Bridge Equipment For Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

BRIDGE EQUIPMENT FOR
NAVIGATION AND CONTROL

OF COMMERCIAL SHIPS
Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar

Elstan A. Fernandez
About the Authors
• Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
• Master of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering.
• Ph.D* in Embedded Systems
• Two patents filed
• Published three papers in an International journal & received a “Research Excellence
Award”
A total of 8 years of learning, hands-on and teaching experience in this field
Elstan A. Fernandez
• Chartered Engineer - Institution of Engineers (India)
• Fellow of the Institution of Engineers (India)
• Member of The Institution of Engineering and Technology (UK)
• Member of Leaders Excellence at Harvard Square (USA)
• Specialist in Marine Control Systems and Automation
• Certified Maritime Trainer and Assessor
• Founder Member of Indian Authors Association
• Amazon Central Certified Author
• Member of World Authors Association
• Member of Non-Fiction Authors Association (USA)
A total of 42 years of learning, hands-on and teaching experience in this field

Bridge Equipment
for
Navigation and Control
of Commercial Ships
Bridge Equipment
for
Navigation and Control
of Commercial Ships

Elstan A. Fernandez
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships
By Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar, Elstan A. Fernandez
Copyright © 2021 Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar, Elstan A. Fernandez
First Edition: April 2021
Print ISBN: 978-93-8588-996-7

E-book ISBN: 978-93-8588-997-4
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may
be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechani-
cal, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, nor exported, without the written permission of the copyright owner or the publisher.
Published by Shroff Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd. B-103, Railway

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Web : www.shroffpublishers.com Printed at Jasmine Art Printers Pvt. Ltd., Navi Mumbai
To Our Dear Wives
Who Support Our Many Endeavours
Preface
The safety of Navigation is very important for the ship and crew alike. Today, most of the systems
related to a ship’s navigation are electronic-based and it is very important for the seafarer to know their
operation, maintenance and repair. The aim of this book is to share relevant information about the most
common systems with Marine Engineers, Electro Technical Officers and Navigational Officers too.
Navigation and Navigational Equipment has always fascinated us seafarers, and we are not alone!
For aeons this has been more of an art than a profession – from the first explorers and travellers, down
to the people of this modern world who have circumnavigated the globe.
Ironically, many theories that apply to systems ashore have been derived from the shipping industry
e.g., PID Control was theorized and perfected by scientists when they delved into the facts and figures
that came naturally to seafarers of old.
Thanks to the advances in Technology and Science, the equipment available today is far beyond
what we had imagined in those times! Hence, every budding Navigator and Engineer is urged to delve
deeper and continue to look for better solutions. Then the world can only become a better place.
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships vii

Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank all the wonderful people and manufacturers who have supported us in every way,
ever since we embarked on this project. It has taken years of painstaking, hands-on experience and also
research cum study of manufacturers’ guidelines and their dedicated manuals.
We specially thank our teachers who taught us so well that we fell in love with this vast subject!
We also thank the various researchers, technocrats and manufacturers across the globe for ensuring
that the precious lives of seafarers are getting safer and far more comfortable today.
Our colleagues, students and all in the Maritime fraternity have been a great support and we are
grateful to everyone for accepting what we have learned from great teachers and colleagues.
Special thanks to Mr. Lakshman Singh Yadav and Mr. Harbhajan Singh, co-authors of
Troubleshooting of Marine Electrical Systems Volume 2, a book in this series, for the permission to use
information on the troubleshooting on Bridge Equipment.
And finally, we thank our dear families and loved ones for the encouragement and support with each
step that we take forward.
viii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents
Chapter No. Title Page No.

1 Electrical Safety 1
2 Steering and Stabiliser Systems 31
3 Rudder Angle and Rate of Turn Indicators 113
4 Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder 121
5 Magnetic Compasses 157
6 Ship’s Speed Logs 171
7 Echo Sounder 185
8 Radars 193
9 Electronic Chart Display & Information System 265
10 Global Positioning System 281
11 Differential Global Positioning System 293
12 Anemometer 303
13 Weather Facsimile 311
14 Navigation and Signal Lights 319
15 Air Horn (The Ship’s Whistle) 333
16 Very High Frequency Communication System 337
17 Medium and High Frequency Radio Equipment 347
18 Navigational Telex 359
19 Automatic Identification System 371
20 Long-range Identification and Tracking 379
21 Closed Circuit Television 387
22 Television and Radio Antennae 391
23 Bridge Navigation Watch Alarm System 395
24 Ship’s Security Alert System 403
25 Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 409
26 Marine Electric Clock 433
27 Alarm Systems 437
28 Internal Communication Systems 473
29 Voyage Data Recorder 489
30 List of SOLAS Regulations 507
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships ix

Contents
Chapter 1 – Electrical Safety

Article No. Article Page No.
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Inherent Dangers and Avoidance of Disastrous Consequences 1
1.2.1 Risk Assessment 1
1.3 Passive Safety Measures 3
1.3.1 Component Quality or Reliability Level 4
1.3.2 Protection against Erroneous Operation 5
1.3.3 Maintenance 5
1.3.4 Personnel Protection 5
1.4 Active Safety Measures 7
1.4.1 Redundancy Requirements 7
1.4.1.1 Essential Users 8
1.4.1.2 Important Users 8
1.4.2 Circuit Protection 9
1.5 Fundamental Requirements for Safe Installation of Equipment 10
1.6 Dos and Don’ts While Working with Electrical Equipment 12
1.6.1 Additional Precautions when Commencing Work on Electronic 15
Equipment
1.6.2 Special Protection Scheme for Workshop Machinery 15
1.7 Danger Signals 15
1.8 Precautions for Preventing an Electric Shock 16
1.9 Conditions which Increase Danger to Personnel 18
1.10 High Voltage Safety 19
1.10.1 Isolation and Lockout 20
1.10.2 Warning Signs 20
1.10.3 Working on De-Energized High Voltage Power Systems 21
1.10.3.1 Person In-charge 21
1.10.3.2 Switching Sequences 22
1.10.3.3 Isolating Devices 22
1.10.3.4 Insulation Resistance 22
1.10.3.5 Grounding and Blocking 22
1.11 Electrical Accidents 23
1.11.1 Arc Flash 23
x Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents
Chapter 1 – Electrical Safety

1.11.2 Arc Blast 23
1.11.3 Shock 23
1.11.3.1 Micro Shock 23
1.11.3.2 Macro Shock 23
1.11.4 First Aid 27
1.11.4.1 The Basic Procedure 27
1.11.4.2 Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation 29
1.11.4.3 Holger-Neilson Resuscitation 30
1.12 Maintenance of Records 30
Chapter 2 – Steering and Stabiliser Systems

Article No. Article No. Page No.
2.1 Fundamental Concepts 31
2.1.1 Steering Gear 31
2.1.2 Steering Gear Power Unit 32
2.1.3 Auxiliary Steering Gear 32
2.1.4 Steering Gear Control 32
2.1.5 Mechanical Control 34
2.1.6 Remote Control Systems 34
2.1.7 Non-Follow-up Steering (or Time Dependent Steering) 34
2.1.8 Full Follow-up (Manual Mode) with Electro-hydraulic Control 36
2.1.9 Two Ram Hydraulic Steering Gear – Open Loop System 36
2.1.10 A Two Ram Steering Gear Powered by A Closed Loop Hydraulic 37
System
2.1.11 The Four-ram Type of Steering Gear 40
2.1.11.1 Combined Shock Relief and Bypass Valves 43
2.1.11.2 Hunting Gear 43
2.1.11.3 Variable Delivery Pump Anti-Rotation Device 44
2.1.11.4 Emergency Arrangements 45
2.1.11.5 Further Safety Devices 45
2.1.12 Procedure to Put the Steering Gear into Operation 46
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Contents

2.1.13 Automatic Isolation System 46
2.1.13.1 Construction 46
2.1.13.2 Operation 47
2.1.13.3 Failure Sequence with One Pump Running 47
2.1.13.4 Failure Sequence with Both Pumps Running 47
2.1.13.5 System Testing 48
2.1.14 Electronic Steering Control 48
2.1.15 The Purpose of Negative Feedback 49
2.1.16 The Manual or Full Follow-up Mode 49
2.1.17 The Auto Pilot Mode 50
2.1.17.1 Circuit Description 52
2.1.17.2 Counter Rudder 58
2.1.17.3 Rudder Limit 58
2.1.17.4 Off Course and Pilot Watch Alarm 58
2.1.18 Indicators for Monitoring the Operating Conditions of the Steering 59
Gear
2.1.19 Procedure for Change-over from Normal to Emergency Mode of 59
Operation
2.1.19.1 Requirements 59
2.1.19.2 Basic Actions 59
2.2 Anschütz Auto Steering 60
2.2.1 Salient Features of NautoSteer 61
2.2.2 System Types 61
2.2.2.1 Dual Follow-Up (Dual FU) 61
2.2.2.2 Dual Non-Follow-Up (Dual NFU) 62
2.2.2.3 Follow-Up / Dual Non-Follow-Up 62
2.2.3 System Structure 62
2.2.3.1 Control Components 62
2.3 Sperry Marine Steering Gear 66
2.3.1 Steering Design Specifications 67
2.3.2 Dual Control Gyro Pilot Steering Stand 67
2.3.3 Linear Hydraulic Power Unit 68
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Contents

2.3.4 Piston Operation 68
2.3.5 Limit Switches, Relays and the Follow-up Potentiometer 69
2.3.6 Inside Limit Switches 70
2.3.7 Outside Limit Switches 70
2.4 Steering Gear Testing and Drills 70
2.5 Rotary Vane Steering Systems 72
2.6 Relevant Rules 73
2.6.1 Relevant SOLAS Regulations 73
2.6.2 Relevant ABS Rules 73
2.6.3 Summary of Regulations 74
2.7 Common Issues of a Steering Gear System 76
2.7.1 Oil Leakages 76
2.7.2 Difference in the Actual Rudder Angle and Ordered Helm Angle 77
2.7.3 Unsatisfactory Steering 77
2.7.4 Excessive Noise from the Steering Gear 77
2.7.5 High Oil Temperature 77
2.7.6 The Rudder’s Movement is Within or Beyond the Limit 77
2.7.7 Remote Control of Steering is not Possible 78
2.7.8 Rudder Angle Transmitter and Tiller Link Failure 78
2.8 Troubleshooting the Flutek-Kawasaki FE 21 – 288 – T050 System 78
2.8.1 Steering Gear Does Not Work 79
2.8.2 The Rudder’s Turning Speed Is Slow 80
2.8.3 Steering Gear Does Not Work Smoothly 81
2.8.4 The Steering Gear Is Unstable (The Steering Gear Does Not Stand 81
Still)
2.8.5 Abnormal Noises While the Ship Is on A Voyage 82
2.8.6 Abnormal Pressure-Rise in All Cylinders 83
2.8.7 The Rudder Moves While the Ship is at Anchorage 83
2.8.8 The Stand-By Pump Rotates in The Reverse Direction 83
2.8.9 Excessive Temperature On The Pump Bearing Casing 83
2.8.10 Excessive Oil Temperature in the Oil Tank 84
2.8.11 Abnormal Noise from The Pump 84
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Contents

2.8.12 Decrease of Oil in The Oil Tank in A Short Time 84
2.8.13 The Electric Motor Cannot Start 84
2.8.14 Abnormal Wear of The Coupling 84
2.9 Troubleshooting the Single Loop Fork Type F-172 SG Sys 1 85
2.9.1 Slow Turning Speed of the Rudder 85
2.9.2 The Rudder Moves in Only One Direction 85
2.9.3 Rudder Movement Is Irregular 85
2.9.4 Rudder Moves While the Ship is at Anchorage 85
2.9.5 Other Problems 86
2.10 Troubleshooting the Steering Gear Mitsubishi Type DF-250 86
2.10.1 Steering is Impossible 86
2.10.2 Steering is Unsatisfactory 88
2.10.3 Error Between Helm Angle Of Steering Wheel And The Actual Rudder 88
Angle
2.10.4 Error Between Helm Angle of Helm Angle Indicator and Rudder Angle 88
2.10.5 Generation of Heavy Noise 88
2.10.6 Excessive Temperature Rise in The Hydraulic Oil 88
2.10.7 The Rudder Does Not Move to The Maximum Prescribed Rudder 89
Angle, Or Moves Beyond the Limit
2.10.8 Autopilot Failures 89
2.10.8.1 Failure Phenomena List 89
2.10.8.2 Countermeasures 90
2.11 Roll Stabiliser for Ships 106
2.11.1 Constant Pressure Hydraulic Active Stabiliser Control 109
2.11.1.1 How Lift Control Works 110
2.11.1.2 Lift Control Advantages 111
2.11.1.3 Key Benefits and Highlights 111
2.11.2 New Digital Control System 112
xiv Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents
Chapter 3 – Rudder Angle and Rate of Turn Indicators

3.1 Rudder Position Indicator 113
3.1.1 The Precision Potentiometer and Stepper Motor Type (Type A070) 113
3.1.2 Operating Principle 113
3.1.3 Technical Data 114
3.1.4 Outstanding Features 114
3.2 Synchros for Rudder Angle and Course Indication 115
3.3 Troubleshooting the Rudder Indicator 117
3.3.1 The Motor Circuit is Abnormal 118
3.3.1.1 The Pointer of The Receiver is Not Moving 118
3.3.1.2 The Movement of the Receiver’s Pointer Is Unstable 118
3.3.1.3 The Receiver Rotates in Different Directions 118
3.3.1.4 The Indication is 180º Out of Alignment from That of The Transmitter 118
3.3.1.5 Transmitter or Receiver Overheats 118
3.3.1.6 A Humming Sound is Heard 118
3.3.1.7 The Illumination Circuit is Abnormal 119
3.4 The Rate of Turn Indicator 119
3.4.1 Raytheon Anschutz Rate of Turn System 120
Chapter 4 – Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder

4.1 Introduction 121
4.2 Regulations 121
4.3 Working Principle 121
4.3.1 Moment of Inertia 122
4.3.2 Gyroscopic Inertia 124
4.3.3 Gyroscopic Precession 126
4.3.4 Rate of Precession 127
4.4 Control of The Free Gyro to Produce A North Seeking Instrument 128
4.4.1 Controlled Gyroscopes 128
4.4.2 Control of the Gyro Using Solid Weights 128
4.4.3 Control of the Gyro by Liquid Ballistics 130
4.5 Operational Errors of the Gyrocompass 131
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xv

Contents

4.5.1 Latitude Error (Damping Error) 131
4.5.2 Course Latitude and Speed Error (Steaming Error) 131
4.5.3 The Change in the Course and Speed Error 131
4.5.4 Effect of a Ship’s Motion on a Gyro Compass 131
4.6 Major Components of the Ship’s Gyro Compass Master Unit 132
4.7 Troubleshooting the Gyro Compass TG-8000-8500 By Tokyo Keiki 136
4.7.1 General 136
4.7.2 Before Troubleshooting 136
4.7.3 Countermeasures 137
4.7.4 Measures When an Alarm is Generated 137
4.7.5 Failure Phenomena and Countermeasures 137
4.7.5.1 Power Supply Abnormality (Alarm Code “1”) 138
4.7.5.1.1 One Gyro-Compass System 138
4.7.5.1.2 Two Gyro-Compasses System 139
4.7.5.2 Power Supply Abnormality (Alarm Code “2”) 143
4.7.5.3 Inverter Abnormality (Alarm Code “3”) 143
4.7.5.4 Rotor Level Abnormality (Alarm Code “6”) 144
4.7.5.5 Zero Cross Abnormality (Alarm Code “8”) 144
4.7.5.6 System Communication Abnormality (1) (Alarm Code “A”) 145
4.7.5.7 System Communication Abnormality (2) (Alarm Code “B”) 146
GPS Communication Stop (Alarm Code “C”) Or Abnormality of GPS
4.7.5.8 148
Data (Alarm Code “D”)
System Internal Communication Abnormality (1) (Alarm Code “E”) Or
4.7.5.9 148
System Internal Communication Abnormality (2) (Alarm Code “F”)
4.7.5.10 Master Compass Heading Abnormality (Alarm Code “G”) 149
External Heading Sensor Communication Stop (Alarm Code “L”) Or
4.7.5.11 149
External Heading Sensor Data Abnormality (Alarm Code “N”)
LOG (Serial Signal) Communication Stop (Alarm Code “P”) Or LOG
4.7.5.12 149
(Serial Signal) Data Abnormality (Alarm Code “U”)
4.7.5.13 LOG Contact Abnormality (Alarm Code “U”) 150
4.7.5.14 E5V Abnormality (Alarm Code “R”) 150
4.7.5.15 The Gyro-Compass Does Not Operate, When Power Switch On The
150
Operating Panel Is Turned “ON”
xvi Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents

4.7.5.16 Each Repeater Does Not Operate 151
4.7.5.17 All Repeaters Do Not Operate 152
4.8 The Course Recorder 152
4.8.1 Example of a Course Record 154
4.8.2 Required Markings on the Paper 154
4.8.3 The Recording Pen / Stylus 155
4.8.4 Working Principle of the Recorder 155
4.8.5 Care and Maintenance 155
Chapter 5 – Magnetic Compasses

5.2 Regulations 157
5.3 Differences Between Magnetic North and True North 158
5.4 Types of Magnetic Compasses 158
5.5 Construction 159
5.6 The Importance of Comparing Compasses 161
5.7 Precautions, Care and Maintenance 161
5.8 Troubleshooting the Wet Card Magnetic Compass 162
5.8.1 Magnetic Compass (SH-165A2 Series) 162
5.9 Compass Considerations for Steering and Autopilots 163
5.10 The AutoNav Flux Gate Compass (as installed on ships) 169
5.10.1 Easy-mounting Sensor 170
5.10.2 Gyro Interface for Accuracy and Stability 170
Chapter 6 – Ship’s Speed Logs

6.2 Main Types of Logs Fitted on Modern Ships 171
6.3 Principle of Operation of the Electro-magnetic Log 171
6.3.1 Errors / Other Effects on Accuracy 172
6.3.1.1 The ‘Zero’ Error 172
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xvii

Contents

6.3.1.2 Water Conductivity 172
6.3.1.3 Streamlining of the Sensor’s Housing 172
6.3.1.4 Vessel Movement 173
6.3.1.5 Limitations of the Electro-magnetic Log 173
6.4 Principle of Operation of the Pitot Tube Log 173
6.4.1 Factors Affecting Accuracy 174
6.4.1.1 Calibration 174
6.4.1.2 Water Oscillation in the Tubes 174
6.4.1.3 Tube Obstructions 174
6.4.1.4 It Can Record Speed Through the Water Only 174
6.5 Principle of Operation of the Doppler Speed Log 174
6.5.1 Doppler Speed Log (Errors) 176
6.5.1.1 Transducer Alignment 176
6.5.1.2 Vessel Motion 176
6.5.1.3 Velocity of Sound in Water 176
6.5.2 Doppler Speed Log (Limitations) 176
6.5.2.1 Power Losses 176
6.5.3 Block Diagram 177
6.5.3.1 Transducer 177
6.5.3.2 Transceiver 177
6.5.3.2.1 Transmitter 177
6.5.3.2.2 Receiver 178
6.5.3.3 Duplexer 178
6.5.3.4 Distribution Box 178
6.5.3.5 Display Unit 179
6.5.3.6 Conditions Affecting the Speed Log 179
6.6 Troubleshooting 179
6.6.1 Checking the Transducer of the DS-80 180
6.6.1.1 Check the DC Resistances of Transducer Cables 180
6.6.2 Check the Impedance of the Transducer 180
6.6.3 Error Indications 181
6.6.4 Menu Settings 182
xviii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents

6.6.5 Troubleshooting the Yokogawa Electro Magnetic Log (EML 500 Series) 183
Chapter 7 – Echo Sounder

7.3 Block Diagram 186
7.3.1 Transmitter Block Diagram 188
7.3.2 Receiver Block Diagram 188
7.3.3 Transducer Unit 189
7.4 Maintenance 189
7.4.1 Recorder Cleaning 189
7.4.2 Power Feed Rail Cleaning 189
7.4.3 Driving and Driven Pulley 189
7.4.4 Window Glass Cleaning 190
7.5.1 Furuno Echo Sounder FE 800 191
7.5.1.1 Replacing the Fuse / Battery 191
7.5.1.2 No Picture, No Reading Measure 191
7.5.1.3 No Echo Sounding Picture 191
7.5.1.4 Irregular Display 192
7.5.1.5 Loss of Seabed Display 192
7.5.1.6 There Is A Loud Noise 192
7.5.1.7 There is Surface Noise 192
7.5.1.8 Fan and LCD Backlight Life Expectancy 192
Chapter 8 – Radars
8.2 Purpose 194
8.3 Scope 194
8.4 Uses of a Radar 194
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xix

Contents
8.4.1 Merchant Vessels 194
8.4.2 Leisure Craft 195
8.4.3 Fishing Vessels and Small Commercial Vessels 195
8.4.4 High Speed Craft 196
8.4.5 Vessel Traffic Services 196
8.4.6 Military Applications 196
8.5 Regulators 196
8.5.1 UNCLOS 197
8.5.2 IMO 197
8.5.3 ISO 197
8.5.4 IEC 198
8.6 Regulations 198
8.6.1 Radar for Ships Within SOLAS 198
8.7 The Principal of Range Measurement 200
8.7.1 Range 200
8.7.2 Pulse Repetition Frequency 201
8.7.3 Maximum Unambiguous Range 202
8.7.4 Minimum Range 202
8.7.5 Derivation of the Radar Range Equation 203
8.7.6 The Standard Form of The Radar Range Equation 204
8.7.6.1 Example 204
8.8 Radar Band, Frequency and Wavelength 205
8.9 Types of Radars 205
8.9.1 Continuous Wave Radar 205
8.9.2 Pulse Radar 206
8.10 Basic Operation of a Radar 206
8.11 Block Diagram of the Radar 210
8.12 System Configuration 211
8.12.1 25 kW, X band, TR up (FAR2827) 211
8.12.2 25 kW, X band TR down (FAR2827W) 211
8.12.3 30 kW, S band, TR Up - Separate Antenna Motor Control Unit 212
8.12.4 30 kW, S band, TR Down 212
xx Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents
8.12.5 Inter Switch by LAN HUB is Required for Connecting Three or More 213
Units
8.12.6 Maximum Cable Length 214
8.13 The Transmitter 215
8.13.1 Trigger Generator 216
8.13.2 Modulator and Pulse Forming Network 216
8.13.3 The Pulse Length 216
8.13.4 The Power of the Transmitted Pulse 217
8.13.5 The Pulse Shape 217
8.14 The Modulator Unit 218
8.15 The Magnetron 219
8.16 Range Scale and Pulse Length Selector 221
8.17 Receiver Function 222
8.18 The Radio Frequency Section 224
8.18.1 The Mixer Principle 224
8.18.2 Tuning Principles 224
8.18.3 The Intermediate Frequency Amplifier 225
8.18.4 The Linear IF Amplifier 225
8.18.5 The Logarithmic Amplifier 226
8.19 The Video Section 226
8.19.1 The Detector 226
8.19.2 The Video Amplifier 227
8.20 Aerial Function 227
8.20.1 Antenna Radiation Pattern 228
8.20.2 Radiation Intensity 229
8.20.3 Directivity 229
8.20.4 Antenna Gain 229
8.20.5 Impedance of the Antenna 230
8.21 T/R Cell 230
8.22 RF Transreceiver Function 231
8.23 Comparison of X-band and S-band Radar 231
8.24 Sub Units 232
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Contents
8.24.1 Processor Unit RPU-013 for All Transceiver Types, Except for TX
High Voltage 232
8.24.2 Processor Unit (Top Cover Opened, Without the Shield Cover) 232
8.24.3 Processor Unit Bottom 233
8.24.4 X Band Scanner Unit with a Radiator 1.2 M, 2.0 M, 2.4 M 233
8.24.5 X Band, TR UP, Cover Removed (Front-end) 234
8.24.6 X Band, TR UP, Cover Removed (Rear-end) 234
8.24.7 X Band, TR UP, Cover and Terminal Board Removed (Rear-end) 235
8.24.8 X Band RF Module, Receiver Side (Shield Cover on the RFC Board 236
Is Removed)
8.24.9 X Band RF Module, Transmitter Side (Shield Cover Is Removed) 236
8.24.10 X Band, TR DOWN, Scanner Unit 237
8.24.11 X Band, TR Down, Transceiver Unit 237
8.24.12 X Band, TR DOWN, RF Module 238
8.24.13 S Band Scanner Unit 238
8.24.14 S Band TR UP, Receiver Circuit on the Right 239
8.24.15 S Band TR UP, Transmitter Circuit on the Left 239
8.24.16 PSU007 Scanner Motor Power Control (Terminal Board and Relays) 240
8.24.17 S Band TR Down Scanner Unit, Cover Removed 240
8.24.18 S Band TR Down, Transceiver Unit 241
8.24.19 Band TR Down, Terminal Board Removed 242
8.24.20 Monitor (MU201CR, MU231CR) 243
8.24.21 Control Unit RCU-014 244
8.24.22 RCU-014 Bottom Cover Removed 245
8.24.23 Dismounting the Track Ball 246
8.24.24 Card I/F Unit CU-200 246
8.24.25 Console Unit 247
8.24.26 Console, Cover Removed 247
8.24.27 HUB-100 Switching Hub 248
8.25 Installation 249
8.25.1 Antenna Location (1) Minimum Detection Range 249
8.25.2 Antenna Location (2) Vertical Separation 250
8.25.3 Antenna Location (3) Blind Sector 251
xxii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships
Contents
8.25.4 Fleet Broad Band Vs Radar 252
8.25.5 Inmarsat C Vs Radar 252
8.25.6 Radiation Hazard 253
8.25.7 Grounding and Protection of Bolts 254
8.26 Alarm Menu [MENU][3] 255
8.27 Own Ship Info 255
8.28 Maintenance 256
8.28.1 Magnetron Replacement Procedures 256
8.28.2 Handling of a Magnetron under Long – Time storage 256
8.28.3 Replacement Procedure 256
8.28.4 Verification After Replacement 261
8.28.5 General Maintenance 261
8.28.5.1 Fuse and Battery 261
8.28.6 Life Expectancy of Major Parts 262
8.28.7 Weekly 263
8.28.8 Monthly 263
Chapter 9 – Electronic Chart Display & Information System

9.2 Regulations 265
9.3 Navigation Tasks for Officers 266
9.3.1 Voyage Planning (ECDIS Function) 266
9.3.2 Route Planning on an ECDIS 267
9.3.3 Route Calculation 268
9.3.4 Chart Planning 268
9.3.5 User Chart Planning 268
9.3.6 Positioning 269
9.4 Direct Positioning Sensor 269
9.4.1 Satellite Navigation Equipment 269
9.4.2 Radio Navigation Equipment 270
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Contents

9.4.3 Dead Reckoning Equipment 270
9.4.3.1 Ships Heading Measuring Devices 270
9.4.3.2 Ships Speed Measuring Devices 270
9.4.3.3 Manual Correction 270
9.4.4 Monitoring 270
9.5 The Electronics Sea Chart Display 271
9.5.1 Alerts 272
9.5.2 Man Overboard and Grounding 272
9.5.3 Data Logging 272
9.5.4 Data Distribution 272
9.6.1 ECDIS Multi Station Block Diagram 274
9.7.1 The power supply is not available. Alternatively, the equipment does not
start even if the Power button of the operation unit is pressed. 274
9.7.2 The power supply to the monitor is not available 275
9.7.3 Although the power is supplied to the monitor, the screen’s display is
off 275
9.7.4 The brightness of the monitor cannot be adjusted. 275
9.7.5 The trackball or the option keyboard cannot be operated 275
9.7.6 The trackball cannot be moved smoothly 275
9.7.7 Although the power is supplied and the screen’s display is okay, the 275
display is frozen, disabling processing to advance to display the task
menus.
9.7.8 Some task menus cannot be selected 276
9.7.9 The cursor is not displayed correctly 276
9.7.10 Characters / symbols are not displayed correctly 276
9.7.11 The GPS Position information is not displayed 276
9.7.12 The azimuth of the Gyrocompass is not displayed. Alternatively, the 276
azimuth rotation direction is not displayed correctly
9.7.13 The log is not displayed or the values are not displayed correctly 277
9.7.14 Rudder angles are not displayed. Alternatively, the values are not 277
displayed correctly
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Contents

9.7.15 Rudder angles are not displayed. Alternatively, the values are not 277
displayed correctly
9.7.16 Wind direction / wind speed (anemoscope / anemometer) data is not 278
displayed
9.7.17 Water depth values are not displayed 278
9.7.18 Sensor signals are not displayed 279
9.7.19 Contact signals are not sent from the output. 279
9.7.20 The UPS does not function 279
9.7.21 A popup window is displayed: The system has detected an error 280
Chapter 10 – Global Positioning System

10.2 GPS Segmentation 282
10.2.1 GPS Space Segment 282
10.2.2 GPS Control Segment 282
10.2.3 GPS User Segment 282
10.3 Block Diagram of the Marine GPS Receiver 283
10.3.1 Antenna 284
10.3.2 Receiver 284
10.3.3 Buffer Amplifier 285
10.4 GPS Errors and Their Classification 285
10.4.1 Receiver Dependent Errors 285
10.4.2 Satellite Dependent Errors 285
10.4.3 Propagation Errors 285
10.5 Maintenance of the GPS 286
10.5.1 Battery 286
10.5.2 Sensitive Component 286
10.5.3 Fuse 286
10.6 Generic Guidelines for Troubleshooting 287
10.6.1 Power Is Not Supplied When the Power Switch Is Pressed 287
10.6.2 The transponder software version is -.--. 287
10.6.3 There is no response after pressing a key on the operation panel 288
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxv
Contents
Chapter 10 – Global Positioning System

