revolu on would make
Germany dream about imperial expansion, and by 1890, Germany was the Europe’s greatest industrial
power, and its na onalism would become higher a er Bismarck.
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 • A CENTURY OF THE CONCERT OF EUROPE
A er a century of peace (despite the adjustment wars) a er the Napoleonic era, European order would
be restored thanks to the concert of Europe. This concert is considered the origin of the current IR
system because of its varied innova ons: collec ve interests of the con nent, a “mission” to preserve
order, with each power as a guarantor of this stability… The law of order over equality, and stability over
jus ce would permit the right to intervene over domes c issues on third states to the European states,
always in the name of “Europe”.
The concert of Europe (plurality, maintenance of di erence, balance) represented the antagonist of the
Napoleonic Empire (universal monarchy, unity, uniformity, hegemony).
However, the concert was not perfect, and it created di erent problems as well:
-Di cul es restore the old order before the arrival of Napoleon to power.
-Since its very beginning, the debates over the limits of this “world government” were common, as it
was highly related with the problems of interference or interven onism (something that today s ll is
discussed), un l a point that Britain, with George Canning as foreign minister, would be against the
Concert of Europe.
-The rise of the revolu ons of 1830 and 1848.
-The adjustment wars like the Crimean War or the Franco-Prussian War would make those allies ght
against each other. These wars rose rivalries, na onalism, and the imperial race.
-Then, with another crisis coming to Europe at the beginning of the 20 century, a new th

interna onalism was needed, in accordance with the new mes and loyal to democra c and paci st
principles.
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