10.6.4 Some pixels are missing on the LCD 288
10.6.5 No alerting sound is generated 288
10.6.6 The Display does not come on 288
10.6.7 No AIS message is received 288
10.6.8 No AIS message is transmitted 289
10.6.9 External sensor data (external GPS, gyro, and rate-of-turn) cannot be 289
loaded
10.6.10 Internal GPS data cannot be loaded 290
10.6.11 There is a difference between internal GPS data and external GPS data 290
10.6.12 Heading data is mismatched 290
10.6.13 There is a difference between Nav status and actual Nav status 290
10.7 Troubleshooting the GPS - Type JMR 7500 291
10.7.1 The power does not turn on when the power switch is pressed 291
10.7.2 The LCD display does not display anything 291
10.7.3 The alarm is not activated 291
10.7.4 The click does not sound 291
10.7.5 There is no reception (from the sensor) 291
10.7.6 There is no reception (from external devices) 292
10.7.7 There is no transmission (to external devices) 292
Chapter 11 – Differential Global Positioning System

11.2 The DGPS Concept 293
11.3 DGPS Implementation Types 295
11.3.1 Ranging Code Differential GPS 295
11.3.2 Carrier Phase Differential GPS 295
11.3.3 DGPS Data Link Implementation 296
11.3.4 Wide Area DGPS 296
11.4 DGPS Segments Architecture 297
11.4.1 DGPS Space Segment 297
11.4.2 DGPS Control Segment 298
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Contents
Chapter 11 – Differential Global Positioning System

11.4.3 GPS User Segment 298
11.5 Block Diagram of the DGPS Receiver 298
11.5.1 DGPS Antenna 299
11.5.2 DGPS Receiver 299
11.5.3 Power Supply Unit 300
11.5.4 Selector Switch 300
11.5.5 Buffer Unit 300
11.6 Sources of DGPS Communication Error 300
11.6.1 Space Segment - Satellite Clock Error 301
11.6.2 Control Segment - Propagation Error (Ionosphere and Troposphere) 301
11.6.3 User Segment - Receiver Noise 301
11.6.4 Multipath Error 301
11.7 Maintenance of the GPS 301
11.7.1 Battery 301
11.7.2 Sensitive Components 302
11.7.3 Fuses 302
Chapter 12 – Anemometer
12.2 Block Diagram of a Wind Indicator 303
12.3 Operation 304
12.3.1 Wind Speed 304
12.3.2 Wind Direction 305
12.5.1 Wind Speed 307
12.5.1.1 There is No Indication 307
12.5.1.2 The Indication is Erratic 308
12.5.1.3 Unstable Indication 308
12.5.1.4 The Indication is Excessively Low 308
12.5.2 Wind Direction 308
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxvii

Contents
Chapter 12 – Anemometer
12.5.2.1 The Indicator Does Not Work 308
12.5.2.2 There is a Mismatch in Wind Direction 308
12.5.2.3 The Indicator is Incapable of Following the Wind Direction 308
12.5.2.4 There is an abnormal sound heard from the receiver 308
12.5.3 Anemoscope 309
12.5.3.1 There is Nothing on The Screen 309
12.5.3.2 An Image on the Screen Remains Frozen 309
12.5.4 The Electric Horn Is Not Functioning 309
12.5.5 The System is Not Working due to an Error on The Screen 309
12.5.6 The Buzzer or the Buzzer Stop Switch Is Not Working 309
12.5.7 There is Partial or No Illumination 309
12.5.8 There is a Faint Sound from the Reflector, the RPM Has Reduced, The 310
Sound is Abnormal
12.5.9 Life of the Light Bulb is Short 310
12.5.10 The Light Bulb is Overheating / Transformer is Damaged 310
12.5.11 There is no rotation 310
12.5.12 The Sound Tone is Higher Than the Standard One 310
12.5.13 There are 2 Kinds of Sounds 310
12.5.14 There is No Sound 310
Chapter 13 – Weather Facsimile

13.2.1 Whip Antenna 312
13.2.2 Weather Facsimile Receiver 313
13.2.3 Automatic Reception 314
13.2.4 Manual Reception 314
13.2.5 Timer Reception 314
13.2.7 Matching Box 315
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Contents
Chapter 13 – Weather Facsimile

13.3.1 Backup Battery 315
13.3.2 Lubrication 315
13.3.3 Cleaning 316
13.3.4 Replacement of the Recording Paper 316
13.4.1 Troubleshooting the Weather Facsimile JAX-9B 316
13.4.1.1 The Paper Feed and Recording Are Not Happening 316
13.4.1.2 Recording Does Not Start 317
13.4.1.3 Printing Becomes Blurred or Fails 317
13.4.1.4 The Timer Program Receiving Does Not Start 317
13.4.1.5 The [MANU] Switch Input Is Not Accepted 317
13.4.1.6 The [FEED] Switch Input Is Not Accepted 318
13.4.1.7 The [CLOCK] Switch Input Is Not Accepted 318
13.4.1.8 The [PROG] Switch Input Is Not Accepted 318
Chapter 14 – Navigation and Signal Lights

14.1 Mandatory Requirements 319
14.2 Operation 321
14.3 Modern LED-based Navigation Lights 323
14.3.1 LED Navigation Light Panel 324
14.4 Signals for a Power-driven Ship Under Way (At Night) 325
14.4.1 Masthead Light 325
14.4.2 Side Lights 325
14.4.3 One Stern Light 325
14.4.4 Ship at Anchorage 325
14.4.5 Ship Not Under Command 325
14.4.6 Ship Aground 326
14.5.1 Relevant SOLAS Regulations (Chapter II–1) 326
14.5.2 Summary of SOLAS Regulations 326
14.6 The Portable Daylight Signalling Light 328
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxix

Contents
Chapter 14 – Navigation and Signal Lights

14.7 Regulations 328
14.9.1 Lamp Replacement 331
14.9.2 Focusing Adjustment 331
14.10 Precautions 332
14.10.1 Halogen lamp 332
14.10.2 Battery 332
Chapter 15 – Air Horn (The Ship’s Whistle)

15.3 Operation 335
15.3.1 Free Signalling 335
15.3.2 Automatic Fog Signalling 335
15.3.2.1 Automatic “1-blow” Fog Signalling 335
15.3.2.2 Automatic “2-blow” Fog Signalling 335
15.3.3 General Emergency Alarm Signalling 335
Chapter 16 – Very High Frequency Communication System

16.2 Block Diagram of the VHF Radio System 338
16.3 VHF Transceiver 339
16.4 VHF Controller 339
16.5 VHF Antenna 340
16.6 Inspection After Installation 341
16.7 Power Supply Module 341
16.8 External Interface Signal 341
xxx Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Contents
Chapter 16 – Very High Frequency Communication System

16.9.1 VHF Js-780 343
16.19.2 Procedures for Locating Malfunctions 343
16.19.2.1 Faults Requiring No Instrument to Locate Them 343
16.19.2.2 Malfunctions That Can Be Fixed with A Multi Meter and Then Rectified 344
16.19.2.3 Malfunctions Requiring Special Instruments 344
16.19.2.4 Nothing is Displayed on The Screen 344
16.19.2.5 The Tx Is Displayed but No Voice Is Transmitted 344
16.19.2.6 The Tx is Not Displayed and Transmission Is Not Possible 344
16.19.2.7 The Reception’s Sensitivity Is Poor 345
16.19.2.8 There is No Sound from The Speaker Even When Squelch Is On, 345
Without Reception
16.19.2.9 The Speaker works but the Own Ship Cannot Receive Any Calls 345
16.19.2.10 Turning SQL Does Not Suppress any Noise 345
16.19.2.11 There is No Response from the Other Station Via the Radio 345
Telephone or DSC Call
16.19.2.12 It is not possible to Control the Radio Telephone Or DSC, but the 346
Volume Control, The Dimmer, and Power Key
16.19.2.13 Even by Pressing ENT on The Monitor Controller, The Access Rights 346
Cannot be Obtained
16.19.2.14 If the System Is Left on a Screen Other Than the Status Display for A 346
While, it Returns to the Status Display
16.19.2.15 The Received Distress Call Log Is Erased Without Operating 346
16.19.2.16 When A Portable Transceiver Is Brought Close to A Controller, Noise 346
is Heard from A Portable Transceiver
Chapter 17 – Medium and High Frequency Radio Equipment

17.2 Radio Wave Propagation 347
17.2.1 Ground Wave 348
17.2.2 Sky Wave 348
17.2.3 Direct Wave 348
17.3 Block Diagram of the MF/HF System 350
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxxi

Contents
Chapter 17 – Medium and High Frequency Radio Equipment

17.3.2 Output Power Supply from MF/HF System 351
17.3.3 Controller Unit (Master Control Unit) 351
17.3.4 Digital Selective Calling (DSC) 352
17.3.5 Transmitter 352
17.3.6 Receiver 353
17.4 Narrow Band Direct Printing (NBDP) Equipment 353
17.4.1 Automatic Request (ARQ) Mode 353
17.4.2 Forward Error Correction (FEC) Mode 354
17.4.3 Direct Mode 354
17.5 MF / HF Receiver / Transmitter 354
17.5.1 Receiver 354
17.5.2 Transmitter 356
17.5.3 Exciter Section 356
17.5.4 Frequency Multiplier 357
17.5.5 Power Station 357
17.5.6 Antenna Tuner 358
Chapter 18 – Navigational Telex (NavTex)

18.3 Service Area and Range 361
18.4 Sub Units of the NavTex Receiver 363
18.4.2 Printer 363
18.4.3 Output Signal 363
18.4.4 Antenna 363
18.4.5 Receiver / Display Unit 365
18.5 Decoding a Message Received by the NavTex Receiver 365
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Contents
Chapter 18 – Navigational Telex (NavTex)

18.6.1 Display Unit Connectors 369
18.6.2 LCD / Display Unit 369
18.6.3 Ground Terminal 370
18.6.4 Replacement of the Battery 370
18.6.5 Thermal Paper 370
Chapter 19 – Automatic Identification System

19.3.1 Transponder 372
19.3.2 Monitoring Unit 373
19.3.3 Static Data 373
19.3.4 Dynamic Data (depends on speed and course alteration) 374
19.3.5 Voyage Related Data 374
19.3.6 Short Safety Related Messages 374
19.3.7 Antenna 374
19.3.9 I/O Signals 375
19.4.1 Connectors 377
19.4.2 Cabling 377
19.4.3 Ground Terminal 377
19.4.4 Ground Wire 377
19.4.5 Monitoring Unit, Transponder Unit 377
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxxiii

Contents
Chapter 20 – Long-range Identification and Tracking

20.2 LRIT Definitions 379
20.2.1 Ship-borne Equipment 379
20.2.2 LRIT Information 379
20.2.3 Application Service Provider 379
20.2.4 Data Centre 379
20.2.5 International Data Exchange 379
20.4 Requirements for A Vessel to Comply with LRIT 381
20.5 Roles and Responsibilities 381
20.6 Distributed Architecture 382
20.7 International LRIT Data Centre 384
20.8 Conformance Test 386
Chapter 21 – Closed Circuit Television

21.3 Sub Modules of the CCTV System and Connection Diagram 388
21.4 Tools Required for Installation 389
21.5 Crimping Procedure of the LAN Cable 390
Chapter 22 – Television and Radio Antennae

22.2.1 Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 as amended (MLC,2006): 391
22.3.1 Antenna 391
22.3.2 TV / Radio Booster 392
22.3.3 Splitter 393
22.3.4 Coaxial Cable 393
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Contents
Chapter 22 – Television and Radio Antennae

22.3.5 Connection Box 394
Chapter 23 – Bridge Navigation Watch Alarm System

23.2.1 IMO Carriage Requirements 395
22.2.1.1 New Ships 395
22.2.1.2 Existing Ships 395
23.4 The BNWAS Main Circuit 399
23.4.1 Extension Panel 399
23.4.2 Reset Function 400
23.4.3 Power Supply 400
23.4.4 I/O Communication 400
23.5.1 Troubleshooting the BNWAS JCX-161 401
23.5.1.1 The LCD On the Operation Panel Appears Blank 401
23.5.1.2 NYG-5 Reset Does Not Work 401
23.5.1.3 The Visual Indication Does Not Work on NCJ-895 / 896 401
23.5.1.4 The Visual Indication Does Not Work at NCD-2257 401
23.5.1.5 The Count Down of the Dormant Period Does Not Start 402
Chapter 24 – Ship Security Alarm System

24.3.1 AC-DC Power Supply Unit 405
24.3.2 Personal Computer and Printer 405
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Contents
Chapter 24 – Ship Security Alarm System

24.3.3 Antenna 406
24.3.4 SSAS Alert Switch 406
24.4 Communication Unit with Internal GPS 406
24.5.1 Antenna 407
24.5.2 SSAS Switch 407
24.5.3 SSAS PCB 407
Chapter 25 – Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

25.2 GMDSS Equipment Carriage Requirement. 410
25.3 Basic Functions of The GMDSS System 413
25.4 Sea Areas 417
25.4.1 Area A1 417
25.4.2 Area A2 417
25.4.3 Area A3 418
25.4.4 Area A4 418
25.5 Digital Selective Calling (DSC) 418
25.5.1 Specific Ship Station Identities 419
25.5.2 Group Ship Stations Identities 419
25.5.3 Specific Coast Station Identities 419
25.5.4 Group Coast Station Identities 419
25.5.5 DSC Frequencies 421
25.6 The GMDSS Satellite Segment 421
25.6.1 INMARSAT 421
25.6.2 INMARSAT Space Segment 422
25.7 Land Earth Stations (LES) 423
25.8 INMARSAT Satellite Access Stations (SAS) 423
25.9 Ship Earth Stations (SES) 424
25.9.1 INMARSAT C SES 424
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Contents
Chapter 25 – Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

25.9.2 Fleet F77 SES 424
25.9.3 INMARSAT Fleet Broadband 425
25.9.4 COSPAS SARSAT Satellite 425
25.9.4.1 Basic Concept COSPAS-SARSAT System 426
25.10 GMDSS Equipment Maintenance 428
25.10.1 Self-Testing 428
25.10.2 Power Supplies 428
25.10.3 Battery Maintenance 429
25.10.4 Antenna Maintenance 430
25.10.5 Some Good Practices for Antenna Maintenance 431
25.10.6 GMDSS Tester 431
Chapter 26 – Marine Electric Clock

26.1 Standard Marine Electric Clock System (MCS-970) 433
26.1.1 Salient Features of the Marine Electric Clock System (MCS-970) 433
26.1.2 Capacity and Function of The System 434
26.2 Generic Troubleshooting Guide for a Master Clock System 435
26.2.1 If A Warning Signal Is Generated or if the Clock has Stopped 435
26.2.2 All fuses are okay but it is not working 436
26.2.3 The Clock Is Slow or Fast 436
26.2.4 GPS Signal Has Failed 436
26.2.5 The Master Dimmer Has Failed 436
26.2.6 The Time Is Not Correct 436
Chapter 27 – Alarm Systems

27.1 Fire Alarms and Detection 437
27.1.1 Requirements of a Basic Fire Alarm System 437
27.1.2 Requirements of a Typical Fire Detection System 437
27.1.3 Initiating Devices 438
27.1.4 Indicating Devices 438
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxxvii

Contents

27.1.5 Control Panel 438
27.1.6 Power Supply 438
27.1.7 Virtues of an Intelligent Fire Alarm System 439
27.2 Heat Detectors 440
27.2.1 Fixed Temperature Type 440
27.2.2 Rate of Rise Type 441
27.3 The Combustion Detector 442
27.4 Detectors Reacting to Radiation Emanating from Flames 445
27.5 The Fire Alarm Control Panel 447
27.5.1 IMO Fire Control Signs 452
27.6 Fire Fighting Systems 453
27.6.1 Alarms for Engine Room and Pump Room Systems 455
27.7 Modern Methods of Fire Detection and Suppression 458
27.7.1 Early Fire Warning and Detection 459
27.7.2 The Supervisory Control System 459
27.7.3 Hyper-mist Fire Fighting System 459
27.8 Dead Man Alarm 462
27.8.1 General Description and Location of Units 462
27.8.2 System Specifications 463
27.8.3 Modes of Operation 463
27.8.3.1 Standby 463
27.8.3.2 Unmanned 463
27.8.3.3 Running 463
27.8.3.4 Pre-warning 464
27.8.3.5 Dead Man Alarm 464
27.8.3.6 Initiating the Running Sequence 464
SafePage 3000™ Wireless Paging, Information and Dead Man Alarm
27.8.4
System 464
27.9 Miscellaneous Alarm Indication Systems 466
27.9.1 The Bridge Alarm Console 466
27.9.2 Group Control Panel 467
27.9.3 Operation of a Basic System 467
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Contents

27.10.1 Relevant SOLAS Regulations 468
27.10.2 Summary of Regulations 469
Chapter 28 – Internal Communication Systems

Sound Powered / Intrinsically Safe Telephone System and Engineer’s
28.1
Alarm 473
28.1.2 The Engineer’s Call Alarm 474
28.2 Troubleshooting the Automatic Telephone Exchange System 475
28.2.1 Initial Start-Up for Common Circuits 476
28.2.2 Extensions: For a Specific Extension: No Dial Tone 476
28.2.3 Extensions: For a Specific Extension: Low Speech Level or One-
Way Speech 477
28.2.4 Extensions: For a Specific Extension: Noise Is Present 477
28.2.5 Extensions: For a Specific Extension There Is Crosstalk Coupling 477
28.2.6 Trunk lines: Trunk Line Call Originations Is Impossible 477
28.3 Troubleshooting the Sound Power Telephone LC 800 477
28.3.1 Calling is Impossible 477
28.3.2 Bad Buzzer or LED 478
28.3.3 Calling Quality is Poor 478
28.3.4 There is No Buzzer Sound 478
28.3.5 There is a Buzzer Sound but There Is No Indication 479
28.3.6 There Is a Bad Connection or it is Unable to Communicate 479
Troubleshooting the Intrinsically Safe Type of Common Battery 479
28.4
Phone / Marine Automatic Telephone
28.4.1 Incapable of Calling 480
28.4.2 The Lamp, Buzzer and Bell Do Not Function 480
28.4.3 Communication is poor or cannot be made 480
28.5 Troubleshooting the Public Address System MPA 2000C 481
28.5.1 Mutual Relation of The Speaker Output 481
28.5.2 Power Failure 481
28.5.3 Audio Output Failure 482
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Contents
Chapter 28 – Internal Communication Systems

28.5.4 Remote Microphone Failure 482
28.5.5 Remote(A) Power Failure 482
28.5.6 Remote(B) Power Failure 483
28.5.7 Remote(A) Speaker Failure 483
28.5.8 Microphone Failure 483
28.5.9 Power Failure 484
28.5.10 Voltage Check Points 484
28.6 Troubleshooting the Public Address System 486
28.6.1 Whole System 486
28.6.2 Power Detector Unit 486
28.6.3 Microphone 486
28.6.4 Control Unit 486
28.6.5 Monitor Unit 487
28.6.6 Power Amplifier Unit 487
28.6.7 Remote Control Unit 487
Chapter 29 – Voyage Data Recorder

29.2.1 Voyage Data Recorders 489
29.2.2 Simplified VDRs 491
29.3.1 Data Collecting Unit 493
29.3.2 Data Recording Unit 494
29.3.3 Input Signals 495
29.3.3.1 Date and Time 495
29.3.3.2 Ship’s Position and Datum Used 496
29.3.3.3 Speed (in water and / or over ground) 496
29.3.3.4 Heading (True, Magnetic) 496
AIS-VHF Data-link Message, AIS-VHF Data-link Own-vessel’s
29.3.3.5
Messages 496
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Contents

29.3.3.6 Depth Below Keel (from the Echo Sounder) 496
29.3.3.7 Alarms 496
29. 3.3.8 Rudder Order / Response 496
29. 3.3.9 Engine Order / Response 496
29.3.3.10 Hull Openings, Watertight Doors 497
29. 3.3.11 Acceleration and Hull Stresses 497
29.3.3.12 Wind Speed and Direction 497
29.3.3.13 Radar Data 497
29.3.3.14 Bridge Audio 497
29.3.4 Remote Alarm Panel 497
29.4 The Raytheon MER®-VDR 498
29.4.1 MER®-VDR Administrator Access Rights 499
29.4.2 Final Recording Medium 6260 (Capsule / Black Box) 500
29.4.2.1 Data that is Recorded 501
29.4.2.2 Additional Options 501
29.5 The Sperry Marine VDR and S-VDR 502
29.5.1 The Basic VDR Package 502
29.5.1.1 Data Acquisition Unit (DAU) 503
29.5.1.2 6 Microphones 503
29.5.1.3 Protected Data Capsule (12 Hours) 503
29.5.1.4 Mount for Capsule with 50m cable 503
29.5.1.5 Bridge Alarm Unit 503
29.5.1.6 Sensor Interface Unit 503
29.5.1.7 Playback Software 503
29.5.1.8 Manuals 503
29.5.1.9 Optional 503
29.5.1.10 Mandatory Signal List 503
29.5.2 The VoyageMaster II S-VDR 504
29.5.2.1 Data Acquisition Unit (DAU) 504
29.5.2.2 4 Microphone Units 504
29.5.2.3 Protected Data Capsule (12 Hour) 504
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xli

Contents

29.5.2.4 Mount for Capsule with 50m cable 504
29.5.2.5 Bridge Alarm Unit 504
29.5.2.6 Playback Software 505
29.5.2.7 Manual 505
29.5.2.8 Optional 505
29.6 Maintenance in General 506
29.6.1 Annual Re-certification 506
29.6.2 Cleaning 506
29.6.3 Software Maintenance 506
29.6.4 Replacing Batteries 506
Chapter 30 – List of SOLAS Regulations

Chapter No. Title Page No.
I General Provisions 507
Construction, subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical
II – 1
installations 508
II – 2 Construction – Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction 511
III Life-saving appliances and arrangements 512
IV Radio Communications 514
V Safety of Navigation 515
VI Carriage of cargoes and oil fuels 516
VII Carriage of dangerous goods 517
VIII Nuclear ships 518
IX Management for the safe operation of ships 518
X Safety management for high-speed craft 519
XI – 1 Safety measures to enhance maritime safety 519
XI – 2 Special measures to enhance maritime security 519
XII Additional safety measures for bulk carriers 520
XIII Verification of compliance 520
XIV Safety measures for ships operating in polar waters 520
xlii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 1
Electrical Safety
1.1 Introduction
This chapter has been included in this book because of the fact that the equipment
installed on the bridge of ship use both low and high voltages and many a time, personnel
have suffered from electric shock and other related mishaps. All personnel must exercise
extreme caution when working on the bridge and its surroundings like the wings and on the
mast, etc. Never bypass safety to save money or time!
1.2 The Inherent Dangers and Avoidance of Disastrous Consequences
1.2.1 Risk Assessment

Risk assessment is a process whereby risks are analysed and evaluated.
At the outset, it is worth reproducing a few excerpts from “A Guide to Risk Assessment
in Ship Operations” (Published by IACS - Date: 26/03/2004 - Revision: 0)
Quote
“The best safeguard against accidents is a genuine safety culture - awareness and
constant vigilance on the part of all those involved, and the establishment of safety as a
permanent and natural feature of organizational decision-making”.
IMO defines risk as:
“The combination of the frequency and the severity of the consequence.”
(MSC Circ 1023/MEPC Circ 392)
In other words, risk has two components: likelihood of occurrence and severity of the
consequences.
A hazard is a substance, situation or practice that has the potential to cause harm. Briefly,
what we are concerned with, therefore, is:
• The identification of hazards
• The assessment of the risks associated with those hazards
• The application of controls to reduce the risks that are deemed intolerable
• The monitoring of the effectiveness of the controls

Chapter 1
The controls may be applied either to reduce the likelihood of occurrence of an adverse
event, or to reduce the severity of the consequences. The risks we are concerned with are
those which are reasonably foreseeable, and relate to:
• The health and safety of all those who are directly or indirectly involved in the
activity, or who may be otherwise affected
• The property of the company and others
• The environment
The risk management process may be summarized by the flowchart below.
Identify the
processes Identify
the hazards
associated
with the
processes
Identify and
assess the
Apply the risk associated
lessons learned with the
process
Monitor changing Identify and

conditions and evaluate existing
practices controls
Evaluate and
analyse Define and
performance of implement new
processes and or additional
controls controls
Develop and
implement
performance
measurement
criteria
Unquote
2 Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Electrical Safety
Residual risk is the risk that still exists even after all possible protective measures have
been considered and implemented. The use of technology alone can alleviate but not eliminate
risk and hence some residual risk always remains. Thus, all residual risks must be
documented in the operating procedures and other work instructions.
The user’s role in risk reduction is generally based on the information given by the
designer and / or manufacturer. The following measures can be adopted to reduce risk:
• Introduction of safe working procedures
• Executing work under supervision
• Implementing permit-to-work systems
• Provision and usage of additional safeguards
• Use of adequate personal protective equipment
• Training users to follow safe and recommended procedures
• Reading operating / safety instructions and acting accordingly.
When risk reduction measures have been executed, they must be evaluated in order to
ensure that the measures taken were adequate for the purpose of reducing the risk to an
appropriate level. This can be done by repeating the risk assessment process.
Successful completion of everyday activities depends on safe execution; preparation and
conduct during these activities reflects on performance. In no other field is this more
significant than in the marine field.
Today most marine installations are AC-based, but there may still be a few operating on
AC, which under certain conditions can be lethal. The danger of a DC shock is not nearly as
severe as compared to one from AC supplies.
1.3 Passive Safety Measures
This is the highest level of safety for personnel, when all systems are in normal operation.
Avoiding failure is therefore a primary goal.
The basic design philosophy of an electrical system must, when built according to
SOLAS Requirements, Classification Rules, Regulations or Standards, have an inherent
ability to withstand stresses generated externally and within the system. This ability must give
each function, for example, a power supply for a pump, a defined quality or reliability level.
Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships 3
Chapter 1
The level is reached through correct system design, application or use of suitable
equipment, correct rating and correct installation procedures. Some of the passive measures
are mentioned in the following paragraphs.
1.3.1 Component Quality or Reliability Level
The following measures must be adopted and adhered to:
i. Components must be selected according to their actual use. The rules mention
requirements regarding ambient conditions and design specifications.
ii. The rating must be selected according to the prospective stresses applied on the
component by the system at the location where it is installed.
iii. The component must be installed in such a way that its properties as defined above are
maintained.
The rules specify requirements regarding installation. Some examples are as follows:
a) Cables are very important in a ship’s electrical system’s installation. They are usually
of a specialized construction and incorporate properties in conformity with IEC
recommendations such as flame-retardant capabilities and a high resistance to
humidity, oil, vapour and ageing.
b) Large switchboards are normally to be divided into several cubicles. One of the
reasons is to allow for maintenance work while the rest of the switchboard is in
operation and, in high voltage switchboards the equipment in each cubicle is to be
interlocked so that no live parts are accessible until they are isolated from the network
and solidly earthed. The other reason for adapting to cubicles is that if a mechanical
fault were to occur on one of the components, damage can be alleviated to a great
extent. They also serve as magnetic shields, thus reducing the effects of electro-
magnetic interference.
iv. Enclosures are normally specified according to IEC 529; this standard emphasises the
requirements against intrusion of solid objects and against ingress of water. When an
electrical component is given a degree of protection, this describes the protection required
for personnel and the protection necessary to ensure reliable electrical operation. Two
examples are mentioned below:
a) Rotating machinery mounted in an engine room is to have protection to at least IP 22.

Electrical Safety
IP gives the reference to IEC 529, the first numeral (2) indicates that the motor must
be protected against intrusion of solid objects larger than 12 mm and the second
numeral (2) indicates the protection against ingress of dripping water when tilted up
to 15 degrees. Refer to article 15.15 for more information on ingress protection.
b) A machine mounted on an open deck is to have a degree of protection to at least IP
56. The first numeral (5) means dust protected and, the second numeral (6) means
protection against heavy seas.
1.3.2 Protection against Erroneous Operation
As far as possible, safeguards are built into the electrical system so that a system,
component or machine will be ‘fail safe’ when operational conditions exceed set limits, in
terms of voltage, current, temperature, speed, etc.
1.3.3 Maintenance
There must be an organised system of maintenance applied to the whole electrical
installation. This involves inspection and testing at regular intervals, and the repair or
replacement of any component or part which is found to be defective or malfunctioning. Only
in this way can the electrical installation be relied upon to supply electrical energy safely and
as demanded by operational requirements; Chapter 22 addresses these aspects.
1.3.4 Personnel Protection
All protective measures applied to eliminate potential failures are in fact elements in a
personnel protection scheme, as any abnormal situation will reduce the actual safety level.
Many rules are however, directly aimed at protecting personnel. The most important
requirements and their purpose are aimed at the prevention of accidentally touching live parts.
Electrical shocks can be lethal, even at voltages as low as 220 V. In switchboards, the wrong
use of tools and other objects can also cause arcs, exposing personnel to short-circuit
conditions and similar effects.
Important requirements in the rules are therefore related to:
i. Enclosures
Minimum requirements are given for most electrical equipment, for example,
terminal boxes, distribution boards and starter enclosures.

Chapter 1
ii. Screening
Screens are often required for equipment which cannot be enclosed, for example, the
busbars.
iii. Warning Signboards
These must be prominently and permanently displayed at all locations where potential
electrical hazards exist for personnel.
iv. Limited Accessibility
For high-voltage equipment, special tools must be available to open, for example,
terminal boxes on motors. High voltage transformers are to be installed in locked rooms.
v. Accidentally Touching Rotating and Movable Parts
Minimum enclosures are specified to provide protection against rotating parts in
motors and generators.
vi. Personnel Protective Equipment
Before electrical work is performed, it is necessary to conduct an arc flash hazard
analysis, which will help to determine safe working practices for preventing injuries, the
arc flash boundary and the appropriate level of protective clothing and other PPE for
personnel to use.
The arc flash boundary must be determined for each arc flash hazard analysis done
for a specific task. The arc flash boundary marks the point at which arc-rated (AR)
protective clothing and other PPE are necessary to avoid second-degree burns. AR
clothing or equipment are necessary for protection against arc flash hazards, as they are
specifically designed and tested for protection against the thermal effects of an arc
flash. The arc rating can be expressed in Calories per cm2.
For example, non-conductive goggles should be worn instead of glasses with metal
frames when performing electrical work. In addition, personnel should avoid wearing
jewellery, including metal watches, metal fasteners on clothing, or any other conductive
material when working on equipment with high amperage. The selection of PPE must be
communicated to each affected employee and training must be provided to ensure that
they understand the hazards associated with the work activity and the use of the PPE
determined necessary.

Electrical Safety
Protective clothing and other PPE can be determined by either calculating an incident
energy analysis (which predicts the amount of energy that will be generated during an
electrical arc incident) or by using the tables in NFPA 70E. NFPA 70E tables are used to
determine the hazard / risk category for a specific task. The hazard / risk category is
assigned a number from 0 to 4 and is used to identify the required protective clothing and
other PPE for the specific task. While NFPA 70E does not cover shipboard electrical
work, protective clothing and other PPE consistent with the standard's requirements is
recommended.
1.4 Active Safety Measures
When a failure occurs in the electrical installation, the philosophy is that the installation
shall only suffer minor operative consequences due to any single system failure. Measures are
also to be taken to limit secondary effects from any system failure, to a minimum.
The most important measures adopted to fulfil these requirements are as follows:
1.4.1 Redundancy Requirements
For functions where the reliability level is not considered high enough, the level is
normally increased by the introduction of redundant systems
Example:
In a lubrication system, there are two electrically-powered pumps; where both pumps
have sufficient capacity to maintain adequate lubrication on their own and the pumps are
supplied from independent power supplies, it is said that the pumps are redundant.
The Classification Rules list several users defined as essential and important for the
operation of the ship:
a) Essential users are for example the steering gear and the auxiliary machinery for the
main and auxiliary engines.
b) Important users are for example windlasses, bilge and ballast systems and thrusters.
In addition to these users, there are many functions which are connected to the emergency
system. Such functions are emergency lighting, navigation lights, steering gear, fire detection
/ alarm system and fire pumps.

Chapter 1
As an example, normal lighting is supplied from the main system, but in case of a main
system blackout, the emergency lighting will be supplied from the emergency system. Based
on these considerations, the normal system solution in marine installations, for redundancy, is
as follows:
1.4.1.1 Essential Users
Users which need to be in continuous operation are duplicated. These users have separate
supplies from the main switchboard. Consequently, a main system blackout will interrupt the
operation of these users. Such failures are very rare and if they do occur, they are not
considered likely to cause major dangers in most installations.
For special installations, for example, on diving vessels where continuous thrust is vital
for the safety of the divers, other arrangements must be sought.
1.4.1.2 Important Users
Users which are necessary to maintain the main functions of the installation are very often
duplicated or partly duplicated. They are normally supplied directly from the main
switchboard or from dedicated distribution switchboards.
Example:
There is a main switchboard failure leading to a main system blackout. There is only a
short period where battery-backed systems are alive.
After 5-20 seconds the emergency diesel will start, and users fed from the emergency
switchboard will come alive. For most purposes a 5-20 seconds’ power interruption will have
no consequences, and the power supply is therefore considered “continuous”.
If no major damage is present in the main system, the main system can now be re-started
and normal operation resumed, if functions necessary to start the main system’s diesels are
supplied from the emergency system or can be activated by other sources.
There are several other general redundancy requirements in the Rules:
a) Safety of supply
A ship must be provided with both main and emergency sources of electrical power
supply.

Electrical Safety
b) Main generators and prime movers

There is a requirement for at least 2 (two) generating sets. With any unit out of
service the rest of the generators must be capable of supplying all the systems necessary
for the operation of the vessel and maintaining a minimum habitable condition.
c) Power transformers
Transformer installations supplying essential and important users must be designed so
that with any transformer out of service other transformers can maintain normal
operation.
d) Cable installation
Cables for redundant users must have separate routing. Cables for the emergency
system must be separated from the main system. The intention is that no single incident
damaging the cable installation shall cause failures in redundant circuits. The main
electrical supply must be independent of the emergency supply in such a way that a fire or
other casualty in the spaces containing the main source of supply will not render the
emergency source of supply inoperative.
e) Main lighting system
A main lighting system must be provided and supplied from the main source of
power. The arrangement of the main lighting system must be such that a fire or other
casualty in the spaces containing the main source of power, associated transformer, main
switchboards and lighting switchboards will not render the emergency lighting
inoperative.
1.4.2 Circuit Protection
We know that a basic circuit consists essentially of two parts:
(a) The conductor – which carries current around the circuit; and
(b) The insulation – which confines the current to the conductor itself.
Here, only two types of circuit faults can occur, i.e. either a break in the conductor, or
a break in the insulation (Refer Figure 1.1). The complexity of other faults is beyond the
scope of this chapter. However, Chapter 13 deals with various faults and fault protection
devices in detail.

Chapter 1
An open-circuit fault is due to a break in the conductor, so that current cannot flow.
An earth fault is due to a break in the insulation, allowing the conductor to touch the hull
or an earthed metal enclosure.
A short-circuit fault is due to a double break in the insulation, allowing both conductors
(of different potential) to be connected thereby resulting in a very large current that
bypasses or short-circuits the load. The magnitude of ‘fault current’ that will flow
depends on the overall impedance left in the circuit under such conditions. To minimize
the operational consequences and secondary effects of system failures, the electrical
network is equipped with automatic disconnecting devices. The integrity principle as
described in IEC Publications and the classification rules is of major importance when
selecting protective devices for an installation.
‘Open Circuit’
G Insulation
~ ‘Short Circuit’
Conductor
‘Earth Fault’
Figure 1.1 – Common Circuit Faults
1.5 Fundamental Requirements for Safe Installation of Equipment
From the very early days of electricity there has been an essential requirement for
electrical installations to be installed safely, as well as being suitable for the purpose for
which they are designed. Some guidelines are as follows:
✓ Good workmanship and proper materials shall be used throughout the installation;
✓ The equipment shall be installed in such a way to be accessible for testing, inspection
and maintenance as far as is practical;
Electrical Safety
✓ Joints and connections shall be properly constructed, regarding conductance,

insulation, mechanical strength and protection;
✓ Wherever necessary, circuits shall have suitably rated automatic protective devices
especially for protection against overcurrent;
✓ Whenever a prospective earth fault current is insufficient to operate the above, a
residual current device shall be fitted;
✓ Electrical equipment shall be earthed in such a manner that earth leakage currents will
be discharged without danger;
✓ If metal parts of other devices can be touched simultaneously with the above, then
they should be earthed;
✓ Single pole switches shall be inserted in phase conductors, only except for linked
switches;
✓ Circuits supplying electrical equipment shall have effective means of isolation as
necessary, to prevent or remove any danger;
✓ Safe means of access shall be ensured for persons to operate or attend to installed
equipment;
✓ Equipment exposed to adverse weather or corrosive conditions shall be designed to
prevent any danger from this;
✓ No additions to installations shall be made without ascertaining that there is sufficient
spare capacity for it and that the earthing arrangements are adequate;
✓ Testing shall be carried out on completion of the installation, to the requirements as
specified in relevant regulations.
The ships’ staff must also operate equipment in a safe manner and maintain them in a
safe condition always. Failure to do so will cause danger with possible disastrous
consequences.

Chapter 1
1.6 Dos and Don’ts While Working with Electrical Equipment
Do…
☺ … get to know the ship’s electrical system and equipment. Study the ships’ diagrams to
pinpoint the location of switches and protection devices, distribution boards and
essential items of equipment. Write down this information in a notebook. Note the
normal indications on switchboard instruments so that abnormal operation can be
quickly detected.
☺ …operate and maintain equipment according to the manufacturers’ recommendations.
☺ …ensure that all guards, covers and doors are securely fitted and that all bolts and
fixings are in place.
☺ …inform the Officer of the Watch before shutting down equipment for maintenance.
☺ …remember that it is mandatory to obtain a work permit prior to carrying out any work
on equipment that is supplied with voltages greater than 1000 V. In fact, most vessels
insist on work permits for electrical equipment that operate at even less than 1000 V.
☺ …confirm that circuits are dead (by using a voltage tester¹) before touching conductors
and terminals. In order to achieve this, check the instrument used for testing (to ensure
that it is working); next check the equipment which has been made dead (for any
presence of electricity); finally check the instrument on a live circuit so as to ensure that
it is still working. Never rely totally on switches, etc, as sometimes they may be
defective or could have been wired or labelled wrongly, such that when indicating
‘Off’, they could be ‘On’ thus completing the power supply to the circuit.
☺ …make contact with the conductor(s) of a supposedly dead power system, first with the
back of one hand. Even if a shock should still occur, an involuntary reaction will cause
the victim’s fist to be clenched, thus moving the fingers away from the conductor –
rather than involuntarily gripping the live circuit, which has sometimes resulted in
many fatalities.
☺ …switch off and lock all supplies1, remove fuses and store them in a safe place. It is
mandatory to display warning notices and follow tag-out2 procedures before
removing covers of equipment for maintenance; refrain from asking others to do this;
do this yourself as you are going to work on the equipment.

Electrical Safety
1
To lock-out a piece of equipment or machinery is to block the flow of energy from the
power source to the specific equipment. This is carried out by placing a lock-out device
on the energy isolating device at the source, according to the established procedure,
ensuring that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be
operated until the lock-out device is removed.
2
A tag-out procedure is the placing of a warning tag on the power source to warn
others not to turn it on or open it.
The following actions will enhance safety while working with electrical equipment:
a) Gather as much information as possible about the site being locked-out and about the
areas affected by the procedure.
b) Document specific procedures for each location.
c) Identify the types of energy sources used, potential hazards and all the control devices.
d) Notify all affected employees.
e) Turn-off all operating controls.
f) Locate all energy sources.
g) Isolate all energy sources by blocking, bleeding and venting stored energy as found in
springs, hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
h) Lock-out all switches and energy controls in the “Off” or safe position.
i) Test the operating controls. Put all controls in the “On” position. Ensure that no one can
get hurt before testing.
j) Return all operating controls to the “Off” position.
k) Perform the required task.
l) Remove lock-out devices only after the equipment is fully assembled and all affected
employees have been notified. Each lock-out device must be removed by the person who
put it on.
m) In case the person who carried out the lock-out procedure is not available to remove the
locks and tags when the work has been completed, then preferably the head of the
department or an appointed responsible person must be certain of his whereabouts, inform
him and document this before removing the locks and tags.
Chapter 1
Figure 1.2 – Fool-proof Locks and Tags to be used after Locking Out
Don’t…
…touch live conductors under any pretext – especially when wearing damp clothing or
perspiring.
…remove earth (ground) connectors on power cords and within equipment.
…touch rotating parts as depicted in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 – Caution for Rotating Machinery

…leave live conductors or rotating parts exposed.
…overload equipment.
…neglect or abuse equipment.

Electrical Safety
Remember!
Most accidents occur due to a momentary loss of concentration or attempts to
overlook or ignore standard safety procedures. Do not let this happen to you! You
should think ‘Safety First’ always and hence develop a safety conscious attitude. This
will save your life and the lives of others.
1.6.1 Additional Precautions when Commencing Work on Electronic Equipment
1. Switch off the power to equipment.
2. Select and use adequately-rated test and measuring devices that are both safe for the
environment in which work is to be carried out and for the equipment too.
3. Personnel working on electronic equipment should wear electrostatic discharge (ESD)
straps on the wrist and ensure that the grounding connection (to a good earthing point
on the ship) does not hinder safe working procedures. Refer article 3.3.15 for more
information on ESD.
4. Ensure that the equipment is also grounded at a good earthing point.
5. Electronic components and printed circuit boards, etc, must be stored in anti-static
bags and similar storage devices.
1.6.2 Special Protection Scheme for Workshop Machinery
1. A circuit breaker with a no-volt coil for workshop machinery ensures that if the power
supply fails, the machine(s) will shut down and will not automatically start once the
supply is restored; it has to be manually re-started.
2. The power supply from the Main Switchboard will be routed through a Distribution
Board very close to the workshop and its equipment. This contains miniature circuit
breakers for various machines; in addition, there are overload and short circuit protection
circuits; an emergency stop arrangement will also be installed on the machine itself.
3. Lathes have a foot pedal switch to isolate the equipment in case of an emergency.
1.7 Danger Signals
Be constantly alert for any signs that might indicate a malfunction of electrical
equipment. When any danger signals are noted, report them immediately to the chief engineer
or electrical officer. The following are examples of danger signals:

Chapter 1
Fire, smoke, sparks, arcing, or an unusual sound from an electric motor or contactor.
Frayed and damaged cords or plugs.
Warm receptacles, plugs, and cords.
Slight shocks felt when handling electrical equipment.
Unusually hot, running electric motors and other electrical equipment.
An odour of burning or overheated insulation.
Electrical equipment that either fails to operate or operates erratically.
Electrical equipment that produces excessive vibrations.
1.8 Precautions for Preventing an Electric Shock
Take the following precautions when working on electrical equipment:

Remain calm and consider the possible consequences before performing any action.
When work must be done in the immediate vicinity of electrical equipment, check with
the senior engineer responsible for maintaining the equipment to avoid any potential
hazards. Stand clear of operating radar and navigational equipment.
Never work alone. Another person could save your life if you receive an electric shock.
Never enter a flooded compartment that has a generator actively producing power.
Transfer the load and secure the generator before entering.
Never work on electrical equipment while wearing loose-fitting clothing. Be careful of
loose sleeves.
Never work on electrical equipment while wearing rings, watches, identification tags,
or other jewellery.
Wear safety goggles. Electric arcs or flashes or from flying objects resulting from
electrical explosion and sparks could damage your eyes. The sulphuric acid contained
in batteries and the oils in electrical components can cause blindness.
If possible, de-energize the circuit before using test equipment, especially a megger.
Discharge capacitors before working on de-energized equipment. Take special care to
discharge capacitors properly. Injury or damage to equipment could result if improper
procedures are used.

Electrical Safety
Work on energized circuits only when it is necessary. The power source should be
tagged out at the nearest source of electricity for the component being serviced.
Ensure that all tools are adequately insulated when working on energized electrical
equipment.
When working on energized equipment, stand on a rubber mat to insulate yourself from
the steel deck.
When working on an energized circuit, wear approved electrical insulating rubber
gloves and other personnel protective equipment.
Cover as much of your body as practicable with an insulating material, such as shirt
sleeves. This is especially important when working in a warm space where you may
perspire.
When working on energized electrical equipment, work with only one hand inside the
equipment. Keep the other hand clear of all conductive materials that may provide a
path for current flow.
Keep covers of all fuse boxes, junction boxes, switch boxes, and wiring accessories
closed. Report if any cover is not closed or is missing, to the senior engineer
responsible for its maintenance. Failure to do so may result in injury to personnel or
damage to equipment if an accidental contact is made with exposed live circuits.
Ensure all rotating and reciprocating parts of the electric equipment are adequately
protected by guards.
Secure power to the affected circuits if there is an electrical fire in a compartment. If
critical systems are involved that prevent power from being secured (determined by the
chief engineer), extinguish the fire using a non-conducting agent, such as dry chemical
powder, carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.
WARNING!
The use of water in any form is not permitted
Carbon dioxide is the choice for fighting electrical fires. It has a nonconductive
extinguishing agent and does not damage equipment. However, the ice that forms on
the horn of the extinguisher will conduct electricity.

Chapter 1
Personnel exposed to a high concentration of CO2 will suffocate

Burning electrical insulation is toxic as sometimes gases like phosgene are also
liberated and can kill in a matter of moments. Use an oxygen breathing apparatus
(OBA) when fighting electrical fires.
1.9 Conditions which Increase Danger to Personnel
The involuntary spasm caused by electric current on some parts of the body sometimes
makes the victim jump away. Alternating current that comes into contact with a person’s bare
hands can cause the muscles to contract; hence contact is (undesirably) prolonged. A current
of 12 to 15 mA or more through the muscles is sufficient to make relaxation of the grip
impossible and 10 mA of current can be fatal over a long period. The resistance of dry skin
(to current flow) is high, but that of wet skin is much less (the body’s internal resistance is
very low). Thus, in warm conditions the danger from an electric shock is greater due to sweat
on the skin and this has been a feature of some welding accidents.
The resistance of wet skin, if taken as 1000 , would permit a current flow of 220 mA
from a 220 V supply (220 V/1000 = 220 mA). This is more than enough to be lethal.
Obviously, a higher voltage would increase the current flow. Other factors, which reduce the
resistance of the skin, are poor general health and cuts or other similar injuries.
Current flows into the body through the part in contact with a live conductor and then out
through another part which is touching the earth or another live contact at a different
potential.
The current path may be from one hand to the other, through the chest (resistance
between the hands may be 2 k depending on the area of skin involved), or from hand to foot
etc. Current flow into the body is less when the skin is dry; and if there is resistance in the
current path between the body and the earth this will further reduce or prevent current flow
and shock e.g., rubber mats and dry metal-free footwear.
There is greater risk when working with electrical equipment in humid or wet conditions;
in hot conditions where skin or clothing and even protective leather gloves become soaked
with perspiration and when in contact with metal platforms, railings, machinery or a metal
workbench. The effect of electric shock is more serious for someone in poor health with, say,
a heart problem.

Electrical Safety
1.10 High Voltage Safety
This has been included because Radars do operate on high, unsafe voltages.
While working on a high voltage system, we should pay more attention to safety because
we know that any voltage above 50 V can be fatal. High-voltage circuits in marine
applications and according to IEC guidelines (i.e., > 1000 V AC and ≤ 15 kV AC), are
potentially more dangerous as compared to low voltage circuits (Low Voltage Directive
73/23/EEC concerns electrical equipment from 50 to 1000 V AC and from 75 to 1500 V DC);
it is not only because of the increased voltage but also because under certain common
circumstances high-voltage circuits can retain a lethal charge even when they are switched
off. In addition, dangerous potentials can exist even at some distance from live high-voltage
conductors, the distance being determined by the conductor voltage and the dielectric strength
of the insulating materials (including air) surrounding the conductor. It is therefore considered
essential that all persons who may be required to work on, or operate high-voltage apparatus
are fully aware of the hazards and how to avoid the associated danger.
Personnel working on a high voltage system should follow company safety rules and
procedures; they should wear dry, safe clothing, safety shoes, eye protection, hard hat, etc., as
even the slightest shock disorients a person who might just fall and injure oneself but often it
results in a fatality. The minimum clearances between the nearest exposed, live conductors
and the place of work or access way are mentioned in Table 1.1.
Rated Voltage Safe Distance
Up to 6.6 kV 2.56 metres (8’5”)
V > 6.6 kV to V < 11 kV 2.59 metres (8’6”)
V > 11 kV to V < 22 kV 2.64 metres (8’8”)
V > 22 kV to V < 33 kV 2.74 metres (9’)
Table 1.1 – Safe Distances for HV Systems

Note:
As already mentioned, the IEC defines high voltage as above 1000 V AC, and 1500 V DC,
up to and including 15kV AC
In electric power transmission engineering, high voltage is considered any voltage over
approximately 35 kV.

Chapter 1
The National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA) defines high voltage as over
100 kV to 230 kV.
The possible dangers of electric shocks, fire or flash-over burns arising from the misuse
of electrical equipment are well known and can cause loss of life and damage to equipment.
Where danger arises, it is usually due to an accident, neglect or some other contravention
of the regulations. Hence it is important to ensure that appropriate safety measures are always
adopted.
When work is carried out on a high voltage system, it is highly desirable that a previously
prepared program incorporating a checklist is strictly followed in order to ensure that the
work is correctly performed without mistakes. To operate a high voltage system safely, it is
necessary to ensure that all persons concerned are suitably qualified for the duties they are to
perform. Before attempting any electrical work, there are some basic safety precautions one
must bear in mind.
1.10.1 Isolation and Lockout
1. High voltage electrical equipment must, if practicable, be completely isolated, grounded,
and locked out before starting work on it.
2. If it is not practicable to completely isolate high voltage electrical equipment then:
a) Written safe work procedures acceptable to the Safety Officer must be followed.
b) Two or more qualified and authorized persons must be present while the work is
being done, unless the procedures being followed specifically permit the work to be
done by one person.
c) Appropriate electrical protective equipment, including rubber sheets, hoses, hoods,
gloves and tools that are certified and approved for working on such live circuits must
be selected, used, stored, tested, and maintained in accordance with a standard
acceptable to the Safety Officer, and
d) The use of metal ladders, wire reinforced side rail wooden ladders, metal scaffolds or
metal work platforms must be in accordance with the established procedures.
1.10.2 Warning Signs
Safe working practices also require that while working in such dangerous areas, the zone
must be demarcated with proper barriers and warning signs.
Electrical Safety
Before completing installation and after energizing high voltage electrical equipment,
conspicuous signs that are visible to personnel must be placed close to the equipment e.g.,
“Danger – Energized Equipment”.
1.10.3 Working on De-Energized High Voltage Power Systems
1. Before working on a system that for reasons of safety must be de-energized, the person in
charge must ensure that the part of the system being worked on is isolated, grounded and
locked out as required by regulations.
2. Barriers or distinctive identifications must be used to be able to differentiate high voltage
electrical equipment which has been de-energized for safety reasons from similar
energized equipment at the work location (if lack of such identification would result in
undue risk to personnel).
3. If it is impracticable to lock out a power system or part of the power system then:
a) The boundaries of the power system or part must be clearly defined,
b) Written work procedures governing the issue of safety protection guarantees, and
which address the requirements must be issued. The safety policy adopted by the
company must be followed.
c) All major equipment that is used to establish safety protection guarantees must be
uniquely identified at a conspicuous place on or near the equipment.
1.10.3.1 Person In-charge
1. One person must be assigned at any one time, the exclusive authority as the person in
charge to establish the conditions for, and to issue safety protection guarantees for the
power system or a part of it.
2. The person in charge must:
a) Ensure that the status of the power system or assigned part of the power system is
accurately represented on a mimic display,
b) Maintain a log of switching details, safety protection guarantees and operational
events,
c) Authorize the commencement of any work on the power system or assigned part of it.

Chapter 1
3. There must be an effective communication system between the person in charge and the
personnel doing the work.
1.10.3.2 Switching Sequences
If a switching sequence requires the operation of 3 or more devices, a written switching
order must be prepared and followed.
1.10.3.3 Isolating Devices
1. Isolating devices used for safety protection guarantees must facilitate visual verification
of the opening of the isolation point.
2. Lockable isolating devices must be locked in the position or condition required to protect
personnel before work commences under a safety protection guarantee.
3. A distinctive “DO NOT OPERATE” tag must be placed securely on each isolating device
used for a safety protection guarantee.
1.10.3.4 Insulation Resistance
1. The recommended insulation resistance is kV + 1 MΩ which means that if the voltage is
3.3 kV, the minimum insulation recommended is 4.3 MΩ. However, healthy machines
would possess much higher values.
1.10.3.5 Grounding and Blocking
1. After a safety protection guarantee is in effect, the equipment to be worked on must be
tested to verify isolation before grounding and blocking begins.
2. After testing to verify isolation of the respective equipment, the responsible person must
verify that required grounding and blocking devices are in place before the work begins.
3. Grounding and blocking of any equipment that may be hazardous to personnel must be
carried out as close as is practicable to the worksite.
4. If grounding and blocking is not safe or practicable, written safe work procedures must be
followed.
5. Grounding and blocking devices may be removed for the purpose of conducting tests.

Electrical Safety
1.11 Electrical Accidents
Research has shown that at least 75% of all accidents are the result of carelessness.
Hurrying reduces caution and invites accidents.
1.11.1 Arc Flash
An arc fault generates an arc flash, which contains extremely high-temperature
conductive plasma and gases. A rough estimate is that around 80% of all electrical injuries are
burns resulting from an arc flash contact or ignition of flammable material like clothing. Arc
flashes can cause 2nd and 3rd degree burns if skin temperatures rise to about 2000 F (~950 C).
1.11.2 Arc Blast
It is a pressure wave caused by the rapid expansion of gases and conducting material with
high-flying molten materials and shrapnel. An arc blast may result in a violent expansion of
circuit components. Such blasts can destroy structures, knock personnel from ladders, etc., or
just across a room, rupture ear-drums or cause the victim’s lungs to collapse.
1.11.3 Shock
Human tissues, such as the skin and the muscles, as well as blood and other body fluids
are termed as electrolytes. Consequently, they are electrical conductors that may be
characterised based upon their conductivity. Electric potential differences applied across
human tissues, or at two locations on the external skin surface generate response currents.
Electric shock can be classified as follows:
1.11.3.1 Micro Shock
Micro shock describes an internal shock that may occur because of certain medical
diagnostic or surgical procedures in which electrically operated sensors are introduced into
the human body. The effective current ranges from 10 to 100
1.11.3.2 Macro Shock
Macro shock describes simultaneous contact between the body’s surface and two
electrical conductors at different potentials and the physiological consequences of this
contact.
Electric shock is often from hand to foot or from hand to hand (Refer Figure 1.4). The
two conductors may be a hot (live) conductor and the ground or two hot (live) conductors as
in two of the phase wires of a three-phase power distribution system.
Chapter 1
The severity of the consequences of electric shock depends on a variety of factors. The
physiological effects of electric shock are not produced by electric potential i.e., voltage, but
rather by the electric current that is driven by the potential difference, which is applied
externally to the body surface. The combined effective electrical resistance of the body
volume involved and the intimacy i.e., the surface area involved and pressure applied during
skin-conductor contact, have a major effect on the severity of the electric shock.
Due to the damp, saline conditions generally encountered in the marine environment,
quite low AC voltages can result in a fatal electric shock. The passage of even a very small
current through a vital part of the human body can kill. Nearly everyone has experienced an
electric shock at some time in their lives.
Electric shock is a jarring, shaking sensation. Usually it feels like receiving a sudden
blow. At best, it is an unpleasant experience; at worst, it is fatal. Anyone who has access to
live electrical equipment must be fully aware of first aid and safety procedures related to
electric shock as described in relevant Safety Acts. Copies of these safety procedures should
be displayed on board a ship.
Live Power Lines or Circuit
Heart affected
in both cases
Live Equipment
Shock Current Flow Shock Current Flow

Hand-to-foot Hand-to-hand
Figure 1.4 – Current Paths in General

Electrical Safety
Posters on display at high-risk areas such as the switchboard, generally portray the effects
of severe electric shock and immediate first aid required for its victims. Resuscitation
techniques are also taught in the mandatory first aid courses.
Certain conditions increase the dangers from electric shock, and risks are greater when
using portable AC appliances than with fixed electrical installations. Unfortunately, body
resistance goes down as the applied voltage goes up. This means that the shock current is
further increased at high voltages.
The value of body resistance also depends on other factors such as the state of one’s
health, the degree of contact with live wires, and the perspiration or dampness on the skin, the
condition of the skin surfaces coming in contact with the electrical conductors being an
important factor. Personnel who use their hands in occupations that build up calluses
(hardened areas of skin), will tend to possess more resistance to electric shock, while those
with soft hands would be more susceptible to the same current levels.
Typical dry full-contact body resistance is about 5000 at 25 V, falling to about 2000
at 250 V. Hand-to-hand resistance of a wet body may also be as low as 1,000 and as high as
10,000 for a dry body. Fatalities have resulted from voltages as low as 30 volts.
Table 1.2 explains the general effectiveness of various levels of current in a 60 Hz circuit.
To explain briefly, a shock current as low as 15 mA AC or 50 mA AC may be fatal. At about
100 mA (0.1 ampere), the shock is fatal if it lasts for one second or more. Obviously, the
magnitude of shock current is related to the applied voltage and body resistance; however, the
effects widely vary depending upon the person involved. Current from a steady DC source, in
passing through the skin, will tend to cause muscular contraction at the initial contact and as
contact is broken.
Alternating current produces a continuing spasm in the muscles through which current
passes, with its change from forward to reverse flow at the rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second.
Alternating current can stimulate nerves directly. It finally results in the unfortunate victim
tightening his / her grip. Most victims of ‘serious shock’ will have been in contact with
alternating current circuits. Serious shock results in unconsciousness or worse conditions,
requiring resuscitation and medical care.
Alternating current, which takes a path through the chest area, can, by contraction of the
chest and diaphragm muscles, stop the breathing directly and possibly also indirectly by
interfering with the functioning of the respiratory control nerves.

Chapter 1
Similarly, shock in the region of the chest can have direct consequences for the heart,
causing stoppage of contraction of the heart’s muscles. Lesser alternating currents can upset
the heart’s pumping action by destroying the co-ordination between the walls of the ventricles
(ventricular fibrillation).
It must be remembered that fibrillation is unlikely to occur if the current in mA is less
than 116/t where t is the shock duration in seconds; thus, even though the current may be
lower it may lead to this unpleasant condition if the victim is exposed for a longer time.
Current Level Effect on Victim
1 mA Sensation that shock is occurring
5 mA* Upper limit of safe or harmless range (painful shock)
Let-go threshold – the victim cannot shake loose from the source of shock and
10 to 20 mA*
perspires (onset of muscular contraction and could lead to sever shock)
Sustained muscle contraction and cramping – could lead to temporary lung
30 to 40 mA*
failure too
Extreme pain, physical exhaustion, fainting, irreversible nerve damage;
50 to 70 mA* possibility of ventricular fibrillation (shocking of the heart into a useless flutter);
respiratory arrest with possible asphyxiation
Certain ventricular fibrillation (of the heart) and death if the current passes
100 mA*
through the body trunk
>100 mA Fibrillation, amnesia (memory loss), burns, severe electrolysis at contact sites
>5A Little likelihood of survival; also could result in severe burns.
In the case of females, these values could be lower by 30% to 35%
Table 1.2 – Electric Shock Currents and Physiological Effects
Current flowing through the body can also cause clotting within blood vessels so that
tissues are starved of blood. Various nerves may be affected. The brain or other vital organs
could also be injured. Serious shock because of the above can kill instantly, in so far as
stoppage of the heart and breathing are equated with death.
However, with the power shut off, or with the person safely removed from contact, the
prompt and continuing application of first aid has a 75% chance of saving life. With shock,
arrest of breathing and heartbeat are not the result of physical defect but of a temporary
condition induced by the electric current; with only brief contact there may not be serious
damage from the current.

Electrical Safety
Resuscitation to overcome loss of heartbeat and breathing requires both heart massage
and artificial respiration to be employed. An unconscious person who is not breathing must be
given artificial respiration. After recovery, victims of shock are to be kept under close
observation because of the likelihood of a relapse. Unconsciousness and other forms of
distress may be delayed and not follow immediately after a shock, which has apparently left
the victim only shaken.
1.11.4 First Aid
1.11.4.1 The Basic Procedure
The following will help to alleviate the danger in any situation:
1. Act quickly!
2. Survey the situation
3. Develop a plan
4. Assess the victim’s condition
5. Summon help if needed
6. Administer the required First Aid
This type if injury is an emergency that calls for prompt and intelligent action - prompt
action if the casualty’s life is to be saved; intelligent action if two casualties instead of one are
to be avoided. Studies prove that only about 20% of victims survive if there is a delay of up to
3 minutes in rendering the right aid! The following are the basic steps to be initiated in case of
an electric shock:
Switch off the current
If the switch cannot be found immediately and the supply is through a flexible cable,
removing the plug, wrenching it free or even severing the cable may cut off the current.
DO NOT attempt to cut the cable with a knife or un-insulated cutters / scissors. In case it
is impossible to switch off or break the current’s circuit, then…
...Remove the casualty from contact with the current
The greatest care is necessary; insulating materials must be used and they must be dry.
With ordinary domestic equipment, gloves are good. In case this is not available, a dry cap,
coat, garment or even cardboard / folded newspaper gives fair protection.

Chapter 1
If possible, the rescuer should stand on some dry insulating material such as rubber-soled
shoes or boots, a rubber mat or piles of cardboard / newspapers.
It must be remembered that if the rescuer comes in contact with the casualty, even he will
get a shock!
With very high voltages, danger may exist even if the casualty is not actually in contact
because the current may jump across the gap (arcing may occur). In these cases, the rescue
should be approached with great caution and the rescuer must keep as far as possible from
any part of the electrical equipment. The casualty may be dragged away with a dry wooden
pole or rope.
Lower the casualty to the floor taking care not to damage the head
If the casualty is conscious, make him comfortable
Should the casualty be unconscious but breathing…
…loosen the clothing around the neck and waist and place the casualty in the recovery
position; keep a constant check on his pulse; improvise a suitable method to keep the
victim warm.
When the casualty is found unconscious, but not breathing…
…take immediate action and apply emergency resuscitation techniques that one must be
aware of:
Mouth-to-mouth (or mouth-to-nose) resuscitation is by far the most commonly used
form of resuscitation and is most effective in the event of an electric shock. However, if
the face has sustained injury, it may be more practical to use the Holger-Neilson method.
Both methods are explained in articles 1.11.4.2 and 1.11.4.3.
Once the person is stabilized, attend to the physical injuries as they would normally
be treated. Lay the victim face up in a prone position. The feet should be about 12 inches
higher than the head.
Chest or head injuries require the head to be slightly elevated. If there is vomiting or
if there are facial injuries that cause bleeding into the throat, place the victim on his
stomach with his head turned to one side. The head should be 6 to 12 inches lower than
the feet.

Electrical Safety
Keep the victim warm

The injured person’s body heat must be conserved. Cover the victim with one or more
blankets, depending on the weather and the person’s exposure to the elements. Avoid
artificial means of warming, such as hot water bottles.
Treat any burns
Damage from electrical burns may not appear to be extensive from the surface mark
(sometimes just a small whitened area), but the penetration may be deep; the injury would
be slow to heal and subject to infection if it is not treated immediately. In some cases both
thermal and electrochemical burns can occur simultaneously if the victim accidentally
touched an electrically energised hot conductor such as an electric oven’s heating coil.
Current flow can cause clotting of the blood and destruction of tissue. Most cases of
severe burning result from contact with a direct current supply.
• Maintain a neutral position of the head and neck by applying a cervical collar or
improvised (towel) collar.
• Establish and maintain the airway, breathing, and circulation (ABC).
• Elevate burned limbs; place some firm, soft support under the affected limbs to
elevate them. This helps to reduce swelling and increases the comfort level of the
victim.
• Cover burns with a moist, preferably sterile dressing.
Control the victim’s intake
Do not give drugs, food and liquids if medical attention will be available within a
short time. If necessary, liquids may be administered. Use small amounts of water, tea, or
coffee. Never give alcohol, opiates*, and other depressant substances.
* An opiate is: (i) a sedative drug containing opium or (ii) a thing that soothes the
feelings or dulls activity.
Transfer to hospital or seek medical aid
Send for medical personnel (a doctor, if available) at once, but do not, under any
circumstances leave the victim until medical help arrives.
1.11.4.2 Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation
✓ Lay the casualty on his or her back and check the mouth for blockages. If possible, raise
the casualty’s shoulders with a padding of some sort.

Chapter 1
✓ Make sure the head is well back and the air-way is clear.
✓ Pinch the casualty’s nose. Take a deep breath and seal your lips around the open mouth of
the casualty.
✓ Blow gently and firmly into the casualty’s mouth; the chest should rise slightly as the
lungs fill with air. Repeat this until the casualty shows signs of recovery.
1.11.4.3 Holger-Neilson Resuscitation
Place the casualty face downwards with the head to one side; check that the casualty’s
mouth is clear.
Kneel by the head-side of the casualty and place both your hands flat on the upper-part of
the back.
Rock forward applying pressure with your hands.
Rock backward sliding your hands under the casualty’s arm-pits.
Grasp the upper-arms and lift the casualty gently off the floor to bring air into the lungs.
Lower the casualty gently down again.
Repeat the sequence until there is a sign of recovery and place in the recovery position.
1.12 Maintenance of Records
Maintenance of records forms an important part of the system that is to be adopted for
achieving electrical safety. The records could include the following:
a) Single line diagrams of systems
b) Layout plans of equipment
c) Record of inspections, work permits and a list of authorised personnel (permitted to carry
out electrical work)
d) Equipment history sheets
e) Accident investigation reports
f) Training records
Finally, we must remember that safety in the use of electrical energy is a subject of
paramount importance. It is very essential to adhere to the various requirements and practices
as laid down in various safety standards and codes of practices to ensure a safe and healthy
electrical system while complying with the statutory rules.

Chapter 2
Steering and Stabiliser Systems
2.1 Fundamental Concepts

2.1.1 Steering Gear
It is the machinery, rudder actuators, steering gear power units, if any and ancillary
equipment with the means of applying torque to the rudder stock (e.g., tiller or quadrant)
necessary for effecting movement of the rudder for steering the ship under normal service
conditions.
Elementary steering gear first comprises of a steering wheel (or maybe a control knob) on
the bridge, generally operated by the helmsman. The helm order or desired angle of the rudder
is then transmitted from here to the steering control unit. This results in the operation of the
rudder to which it is linked, provided the comparator gives an output that is proportional to the
difference of the set point and the current position of the rudder.
The steering control dials are normally graduated in such a manner that the rudder moves
in tandem with it. For example, if the rudder is designed to move +350, which is generally the
case for large vessels, then the control wheel will also have a fixed dial and pointer arrangement
graduated from 00 to +350.
A negative feedback signal of this ordered (or desired) angle is transmitted automatically
through ‘hunting gear’ to the steering gear’s control unit. This (the negative feedback) gradually
nullifies the control signal to the steering gear and causes the rudder to stop when the desired
angle has been achieved. In the case of an electro-hydraulic system, it is possible for the control
unit to receive negative feedback signals through rotary transformers, potentiometers, etc. Now
“helm angle” is the position of the steering wheel relative to the midship position.
Now, in some steering gear systems, be it a wheel, knob or handle, the steering control
element does not maintain a one-to-one relationship with the rudder. In such an instance, an
independent rudder indicator is deemed necessary and will be in the form of the type mentioned
in article 2.2.
Instead of just a fixed dial and pointer, a two-element synchro chain (i.e., a pair of
transmitting and receiving Synchros) may be used to indicate to the operator the position that
is desired of the rudder. Article 2.2 explains the theory behind Synchros.

Chapter 2
The indicator is also called a helm indicator. Classification rules now specify that an
independent rudder angle indicator be fitted when the rudder is power operated.
2.1.2 Steering Gear Power Unit
1. In the case of electro hydraulic steering gear, an electric motor and its associated electrical
equipment and a connected pump form the unit.
2. In the case of other hydraulic steering gear, a driving engine and connected pump form the
unit.
3. In the case of electric steering gear, an electric motor and its associated electrical equipment
form the unit.
2.1.3 Auxiliary Steering Gear
It is the equipment other than a part of the main steering gear necessary to steer the ship
in the event of failure of the main steering gear but not including the tiller, quadrant or
components serving the same purpose.
2.1.4 Steering Gear Control
A Steering gear control system is the equipment by which orders are transmitted from the
navigation bridge to the steering gear power units and locally from the steering gear space.
These may be any acceptable arrangement like manual operation of hydraulic valves, electrical
or electro-hydraulic systems - with the help of an operating handle, wheel or joystick. Steering
gear control systems comprise of transmitters, receivers, electro-hydraulic converters, hydraulic
control pumps and their associated motors, motor controllers, piping and cables. About the
Rules, steering wheels, steering levers and rudder angle feedback linkages are not considered
to be part of the control system. A steering console that is installed on the bridge or wheelhouse
of a ship is depicted in Figure 2.1.
In modern ships, the control system comprises of the Auto-pilot / Follow-up type (manual
mode with internal feedback) and / or the ‘non-follow-up’ type (manual mode without internal
feedback); a simple console is shown in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 – AutoNav’s Steering Console
Figure 2.2 – Major Units of a Steering System (Includes Other Equipment)

Chapter 2
2.1.5 Mechanical Control

Several vessels achieve local (manual) control of the steering gear with the help of a
mechanical differential control. This allows the helmsman to rotate the steering wheel at a
desired rate. The helm signal is transmitted to the mechanical differential through the rotary
electro-hydraulic unit and then to the steering gear pump’s control. Hydraulic pressure can also
be made available with the help of a dedicated hydraulic system’s accumulators.
The steering gear itself follows, moving the rudder at its pre-determined rate. A mechanical
follow-up linkage feeds the rudder position to the mechanical differential. The reduction of the
pump stroke is with the help of differential control, when it is within 50 of the ordered angle. It
is fully off-stroke when the ordered angle is reached.
2.1.6 Remote Control Systems
In short, they can relate to mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and electronic subsystems.
Ancient systems even resorted to using shafts, wire rope, sprockets and chains, push-pull
flexible control cables and their combinations to transfer motion proportional to that of the
helm. This was connected from remote steering stations to the local control station of the
steering gear but in most cases proved troublesome. These mechanical means are simple,
reliable and still used in smaller vessels.
As will be mentioned later, the use of an electro-hydraulic unit can be used instead. The
fundamental type of hydraulic control system is the hydraulic telemotor that has been in use for
ages. It consists of a telemotor unit located in the wheelhouse and an aft unit in the steering
gear flat. Pipelines are used to connect the units and cylinder. The pipelines of the cylinder are
attached to the steering gear local control unit. The hydraulic pressure causes the steering gear
to move the rudder in the direction chosen by the helmsman.
2.1.7 Non-Follow-up Steering (or Time Dependent Steering)
The following explanation supports the Non-follow-up Control Diagram depicted in Figure
2.3. It will be understood that while using the ‘Non-Follow-up’ (NFU) system, the steering gear
will function if the controller is held in an actuating position i.e., either to Port or to Starboard
and will only stop when it moves back to an ‘Off’ or the central position or until the steering
gear has reached its mechanical limit.
The control from the bridge is by means of a NFU lever or sometimes a wheel that is spring
loaded. Since the rudder movement depends on the duration that the control is held off-centre,
this variant of a steering control system is sometimes called ‘time dependent steering’.

The NFU lever operates a switch that energises either a port or starboard solenoid,
depending upon the direction of movement required. These solenoids in turn operate a pilot
valve that brings about the operation of the main control valve.
As seen in Figure 2.3, the solenoid-operated pilot valve is a two-way-three-position one. It
is designed to divert hydraulic pressure through direct or cross-connected ports. A fixed
delivery pump serves to deliver hydraulic pressure to the steering gear.
NFU
Control
Lever
Auto Solenoid Operated Pilot Valve

Pilot Selector
Circuit
Rams and Cylinders
Main Control
Valve
Feedback Back
Device Pressure
Valve
Relief
Rudder Stock and
Bypass
Valve
Motor and Pump
Sump
Figure 2.3 – Non-follow up Control Diagram of a Rudder

Depending upon the application of pressure to a side or the ram, the desired direction of
rudder movement is thus achieved. When the NFU lever is released, springs return it to the
central position. This causes the control valve to return to its neutral position; the main control
valve in turn also returns to neutral thus bypassing the pump delivery.
The steering gear stops for two reasons – first because there is no hydraulic pressure and
secondly because, as we can see in Figure 2.3, the hydraulic fluid is trapped on either side of
the ram due to the blind ports in the main control valve.

Chapter 2
The rudder indicator serves as a negative feedback device. It is capable of only serving as
a visual feedback device. Thus, the onus is on the helms-man to control the movement of the
rudder. He is as an important link in the control chain and serves as a virtual hunting gear!
2.1.8 Full Follow-up (Manual Mode) with Electro-hydraulic Control
The modern version senses any existing error between the helm (the position of the rudder
controller) and the rudder’s true position with the help of a comparator. The error which is in
essence an algebraic sum of the desired and true angles of the rudder is amplified and fed to the
rudder control unit. This moves the rudder to the desired angle either port or starboard. The
rudder stops only when a negative feedback signal cancels out the desired angle signalled by
the helm. The rudder is held in position so long as the difference is equal to zero. The rudder
will move once again when a difference arises by moving the helm or due to the drifting of the
rudder on account of hydrodynamic forces.
In a very basic system, turning a wheel causes a potentiometer in a balanced bridge
network, to unbalance the electrical circuit. The error signal activates an intermediate powered
servo that supplies the local control unit and moves a follow-up potentiometer linked to the
rudder. This balances the circuit once again and cuts–off the servo, when the helm and relative
servo angular positions neutralise each other. The powered servo is in most cases an electro-
hydraulic unit that can be likened to a miniature steering gear. It is designed for application
with any steering gear variant and serves as one link in a chain of servomechanisms from the
steering wheel to the rudder.
2.1.9 Two Ram Hydraulic Steering Gear – Open Loop System
A hydraulic pump supplies oil to two opposed cylinders and rams. As oil is supplied under
pressure to one cylinder, oil is drawn from the opposing cylinder and the two rams move
together. The rams end in cross heads that are bolted together, the joined ends being bored
vertically to form the top and bottom bearings for the swivel block. The tiller pin or arm runs
through the swivel block and translates the lateral movement of the rams into a rotary movement
of the tiller.

Cylinders &
Rapson slide
Shock relief
valves
Directional control -
solenoid operated
with manual overide
Pump change over

block - solenoid
operated
Main pump Auxiliary pump
Figure 2.4 – Two Ram Steering Gear Powered by An Open Loop Hydraulic System
2.1.10 A Two Ram Steering Gear Powered by A Closed Loop Hydraulic System
The variable delivery pumps control the amount and direction of flow in the system and are
positioned by moving the swash plates. The system is maintained under a head pressure from
the tank via the two non-return valves, which prevent back-flow into the header tank. The
pumps and the rudder operating cylinders are protected against shock loading by the system
overpressure relief valves.

Chapter 2
Header tank
Non-
return
valves
Operating
lever
Main variable Auxiliary System

delivery pump overpressure
pump relief valves
Figure 2.5 – A Two Ram Steering Gear Powered by a Closed Loop Hydraulic System

Auto
Pilot
Full Follow-Up
Controller
Auto Pilot
Full Follow-Up Auto Pilot
Power Power
Supply Supply
Local Local
Control Control
Unit Unit
Motor Motor Motor Motor

Control Control
Unit Unit
Sump Sump
Solenoid
Valves
Rudder Rudder
Angle Angle
Feed Back Feed Back
Rudder
Stock
Hydraulic Cylinder Hydraulic Cylinder

Ra Ram
m
Figure 2.6 – Two-ram Electrically-controlled, Hydraulically-operated

Closed Loop Steering System
Chapter 2
This has many advantages, a few of which are:

Compatibility with complex control systems
Less running hours for pumps
Increased reliability
Easy and quick changeover to a standby hydraulic system
Local control from the unit itself in case of an emergency
This method is much simpler and can be one of the many modes of operation in a complex
auto pilot or electronically controlled steering system. The next sub-heading briefly explains an
electronically controlled system where-in, though the use of electronics is resorted to, hydraulic
pressure is required to move the rudder.
2.1.11 The Four-ram Type of Steering Gear
This steering gear arrangement is basically a doubled version of the two-ram steering gear.
It consists of four hydraulic cylinders supplied with oil by two electrically driven pumps. Rams
operate the rudder tiller through a crosshead and Rapson Slide mechanism. The pumps are of
the variable displacement axial piston type. Each pump is located inside its own oil storage
tank, from which it takes suction and is driven by an electric motor, mounted outside the tank,
through a flexible coupling.
The steering gear can operate as two totally independent and isolated steering systems. The
second pump unit can be connected at any time by starting the motor. No.1 pump has a
hydraulic system which connects it with No.3 and No.4 hydraulic cylinders whilst No.2 pump
is connected with No.1 and No.2 cylinders. The steering gear is provided with an automatic
isolation system which is actuated should there be a pump failure or oil loss from the working
system; the automatic isolation system isolates the defective hydraulic system and makes the
other system sound so that it can remain fully operational.
Both hydraulic systems are interconnected by means of electrically operated isolating valves
that, in normal operation, allow both systems together to produce the torque necessary for
moving the rudder. In the event of failure that causes a loss of hydraulic fluid from one of the
systems, the float switches in the expansion tank are actuated. This gives a signal to the isolation
system, which automatically divides the steering gear into two individual systems.

The defective system is isolated, whilst the intact system remains fully operational. The
cylinders are braced by the girders, as in the two-ram design, but further cross-bracing is
employed between diagonally opposite cylinders, to maintain alignment and prevent twisting.
The system also offers a wide range of flexibility in the event of component failure and
various combinations of cylinders can be selected by adjusting the isolating and bypass valves.
Pairs of cylinders can be isolated from each pump and from the other pair of cylinders by
selecting different combinations of valves. This arrangement gives 100% redundancy in the
event of a system failure.
For example, if cylinder 1 fails, then the system can be isolated to run on cylinders 3 and 4
only by closing valves 1 and 2 and opening bypass valve or by closing valves 1 and 3. Both
bypass and isolating valves to the system can continue to run on cylinders 2 and 4 using pump
1. The rudder can also be locked in position by closing valves 1 - 4.
Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2
Valve 1 Valve 2
Bypass 11
Bye-pass
Pump 1
Isolating Isolating
valve 2 valve 1
Pump 2
Bye-pass
Bypass 22
Valve 3 Valve 4
Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4
Figure 2.7(a) – Four Ram Hydraulic Steering Gear

Chapter 2
Figure 2.7.(b)
Figure 2.8 – Pictorial View of a Four Ram Steering Gear System

The steering gear is remotely controlled by the auto pilot control or by hand steering from
the wheelhouse. Emergency control is carried out by the operation of the pushbuttons on the
solenoid valves on the auto pilot units. All orders from the bridge to the steering compartment
are transmitted electrically. Steering gear feedback transmitters supply the actual position signal
for the systems. The rudder angle is limited to 350 port or starboard.
The variable flow pumps are operated by a control lever, which activates the tilting lever
of the pump cylinder, which causes oil to be discharged to the hydraulic cylinders. When the
tiller reaches the set angle, the tilting lever is restored to the neutral position, which causes the
pump to cease discharging. No.1 pump unit is supplied with electrical power from the
emergency switchboard and No.2 pump unit from the main switchboard.
Under normal circumstances, all four cylinders will be in use, with one pump unit running
and the second pump unit ready to start automatically.
2.1.11.1 Combined Shock Relief and Bypass Valves
The double spring and ball shock relief valves are set to lift at pressures of about 82 to 110
bar, and are intended to allow the rudder to give way, if they are subjected to heavy sea pressure.
The valves function to open up a connection between the ram with high pressure and the ram
with lower pressure. The excess pressure forces the relevant ball valve off its seat and so opens
up the cross connection. The manual bypass valve is only opened when charging the system, or
in an emergency when isolating part of the system.
2.1.11.2 Hunting Gear
Position control of a variable delivery steering gear pump is carried out by a telemotor
receiver or more commonly by an electrohydraulic-operated servo cylinder operating via a
floating lever onto the swash plate of the pump.
The other end of the floating lever is connected via a compressed safety spring, to the rudder
stock or tiller arm as shown in the following diagram.

Chapter 2
Pump
operating
rod Variable
B delivery
pump
‘Floating’
lever
Operating
signal from
C bridge via
telemotor or
servo
Safety
spring
A
Rapson
slide and
tiller
Figure 2.9 – Hunting Gear

Assuming the rudder is stationary at amidships and a signal is received from the bridge to
move the rudder to port. The telemotor or servo operating rod will move the floating lever and
pivot about ‘A’. This will cause the pump operating rod to move outwards and put the pump
on ‘stroke’ i.e., the pump will start delivering oil to the cylinders. The rudder will then start to
move to port and in doing so, will cause the floating lever to pivot about ‘C’. This will cause
the pump operating rod to return to the neutral position, the pump will stop pumping and the
rudder will come to rest at a new position determined by the amount of signal received from
the bridge.
2.1.11.3 Variable Delivery Pump Anti-Rotation Device
In closed loop variable pressure systems, under normal operating conditions, both main and
auxiliary pumps remain connected to the system regardless of which pump is running. This
enables the stand-by pump to take over in an emergency without the need to open and close the
isolating valves.

To prevent the stand-by pump from being ‘motored’ by the running pump, both pump shafts
are fitted with locking devices that will allow the pump to turn in the pumping direction but
will lock the pump if there is an attempt to motor it in the opposite direction. Figure 2.10 shows
such a device, which consists of a simple rachet and a series of pawls.
Locks when the motion

is in the direction
of the arrow
Fixed
Figure 2.10 – Variable Delivery Pump Anti-Rotation Device

2.1.11.4 Emergency Arrangements
The failure of the telemotor or servo unit can be overcome by controlling the pumps
manually in the steering gear flat. Regulations state that an alternative steering arrangement
must be provided and this is normally done by having a duplication of power units, one of
which is fed from the emergency switchboard, so that it can be run with the help of power
supply from the emergency generator. In modern systems, both units can be fed from the
emergency generator.
However, hydraulic steering gears can be rendered useless by loss of hydraulic oil. SOLAS
Rules now require a steering system to be so designed that a single failure of the hydraulic
system would not leave the steering gear inoperable. This has led to duplicated piping systems
or two interconnected circuits with automatic isolation of one from the other, should there be a
loss of hydraulic fluid.
2.1.11.5 Further Safety Devices
Oil header / storage tanks must be fitted with low level alarms that will sound on the bridge.
The steering mechanism must be protected against excessive travel by movement limiters.
These take the form of hydraulic locking devices built into the operating system that will bring
the rams or the vanes to rest before they reach the mechanical limits of travel.
Chapter 2
Ram systems will also have some form of mechanical stop fitted to the tiller arm to prevent
excess travel and damage to the rams. Stop blocks may also be fitted on the rudder itself.
2.1.12 Procedure to Put the Steering Gear into Operation
1. The system valves are assumed to be set for normal operation.
2. Check the level and condition of the oil in the tanks and refill with the correct grade as
required.
3. Check that the control lever is correctly set for operation from the bridge and not locally
from the steering flat.
4. Ensure the rudder is in the mid position.
5. Start the selected electro-hydraulic pump unit.
6. Carry out pre-departure tests.
7. Check for any abnormal noises.
8. Check for any leakages and rectify if necessary.
9. Check the operating pressures.
2.1.13 Automatic Isolation System
This steering gear is so arranged that in the event of a loss of hydraulic fluid from one
system, the loss can be detected and the defective system automatically isolated within 45
seconds. This allows the other actuating system to remain fully operational with 50% torque
available.
2.1.13.1 Construction
This system consists of the following equipment:
(a) Two isolating valves
(b) Two oil tank level switches with low and low-low level positions; one for each system
tank
(c) An oil tank divided into two chambers for level switches and system test valves
(d) An electrical control panel for automatic isolation system
(e) An alarm panel for the automatic isolation system

2.1.13.2 Operation
If failure of one of the systems occurs, the ship’s speed should be reduced, as only 50% of
the torque for the steering gear operation is available.
2.1.13.3 Failure Sequence with One Pump Running
If any loss of oil occurs with say, No.1 pump running and No.2 pump stopped, the following
sequence will take place:
1. The oil level in No.1 oil tank goes down to the “Low” level; audible and visual alarms are
activated on the navigating bridge and in the machinery space.
2. At the same time the No.1 automatic isolating valve, is energised and the hydraulic system
associated with No.2 pump is isolated.
3. If the oil loss is in the hydraulic system associated with No.2 power system, the steering
process is continued by No.1 power system and with the No.2 system isolated, there will
be no further oil loss.
4. If the oil loss from the system is associated with No.1 power system, the tank oil level will
continue to fall and when it reaches the Low-Low position. No.1 automatic isolating valve
will be de-activated and No.1 pump is automatically stopped.
5. System No.2 automatic isolating valve is activated and No.2 pump is automatically started.
The hydraulic system associated with No.1 pump is isolated and so no further oil loss will
occur. Steering is now being carried out by No.2 pump and its two related cylinders (No.1
and No.2).
6. If the oil loss occurs in No.2 tank, steering is continued to be carried out by No.1 pump and
its two related cylinders (No.3 and No.4) with 50% torque.
2.1.13.4 Failure Sequence with Both Pumps Running
If oil the level in No.1 tank goes down first:
1. Oil level in No.1 tank goes down to the Low position and the audible and visual alarms are
activated on the navigating bridge and in the engine room.
2. No.1 automatic isolating valve is energised and the hydraulic system associated with No.2
pump is isolated.

Chapter 2
3. If the oil loss is associated with No.2 pump system, the oil level in No.2 tank will fall to
the Low-Low position and No.2 pump will be automatically stopped. No further oil loss
will take place and steering will continue at 50% torque with No.1 system working alone.
4. If the oil loss is associated with No.1 pump system, the oil level in No.1 tank will fall to
the Low-Low level and No.1 automatic isolating valve will be de-energised thus isolating
No.1 system. No.1 pump is stopped and No.2 automatic isolating valve IV-2 energised.
No.2 pump and its associated cylinders No.1 and No.2 provide 50% of the normal rudder
torque.
2.1.13.5 System Testing
The oil tank float chamber can be isolated and drained to test the system’s automatic
isolating operation. This should be carried out as part of the pre-departure checks.
2.1.14 Electronic Steering Control
This method may use a microprocessor-based circuit to receive the helm order and the
rudder position feedback and compare them. The AutoNav Autopilot Model A-1500, to be
explained later in this chapter is one such example. In other cases, an operational amplifier
could also be used instead. Cumbersome mechanical linkages and differential controls are
replaced by quick-response electronic servo control valves on the hydraulic pump, which
receive the order from the microprocessor and stroke the pump in the direction and the degree
requested.
The variant of this is a system where the electronic signals from the controller and the
feedback device are compared, amplified by the power amplifier whose output controls
solenoids within the electro-hydraulic unit. (Refer Figure 2.11). The electro-hydraulic unit
serves as an interface between the computing circuit and the hydraulically-operated rams. It
directs the hydraulic pressure to the cylinders.
The follow-up element, which is either a potentiometer or a rotary transformer, is moved
in direct proportion to the motion of the rudder-stock or simpler said, the ram itself. It provides
the negative feedback signal to the control circuit to de-stroke the pump and stop the rudder at
the ordered angle or, in the other case, to nullify the output of the operational amplifier which
in turn forces the output of the power amplifier to zero. This brings the solenoid valve to the
neutral position. The blind-ports are then aligned with the hydraulic lines leading to the rams;
this action results in holding the rudder in the desired position by trapping the hydraulic fluid
within the cylinders.

2.1.15 The Purpose of Negative Feedback

✓ Negative feedback helps a system to achieve stability.
✓ It serves as a damping effect and hunting is reduced or even removed.
✓ The controlled device thus settles quickly and smoothly with better frequency response.
✓ Frequency response is also improved and there is less amplitude distortion.
✓ It decreases voltage gain and provides a more linear operation.
2.1.16 The Manual or Full Follow-up Mode
Here the negative feedback is used to achieve stability and quick settling of the rudder,
without any hunting. A simple control chain using rotary transformers as control and feedback
elements, is explained in Figure 2.11.
“Desired
Angle” Phase Sensing
Comparator
Wheel Rectifier
Power
Amplifier
Legend Electro-Hydraulic
Unit
Electrical Signal
Hydraulic Line
Mechanical Linkage Negative

Feedback Rudder Ram(s)
Device
Figure 2.11 – Electronic Steering Control - Manual Mode

The total error ( error) also known as the final controlled condition is “e(t)”.
The Set Point is “SP” and can be also called the Desired Value or “DV”.
The Process Variable is “PV” and can also be called the Measured Value or “MV”.

Chapter 2
Hence, we can say that the final controlled condition e(t) = SP – PV or DV–MV.
We know that the rudder can be turned from 350 on the Starboard side to 350 on the Port
side. For the ease of calculations, any movements to the Starboard side are taken as +ve and
any movements to the Port side are taken as –ve.
Case 1
The rudder (PV) is amidships i.e., 00 and the desired angle (SP) is Starboard 20 i.e., +200
e(t) = SP – PV = (+200) – (00) = +200
The rudder changes its position from amidships and moves to Starboard 20.
The rudder stops when e(t) = SP (+200) – PV (+200) = 00 and there is no output.
Case 2
The rudder (PV) is at Starboard 20 i.e., +200 and the desired angle (SP) is Port 20 i.e., –200
e(t) = SP – PV = (–200) – (+200) = –400
The rudder changes its position from Starboard 20 and moves to Port 20.
The rudder stops when e(t) = SP (–200) – PV (–200) = 00 and there is no output.
Case 3
The rudder is at Port 20 i.e., –200 and the desired angle (SP) is amidships i.e., 00
e(t) = SP – PV = (00) – (–200) = +200
The rudder changes its position from Port 20 and moves to amidships.
The rudder stops when e(t) = SP (00) – PV (00) = 00; there is no output.
2.1.17 The Auto Pilot Mode
The auto pilot mode is resorted to, when a ship must steer on a set course for a long time
without any alteration. If the ship deviates from the set course, the corrective action is taken on
by the proportional, integral and derivative loop immediately and the requisite amount of helm
signal is given to the rudder to bring the ship back to the set course. The course to steer is
compared with the ships heading is obtained from the gyro or magnetic compass.

An error in the feedback system caused by a new helm or autopilot order (in the case of it
operating in the automatic mode as shown in Figure 2.12) or by the motion of the rudder due
to external dynamic forces, reactivates the control system; other signals that influence the
control of the rudder and response by the operator are:
The ship’s speed;
The turning radius by way of the rudder angle limit between 5O and 35O (which can be set
manually also);
The set course;
The rate of change of course;
The present position of the rudder itself.
Course Indicators
(Gyro Repeaters)
True Course
Transmitter
Electrical Mechanical
Output Negative Input Gyro
Feed Back
Speed Input / Turning Radius, Compass
Device
Rate of Turn, etc.
Phase Sensing Rate Power Electro-hydraulic

Rectifier Comparator Circuit Rudder Ship
Networks Amplifier
Power Supply External Inputs

Set Course
(Dynamic Forces)
Figure 2.12 – A Block Diagram of Electronic Steering Control in the Auto-pilot Mode
The course to steer is selected by the course selector knob, while the present heading is
indicated on the gyro. Any difference between the two signals is given to the comparator which
has P I D control circuits. The error signal is fed to the error amplifier, which also gets feedback
from the rudder. The output from the error amplifier is fed to the telemotor or torque motor or
solenoids, which in turn operate the rudder in the opposite direction for correction.
Proportional Control causes the rudder to move by an amount proportional to the off-course
error, i.e., the ship will oscillate to either side of the required course. Thus, the signal is applied
opposite to the movement of ship to alter the course so that the ship comes back to the set
course. Thus (P) control determines the rudder angle.

Chapter 2
Integral Control is applied due to errors caused by the design parameters like the shape of
the hull and the bow going to port and the thrust on the propeller shaft. Thus, integral action
takes care of the ship’s parameters.
Derivative Control ensures that the rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate
of change of ships deviation from the course. Thus, Derivative Control gives the counter helm
to the rudder.
2.1.17.1 Circuit Description
A PID controller uses operational amplifiers that are designed to receive input and deliver
output voltage signals representing the process variable (PV), set point (SP) and output as
shown in Figure 2.13. Analog field instrument signals (4-20 mA) are converted to a 0-10 VDC
range for signal processing. Operational amplifiers form the building blocks of the control
functions, with a +/- 15 V DC power supply, providing DC power to operate.
The first three amplifiers OP1, OP2, OP3 buffer the input signals and depending on the
direction of action, calculate the error (PV − SP, or SP − PV). This controller implements
a parallel or independent PID algorithm, since each tuning adjustment (P, I, and D) act
independently of each other.
Proportional control is achieved by OP4 and P control gain Kp is adjusted by R2. Similarly,
integral control and derivative control are achieved by OP5 and OP6 respectively. Reset time
is adjusted by R3 and rate time is adjusted by R4. The PID Values are added together in the
summing power amplifier OP7 with bias adjusted by R1 in OP8. Figure 2.14 depicts a block
diagram of the PID controller shown in Figure 2.13.

-V +V Manual Output Adjust

-
R1 Bias OP8 R5
+ Manual
Output
+ Auto V
OP1 Null
- 10K 10K Error
- R2 Kp
OP3 10K
+
- 10K
- 10K 10K OP4
+ 10K
OP2 -
+
Proportional OP7
SP +
V
PV C1 10K Summing
V R3 i
Power
Reverse Direct
Amplifier
10K
+V -
OP5
SP Signal + Integral
Adjust
R4 d
PV Signal
Input
C2
-
OP6
+ Derivative
Figure 2.13 – Schematic Diagram of an Electronic PID Controller

Chapter 2
Proportional
Set Point P = Kpe(t)
+ + Control
Integral
Signal
+
T Process
I = Ki e(t)
- 0 +
Derivative
D = Kd de(t)
dt
Negative Feedback
Figure 2.14 – Block Diagram of a PID Controller
Integrator
True Course
Integral of error
Comparator
To steering control
Differentiator
Set Course Rate of change of error
Figure 2.15 – A Simplified Block Diagram of a PID System for a Rudder

Figure 2.16 depicts the operation of an electronic PID control system related to a ship’s
steering system.
.
Electro-hydraulic
System of the Rudder Controller Output
RIn
+5V
Difference Op Amp
Negative Feedback Signal
(Comparator) Integral
Rf Gain
- RIn Control
Proportional Power Amp

Digital to
Analog Summing Junction
Command Gain
Converter Rf
Signal Control
Computer
Derivative
Controller
Figure 2.16 – A Block Diagram of a PID System for a Ship’s Steering System
With reference to Figure 2.17, if the steering system requires that the rudder should quickly
from one course to another or when a setpoint change or disturbance occurs, the analog output
waveform of the digital to analog (D/A) converter shown between points A and B rises quickly
at a steady rate.
The analog signal is fed to the non-inverting input of the difference operational amplifier.
Since the arm of the rudder does not move initially, the output of the difference amplifier starts
to rise and develop an error signal.

Chapter 2
As the error is fed to the input of the proportional amplifier, it is further amplified by the
summing power amplifier; this action causes the signal to be amplified and converted to a value
that is adequate to drive the rudder to the desired position (with the help of an electro-hydraulic
chain). As it does, a voltage from the potentiometer, which is the rudder’s negative feedback
signal, begins to rise, as is shown soon after time period A begins. However, the amplitude of
the error signal continues to increase in the positive direction, as shown between points A and
B. This happens because the stationary inertia of the rudder has to be overcome, causing it to
move slowly at the start. Therefore, the measured variable from the feedback potentiometer
does not change as fast as the command signal from the computer.
The output of the difference operational amplifier is also fed to the derivative amplifier. As
the error signal voltage increases its amplitude, as shown between points A and B, a negative
voltage is created by the derivative network. The derivative voltage is added to the proportional
voltage by the summing power amplifier. The combined voltages cause the power amplifier’s
output to increase, which makes the rudder move faster.
Eventually it moves fast enough so that the measured variable is changing as fast as the
command set point signal, as shown at time period C. This boost by the derivative function
prevents the error signal from increasing any further. Between points C and D, the error signal
does not change. The output of the derivative amplifier goes to 0 and the proportional function
operates alone.
When the command signal from the computer reaches the value that represents the desired
position, it stops changing. The output voltage of the D/A converter also stops increasing at
time period D. Since the rudder has not yet reached the desired position, the set point and
measured variable are unequal.
Therefore, the difference amplifier continues to produce a voltage, causing the rudder to
continue moving. Since the error signal decreases in amplitude, as shown between time periods
D and E, a positive voltage is produced by the differential operational amplifier. This voltage
is subtracted from the proportional output by the summing power amplifier. Since the combined
voltages cancel, the power amplifier’s output decreases. The result is that the rudder slows
down enough so that it does not overshoot.
As the rudder nears the desired position, the error signal stops changing and approaches 0.
The result is that the proportional and derivative outputs go to 0. Since the setpoint and
measured variable are not exactly equal as shown in part E, a steady state error exists and the
integral operational amplifier takes over to cause the rudder to move the remaining distance.
A B C D E
Steady State Error
nal
Sig
r
rro
E
D/A Converter
Output
(Command Potentiometer
Signal) Voltage
(Feedback)
+V
Derivative Output
-V
Boost Action Braking Action
Figure 2.17 – A Graphical Representation of a PID Control System

Whenever there is a large setpoint change, the controlled variable will usually lag behind
and cause a rapid change of the error signal. Since the derivative controller detects this trend, it
responds by compensating for large system changes before they fully develop.
Therefore, derivative control is sometimes referred to as anticipatory or predictive control.
As derivative control tends to reduce system oscillation, the proportional gain can be set at
higher values to further increase the speed of response of the controller to a system’s
disturbances.
The derivative mode is used only when the controlled variable lags behind a setpoint change
and an error signal develops. In the rudder example, which is a motion control application, the
operation is relatively fast.

Chapter 2
However, there is a lagging condition that exists because the rudder position cannot respond
as quickly as the command signal. Therefore, the derivative mode is used by the controller to
minimise the error signal that develops from this condition.
In an open sea, the ship is subjected to wind and weather, which causes the ship to yaw. In
rough weather, larger deviations of course are experienced. The linear filter is provided in the
control unit to correct all these disturbances; this is a known as a “Kalman filter”.
Kalman filtering, also known as linear quadratic estimation (LQE), is an algorithm that
uses a series of measurements observed over time, containing statistical noise and other
inaccuracies, and produces estimates of unknown variables that tend to be more precise than
those based on a single measurement alone, by using Bayesian inference and estimating a joint
probability distribution over the variables for each timeframe. The filter is named after Rudolf
E. Kálmán, one of the primary developers of its theory.
The algorithm works in a two-step process. In the prediction step, the Kalman filter
produces estimates of the current state variables, along with their uncertainties. Once the
outcome of the next measurement (necessarily corrupted with some amount of error, including
random noise) is observed, these estimates are updated using a weighted average, with more
weight being given to estimates with higher certainty. The algorithm is recursive. It can run in
real time, using only the present input measurements and the previously calculated state and
its uncertainty matrix; no additional past information is required.
2.1.17.2 Counter Rudder
This control applies the counter action by the rudder so that set course is maintained in
minimum time; too low a setting allows overshoot.
2.1.17.3 Rudder Limit
It is set between 50 and 350 when altering course, so that ship turns adequately to the new
course depending upon the weather conditions.
2.1.17.4 Off Course and Pilot Watch Alarm
This alarm is activated when the ship deviates from the set course. This is set as per the
weather conditions. In calm weather this limit is lowered to a minimum of 50 and in some cases,
has a maximum limit of up to 150. This alarm also serves as an alert if the auto pilot is not
working; it is also known as the “pilot watch”.

2.1.18 Indicators for Monitoring the Operating Conditions of the Steering Gear
The indicators for monitoring the operating conditions of the steering gear, provided
in the wheel house and ECR are designed to comply with SOLAS Regulations 29 and 30.
They are as follows:
a) Phase failure – in case of single-phasing of the pump’s motor, an alarm is activated
b) Motor overload – especially when the winding is overheated (the motor’s control
circuit is to have short circuit protection)
c) Isolation (auto shut-off) valve operated e.g., in case of excessive flow rates
d) Hydraulic Oil tank level low
e) High oil temperature
Note: Some steering systems have an air-cooled system that ensures the system will not be
activated until the fan is started.
2.1.19 Procedure for Change-over from Normal to Emergency Mode of Operation
2.1.19.1 Requirements
1. Changing over from automatic to manual steering and vice versa shall be possible at any
rudder position and be affected by one, or at the most two manual controls, within a time
lag of 3 seconds.
2. Changing over from automatic to manual steering shall be possible under any conditions,
including any failure in the automatic control system.
3. When changing over from manual to automatic steering, the automatic pilot shall be
capable of bringing the vessel to the preset course.
4. Change-over controls shall be located close to each other in the immediate vicinity of the
main steering position.
5. Adequate indication shall be provided to show which method of steering is in operation
at a moment.
2.1.19.2 Basic Actions
a) Establish communication between the navigation bridge and the steering flat
b) Changeover to the manual mode (not auto pilot);
c) Set the wheel to the midship position;
d) Switch off the telemotor i.e., disconnect the remote-control circuit.

Chapter 2
e) Steer from the steering flat by operating the manipulators or similar arrangements; this will
be as effective as the NFU mode except that it is done locally and the operator may have
to resort to monitoring the rudder angle with the help of the mechanical pointer on the
rudder stock itself if the helm indicator too is not operational.
2.2 Anschütz Auto Steering
The variety of devices required for navigation and monitoring in the bridge area
necessitates a functional design meeting work-sequence-oriented and ergonomic demands.
For more than 75 years, Anschütz has been accumulating experience in this field. In 1969,
Anschütz introduced modular equipment technology for steering control. Today approximately
10,000 ships use Anschütz steering control all over the world.
A typical system is depicted in Figure 2.18. Figure 2.19 is an example of a control system
on the bridge.
24V Rudder Position Indicator

d.c. Speed, Gyro,
Status 24V d.c.,
110 / 220 V d.c.
Alarm
Control 1 Control 2
Selector -
FU / NFU /
Auto
Telemotor
Telemotor Unit
Unit Feedback
Unit Feedback
Unit
Rams / Rudder
Stock, etc,.
Feeding Main Feeding Main

Pump 1 Pump 2
Figure 2.18 – Anschütz Auto Steering

Figure 2.19 – Steering Control System – NautoSteer

(This figure includes other systems too)
2.2.1 Salient Features of NautoSteer
Safety, reliability, redundancy.
Integral component of the Integrated Navigation and Bridge System, expandable.
Proper design of co-operating functional groups.
Versatile installation possibilities.
Increased reliability by self-explanatory designation of important sequences.
Reliable legibility of instruments.
Night design with individual or central dimming.
Neutral and non-reflective colours.
Service-friendly design.
In compliance with all National and International Classification Rules, especially the
IMO resolution A.325 IX and the SOLAS resolution MSC.1 (XLV), Chapter II,
Part C, Regulation 2.8.
2.2.2 System Types
2.2.2.1 Dual Follow-Up (Dual FU)
The required rudder angle is selected on the mechanical rudder position indicator at the
follow-up hand wheel or tiller (Refer Figure 2.20). One amplifier operates the servomechanism
of the steering gear and the rudder is moved until it reaches the required angle (1 amplifier per
pump or valve according to IMO or SOLAS). The feedback unit transmits the actual rudder
position (Refer Figure 2.24).
Chapter 2
Figure 2.20 – Rudder Angle Indicator and Tiller

2.2.2.2 Dual Non-Follow-Up (Dual NFU)
To command a rudder, electrical movement contacts are made by moving the NFU hand
wheel or the NFU tiller. The rudder position is changed if the contact is held. The steering gear
is controlled according to IMO or SOLAS (1 contact set per pump or valve). During the steering
process, the actual rudder angle should be checked on the rudder position indicator.
2.2.2.3 Follow-Up / Dual Non-Follow-Up
Depending on the type of steering selector at the steering mode selector switch, the steering
gear is controlled by the follow-up or the non-follow-up control system. Each of the two
steering systems can control both pumps of the steering gear. Due to the redundant (dual) design
of the non-follow-up controls, this system is the main steering control in this configuration
according to IMO or SOLAS.
2.2.3 System Structure
2.2.3.1 Control Components
Follow-up (FU) controls - Contact steering is by a follow-up amplifier.
Figure 2.21 – FU Hand-wheel Unit Figure 2.22 – FU Tiller

Figure 2.23 – Follow-up (FU) Amplifier Figure 2.24 – Feedback Unit

Actuator
Figure 2.25 – Solenoid Valve with On / Off Functions

Non-Follow-up (NFU) Controls
Direct contact steering elements:
Figure 2.26 – NFU Hand-wheel Unit Figure 2.27 – NFU Tiller

Actuator
Proportional valve or torque motors
Figure 2.28 – An Analog Amplifier in a Proportional Steering Control Chain

Chapter 2
Selection of Remote Steering Stands

In principle, all basic steering control systems (dual FU, dual NFU and dual FU / NFU)
can be extended by remote steering stands.
The steering stands, e.g., the bridge wings, are selected by a steering mode selector
switch and by the electronic ‘Take-over System’. The steering mode selector switch has an
additional position ‘Remote’ by which all remote steering stands can be activated (Refer
Figure 2.29).
Figure 2.29 – Steering Mode Selector Switch

Rudder Position Indicator
The scope of supply of the Raytheon Marine steering control system includes the
feedback unit, which is usually installed on the rudderstock. In addition to the limit
switches, this feedback unit includes various potentiometers. One of these potentiometers
is used as a transmitter for the actual electrical rudder position indicators (Refer
Figure 2.30). Hence, no additional feedback unit and no additional mechanical connections
are required at the rudder stock.
Figure 2.30 – Rudder Position Indicators

Universal Signal Device
Up to 15 alarm and status indications of the steering gear system can be free configured
as the Nautoalarm. The steering mode selector switch can also be supplied with illuminated
status information on steering control modes (Refer Figure 2.31).

Figure 2.31 – Universal Signal Device

Over-ride Control
FU and NFU tillers can be extended by an over-ride function if desired by the customer.
‘Over-ride’ means an immediate disconnection of the automatic mode, such as autopilot or
track control and the activation of manual control (Refer Figure 2.32).
The override signal unit indicates this mode visually and audibly. It enables a return to
the automatic mode on completion of the manual steering manoeuvre via a push-button
switch.
Figure 2.32 – Override Control

Monitoring System
The steering failure alarm device offers online monitoring from the rudder order
element of the FU steering control to the rudder blade as well as synchronisation monitoring
of mechanically independent double steering gears (Refer Figure 2.33).
Figure 2.33 – Monitoring System

Emergency Controls
Some classification societies require a dual emergency control in the steering gear
room. A separate change-over switch - ‘Bridge / Steering Gear’ in the steering gear room
as well as a dual FU tiller meet this task in connection with a steering repeater compass
(Refer Figure 2.34).

Chapter 2
The changeover switch can be locked against unauthorised use. It electrically isolates
the steering control in the steering gear room from all other steering controls on the bridge.
This ensures galvanically separated operation.
If the mechanical rudder position indicator cannot be seen on the stock, the Raytheon
Marine electric rudder position indicator can be introduced as an additional feature.
Figure 2.34 – Emergency Controls

The following article is an extract from www.sperry-marine.com and a related website
(Sperry Marine, with worldwide headquarters in Charlottesville, Va., is part of Northrop
Grumman’s Electronic Systems sector). These have been inserted for the sheer simplicity, yet
rich content that can let the reader practically visualise whatever is explained!
2.3 Sperry Marine Steering Gear
This steering system is provided to control the rudder in response to helm commands from
the bridge. The system consists of the following subsystems:
Steering commands are given to the dual-control gyro pilot steering stand located on the
ship’s bridge. In the steering engine room, the commands are received by two linear hydraulic
power units and compensated hydraulic pumps and transmitted to two Heleshaw radial piston
pumps.
The radial piston pumps direct pressurized hydraulic oil to four hydraulic rams which
moves the rudder. Precise control of the rudder position is accomplished by means of a
differential gear train and follow-up mechanism.
An emergency hand pump is supplied for use in the event of failure of the normal hydraulic
system and for filling and draining the system and all hydraulic components of the system are
coupled together with high- and low-pressure piping systems. Each of the above-mentioned
components will be discussed in detail as follows:

2.3.1 Steering Design Specifications
Max. Rudder Torque-Ahead at 350 Rudder Angle 3,048,000 in-lbs
Max. Rudder Torque-Astern at 350 Rudder Angle 4,370,000 in- lbs
Max. Pressure-Ahead at 350 Rudder Angle 735 psi
Max. Pressure-Astern at 350 Rudder Angle 1055 psi
Relief Valve Setting 1300 psi
Rudder Angle Hard Over (H.O.) to Hard Over 700
Time - H.O. to H.O. (One Power Unit Operating) 20 per second
Time - H.O. to H.O. (Both Power Units Operating) 40 per second
No. of Turns for Trick wheel (700 H.O. to H.O.) 9.1
2.3.2 Dual Control Gyro Pilot Steering Stand

The Sperry dual control gyro pilot steering stand provides three types of rudder control:
automatic control using the gyrocompass input to maintain the selected heading, hand steering
with follow-up and hand steering without follow-up. The rudder control selector switch on the
steering stand is used to change from one mode of rudder control to the other.
Regardless of which mode of rudder control is utilized, an electric signal is sent to one of
the two independent electro-hydraulic steering controls located in the steering engine room.
The heart of each automatic steering system (port or starboard) is a potentiometer bridge.
Each bridge contains two potentiometers connected in a balanced Wheatstone bridge
arrangement. One potentiometer of each bridge is called the control potentiometer. It is in the
steering stand and is positioned by both the steering wheel and the gyro compass which acts on
it through a mechanical differential gear train.
The other potentiometer of each Wheatstone bridge is called the follow-up or repeat-back
potentiometer. It is in the linear hydraulic power units and controlled by the rudder positioning
equipment.
When the control potentiometer is turned by either the steering wheel or by the gyro-
compass, a DC signal called the course error signal is sent to a solenoid-operated directional
valve located in each linear hydraulic power unit. The polarity and magnitude of this course
error signal indicates the direction and amount of corrective rudder action required.

Chapter 2
When the linear hydraulic power unit transmits this rudder order to the radial piston pumps
the follow-up or repeat-back potentiometer generates a DC signal opposite in polarity to the
control signal. When the magnitude of this opposite signal increases to equal the value of the
course error signal, the effective signal level to the hydraulic power unit reduces to zero and
the rudder’s movement ceases. Thus, full follow-up control is provided.
Double cabling connects the steering stand in the wheel house with the hydraulic power
units located in the steering engine room. Indicating lights on the steering stand show which
system is operating and whether the other system has power available.
2.3.3 Linear Hydraulic Power Unit
The linear hydraulic power unit consists of a double ended hydraulic control cylinder,
manifold-mounted directional and bypass valves, parallel rack, outside limit switches, inside
limit bypass relay and repeat-back potentiometer.
The power unit receives electrical signals from the dual control gyro pilot steering stand.
In response to these signals, the piston rod is positioned by means of hydraulic fluid delivered
under pressure by the Vickers hydraulic pump units. The position rod, in turn, is directly
connected through a differential gear train to the floating ring of the radial piston Hele Shaw
pump. The amount of travel of the piston is made proportional to the order of the dual-control
gyro pilot steering control. Also, limits are provided to prevent over-travel of the piston.
2.3.4 Piston Operation
The controlling element of the linear hydraulic power unit is the directional valve which is
a solenoid-controlled, pilot-operated, four-way valve. A control signal from the steering stand
energizes one of the solenoids in the valve. The solenoid pushes the pilot spool off-centre, thus
porting pilot fluid to offset the main spool valve. This connects one side of the cylinder to the
input pressure and the other side to the return line, causing the piston rod and hence the floating
ring of the Heleshaw pump to move.
The direction of flow and thus the direction of the control cylinder movement, will depend
upon which solenoid is energized by the steering control. A parallel rack, which activates the
repeat-back potentiometer and limit switches is attached to and moves with the piston. When
the piston rod reaches the ordered position, the electrical follow-up signal balances the control
signal thereby de-energizing the directional valve.

A bypass valve in the power unit opens when the automatic or hand-electric controls are
not in use, allowing oil to flow freely from one end of the power unit cylinder to the other. The
ship’s steering mechanism can then be operated by separate means with the hydraulic power
unit still connected. When the system is energized, hydraulic pressure closes the valve to permit
operation. The bypass valve is a hydraulically pressure-operated, spring-offset four-way valve
requiring at least 50 psi of pressure for its operation. Although the bypass valve is a four-way
type, its use in this system is limited to either the open or closed position. This is accomplished
by blocking one set of ports.
When the system is not in operation, or in the event it should become inoperative, the
bypass valve allows oil to flow from one side of the control cylinder to the other so that the
piston rod may be moved by an alternate means of steering such as a trick wheel or telemotor.
When the pump is turned on to start the system in operation, there is an immediate pressure
build-up in the system, due to the check valve. This pressure closes the bypass valve thus
allowing the control cylinder to respond to the operation of the directional valve.
2.3.5 Limit Switches, Relays and the Follow-up Potentiometer
The hydraulic power unit contains two pairs of limit switches, designated “inside limit
switches” and “outside limit switches”. The inside limit switches restrict electrical operation
normally to ten degrees of rudder motion in either direction to optimize performance when
steering automatically. Thus, when an error signal tends to drive the cylinder beyond moderate
rudder angles, an inside limit switch opens the circuit to the energized solenoid of the
directional valve. The outside limit switches are set to open the solenoid circuit at the hard over
rudder positions. Also, these switches are always set to prevent the piston from hitting its
mechanical stops. In the hand-electric mode of steering, a relay in the power unit, controlled
from the steering stand, closes the circuits across the inside limit switches and allows movement
of the rudder up to the angle determined by the outside limit switches.
In the normal mode of operation both pairs of limit switches are closed. A control signal is
applied to one or the other solenoid of the directional valve depending on the direction of the
rudder order. The valve operates to port to move the piston and rod. This also moves the
attached rack. The rack drives a pinion which couples through a gear train to the limit switch
cam shaft. The gears are chosen at the factory in accordance with the travel distance of the
piston rod, so that the cam shaft rotates 2700 when the piston rod moves from one position to
the other. The cams are set on the shaft during installation for the specific limits required by the
vessel.
Chapter 2
2.3.6 Inside Limit Switches

When the piston rod has moved sufficiently to produce a rudder angle of about 10 0 either
side of amidships, a cam opens the limit switch in series with the energized solenoid valve and
the steering mechanism is held in this position until control current is applied to the other
solenoid. If less than 100 of rudder were called for, an inside limit switch would not operate.
2.3.7 Outside Limit Switches
In the hand-electric mode of operation, a cam operated switch in the steering stand
energizes the inside limit bypass relay in the power unit when a rudder order of approximately
80 is applied by the helmsman.
A few degrees short of maximum travel, a cam opens the normally closed snap-action
outside limit switch thereby de-energizing the directional valve solenoid and holding the
steering mechanism in position until the helmsman orders a return of the rudder toward
amidships. Thus, the outside limit switches determine hard-over rudder angles and prevent the
power unit from operating to its mechanical limits of travel.
The camshaft also drives the rotating wiper of a 5 k wire-wound oil-filled potentiometer.
This potentiometer is accurately positioned so that when the piston rod is at its mid position,
the wiper of the potentiometer is at “mid resistance”. In this way, the potentiometer provides
an electrical signal proportional to the power unit position for connection into the follow-up
circuit of an automatic or hand-electric steering control. In other words, this repeat-back
potentiometer generates a follow-up signal which is sent to the steering stand. The directional
valve solenoid is de-energized when the follow-up signal cancels the control signal. Both ends
of the power unit piston rod carry a clevis, one of which is connected mechanically through the
differential gear train to the Hele Shaw rotary pump crosshead. The power unit can transmit a
force of about 6,800 pounds, either as a push or a pull.
2.4 Steering Gear Testing and Drills
These are in accordance with SOLAS Chapter V: Safety of Navigation, Regulation 26

Quote
1 Within 12 hours before departure, the ship’s steering gear shall be checked and tested
by the ship’s crew. The test procedure shall include, where applicable, the operation of
the following:
.1 the main steering gear;
.2 the auxiliary steering gear;
.3 the remote steering gear control systems;

.4 the steering positions located on the navigation bridge;
.5 the emergency power supply;
.6 the rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the rudder;
.7 the remote steering gear control system power failure alarms;
.8 the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and
.9 automatic isolating arrangements and other automatic equipment.
2 The checks and tests shall include:
.1 the full movement of the rudder according to the required capabilities of the
steering gear;
.2 a visual inspection of the steering gear and its connecting linkage; and
.3 the operation of the means of communication between the navigation bridge
and steering gear compartment.
3.1 Simple operating instructions with the block diagram showing the change over
procedures for remote steering gear control systems and steering gear power units shall
be permanently displayed on the navigation bridge and in the steering compartment.
3.2 All ships’ officers concerned with the operation and / or maintenance of steering gear
shall be familiar with the operation of the steering systems fitted on the ship and with
the procedures for changing from one system to another.
3 In addition to the routine checks and tests prescribed in paragraphs 1 and 2, emergency
steering drills shall take place at least once every three months in order to practise
emergency steering procedures. These drills shall include direct control within the
steering gear compartment, the communications procedure with the navigation bridge
and, where applicable, the operation of alternative power supplies.
4 The Administration may waive the requirements to carry out the checks and tests
prescribed in paragraphs 1 and 2 for ships which regularly engage on voyages of short
duration. Such ships shall carry out these checks and tests at least once every week.
5 The date upon which the checks and tests prescribed in paragraphs 1 and 2 are carried
out and the date and details of emergency steering drills carried out under paragraph 4
shall be recorded.
Unquote
Chapter 2
2.5 Rotary Vane Steering Systems
The rotary vane unit replaces the 2 or 4 ram steering unit using a Rapson slide to turn the
tiller and rudder stock. The main benefit of the rotary vane unit is that it is much more compact
and therefore saves space. A disadvantage is that the torque available with a rotary vane unit is
constant as long as the hydraulic pressure is constant. Thus, when torque demands by the rudder
increase as it moves towards the maximum rudder angle of 35°, then the vane gear relies on the
steering gear pump to meet the demand. A ram gear does not have to rely solely on this
increased pump demand as it has a mechanical advantage due to the ram-lever effect acting on
the tiller through the Rapson slide.
The hydraulic circuit serving a rotary vane unit is virtually identical to the one used for a 2
or 4 ram unit.
The usual arrangement of a rotary vane unit is of three moving vanes fitted between three
fixed vanes. This enables a full rudder movement through an angle of 70° (i.e., 35° to Port to
35° to Starboard).
Stator Vanes Hydraulic Manifold Anchor Bolt
Stator
Rotary Vanes
Rotor
From Pumps Hydraulic Fluid
Stator
Rotary Vanes
Pressure Chambers
Fixed Vanes
Figure 2.35 – Rotary Vane Steering Gear

If a larger rudder turning angle is required, then a two-vaned system is required with two
moving vanes travelling between two fixed vanes but this is unusual. Double-ended ferries
using this system are known to have larger rudder angles.
All the vanes are sealed by strips of steel, backed by synthetic rubber laid in slots. The full
weight of the gear is supported by an under-slung rudder carrier bearing.

Further fixture to the ships structure, preventing the stator turning, is by two anchor bolts
held in fixed anchor brackets with shock absorbing sleeves of rubber. These bolts are fitted with
outer cast iron bushes to take the wear from the steering gear flanges.
Figure 2.36 – Electrohydraulic System of the Rotary Vane Steering Gear
2.6 Relevant Rules

2.6.1 Relevant SOLAS Regulations
Chapter II–1 Part A – General – Regulation 3 – Definitions relating to parts C, D and E
Chapter II–1 Part C – Machinery Installations - Regulation 29 – Steering Gear
Chapter II–1 Part C – Machinery Installations - Regulation 30 – Additional requirements for
electric and electro hydraulic steering gear
Chapter V – Regulation 26 – Steering Gear: Testing and Drills
2.6.2 Relevant ABS Rules
Part 4 Vessel Systems and Machinery, Chapter 3 Propulsion and Maneuvering
Machinery, Section 5 Thrusters, Paragraph 5.12 Arrangements (1 July 2016)

Chapter 2
2.6.3 Summary of Regulations

1) The main steering and rudder stock shall be of adequate strength and capable of putting
the rudder over from 35° on one side to 35° on the other side with the ship at its deepest
seagoing draught and running ahead at maximum ahead service speed and, under the
same conditions, from 35° on either side to 30° on the other side in not more than 28
seconds which is 2.5°/second (per ABS Rules 2017, it should be at an average rotational speed
of not less than 2.3°/second).
2) The auxiliary steering gear shall be of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship
at navigable speed and of being brought speedily into action in an emergency; it must be
capable of putting the rudder over from 150 on one side to 150 on the other side in not
more than 60 seconds with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running ahead at
one half of the maximum ahead service speed or 7 knots, whichever is the greater.
(according to ABS Rules 2017, it should be capable of changing the direction of the vessel’s
directional control system from one side to the other at declared steering angle limits at
an average rotational speed, of not less than 0.5°/s; with the vessel running ahead at one
half of the maximum ahead service speed or 7 knots, whichever is the greater).
3) Main and auxiliary steering gear power units shall be arranged to restart automatically
when power is restored after a power failure and capable of being brought into operation
from a position on the navigation bridge. In the event of a power failure to any one of the
steering gear power units, an audible and visual alarm shall be given on the navigation
bridge.
4) Steering gear control shall be provided for the following:
a) The main steering gear, both on the navigation bridge and in the steering gear
compartment;
b) The auxiliary steering gear, in the steering gear compartment and, if power–operated,
it shall also be operable from the navigation bridge and shall be independent of the
control system for the main steering gear.
5) Any main and auxiliary steering gear control system operable from the navigation bridge
shall comply with the following:
a) If it is electric, it shall be served by its own separate circuit supplied from a steering
gear power circuit from a point within the steering gear compartment, or directly
from switchboard busbars supplying that steering gear power circuit at a point on the
switchboard adjacent to the supply to the steering gear power circuit;
b) means shall be provided in the steering gear compartment for disconnecting any
control system operable from the navigation bridge from the steering gear it serves;
c) the system shall be capable of being brought into operation from a position on the
navigation bridge;
d) in the event of a failure of electrical power supply to the control system, an audible
and visual alarm shall be given on the navigation bridge; and
e) short circuit protection only shall be provided for steering gear control supply circuits.
6) The electrical power circuits and the steering gear control systems with their associated
components, cables and pipes required shall be separated as far as is practicable
throughout their length.
7) The angular position of the rudder, independent of the steering gear control system shall
be recognizable in the steering gear compartment and if the main steering gear is power–
operated, be indicated on the navigation bridge.
8) With reference to 33 CFR Ch. I (7–1–05 Edition), a telephone or other means of
communication for relaying headings to the emergency steering station.
Also, each vessel of 500 gross tons and over and constructed on or after June 9, 1995
must be provided with arrangements for supplying visual compass readings to the
emergency steering station.
9) A low-level alarm for each hydraulic fluid reservoir must give the earliest practicable
indication of hydraulic fluid leakage. Audible and visual alarms shall be given on the
navigation bridge and in the machinery space where they can be readily observed.
10) Every tanker, chemical tanker or gas carrier of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall
comply with the following:
a) Two independent steering gear control systems shall be provided each of which can
be operated from the navigation bridge. This does not require duplication of the
steering wheel or steering lever;
b) If the steering gear control system in operation fails, the second system shall be
capable of being brought into immediate operation from the navigation bridge; and
c) Each steering gear control system, if electric, shall be served by its own separate
circuit supplied from the steering gear power circuit or directly from switchboard
busbars supplying that steering gear power circuit at a point on the switchboard
adjacent to the supply to the steering gear power circuit.
11) Means for indicating that the motors of electric and electrohydraulic steering gear are
running shall be installed on the navigation bridge and at a suitable main machinery
control position.

Chapter 2
12) Each electric or electrohydraulic steering gear comprising one or more power units shall
be served by at least two exclusive circuits fed directly from the main switchboard;
however, one of the circuits may be supplied through the emergency switchboard.
13) An auxiliary electric or electrohydraulic steering gear associated with a main electric or
electrohydraulic steering gear may be connected to one of the circuits supplying this main
steering gear. The circuits supplying an electric or electrohydraulic steering gear shall
have adequate rating for supplying all motors which can be simultaneously connected to
them and may be required to operate simultaneously.
14) Short circuit protection and an overload alarm shall be provided for such circuits and
motors.
Protection against excess current, including starting current, if provided shall be for not
less than twice the full load current of the motor or circuit so protected, and must be
arranged to permit the passage of the appropriate starting currents.
15) Where a three-phase supply is used, an alarm shall be provided that will indicate failure
of any one of the supply phases. The alarms shall be both audible and visual and shall be
situated in a conspicuous position in the main machinery space or control room from
which the main machinery is normally controlled and as may be mandatory by Regulation
51.
16) With reference to 33 CFR Ch. I (7-1-05 Edition), simple operating instructions with a
block diagram, showing the change-over procedures for remote steering gear control
systems and steering gear power units, permanently displayed on the navigating bridge
and in the steering gear compartment.
2.7 Common Issues of a Steering Gear System
This article is Courtesy of MarineInsight.com

2.7.1 Oil Leakages
Port state controls have very strict policy of zero leakage from ship’s steering gear. Many
ships have been fined and detained due to such faults pointed out during port state control
inspection. Still, oil leakage from the steering gear is one of the most common problems on
ships – a result of machinery systems having several moving parts operated by hydraulic oil.
Some of the main areas of leakages are cylinder-ram seal in hydraulic ram type steering gear
and seal in the chambers of a rotary vane pump. Needless to say, any kind of leakage from
steering gear system must be rectified immediately.

2.7.2 Difference in the Actual Rudder Angle and Ordered Helm Angle
Another common problem observed in steering gear system is the difference in the angle
given at the helm and the actual rudder angle. This occurs due to wrong or insufficient
adjustment of control and repeat back lever. To rectify this problem, the turn buckle attached
to the rod of control and repeat back lever are to be precisely adjusted.
2.7.3 Unsatisfactory Steering
The fuel consumption of the ship greatly depends on the efficiency of steering gear
operation. If the steering gear is operating unsatisfactory, it will lead to delay in the ETA of the
ship and increase main engine fuel consumption. Common reason for this problem is
malfunctioning of safety valves or by pass valves in the system. Any problem in the control and
repeat back lever will also lead to unsatisfactory steering. To solve this issue, safety and by pass
valve operation are to be checked at regular intervals. If any problem is noted, same to be recited
at the earliest. For control and repeat back lever, the turn buckle attached to the rod of control
and repeat back lever are to be precisely adjusted.
2.7.4 Excessive Noise from the Steering Gear
Excessive noise and vibrations from the steering gear indicates entrapment of air in the
system. Due to air bubbles in the oil, pumps and pipings are subjected to air hammer leading to
vibration and heavy noise. Air must be removed from the system using vent valve provided in
the cylinder and pump specially after the system is replenished with new oil. If the valve located
in the oil supply tank of the steering gear is throttled or closed, it will again develop air bubbles
in the system. Ensure that this valve is always open when the system is in operation.
2.7.5 High Oil Temperature
Oil is the operating media in the steering gear system. Any abnormality in the parameters of
oil will lead to other operations related problems in the steering gear. If there is increase in the
oil temperature, it will directly reduce the viscosity of the oil and hamper the steering operation.
The most common cause of increase in oil temperature is low oil level in the system. Thus,
ensure that low oil level alarm in the tank is working and replenish the oil when required.
2.7.6 The Rudder’s Movement is Within or Beyond the Limit
The SOLAS requirement for steering gear says that the system must be capable of putting
the rudder over from 35 deg on one side to 35 deg on the other side of the ship at its deepest
seagoing draught and running at maximum ahead service speed.

Chapter 2
It may sometimes happen that the maximum angle reached by the rudder is less than
prescribed or the rudder is overshooting the 35O mark. One of the main reasons for this problem
is malfunctioning of limit switch fitted on the repeat back unit or on the auto pilot. Replace the
malfunctioned limit switch or adjust the limit switch to maximum prescribed rudder angle.
2.7.7 Remote Control of Steering is not Possible
There is always a provision of local maneuvering in the steering gear for emergency
situation if the remote-control operation fails. Some common reasons for failure of remove
controls are:
• Breakdown of hydraulic pumps: Other hydraulic pump to be started in such cases
• Malfunction of transfer valve
• Malfunctioning of hydraulic by pass valve in the pump
• Oil leakage
• Problem in tele control system
2.7.8 Rudder Angle Transmitter and Tiller Link Failure

On 29 April 2011, the Panama registered bulk carrier Dumun grounded while departing the
port of Gladstone, Queensland. Prior to the grounding, the ship’s steering appeared to have stop
responding to bridge commands when the linkage between the tiller and rudder angle
transmitter detached. The steering gear continued to operate normally, but the transmitter lost
its input signal and, as a result, the bridge mounted rudder angle indicator stopped working.
Such cases are rare but they do occur. To avoid such accidents, ensure that the duty officer must
take a round before every maneuvering or departure port to check all the linkages in the engine
room.
2.8 Troubleshooting the Flutek-Kawasaki FE 21 – 288 – T050 System
(1) The Steering Gear System is considered to be classified into the auto-pilot system including
the feedback unit that outputs the rudder order angle in the wheel-house (bridge), the
continuous control system such as the control box, the pump control unit, etc., that controls
the pump’s tilting angle in the steering gear room with the above order received, and the
steering gear, such as the ram, the cylinders, the tiller etc.

Any poor rudder response from the wheel-house (bridge) should always be dealt-with by
separating the auto-pilot system and the continuous control system from the steering gear
for earlier discovery of the cause.
(2) When an alarm is active for failure in any power unit, stop the power unit concerned (and
start another power unit). Then, investigate the defective part.
(3) When investigating the cause of the trouble, operate the steering gear by the pump control
knob in the steering gear room (i.e., the local steering). If the trouble continues, the cause
will be in the steering gear and a detailed check of the steering gear should be carried out.
If the steering gear operates satisfactorily, the cause will be in the auto-pilot system or the
continuous control system. Then proper remedies should be taken by referring to the
Instruction Manuals of their systems.
(4) When carrying out investigation and remedial actions, take care to prevent the entry of dirt
and dust, and handle the parts so as to not damage them in any way.
(5) Ensure smooth procedures in the disassembly and transportation of heavy weights, and pay
great attention to safety.
(6) If the defect is not cleared, contact the manufacturer.
2.8.1 Steering Gear Not Working
a. There is an external oil leakage:
* Check for any oil leakage from the ram V-packing and its connections.
Tighten them additionally or replace the packing if necessary.
b. The electric motor does not rotate:
* Check if the starter is okay.
* Disconnect the coupling with the hydraulic pump and investigate which is problematic, the
motor or the hydraulic pump.
c. Trouble or mis-operation of the valves:
* Check if the stop valve and the isolating valve are opened or closed as indicated on the
instruction plate.
d. Investigate for any obstacles around the tiller and the ram.

Chapter 2
e. Check if the safety valve is surely set.

f. Check if the air vent valve is closed.
g. Poor tilting of hydraulic pump:
* Check if the servo pump pressure is 1.8 ~ 2.0 MPa {18 ~ 20kgf/cm2}.
* Check for abnormalities of the torque motor of the pump control unit.
* Check for normal operation of LVDT of the pump control unit (pump regulator).
h. The OB valve does not change over to on-load condition:
* Check for correct change-over of the solenoid control valve for unloading device and check
if the electric source is supplied.
* Check for burning of the solenoid and for sticking of the spool.
If the spool sticks, remove it for lapping.
i. Trouble with the Hydraulic Pump:
* Check for abnormal noise of the running pump or the opening of the suction valve.
If the pump seems to be found abnormal, disassemble and check the pump and make necessary
remedies.
2.8.2 Rudder Turning Speed Slow
The time of rudder turning speed is measured when the rudder moves from 35 0 on either
side to 300 degrees on the way to 350 on the other side (excluding special requirements).
a. External oil leakage:
Check for oil leakage from the ram packing and connections.
Tighten the packing additionally or replace it if necessary.
b. Trouble with or wrong operation of the valves:
Check if the stop valve and the isolating valve are opened or closed as indicated on the
instruction plate.
c. Investigate for any obstacles around the tiller and the ram.
d. Poor setting of the safety valve:

Check to see if the adjusting pressure of the safety valve is not reduced.
e. Check to see if the air vent valve is closed.
f. The maximum tilting angle of the hydraulic pump is small:
Check the specified maximum tilting angle of the hydraulic pump.
If it is excessively low, re-adjust it with the control box.
g. The OB valve does not change over to on-load condition:
h. Trouble with the hydraulic pump:
2.8.3 Steering Gear Does Not Work Smoothly
a. Air is trapped in the hydraulic circuit:
Any air that is trapped in the hydraulic circuits will cause a delayed response and jerky motion
too.
Expel air periodically without fail.
b. Investigate for any obstacles around the tiller and the ram.
c. Over-tightening of the ram V-packing:
The torque for tightening roughly depends upon the type of steering gears.
Any over-tightening will cause oil shortage or intermittent movement of the ram.
d. The tilting angle of the hydraulic pump is changed:
e. There is Play between the rudder stock and the bearing:
Disassemble and repair it while the ship is at the dry dock. (Consult with the shipyard.)
2.8.4 The Steering Gear Is Unstable (The Steering Gear Does Not Stand Still)
a. Poor neutral adjustment of hydraulic pump:
If the neutral position of the hydraulic pump shifts when the pump tilting angle order is zero,
the steering gear will not stand still.
Adjust the pump’s neutral position and the zeroize the adjustment of the control box.
Don’t leave it in the non-follow up control mode for a long period of time because the rudder
may be moved slowly by an external force (as the non-follow up steering mode has no feedback
of the actual rudder angle).
Chapter 2
b. Poor setting of proportional band:

If the proportional band is too narrow, the steering gear will not stand still. Re-adjust the
proportional band to 2O ~ 5O
c. Excessive clearance of the pin of the pump control unit:
If the clearance of the pin of the pump control unit becomes abnormally high, following-up to
the order from the control box becomes unstable and the steering gear will not stand still.
Repair or replace it if necessary.
d. Excessive clearances of the pin for the feedback unit:
If the clearance of the pin for the feedback unit becomes abnormally high, the actual rudder
angle signal to the steering stand becomes unstable and the steering gear will not stand still.
Repair or replace it if necessary.
e. Excessive clearance between the tiller arm and the roller bearing:
If the clearance between the hardened steel plate and the roller bearing becomes abnormally
high, the steering gear will not stand still.
f. Poor shutting of the air vent valve:
Repair the sliding parts so that the valve can be closed properly.
g. Poor adjustment of the control box:
Re-adjust it by referring to the instruction manual of the auto-pilot manufacturer.
2.8.5 Abnormal Noises While the Ship Is on A Voyage
Abnormal noises can be dealt with by full confirmation of their origins
a. Occurring whenever the rudder is operated:
Expel the air thoroughly from the hydraulic circuits.
Check further for points that allow air to enter.
b. Noises from the ram’s V-packing:
This is caused by excessive tightening of the ram’s packing
c. Noises from the rudder carrier:
Ask the shipbuilder concerned. Check the lubricating condition thoroughly.
d. Abnormal noises from the pump:

Immediately stop the operation for a detailed check. Disassemble or repair the pump, if
necessary.
2.8.6 Abnormal Pressure-Rise in All Cylinders
Confirm if the valve is operated in accordance with the instructions.
2.8.7 The Rudder Moves While the Ship is at Anchorage
If the ship is at anchorage for a long time, the rudder may move owing to the influence of
the air in the cylinder and the oil leakage from the valves. If this causes vibration of the hull,
start the pump and fully expel the air. (Operate the steering gear at least once every 24 hours.)
When the stop valves are provided on the hydraulic cylinders, closing of the valves will be
effective. In this case, don’t forget to open the stop valve before starting the pump.
2.8.8 The Stand-By Pump Rotates in The Reverse Direction
* If the stand-by pump rotates in reverse at a high speed, it will cause a steering failure. To
prevent it, the non-return or the oil block (OB) valve is provided.
It is therefore necessary to disassemble the OB valve for a detailed check. Special care
should be taken to check if the spool is sticky, damaged, abnormally worn out, the check valve
is abnormal, or the casing is damaged, deformed, etc. After the check, take necessary measures,
such as lapping the spool, facing up the seat of the check valve, etc. If the reverse rotation
influences the rudder’s turning speed in spite of the above remedies, replace the OB valve. In
this case, contact the manufacturer immediately.
* As an emergency measure, it can be prevented by the simultaneous operation of two pumps.
2.8.9 Excessive Temperature on The Pump Bearing Casing
* The bearing casing temperature will become higher by 10° to 20° than the oil temperature. If
this difference is abnormally high, stop the pump immediately for a check.
a. Poor centering between the pump and the electric motor:
Investigate the cause of such poor centering.
b. Dust biting in bearing:
* Check if it is abnormal by rotating the pump by hand.
c. Oil shortage in the oil seal:
Chapter 2
The oil shortage will cause high temperature in the oil seal.
Apply sufficient amount of grease.
2.8.10 Excessive Oil Temperature in the Oil Tank
Depending upon the room temperature, while the pump is running the pump will be set
approximately at the room temperature plus 30°.
If the oil temperature rises above 80°, stop the pump to investigate the cause.
a. Disassembling check of the pump:
b. Check of the working oil:
2.8.11 Abnormal Noise from The Pump
a. Large amount of air in the hydraulic system:
In this case, cavitation will occur and the rudder will not work smoothly.
Expel the air thoroughly.
b. Poor condition inside the pump:
Noise will be caused by the breakage of the piston, the connecting rod or the abnormal condition
of the bearing. Disassemble the pump, check and repair it as required.
Foreign matter in the working oil may cause trouble, although it is not so often the case.
2.8.12 Decrease of Oil in The Oil Tank in A Short Time
* Since the hydraulic system of the steering gear comprises a closed circuit, a large amount of
oil decrease cannot be considered so far as no external oil leakage occurs. If such a phenomenon
is observed, immediately take proper corrective action.
2.8.13 The Electric Motor Cannot Start
* In this case, the burning of the electric motor, the failure of the electric source and the starter,
and the damage of the pump can be considered.
Ensure that the coupling can be rotated by hand and take proper action.
2.8.14 Abnormal Wear of The Coupling
* Poor centering between the pump and the electric motor will cause abnormal wear.

2.9 Troubleshooting the Single Loop Fork Type F-172 SG Sys 1
2.9.1 Slow Turning Speed of the Rudder
Probable Causes Remedies

Hydraulic pump failure Inspect the pump and rectify the fault
Or incorrect valve operation. Check the open / close status of the bypass valves
according to the instruction plate.
Pilot operated valve failure Disassemble and check the pilot- operated valve and rectify it as
required.
Main relief valve failure Check if the main relief valve is set as per specifications.
Oil leakage from the valve(s) Apply additional tightening and replace the packing as necessary.
2.9.2 The Rudder Moves in Only One Direction

Main relief valve failure Check if the main relief valve is set as per specifications.
2.9.3 Rudder Movement Is Irregular

2.9.4 Rudder Moves While the Ship is at Anchorage

Presence of air in the cylinder Start the pump and perform an air-purging operation.
Oil leakage from valves Rectify the leaks.
Operate the steering gear at least once in 24-hours.

Chapter 2
2.9.5 Other Problems

(1) Early clogging of the filter element
Sometimes the element needs to be changed in early stages of a system’s operation i.e., the
first time within 1000 hours and the second time after entering service and when deemed
necessary. The following maintenance to be carried out.
(a) An extent of pollution or analysis of the components of the hydraulic oil is to be requested
from the oil maker. Consult with the hydraulic oil maker or the steering gear maker, if it is
not in good condition.
(b) Consult with the steering gear maker if a grain of metal is found during the examination of
foreign matter in the filter element.
(c) In case the hydraulic oil is polluted or is dirty, there is a method that the oil can be cleaned
by flushing it through a filter of 3 microns. It is also advisable to consult with the hydraulic
oil maker or the steering gear maker about the plan.
2.10 Troubleshooting the Steering Gear Mitsubishi Type DF-250
2.10.1 Steering is Impossible

Breakdown of the Due to the breakdown, the rudder’s movement stops at a certain angle.
hydraulic pump Therefore, the hydraulic pump needs to be stopped immediately, and the
other hydraulic pump has to be started to resume effective steering.
Breakdown of the tele- In case, the point where the tele-motor system connecting the wheelhouse
motor system to the steering engine room is in trouble the changeover to the spare
system is to be carried out.
If all tele-motor systems are in trouble, the mechanical handle in the
steering engine room is to be operated without delay for resumption of
effective steering.
Breakdown of the Due to the breakdown, it’s impossible to have enough pilot pressure to
hydraulic by-pass valve control the hydraulic pump, so, the hydraulic pump which is faulty has to
attached to the hydraulic be stopped and the other hydraulic pump has to be started to resume
pump steering.
Try to shift the spool of the faulty unit by means of the push rods, which
stand out on the right and left side of the valve body.
If it is not restored to the normal condition by the above means, overhaul it
and repair the sticking of the spool, etc.


Breakdown of the transfer The hydraulic pump on the side of the transfer valve at fault is to be
valve stopped, and immediately, the other hydraulic pump is to be started to
resume steering.
In case of the issues mentioned below, the steering is to be switched to the
emergency mode (using two cylinders) by operating the valves:
(a) In a case where the spool of the transfer valve does not return when
the hydraulic pump comes to a halt; The hydraulic pump may be motored
by the other running pump and it will be impossible to steer.
(b) In a case where the spool of the transfer valve can’t be moved when
the hydraulic pump is started, it will be impossible to steer because the oil
discharged from the hydraulic pump will be by-passed in the transfer valve.
Decrease of pilot The hydraulic pump which is faulty is to be stopped and the other hydraulic
pressure due to the pump is to be started to resume steering.
breakdown of the Overhaul and repair it as required.
auxiliary pump
Oil leakage due to The auto isolating electric control unit automatically enables the steering to
breakage in the hydraulic be switched to the emergency steering (using two cylinders).
circuit
The auto-isolating electric (a) Switch the auto-manual changeover switch on the steering engine room
control unit is defective control panel to “MANUAL”, and operate the automatic isolation valves
and cannot control the oil manually to switch to the emergency steering (using two cylinders)
leak (b) In a case where the all-electrical auto-manual isolating control systems
are in trouble, operate the solenoid valves manually in the steering engine
room, and isolate the broken part of the hydraulic circuit from the sound
circuit by operating the automatic isolation valves to switch to the
emergency steering (using two cylinders)

Chapter 2
2.10.2 Steering is Unsatisfactory

Insufficient adjustment of The safety valve is to be adjusted to the prescribed pressure
the safety valve and the by-
The by-pass valve should be securely tightened so as to come in contact
pass valve
with the valve seat.
Unsatisfactory operation of The control and hunting gear should be overhauled. Check and repair
the control and hunting gear the sticking or the excessive play of the bearings and the hunting springs.
2.10.3 Error Between Helm Angle of Steering Wheel and The Actual Rudder Angle
Insufficient adjustment of the The turn-buckle attached to the rod of the control and hunting gear
control and hunting gear is to be exactly adjusted.
2.10.4 Error Between Helm Angle of Helm Angle Indicator and Rudder Angle
Insufficient adjustment of the The turn-buckle attached to the rod is to be exactly adjusted.
connecting rod between the
helm angle transmitter and the
actual rudder stock or tiller
2.10.5 Generation of Heavy Noise

Air bubbles are trapped in the oil Air bubbles are to be completely removed through the air vent valves
connected to the hydraulic cylinders and the hydraulic pumps
Closing of the valves attached to The valves are to be opened.
the oil supply tank
2.10.6 Excessive Temperature Rise in The Hydraulic Oil

Shortage of oil in the oil supply The oil supply tank is to be filled to 75% or more of the tank’s
tank capacity.

2.10.7 The Rudder Does Not Move to The Maximum Prescribed Rudder Angle, Or Moves
Beyond the Limit
Insufficient adjustment of the limit The limit switch or the stopper is to be adjusted to the maximum
switch or stopper on the power unit prescribed rudder angle by the manufacturer of the tele-motor
for the tele-motor system system.
2.10.8 Autopilot Failures

2.10.8.1 Failure Phenomena List
Troubleshooting No. Failure Indication
TS-O1 Power failure indicator 1-PWR F. or 2-PWR F. lights
TS-02 Group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL lights
TS-03 Group alarm indicator AUTO FAIL lights
TS-04 Group alarm indicator CAUTION lights
TS-05 Individual alarm indicator INDICATE lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator CAUTION lights
TS-06 Individual alarm indicator PILOT W. lights
TS-07 Individual alarm indicator GYRO lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator AUTO FAIL lights
TS-08 Individual alarm indicator REP. PWR lights
TS-09 Individual alarm indicator l SG CNT lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL lights]
TS-10 Individual alarm indicator 2 SG CNT lights
TS-11 Individual alarm indicator HAND M. lights
TS-12 Individual alarm indicator AUTO M. lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator or CAUTION lights]
TS-13 Individual alarm indicator DC PWR lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator CAUTION lights]
TS-14 Individual alarm indicator WHL -O FF 71 lights

Chapter 2
Troubleshooting No. Failure Indication

TS- 15 Individual alarm indicator LOW SPD lights (option)
TS-16 Individual alarm indicator RC M. lights (option)
TS-17 Individual alarm indicator AUX lights (option)
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL or
CAUTION lights]
TS-18 Rudder moves abnormally (in non-follow up steering)
TS-19 Rudder moves abnormally (in hand steering)
TS-20 Rudder moves abnormally (in auto steering)
TS-21 Rudder limit is invalid (in auto steering)
TS-22 Rudder motion is fast / slow
TS-23 Yawing is large (in auto steering)
TS-24 Ship sails on the deviated course from the set course (in auto steering)
TS-25 Course cannot be set in auto steering
TS-26 No data on the data display
TS-27 Some display lamps or alarm indicators do not light in the lamp test
TS-28 Steering mode cannot be switched
TS-29 Bar graph display is strange
TS-30 Ship’s speed display is strange
TS-31 Steering repeater is abnormal
TS-32 Illumination is too bright / dark
TS-33 SET. course display does not light
TS-34 Other than the set course is displayed in the SET. Course display
TS-35 R.O.T. of the data selection indicator blinks
TS-36 Rate of turn in auto course changing is too large / small
TS-37 ADPT of the control mode indicator blinks
TS-38 Power failure indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) lights.
Display of the power failure indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) is
depended on to the specification. Refer to PR-6000 Finished Plan.
TS-39 Individual alarm indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) lights.
[Group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL or CAUTION ]
Display of individual alarm indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) is
depended on to the specification. Refer to PR-6000 Finished Plan.

2.10.8.2 Countermeasures
TS-O1 - Power failure indicator 1-PWR F. (No.1 no voltage) or 2-PWR F. lights (No.2 no
voltage)
Alarms when pilot power for No.1 System or No.2 System is not supplied.
Check procedures and action to be taken Remarks
(1) 1-PWR F. lights up when No. 1 is selected with the When the power failure indicator
system selection switch or 2-PWR-F. lights up when No. lights-up, the corresponding power
2 is selected. In case of failure turn the system selection indicator (1-PWR/ 2- PWR) goes off.
switch to another at once.
(2) When both No.1 / No.2 power failure indicators light up,
steer at once with the emergency steering method.
(3) When 110 V AC is not supplied between 1AC1 / 1AC2
(TB1, No.1 side) or 2AC1 / 2AC2 (TB3, No. 2 side),
check the following points.
• The motor starter in the steering gear room.
• The transformer box in the steering gear room.
• The control panel in the steering gear room.
TS-02 - Group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL lights up (The system is abnormal)
(Shows that the alarm having a possibility of steering inability generates in the system side in
use.)
Check procedure and action to be taken Remarks
(1) Turn the system selection switch to another system Confirm the alarm with the individual alarm
at once. indicator.
(2) When SYS. FAIL in both systems light up, use the
steering mode in which the rudder operates
normally by hand (HAND) steering mode or in the
non-follow up (NFU) steering mode of both
systems. When steering trouble occurs, switch to
one of the other steering modes.
(3) If all steering modes in both systems are abnormal,
steer according to the emergency steering method.
(4) Check items related to the lighting individual alarm
indicator.

Chapter 2
TS-03 - Group alarm indicator AUTO FAIL lights (Auto steering is abnormal.)
Implies that there is a steering inability in the auto control system.

(1) When operating in the auto steering mode, switch the steering mode Confirm the generating alarm
to hand steering. with the individual alarm
Do not use auto steering when this alarm indicator is active. indicator.
(2) If the alarm is recovered to normal by switching the system, use that
system side
(3) Check items related to the lighting individual alarm indicator.
TS-04 - Group alarm indicator CAUTION lights (caution) shows that alarms generate in display
operation section, steering function currently not used or optional function.
Check procedure and action to be taken
Confirm the alarm generated with the individual alarm indicator and check the related items.
When the alarm is active in the remote steering (RC) mode, check whether any abnormality in operation
exists or not, and switch to one of the other steering modes at once if there is any abnormality.
TS-05 - Individual alarm indicator INDICATE lights
(AUTO unit display section is abnormal Alarms when abnormalities are discovered in AUTO
unit display section and control circuitry.
(1) When the alarm detail is displayed in the data display by pressing the Note the code because it is
SEL. switch, note the display code (E01. ❑). not redisplayed after
recovering.
(2) Turn OFF the system selection switch for approx. 1 second and
reselect the system used till now.
When the alarm condition is recovered to normal, use it as is for a while
and see if the phenomenon reappears.
(3) When the alarm does not generate in No. 1 system or in No.2 system,
use that system side. Request to repair the system side in which the
alarm is generated.
(4) When alarm generates in both systems No. I / No.2 and the other
failure also occur, check these. Request to repair after taking
following actions based on the alarm detail number displayed.


E01.1 Auto steering with setting course (AUTO-NAV) mode (option) Hardware of the AUTO unit
cannot be used. Use auto steering mode. display is abnormal.
E01.2 When single alarm detail Memory of
E01.3 number only is displayed, AUTO unit display is
E01.4 there is no problem in abnormal.
E01.5 functions and steering

because it is covered with the redundant circuitry.
E01.6 Auto steering with setting course (AUTO-NAV) mode (option) Control sections of
cannot be used. Use auto steering mode. AUTO unit display are
When AUTO unit display is inoperative, the group alarm indicator is abnormal.
displayed in SET. course display with characters.
Refer below for other displays.
Heading; steering repeater.
Steering mode; steering mode selection switch position.
Pilot system; system selection switch position.
Control mode; auto control section. (Option) ADPT/ WEATHER setting.
E01.7 Some parts of alarm functions Input and output of the
E01.8 may not operate. AUTO unit display are
abnormal.
Use the system with paying full attention on steering.
TS-06 - Individual alarm indicator PILOT W. lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator CAUTION lights (pilot watch)
Alarms when course deviation exceeds the setting deviation due to failure of the steering gear or
autopilot. Alarm number E02.1
(1) Check the ship’s heading display, setting course display and the pilot watch setting value
and confirm that the course deviation is larger than the setting value.
(2) When the yawing is large due to sea conditions, reduce the yawing or set the “pilot watch”
setting value to a larger value.
(3) When the rudder motion is not normal or any other failure occurs, check that point.
(4) When there is no abnormality in the pilot side, check the steering gear side.

Chapter 2
TS-07 - Individual alarm indicator GYRO lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator AUTO FAIL lights]
(Gyro is abnormal.) Alarms when ship’s heading digital signal cannot be received or receives
abnormal data.
(1) Use the system without any alarm conditions.
Request to repair the system side in which the alarm is generated.
(2) When alarms generate in both No.1 and No.2 systems, the auto steering AUTO and
remote auto steering NAV (option) cannot be used.
Use hand steering (HAND) non-follow up steering NFU or the remote hand steering mode.
E03.1 Above (2) Ship’s heading is
abnormal.
TS-08 - Individual alarm indicator REP. PWR lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator CAUTION lights] (Steering repeater power is cut.)
Alarms when power is not supplied to the step motor of the steering repeater. Detail alarm no.
E04.1
(1) When repeaters other than the one in the pilot stand are installed, check them
to confirm the failure. Check the gyro-compass side if many gyro repeaters are
abnormal. (Refer to the gyro-compass instruction manual.)
(2) Check whether the voltage of G5 / G4 (TB6) of the external terminal board is
normal or not (+24VDC for TOKIMEC TG-6000), and check the gyro compass
side, if it is abnormal.
TS-09 - Individual alarm indicator l SG CNT lights
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL lights up]
Alarms when failure of No.1 or No.2 steering gear itself, or circuitry controlling steering gear, is
detected.
Check procedure and action to be taken
(1) Press the SEL. switch to display the alarm detail on the data display, and note the display code [E05
TS-09 or E06.0 (TS-10)], and check according to the table on the next page after recovering the steering
to normal.

TS-10 - Individual alarm indicator 2 SG CNT lights
Alarms when failure of No.1 or No.2 steering gear itself, or circuitry controlling steering gear, is
detected.
If the alarm recovers and the rudder motion
becomes normal by switching the system
selection switch to another (from No.1 to No.2 or
from No.2 to No.1), use the system under that
condition.
In case of a system configuration in which the When two or more steering gears are running in
steering gear mode is not changed over even by parallel, operate them one by one and if the
switching the system selection switch, stop No.1 alarm recovers and the rudder motion becomes
(TS-09) or No.2 (TS-10) steering gear, and normal, use that system. In this case, be careful
use the other steering gear. If the alarm condition to see that the rudder speed reduces before
is recovered and the rudder motion becomes stopping.
normal, use that system.
If the rudder motion is still abnormal even by the
above procedures, switch the steering mode
selection switch to non-follow up NFU. When
rudder motion becomes normal with one of No. l
or No. 2 of system selection switch, steer under
that condition.
If the rudder motion does not recover with the
above procedures steer at once according to the
emergency steering method of the steering gear.
Table attached to procedure Rudder follow up is abnormal. (Starboard side
Upper row for TS-09, lower row for TS-10. for twin rudders.)
E05.1 Recover steering

E06.1 procedures (2) ~ (5)
E05.2 Ditto Rudder follow up is abnormal. (Port side for twin
E06.2 (option) rudders.)
E05.3 Check according to the control No.1 or No.2 control motor is abnormal.
E06.3 box (installed in steering gear room)
instruction manual. (D-type option)

Chapter 2

E05.5 Check cause of overload No.1 or No.2 hydraulic power unit motor
E06.5 according to the hydraulic power unit overloads.
(installed in steering gear room) instruction
manual. (L-type option)
E05.6 Check cause of hydraulic No.1 or No.2 hydraulic power unit pressure
E06.6 pressure drop according to the drops.
hydraulic power (installed in the unit in the
steering gear room) instruction manual. (L type
option)
E05.7 Check the cause of the oil level drop No.1 or No.2 hydraulic power unit oil level
E06.7 according to the hydraulic power drops.
(installed in steering gear unit room) instruction
manual. (L type option)
E05.8 Check the cause of electric power failure No.1 or No.2 hydraulic power unit electric motor
E06.8 open phase according to the hydraulic power phase opens.
power unit (installed in steering gear room)
instruction manual. (L type option)
TS-11 - Individual alarm indicator HAND M. lights up [Simultaneously group alarm indicator
SYS. FAIL lights] Alarms when abnormality in hand steering circuitry is detected.
(1) If the alarm recovers and the rudder motion becomes If the hand steering is abnormal, the
normal by switching the system selection, switch to another auto steering also becomes abnormal.
(from No.1 to No.2 or from No.2 to No.1), use the system Take the same action during auto
under that condition. steering, too.
(2) If the rudder motion is still abnormal even with the above
procedure, switch the steering mode selection switch to non-
follow NFU. When the rudder motion becomes normal with
No.1 or No. 2 of system selection switch, steer under that
condition.
(3) If the rudder motion does not recover by procedures (1)
– (2), steer at once with the emergency steering mode.
E07.1 Described above in (3). The rudder servo amplifier power is
abnormal.

TS-12 - Individual alarm indicator AUTO M. lights [Simultaneously group alarm indicator or
CAUTION lights] Alarms when abnormality in auto steering circuitry is detected
(1) If the condition is improved, and the alarm goes off, with the
rudder motion becoming normal by switching the system selection,
switch to another (from No. 1 to No.2 or from No.2 to No.1), use the
system with that (new) selection.
(2) When the rudder motion is abnormal even by the above When the adaptive control
procedure, and the adaptive control indicator “ADPT” is on in the indicator ADPT is blinking and
AUTO unit, switch to PID steering; ensure that the weather PID is lighting, that shows the
adjustment knob of PID is on and the course keeping mode mode has been switched to
selection / weather adjustment is between 0 to 10. PID steering from ADPT
steering automatically. At this
(3) If the rudder motion is still abnormal even by the above
time, if the PID steering is set
procedure, switch the steering mode selection switch to hand
steering (HAND) or non-follow up steering (NFU). by operations described in the
left column, ADPT indicator
When the rudder motion becomes normal with one of them namely goes off.
No. l or No, 2 of system selection then steer under that condition.
If rudder motion does not recover by procedures (1) - (3) steer at
once according to the emergency steering method of steering gear.
E08.1 Recover steering by ~ E08.3 procedures (1) ~ (4). Auto steering control circuitry is
abnormal.
E08.4 Described above. ADPT steering control circuitry
E08.5 is abnormal.
TS-13 - Individual alarm indicator DC PWR lights [DC power (battery) is abnormal.
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator CAUTION lights] Alarms when ship’s power 24V DC
used for power failure all etc., is not supplied.
(1) Check the ship’s power supply side when 24V DC between
PBS+ / PBS- of the external terminal board (TB6) is not available.
(2) When 24V DC is normal, check whether the service switch
located at upper left of control unit in the steering stand is OFF, or
fuse F6 at the upper right side of the same unit has blown.
(3) If there is no abnormality, check to see if the light emitting
diodes D13 and D23 on SCV PWB (inserted to the most right-side
slot) in control unit are okay or not, and request for repair if
required.
E11.1 Described above. DC power (battery) is abnormal.

Chapter 2
TS-14 - Individual alarm indicator WHL-OFF lights (Steering wheel steering is invalid.)
[Simultaneously group alarm indicator CAUTION lights] In the steering modes without using;
steering wheel, alarm generates when steering wheel is turned rightward or leftward.
(1) The alarm indicates that the steering wheel cannot be used in the
current steering mode when the hand steering mode indicator [HAND]
is not lighting and steering wheel is turned to Starboard or Port. In this
case, keep the steering wheel in the midship position.
E12.1 Described above. If the Rudder position is not
neutral in other steering
modes then it is advisable to
steer with the steering wheel.
TS-15 - Individual alarm indicator LOW SPD lights (option) [Simultaneously group alarm
indicator CAUTION lights] (Ship’s speed is low.) Alarms when ship’s speed reduces to less than
half of service speed during ADPT steering (auto steering) mode.
(1) Continue auto steering as it is if normal auto steering is This alarm does not inform that auto
performed even when ship’s speed is low. steering is impossible due to low ship’s
(2) Reset the ship’s speed manually when the ship’s speed speed, but informs a possibility of strong
value displayed on the data display of AUTO unit is different influence by wind and wave due to weak
from the actual ship’s speed. When ship’s speed from the rudder effectiveness caused by low
gyro-compass is used, check the gyro-compass side. And, ship’s speed.
when the automatic speed is used, check the speed log side,
and change to manually input ship’s speed if necessary.
(3) When ship’s speed input circuit is abnormal, the condition
becomes normal by switching the system.
E10.1 Described above. Ship’s speed is low.
TS-16 - Individual alarm indicator RC M. lights (option) [Simultaneously group alarm indicator
CAUTION lights]
(1) Switch at once to one of the other steering modes.
(2) Press the SEL. switch of the AUTO unit to display the alarm
details on the data display, and check according to the table below.
E09.1 Check the external unit 1 side. (Alarm recovers by switching External unit 1 communication
to one of the other steering modes.) is abnormal.
E09.2 Check the external unit 2 side. (Alarm recovers by switching External unit 2 communication
to one of the other steering modes.) is abnormal.
E09.1 Check the external unit 1 side. (Alarm recovers by switching External unit 1 is not ready yet.
to one of the other steering modes.)


E09.2 Check the external unit 2 side. (Alarm recovers by External unit 2 is not ready yet.
switching to one of the other steering modes.)
E09.5 When the steering is abnormal, switch at once to one of the Remote steering circuitry is
control other steering modes. abnormal.
TS-17 - Individual alarm indicator AUX lights (option) [Simultaneously group alarm indicator
SYS. FAIL or CAUTION lights] (optional alarm)
(1) Press the SEL. switch of the AUTO unit to
display the alarm details on the data display, and
check according to table below.
E13.1 Release the alarm by operations below. Set course invalid alarm.
(1) Press the SET. knob to confirm the current set Override steering was done during auto steering,
course, or reset a new course. and it was finished. This is the alarm to confirm
(2) Switch to the other steering mode whether the current set course is used as is or not.
E13.2 External alarm depended on to the specifications.

E13.3
E13.4
E13.5
Action to be taken according to the PR-6000
Finish Plan and the instruction manuals for
external units.
E13.6 ALARM UNIT (option) or contact output signals.
E13.7 Input and output are abnormal.
Check and operate the steering carefully because
some alarms may not operate.
TS-18 - Rudder moves abnormally (in non-follow up steering)
Strange rudder motion in non-follow up steering mode.

(1) Switch the system selection switch to another
(from No.1 to No.2 or from No.2 to No.1).
(2) In case of the system configuration which the steering When two or more steering gears are
gear is not changed by switching the system selection running in parallel, steer only with the
switch, stop the currently running steering gear and use steering gears running normally. In this
the other steering gear. When the alarm recovers and the case, be careful that rudder motion speed
rudder motion becomes normal, use the system under is reduced.
that condition.

Chapter 2

(3) If the rudder motion does not recover by procedures
(1) – (2), steer at once according to the emergency
steering method of the steering gear.
(4) When both PS indicators of the helm unit are lighting,
check whether fuses F7/F8 located at the upper right of
the control unit in the steering stand have blown.
TS-19 - Rudder moves abnormally (in hand steering)
Strange rudder motion in hand steering

(1) When an alarm generates, take actions according to the contents of
the alarm troubleshoot number.
(2) When an alarm does not generate, or the action above (1) is not sufficient,
take actions according to the troubleshoot number TS- 11.
TS-20 - Rudder moves abnormally (in auto steering)

Strange rudder motion in auto steering
Take actions according to the troubleshoot number TS-12.
TS-21 - Rudder limit is invalid (in auto steering) Rudder limit is inoperative in auto steering
(1) When the PID steering is used, switch the system selection switch to another. See next page.
(2) When the ADPT steering is used, check the ship’s speed on the data display by
pressing the switch of the AUTO unit. The rudder limit change as shown below
according the ship’s speed.
𝑉𝑂
𝛿𝑅𝐿 = 𝛿𝑂𝑅𝐿 ×
𝑉
where V Current ship’s speed
Vo: Service speed
𝛿𝑅𝐿 Rudder limit at ship’s speed V
𝛿𝑂𝑅𝐿 Rudder limit setting value
If the ship’s speed is abnormal, take action according to the troubleshoot number TS-
15 procedure (2).
In other cases, switch the system selection switch to another, or use the PID steering.

TS-22 - Rudder motion is fast/slow

(1) Switch the steering line to one of the others if the ship has other steering gears,
(2) Check the rudder according to the instruction manual of the steering gear
control system or the steering gear side.
TS-23 - Yawing is large (in auto steering)

(1) When an alarm generates, take actions according to the contents of the alarm
troubleshoot number.
(2) When an alarm does not generate, adjust the knobs according to the guidelines
in the manual
TS-24 - Ship sails on the deviated course from the set course (in auto steering)
(1) When an alarm generates, take actions according to the
contents of the alarm troubleshoot number.
(2) When external disturbances such as current and wind are Bearing deviation gradually
large and the bearing deviation becomes gradually small, see becomes smaller by the integral
the state as it is. rudder.
TS-25 - Course cannot be set in auto steering

Switch the system to another when the SET course display does Setting the course can be
not change even by turning of the course setting knob. changed only in auto steering.
TS-26 - No data on the data display

(1) It is not abnormal if pressing the SEL switch Every pressing the SEL switch changes data. No
displays data. display (blank) is included as one of the displays.
(2) When an alarm generates, take actions
according to the contents of the alarm
(3) When lighting normally by the lamp test, raise
the illumination by pressing the +O switch.

Chapter 2
TS-27 - Some display lamps or alarm indicators do not light in the lamp test
(1) Some lamps are for optional specification.
When the option is not installed on own ship, the lamps do not light by the lamp test.
(2) When an alarm generates, take actions according to the contents of the alarm
(3) When lamps do not light even by strong pressing the LAMP TEST switch, check for
the display lamps by the positions of the switches and the control knobs, or for the alarm
indicators by the alarm detail display of the data display.
TS-28 - Steering mode cannot be switched

(1) Use by switching the system to another.
(2) If the steering mode selection switch stops at the middle position between
each steering mode, turn the switch to the correct position.
TS-29 - Bar graph display is strange

(1) When CO. DEV of the bar graph selection When the R.O.T. lights, ordinary bar graph is
indicator is lighting, only one light emitting diode displayed.
lights. It is not abnormal.
(2) Only one lighting of the emitting diode in both These are not abnormal.
ends shows the bearing deviation exceeds 31 ° or
rate of turn exceeds 31 ° / min.
TS-30 - Ship’s speed display is strange

Take actions in the troubleshoot number TS-15 procedure (2) or (3).
TS-31 - Steering repeater is abnormal

(1) When alarm generates, take actions according to the contents of the alarm
(2) If the repeater switch is OFF, turn it ON.
(3) When the synchronization deviates, resynchronize

TS-32 - The Illumination is too bright / dark

(1) Adjust with +O or – O switches.
(2) When the system selection switch is in the OFF position 1-PWR, 2-PWR, l-PWR
F., 2-PWR F. are at the highest illumination, +O / -O switches are ineffective. These
are not abnormal.
TS-33 - SET course display does not light

This display becomes - - - in other modes than auto steering Shows that the setting course is not
(AUTO) and remote auto steering (NAV). This is not abnormal. in use.
TS-34 - Other than the set course is displayed in the SET. Course display
When the AUTO unit display section is abnormal and during
generating alarm characters corresponding to a group alarm
are displayed on the SET course display alternatively with the
setting course, and the buzzer sounds intermittently for
approx. 10 seconds.
At this time, characters displayed mean as follows.
Characters displayed are SYS alarm, meaning that the group Take action according to TS-02.
alarm indicator SYS. FAIL to be lit, is active.
AUF Alarm indicates that the group alarm indicator AUTO Take action according to TS-03.
FAIL to be lit, is active.
CAU Alarm indicates that the group alarm indicator CAUTION Check abnormality in the steering,
to be lit, is active. and if there is any abnormality,
switch at once to one of the other
steering modes.
TS-35 - R.O.T. of the data selection indicator blinks

When the rate of turn reaches the setting value in an auto course Changing the setting
changing, the R.O.T. blinks to show that the ship is turning at the set rate value.
of turn.
TS-36 - Rate of turn in auto course changing is too large / small

(1) same as TS – 35 Ditto
(2) Readjust the rudder limit setting value when it is too large
(small).

Chapter 2
TS-37 - ADPT of the control mode indicator blinks

Even when ADPT steering is selected, if abnormality occurs in When ADPT steering is to be
ADPT steering circuitry, the mode is automatically switched to PID switched for check, etc., select
steering. At this time, ADPT - blinks and PID lights. In this case PID steering once and then
switch to one of the other systems or use PID steering mode. select ADPT steering again.
TS-38 - Power failure indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) lights.
Display of power failure indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) is dependent on to the
specification.
Display of the power failure indicator in the ALARM When the power failure indicator lights, the
UNIT (option) is dependent on the specification. corresponding power indicator goes off.
1-PW. F2-PW. F3-PW. F4-PW. F. Power failed for No.1-No.4 control box or
Check the trans box (E type) in the steering gear No.1-No.4 steering gears.
room and the control box (DM/DW/DT type) in the
steering gear room. (3 or 4 in parallel option)
S 1-PW. F Ditto Power failed for the control box or the
S2-PW. F steering gears to starboard No.1, No.2,
P1-PW. F Port No.1, No.2
P2-PW. F (Twin rudder option)
TS-39 - Individual alarm indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) lights.
[Group alarm indicator SYS. FAIL or CAUTION ] Display of individual alarm indicator in the
ALARM UNIT (option) is dependent on to the specification.
Display of the power failure indicator in the ALARM UNIT (option) depends on
the specifications.
1-C.M.F. 2-C.M.F 3-C.M.F 4-C.M.F Check the control box (in the steering No.1-No.4 control
gear room) according to the instruction manual. (For D type, 3 and 4 are motor is abnormal.
options)


Ditto Alarm detailed
S1-C.M.F contents
S2-C.M.F Starboard No.1,

No.2,
P1-C.M.F
Port No. 1, No.2
P2-C.M.F control motor is
(Twin rudder type for D option) abnormal.
1-L. LVL 2-L. LVL No. I or No. 2
Check the cause of the oil level drop according to the hydraulic power unit hydraulic power
(installed in the steering gear room) instruction manual. (L type option) unit oil level drops.
1-L. PRS 2-L. PRS No. I or No.2

Check the cause of the hydraulic pressure drop according to the hydraulic hydraulic power
power unit (installed in the steering gear room) instruction manual. unit pressure
(L type option) drops.
1-0. PHA2-O. PHA No.1 or No.2

Check the cause of the electric power open phase according to the hydraulic power
hydraulic power unit (installed in steering gear room) instruction manual. unit electric motor
(L type option) power phase
opens.
1-O. LOAD 2-O. LOAD No.1 or No.2
Check the cause of the overload according to the hydraulic power unit hydraulic power
(installed in steering gear room) instruction manual (L type option) unit motor
overloads.

Chapter 2
2.11 Roll Stabiliser for Ships
A ship’s stabilizer system is operated by a hydraulic system and prevents the vessel from
rolling thereby ensuring smooth performance across open waters.
It would be a great time to sail in a cruise ship with your family. But what makes it so
pleasant without rolling like other ships? These ships have fish like fins called stabilizers that
act as a resistance against rolling. These operate under high hydraulic oil pressure and thus
reduce rolling to very great extent, making the life on board a cruise ship more comfortable.
Fixed type of fin stabilisers (fixed, extended fins) had been initially installed on defence
ships and patrol boats for safe taking-off and landing of a helicopter. However, this is not fitted
on all vessels. In recent years, a retractable type fin stabiliser has been adopted on car ferries
and passenger ships from the viewpoint of improvement of habitability and prevention of cargo
collapse.
However, the roll reduction performance of the fin stabiliser on an actual ship is affected
by external sea conditions, hull parameters including hull details and electrical / mechanical
parameters of the fin stabiliser system itself.
The system is installed around the midship area of the vessel; a pair of fins (one on either
side) tilts in the reverse direction mutually, with the help of hydraulic pressure, based on the
electric signals through the control unit from the roll motion sensor (Refer Figure 2.37).
Gyroscopes sense the vertical angular displacement and the roll velocity and provide proper
control for the fins. The lift is generated by tilting the fins and the velocity of sea water flowing
into the fins acting as a righting couple, thus resulting in reduction of rol1.

Figure 2.37 – The Stabiliser and Ships on which the Gyrofin Stabiliser is fitted
This is based on an article by Sperry Marine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA and is
published with due permission. Log on to www.sperry-marine.com for more information.
These are installed on vessels to enhance comfort and alleviate damage to cargo. Automatic
control of the fin movement is achieved with the help of gyroscopes Sperry Marine, a leader in
ship stabilisation, introduces the next generation of ship stabilisers that feature a new digital
control system, the “Lift Control” design and upgraded machinery units.
The latest advances in technology are applied to a proven and robust design resulting in a
system that truly delivers ship comfort and safety even in the roughest seas.

Chapter 2
Hull Roll Control

Sensor Unit
Hydraulic Cylinder
Servo Valve
Accumulator
Relief Valve
Pressure
Switch
Fin
Figure 2.38 – A Conceptual Diagram of a Stabiliser

This is based on an article by Sperry Marine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA and is published
with due permission. Log on to www.sperry-marine.com for more information.
These are installed on vessels to enhance comfort and alleviate damage to cargo. Automatic
control of the fin movement is achieved with the help of gyroscopes Sperry Marine, a leader in
ship stabilisation, introduces the next generation of ship stabilisers that feature a new digital
control system, the “Lift Control” design and upgraded machinery units.
The latest advances in technology are applied to a proven and robust design resulting in a
system that truly delivers ship comfort and safety even in the roughest seas.

2.11.1 Constant Pressure Hydraulic Active Stabiliser Control
This circuit, used to drive a pair of active stabiliser fins, comprises a pumping unit; a
pressure control valve, used to set the maximum load on the fins; a flow control valve, used to
set the operating speed of the fins; a directional control valve.
The system is also fitted with shock relief valves to relieve excessive pressure in the system
if the fins are subject to overload from an external source (wave action).
An accumulator is also fitted to damp down pressure fluctuations in the system as a result
of rapid movement of the directional control valve.
The directional control valve would be activated via the electrical solenoids, fed from an
electronic motion sensor and control circuit.
1 1 Bridge Control Unit

2 Main Control Unit
2
3 Pump Motor Starter
4 Local Control Unit
5 Fin
7 7 6 Stabiliser Machinery Unit
3 3 7 Oil Header Tank
8 4 4 8 8 Hydraulic Power Unit
6 6
5 5
Figure 2.39 – A Typical Gyrofin Installation

Chapter 2
Fin operating cylinders
Shock valves
Directional Control Valve
Flow Control Valve
Pressure Control Valve
Accumulator
Supply Unit Comprising

Pump/Motor, Relief Valve,
Tank.
Figure 2.40 – Constant Pressure Hydraulic Active Stabiliser Control

2.11.1.1 How Lift Control Works
“Lift Control,” a key feature of Sperry Marine’s innovative and patented fin stabilisation
system, is made possible by mounting displacement transducers within the fin shaft. The
transducers produce an electrical signal proportional to the lift force generated by the angle of
attack of the fin to the direction of the local water stream. This lift signal is compared with the
instantaneous value of lift required for roll stabilisation.
The difference is used to drive each fin until it achieves the desired lift, thereby
automatically compensating for variations on the local water stream direction. The angle of the
fin will change as required until the desired lift is achieved even though direction of the local
water stream is continuously changing.
“Lift Control” prevents the fin from being driven at times into the cavitation zone and at
other times from producing a shortfall in lift. The lift forces required for stabilisation are more
faithfully produced, giving improved stabilisation efficiency.
2.11.1.2 Lift Control Advantages
Stabiliser systems without “Lift Control” cannot maintain the required peak lifts because
of the fluctuating conditions within the cavitation region.
Sperry Marine’s “Lift Control” produces maximum fin efficiency not available from any
other stabiliser system.
2.11.1.3 Key Benefits and Highlights
✓ Improved safety and vessel performance
✓ Increased passenger comfort
✓ Enhanced cargo protection
✓ Lower fuel costs
✓ Reduced cargo lashing
✓ Worldwide Sperry Marine Service
✓ Proven design to ensure maximum performance and reliability
✓ Innovative “Lift Control” feature that enhances stabilisation efficiency and machinery
service life
✓ Combined with lift control the fin unit, utilising a tail flap, improves the lift to drag ratio
thereby, minimising drag and saving fuel
✓ New Digital Control System with serial connectivity and simple to use touch screen controls
✓ Upgraded machinery elements to enhance performance and supportability

Chapter 2
2.11.2 New Digital Control System

New Bridge Control Unit offers large colour LCD displays, versatile, easy-to-use touch
screen controls for operator interface
Serial data communication between the units enhances system performance and reduces
cabling requirements
Electronics allow operating up to 4 fin stabilisers simultaneously
Improved system reliability using a new Roll Motion Sensor with no moving parts,
Proximity Sensors in place of mechanical switches
Redundant operator interfaces at both the Bridge Control and Main Control Units – If a
failure of the Bridge Control Unit occurs, the fin stabiliser can be maintained by the Main
Control Unit.
System diagnostic capabilities with intelligent alarm messaging
A unique “Quick Test” feature that performs a comprehensive test of the entire system from
the Bridge Control Panel.
Each fin unit has an auxiliary pump and motor set which can stow the fin in the event of an
emergency, via the ship’s emergency electrical supply in compliance with the SOLAS
requirements for passenger vessels
Emergency stowing of the fins is controlled from the standard control stations or it can be
initiated automatically.

Chapter 3
Rudder Angle and Rate of Turn Indicators
3.1 Rudder Position Indicator
Rudder position indicators are meant to continuously transmit the actual position of the
rudder, to control consoles on the bridge, steering flat and possibly the engine control too.
3.1.1 The Precision Potentiometer and Stepper Motor Type (Type A070)
This equipment is available in different sizes and styles according to the various
requirements on a ship and can be installed in all types of vessels.
The system in mention consists of a power supply unit, a transmitter that is mechanically
coupled to the rudder shaft by a lever-drive or flange coupling, and one or more receivers
(indication instruments).
3.1.2 Operating Principle
The changing of the rudder position is registered by a precision potentiometer in conductive
plastic, installed in a watertight aluminium casing. The output current loop (4 - 20 mA) is driven
by precision operational amplifiers. Thus, the influence of wire resistance and voltage
fluctuation is eliminated. The receiver electronically controls a high-resolution stepper motor,
which enables the pointer to settle within 0.5O of the rudder position.
Figure 3.1 – Rudder Position Indicators

Chapter 3
3.1.3 Technical Data

Supply Voltage : 110 V or 220 V AC
Nominal Voltage : 24 V DC ± 20%
Current consumption : Transmitter 0,1 A; Receiver 0,5 A
Degree of enclosure Transmitter and : IP 65
watertight indicators
Desk-mounting indicators : IP 23
Temperature range : -25 to +70 ºC
Relative Humidity : 95% Max
Vibration strength : 2 to13 Hz; amplitude = 1 mm; 13 to 100 Hz;
: acceleration = 0,7 g
Transmission accuracy : 0.5º
Standard scale version : Indication range 2 x 45º Rudder angle
: Primary colour: white, Inscription: red (PORT),
: green (ST’BD)
Illumination 3-side indicator : 30 V 5 W, Socket Ba 15d
Other indicators : 28 V 40 mA Bi-pin socket Pin spacing 3.17 mm
Electrical connection : Terminals 2.5 mm²
Ship’s connection : Recommended 1.5 mm² Cu
Approval : Different Classification Societies
3.1.4 Outstanding Features

High indication accuracy and repeatability
Independent of voltage and frequency fluctuations
Automatic control of voltage supply
Additional 4 - 20 ma current loop available
Connection possibility is up to 20 indicators
Suitable for tropics

Easy installation
No maintenance required
Low reflection glass
Adjustable scale illumination (red light if required)
3.2 Synchros for Rudder Angle and Course Indication
Synchros are electromagnetic transducers and are commonly used to convert the angular
position of a (rotating) shaft into an electrical signal. These devices are AC position indicating
motors, consisting essentially of two basic components, a stator and a rotor, whether transmitter
or receiver. Figure 3.2 shows a simple layout as an alternative to the one in article 3.1. The
laminated iron core consists of three windings connected in star, 1200 apart, H-shaped, with
both rotors connected to the same supply.
Although the name “Synchro” is universally used in the instrumentation field, trade names
such as Selsyns, Microsyns and Autosyns are used for these instruments. There are two types
of synchro systems namely the control or error detecting type and the torque transmission type.
Torque transmission types of systems are used only to drive very light loads, such as
pointers. Ironically, torque transmission systems have very little output torque. When large
torques and high accuracies are needed, Control-type Synchros are used.
Initially, the rotors (i.e., the primary windings) of both the synchro transmitter and receiver
are aligned with the stator winding S2 for maximum (flux) coupling as shown in Figure 3.2.
The coupling between the stator windings S1 and S3 and the rotor are cosine functions and
are proportional to Cos600; since Cos60 = ½, for an applied voltage V, the resultant values of
emf in S2 = V and equal to V/2 in the case of the other two windings S1 and S3.
If the two rotors remain in this position, there is no torque generated as no current flows
between the windings, the reason being that their voltage vectors are exactly opposite to each
other.

Chapter 3
Transmitter (Tx) Receiver (Rx)
S2 S2
V V
V V V V
2 2 2 2
S3 Stator S1 S3 Stator S1
R1 R1
Rotor Rotor
R2 R2
Figure 3.2 – Two-element Synchro Chain

(Initial Position of the Synchro Transmitter and Receiver)
The moment the rotor of the transmitter, which for example is linked to the rudder stock, is
rotated as shown in Figure 3.3 on the following page, resultants are generated due to a
generation of emf which is a result of the imbalance. If the rotor is turned by 300, the stator
3
windings’ voltages of the transmitter will be changed to /2 in the stator windings S1 and S2
and 0 in S3 respectively.
The resultant torque causes the rotor of the receiver to rotate until it aligns with the stator,
ideally taking up the same position, i.e., 300.

S2 S2
3 V
2
3V
0V 2
Stator Stator
S3 S1 S3 S1
300 300
R1 R1
Rotor Rotor
R2 R2
Figure 3.3 – Torque Transmitter
3.3 Troubleshooting the Rudder Indicator

When the rudder angle indicator equipment fails, the cause is located in one of the following
circuits:
• The synchronized motor circuit
• The illuminating circuit
When the equipment fails, check the power supply at first. The power supply circuit is often
faulty, when the entire system does not operate normally.

Chapter 3
3.3.1 The Motor Circuit is Abnormal

3.3.1.1 The Pointer of The Receiver is Not Moving
1. Power in not supplied to the power switch. 1. Check the power source.
2. A fuse has blown due to a short circuit of the 2. Replace the motor and the blown fuse.
primary winding or other reason.
3 Power is not supplied to the terminal. 3. Check the power supply and check the
connection.
4.The winding of the motor is broken. 4. Replace the faulty motor.
3.3.1.2 The Movement of the Receiver’s Pointer Is Unstable

1. The terminal connection is loose. 1. Tighten it up.
2. The pointer is loose. 2. Tighten it up.
3. One of the phases of the secondary winding of the sending or the 3. Replace the motor.
receiving motor is defective or short-circuited
4. The ball bearing of the receiving motor is defective. 4. Replace the motor.
3.3.1.3 The Receiver Rotates in Different Directions

1. Wiring is erroneous. 1. Exchange any two S1, S2 and S3 of the secondary winding.
3.3.1.4 The Indication is 180º Out of Alignment from That of The Transmitter
1. Wire connection is erroneous. 1. Exchange any two (S1, S2 and S3) of the secondary winding.
3.3.1.5 Transmitter or Receiver Overheats

1. The winding of the motor is broken. 1. Replace the faulty motor.
2. Primary winding of the motor is shorted between layers.
3.3.1.6 A Humming Sound is Heard

1 An unreasonable mechanical load is applied to the 1 Closely check the mechanical parts and
rotor of the receiving motor, and the rotor does not eliminate the unreasonable load applied.
revolve smoothly.
2. The axial direction spring in the receiving motor is 2. Replace the motor.
worn out.
3.3.1.7 The Illumination Circuit is Abnormal

Symptom Probable Cause Remedies
1. Some or all of the lamps do 1. Connection of the inside LED 1. Replace the faulty parts.
not light. PCB is disconnected.
2. Illumination lamp only has an 2. The yard circuit has a wrong 2. Check the wire connection
on, off function. wire connection. and then replace the dimmer
switch.
CAUTION!
Do not open the transmitter cover and other indicators’ covers.
It may result in the rudder angle indicating system failure.
If you want to open the cover of the installation, follow the installation method laid down in
the manual
When you set the rudder angle indicator, please turn the power off before connecting the
indicator to the power source.
The electric power supply connection for the rudder angle transmitter and each indicator
follows the connection diagram in the junction box.
3.4 The Rate of Turn Indicator

The rate of turn indicator displays the instantaneous rate at which the ship is turning. This
indicator is fed 60 to 200 pulses per minute from the steering repeater and works out the
instantaneous rate of turn. The dial is usually marked in 0 to 30 0 per minute on either side of
Port or Starboard.
It is a well-known fact that when the ship turns, it traverses some distance around the arc
of a circle and cannot execute a sharp turn about a point as it will capsize.
To enable a ship to execute a safe turn, the rate of turn is very useful.
Rate of turn is based on the simple formula:
ROT = v/R
Where v is the speed of vessel over ground and R is the radius of turn in nautical miles.

Chapter 3
3.4.1 Raytheon Anschütz Rate of Turn System
Figure 3.4 – A Rate of Turn Indicator by Anschütz

The rate gyro is an aid for steering and manoeuvring of seagoing vessels. The gyro element
is a component of the well-proven Anschütz gyro technology and thus a guarantee for
reliability, precision and long life; developed for round-the-clock operation. The use of the most
modern microprocessor technology for internal process and signal treatment makes the rate-of-
turn indicator an intelligent, self-monitoring sensor which can be integrated very flexibly into
sophisticated navigation systems. The operator and indicator unit with either 30°/min, 100°/min
or 300°/min scale can be used for flush mounting or with a casing and tiltable bracket for
desktop mounting. It has the following features:
• Robust, reliable sensor based on a professional gyro system
• Simple installation on board
• Operating surface of the operator- and indicator unit in modern soft key technique
• Microprocessor-controlled data processing and -output
• Galvanic separation from ship’s mains with protection against reversal of poles
• Variable outputs for radar, river pilot and RoT- and data processing periphery
• Integrated monitoring, test function and damping function.

Chapter 4
Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder
4.1 Introduction
The idea of a gyrocompass was first patented by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos in 1885.
The first usable gyro compass was invented in 1906 in Germany by Hermann Anschütz-
Kaempfe, and after a successful test in 1908, became widely used by the German Imperial
Navy. The United States scientist Elmer Ambrose Sperry now owns the reputed Sperry
Gyroscope Company that manufactures gyrocompasses. The US Navy used the gyroscope
‘Metal Mike’ - a guided autopilot steering system, for the first time during World War I.
Today, ships use the gyrocompass (which has been devised to keep a ship’s heading in one
particular direction under most weather conditions), for auto steering,
4.2 Regulations
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) CH - V Regulation 19 (Carriage requirement for ship-borne

Navigational systems and equipment), Regulation in 19.2.5.1 of SOLAS CH –V.
All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall have:
• A gyro compass, to determine and display their heading by shipborne non-magnetic
means, being clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position.
• A gyro compass heading repeater to supply heading information visually at the
emergency steering position.
• A gyro compass has a bearing repeater, to take bearings, over an arc of the horizon of
360°.
4.3 Working Principle
A gyroscope is any device consisting of a rapidly spinning wheel set in a framework that
permits it to rotate about any axis and basically gives it three degrees of freedom, which will
be explained later. The momentum of such a wheel causes it to retain its attitude when the
framework is tilted; from this characteristic, several valuable applications are derived.
Gyroscopes are used in such instruments as compasses and automatic pilots onboard ships and
aircraft, in anti-roll equipment on large ships, inertial guidance systems and many other systems
where stabilisation is a mandatory requirement.

Chapter 4
The marine gyrocompass is a three-frame gyroscope with its spin axis horizontal. In order
to achieve the north-seeking and actual location (or meridian-settling) properties of a
gyroscope, use is made of the tilting effect of the spin axis when it is not pointing to the true
north. As soon as a tilt develops, a pendulum-type device introduces torques that precesses the
spin axis towards the meridian, causing it to trace a spiral with an ever-decreasing radius.
When it is stabilised, the spin axis is maintained in the meridian plane by a precession equal
but opposite to the drift at the latitude. When there is no tilting effect, the marine gyrocompass
will lose its directional properties and become useless. This is the case at the poles and when
a vehicle moves due west with a speed equal to the surface speed of the Earth. Because the
latter condition can easily exist in an aircraft in the middle and upper latitudes, it cannot be used
for air navigation. Vertical three-frame gyroscopes with pen-recorder attachments are often
used to analyse rolling and pitching movements of ships.
The gyrocompass works on two gyroscopic laws namely:
1. Gyroscopic Inertia
2. Precession
4.3.1 Moment of Inertia
Inertia is the reluctance of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line. Newton’s first law of motion states that an external force must act on a body in order to
overcome this inertia. The inertia of a particle of a rotor requires a force in order to produce a
linear acceleration of that particle. This force which must overcome the resistance to change,
must be equal to the mass of the particle times the acceleration produced. Thus,
Resistance of particles = ma
Where:
Angular acceleration a = Ør
Therefore,
Resistance of particles = mØr
The resistance to the rotation about a spin axis, due to this inertia, will be the moment of this
force about that axis:
Moment = mØ𝑟 2

The total resistance to rotation motion due to the inertia of the whole rotor will be the sum
of above expression of each particle in the rotor:
Total Resistance = ØƩm𝑟 2
The quantity Ʃm𝑟 2 is called the second moment of the mass about the spin axis, or the
moment of inertia about that axis, and as the total resistance moment must be opposed by any
moment causing angular acceleration the moment of inertia will determine the acceleration
caused by any given applied moment.
To construct a free gyroscope on the surface of the earth, then the rotor must be supported
against the effect of the earth’s gravity. The support must be designed to maintain the freedom
of the spin axis of the rotor to take up any direction without any constraint. This requires a
gimbal mounting which gives the rotor freedom to turn about two axes mutually at right angles
and at right angles to the spin axis. It is convenient to adopt the vertical axis and a horizontal
axis mutually at right angles to the spin axis and the vertical axis. The gyro therefore will have
freedom to tilt about the horizontal axis and to turn in azimuth about the vertical axis (drift).
Friction in the bearing of the gimbal mountings should be negligible to avoid applying
torques to the motor. A free gyro therefore is said to have three degrees of freedom:
a. Freedom to spin about a spin axis.
b. Freedom to turn in azimuth about a vertical axis (drift).
c. Freedom to tilt about a horizontal axis.
Please scan the QR code to see a short video of a basic Gyroscope

Figure 4.1 – An Arrangement of Gimbals to Give A Rotor Freedom
To Tilt and To Turn In its Azimuth

Chapter 4
4.3.2 Gyroscopic Inertia

When the rotor of a free gyroscope is spinning the forces that are acting upon an elemental
particle of the rotor are those of centrifugal force, which is directed radially outward, and an
equal and opposing force, which is directed radially inward. This opposing force is provided
by cohesion of the particles in the solid rotor. Both these forces are acting in directions which
are in the plane of the rotor and therefore do not act to change the plane in which the rotor is
oriented. If the friction in the spin axis bearing is neglected, the rotor will continue to spin with
a constant velocity and will maintain the orientation of the plane of the rotor in space, and it is
this property is known as gyroscopic inertia. If the base of a three-frame gyroscope is held in
the hand with the rotor spinning and turned about any of the three axes, the rotor axle will
continue to point in the original direction in space. If the speed of the wheel decreases, the
gyroscope inertia gradually disappears, the rotor axle begins to wobble and ultimately takes up
any convenient position.
The moment of inertia of the cross section expresses the moment that the mass of the rotor
exerts about the spin axis that is the axis of the gyration of the rotor. This will determine how
easy it is to initially set the rotor spinning that is to change its state of motion. The moment of
inertia will depend upon the mass of the rotor, and also upon the distribution of that mass with
respect to the spin axis.
The greater the proportion of the mass which lies towards the circumference of the rotor, the
greater will be the moment of inertia and the greater will be the gyroscopic inertia for any given
angular velocity. Rotors are for this reason designed with a heavy rim with a relatively light
internal construction which is sufficient to maintain the strength of the rotor.
Figure 4.2 shows the cross section of two rotors. The moment of inertia of the cross section
of the rotor A will be greater than that of rotor B. Rotor A will therefore possess greater
gyroscopic inertia for any given angular velocity of spin.
Angular momentum (H), is given by the product of the angular velocity ( ), and the moment
of inertia of the cross section about the spin axis (I):
H= I
It is apparent that gyroscopic inertia depends on the angular velocity and the momentum of
inertia of the rotor, or on its angular momentum.

The rotor (wheel) is subject to the laws of rotational motion and inertia in that a freely
rotating, well-balanced body, whose mass is equally distributed along its circumference, will
maintain a fixed direction in space, tends to preserve its angular momentum, or spinning action,
unless acted upon by some external force.
The consequence of gyroscopic inertia is that to the observer on the Earth, the spin axis of
a gyroscope makes an apparent movement over a period, although this apparent motion merely
reflects the revolution of the Earth about its axis.
Figure 4.2 – Cross section of two rotors

There is one exception to this, that when the spin axis points towards the polar star, there
is no movement of the spin axis with respect to the observer’s surroundings, as the axis is
parallel to the Earth’s axis and points toward the Celestial poles.
As the direction of the Earth’s rotation is counter clockwise when seen from above the
North Pole, the relative direction of this end will change through Northeast, East, Southeast,
South, etc.

Chapter 4
This clockwise movement will continue until, at the end of one period of rotation of the
earth (23 hours 56 minutes), the rotor and spin axis revert to their original position with respect
to the observer on the Earth’s surface. While this is taking place, the top end is apparently tilting
upward. The change in azimuth (direction) of the spin axis is often referred to as drifting.
Sometimes tilting and drifting are collectively called apparent wander.
If, while the rotor of a three-frame gyroscope is spinning, a slight vertical downward or
upward pressure is applied to the horizontal gimbal ring at the top, the rotor axle will move at
right angles in a horizontal plane. But no movement will take place in the vertical plane.
Similarly, if a sideways pressure is applied at the same point the rotor axle will tilt upward or
downward. This second property is called precession. A precession or angular velocity in the
horizontal plane is caused by the application of a couple, i.e. parallel forces equal and opposite,
in the vertical plane perpendicular to that of the rotor wheel. Precession is the tendency of the
rotor’s axis to move at right angles to any perpendicular force that is applied to it.
The unrestrained or free three-frame gyroscope has little practical use because its spin axis
is subject to tilting and drifting owing to the rotation of the Earth. In the controlled state, it is
widely used. The term control of a gyroscope implies that the spin axis, by small continuous or
intermittent application of torque (twisting force), is made to precess so that it oscillates around
a mark fixed in relation to co-ordinates on the Earth rather than in relation to space.
4.3.3 Gyroscopic Precession
Precession means a change in the direction of the rotational axis of a rotating object and so
in this case a change in the spin axis of the gyroscope. Any external force or couple which acts
on the rotor may be resolved into components about the three axes, the spin axis, the horizontal
axis, and the vertical axis. The effect of an external force or couple acting on the gyro is
described below. A force or couple producing a torque about the spin axis acting in the plane
of the rotor as shown in Figure 4.3, will merely increase or decrease the rate of rotation of the
rotor about the spin axis. In this case it is the drag of frictional forces in the spin axis bearings,
which will decelerate the rotor.
The rotor produces torque which acts so as to oppose friction and thus maintain a constant
angular velocity and must be provided in a gyro compass. This will be the function of the rotor
of the high-speed motor.

Figure 4.3 – Force Acting In The Plane Of The Rotor

A force which acts in a plane which is perpendicular to the plane of the rotor will contain a
zero component about the spin axis. Such a force may be resolved into components about the
vertical and the horizontal axis. Figure 4.4 shows a rotor with a couple acting in a plane
perpendicular to the rotor plane such as to cause a torque about the horizontal axis. The vertical
component of force acting on a rotor and spin axis must rotate about the vertical axis, a moment
in azimuth.
Figure 4.4 – A Perpendicular Force Acting on A Rotor

4.3.4 Rate of Precession
The rate of precession of the gyro axis is proportional to the applied torque. It is also
inversely proportional to the gyroscopic inertia of the rotor which is expressed by the angular
momentum possessed by the rotor.

Chapter 4
Thus
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
Precession ∝
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑇
P∝
𝐻
4.4 Control of the Free Gyro to Produce A North Seeking Instrument
We clearly know that the free gyro does not constitute an instrument which may be called a
compass. The direction of the spin axis relative to the earth continually changes unless it is
directed towards one of the celestial poles. Even then, unwanted friction forces in the bearing
would cause the axis to wander. In order to make the spin axis of a gyro point in any constant
direction with respect to the earth’s surface, the ever-present drifting and tilting caused by the
rotation of the earth, must be compensated for by causing equal and opposite motion. To
produce a compass, we must produce an instrument which will seek and settle in the meridian,
and if disturbed from the meridian will return to it.
4.4.1 Controlled Gyroscopes
Controlled gyroscopes fall into three categories:
• The north-seeking gyroscope is used in marine applications. In the settling (or normal)
position the spin axis is kept horizontal and in the plane of a meridian.
• The directional gyroscope is used in aircraft and is sometimes called a self-levelling free
gyroscope corrected for drift. With its spin axis horizontal, it has directional properties but
does not automatically seek the meridian as one degree of freedom is restricted.
• The gyro-vertical has its spin axis vertical and is used to detect and measure angles of roll
and pitch.
These types of three-frame gyroscopes are called displacement gyroscopes because they
can measure angular displacements between the framework in which they are mounted and a
fixed direction - the rotor axis.
4.4.2 Control of the Gyro Using Solid Weights
The first step in converting a free gyro compass is to control the gyro or make it north
seeking. In general, this is done by creating torque about the horizontal east-west axis, which
is effective when the gyro tilts out of the horizontal.
This torque will produce a precession in the azimuth which causes the spin axis to seek the
meridian. Figure 4.5 shows a gyro rotor contained within a rotor case; the rotor is supported
through the spin axis bearings. A weight is placed on top of the rotor casing such that when the
spin axis is horizontal the vertical through the centre of gravity of the weight passes through
the centre of the rotor. In this condition the weight will produce no torque on the rotor and is
completely ineffective.
The spin axis of the rotor, if it is initially horizontal, will not remain so. The rotation of the
earth will cause the spin axis to develop a tilt and the spin axis is directed to the north of the
meridian.
Figure 4.5 – Control Weight Attached on The Top of The Rotor Case
Spin Axis Horizontal
The control of a gyro by a solid control weight is not used in practical compasses as its use
presents problems when the compass is subjected to the acceleration associated with the
movement of a ship in a seaway (rolling), this causes the spin axis to rapidly oscillate and thus
not seek the north meridian.

Chapter 4
4.4.3 Control of the Gyro by Liquid Ballistics
Figure 4.6 – A Liquid Gravity Control System

The problem of the rapid oscillation in weight type control system is solved by a liquid
gravity control system. Generally a gravity control by a liquid ballistic system is used, where a
viscous liquid is allowed to flow between the north and south side of the rotor under the
influence of gravity, when the gyro axis tilts out of the horizontal.
Figure 4.6 shows a rotor and rotor casing. Attached to the rotor casing by a connection at
the bottom of the casing is a pair of bottles or pot, one to the north and other to the south of the
east-west horizontal axis. The pipes are connected at their base by an unrestricted pipe which
allows free flow between the two pots. The pots contain a quantity of liquid; commonly used is
mercury because of its high density. The pots are also connected by a pipe between their upper
ends to allow equalization of air pressure, ensuring that the flow is not restricted by a build-up
of pressure in the top of the pots. The whole is symmetrical about the east-west axis and the
centre of mass of the ballistic system must coincide with that of the rotor when the rotor axis is
horizontal and the liquid is equally distributed between the pots.
In Figure 4.6, liquid will find its own horizontal and will be evenly distributed about the
east-west horizontal axis. It will therefore have no effect on the gyro. That is its weight is acting
vertically down through the centre of the rotor and no torque is exerted about any of the gyro
axes. However, it must be noted that even this method is almost obsolete now.

4.5 Operational Errors of the Gyrocompass
4.5.1 Latitude Error (Damping Error)

A gyro compass which is damped in tilt, will settle with a displacement from the meridian.
The magnitude of the error will be determined by the design and construction of the individual
compass, and it may be assessed for any particular design by considering the equilibrium
condition at the setting position for a compass damped in tilt.
4.5.2 Course, Latitude and Speed Error (Steaming Error)
The compass will settle with respect to a false meridian if the vessel is moving across the
surface of the earth with a velocity which has a northerly or a southerly component. Such a
velocity will produce a false tilting of the spin axis. Only if the course is east or west will there
be no such false tilting. This error is completely eliminated by creating precision of the spin
axis which is equal and opposite to the false tilting of the axis caused by the north-south
component of the vessel’s speed.
4.5.3 The Change in the Course and Speed Error
Navigation officers always follow the maker’s correction chart to correct the compass and,
in each case, the compass will be required to settle after each alteration of the course or speed,
and the unsteadiness associated with the damped spiral must be avoided. Ballistic deflections
are used to solve the problem of the change in the course and speed error.
4.5.4 Effect of a Ship’s Motion on a Gyro Compass
The correct and accurate operation of the gyro compass depends upon the effect of the
gravity on the control and damping element of the compass. The acceleration due to the earth
gravity acts vertically downwards and defines the horizontal for the compass. If the compass is
subjected to other acceleration such as those associated with the motion of the ship in a seaway,
the compass will react to these accelerations as they will be indistinguishable from that of the
earth’s gravity. The compass will sense the resultant of all the acceleration to which it is
subjected, and this resultant will define a ‘false’ vertical and thus a false horizontal.
The effects of ship motion are called rolling error but they are not errors in the sense that
they can be assessed and allowed for, but their effect is to produce spurious wandering of the
compass. They must therefore be eliminated as far as possible in the design of the compass so
that the navigational officer has no part to play in the compensation.

Chapter 4
4.6 Major Components of the Ship’s Gyro Compass Master Unit
Please scan the QR Code to see a video of Std 22 Gyro being serviced
Figure 4.7(a) – Master Units of the Anschutz Gyrostar 21 and Std 22 Gyro Compasses
Please Scan the QR code to see a short video of a sphere being opened
Figure 4.7(b) – The Sphere of a Gyro Compass

BB C
D 1
CE
5
2 2
3 4
F 8
H G 7 6
Aluminium
in the Follow-up Sphere
provides eddy current for lifting the sphere
A Compass card 1 Graphite electrode for supply to the 3-ph rotor

B Power Supply slip rings 2 Graphite electrode for supply to the 3-ph rotor
C Cover of the fluid container 3 Graphite electrode for supply to the 3-ph rotor
D Follow-up sphere 4 Solid rotor at right angles to the second rotor
E Spider legs to provide supply to electrodes 5 Tandem coupling to keep both rotors aligned
F Graphite electrode for blow-out coil 6 Lubricating oil for the rotor shafts
G Inner container 7 Wicks to pass oil to rotors’ shafts
Blow-out coil to aid in flotation (some gyros
H Outer Container 8
have a small disc-like pump in the FU sphere)
Figure 4.8 – Sectional Views a Gyro Compass Master Unit

Chapter 4
With respect to Figures 4.7(a), (b) and 4.8, some modern gyros are of the fluid-filled types
also. For example, one type has distilled water that forms the mass, while glycerin is used to
raise the specific gravity that aids in flotation of the heavy sphere; it also reduces friction
between the water and the surface of the floating sphere. Anti-foaming, anti-freezing and anti-
fungal agents are used on the liquid too. Some boracic power is mixed at times to make the
fluid conductive. The fluid is held in the inner container and is just enough to submerge the
sphere and help it to also float within the outer, hollow, follow-up sphere.
The inner sphere that is expected to float in the fluid, is housed in the hollow follow-up
sphere. This (inner) sphere is bottom-heavy in order to make it pendulous in nature and by
keeping the centre of gravity low, it helps in precessing the sphere back to the meridian when
the ship changes course.
The sphere is bottom-heavy because of it houses some lubricant at the bottom (so never tilt
or play with this sphere), above which is a blow-out coil to create an eddy-current-based lift
with the help of an aluminium bowl in the bottom half of the follow-up sphere as shown in
Figure 4.8. This lift keeps the gyro sphere equidistant from the inside of the follow-up sphere
and also aids in keeping the conductivity between the corresponding electrodes in the inner and
outer spheres. The major weight is contributed by the two rotors (that are at 90 O to each other
as shown in Figures 4.7(b) and 4.8). These solid, well-balanced rotors are part of 2 two-pole
induction motors, supplied with say, 100, 110 or even 120 V AC @ say, 333 Hz, which results
in the rotors spinning at a phenomenal speed of 19980 rpm based on the formula N = (120 x f)
P, where N is the speed, f is the frequency of the supply and P is the poles. Friction is reduced
by filling the sphere with an inert gas like Helium and lubricating the shafts of the rotors, which
is some cases are installed in magnetized sleeves, so that they are literally floating.
It must be remembered that when the ship alters its course, the outer container, inner
container will change their direction too, as they are fitted firmly. Since the follow-up sphere
is mounted on the inner container, that will also initially turn with the containers. When this
occurs, due to slight frictional forces between the fluid and the surface of the gyro (inner)
sphere, the gyro sphere will tend to turn too, but will end up tiling slightly due to the effects of
precession.
The tilting effect will be overcome by the pendulous nature of the sphere, and when there
is a righting moment applied, the sphere will rotate in the opposite direction to point once again,
towards the meridian.

A mismatch in the alignment between the follow-up sphere and the gyro sphere will be
picked up by 4 pairs of electrodes. Each pair corresponds to one graphite electrode on the inside
of the follow-up sphere and one on the outside of the gyro sphere. The fluid forms the
electrolyte. As mentioned above, when the ship alters course, and a mismatch occurs, the
distance between these will increase and cause a change in resistance to increase between them.
Now, based on the Wheatstone Bridge principle, the change in resistance will be picked up,
amplified and used to turn a motor.
The motor in turn will bring the follow-up sphere back into alignment with the gyro sphere
and simultaneously drive synchro transmitters that are fitted on the top cover of the inner
container. These transmitters are connected to repeaters or “course indicators” as shown in
Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 – A Gyro Repeater
Figure 4.10 – A Marine Gyro Compass Display Unit

Chapter 4
4.7 Troubleshooting the Gyro Compass TG-8000-8500 By Tokyo Keiki
4.7.1 General
When any failure has been generated in this system or in the connected external equipment,
the following will be thought.
(1) An alarm is displayed in this system.
(2) Abnormality exists in partial or all functions of this system.
4.7.2 Before Troubleshooting
(1) Secure the ship’s safety first according to the emergency steering procedure of the automatic
steering system. Then, it is required to identify where the cause of the failure is located, in
this system side or in the external equipment side.
How to identify the failed side
Confirm the alarm content according to “3.4.5 Alarm” in Chapter 3 Operating Method.

(2) Tools (instruments) required for checking

• Flat head screw driver and general tools
• Circuit tester
4.7.3 Countermeasures
CAUTION!
Before checking and replacing of the fuses, and disconnecting / connecting of each unit,
connector, printed circuit, terminal cable, turn “OFF” the power switch of the operating
panel, and further disconnect the power cable from the ship’s distribution board, etc.
It may cause electric shock and failure if left “ON” position.
4.7.4 Measures When an Alarm is Generated
(1) When it buzzes to inform abnormality, confirm the alarm indicator lamp⑩ blinking and
the alarm content indicated in the data indicator⑧.
Then, push the ACK / ENT switch④ to stop the buzzer.
(2) If the alarm indicator lamp⑩ goes OFF after pushing the ACK / ENT switch④, it shows
that the abnormality has been removed and the system has been restored. In such a case,
wait for a while to look if that alarm repeats and then take suitable action according to the
result.
Write down the setting values and the other data related to the alarm, and various status
conditions including the sea state.
(3) If the alarm indicator lamp⑩ goes continuously lit from blinking after pushing the ACK /
ENT switch④, it shows that the abnormality has still continued. In such a case, confirm the
alarm occurrence number and the alarm content from the data indicator⑧ (Refer to “3.4.5
Alarm” in Chapter 3 Operating Method), and check according to “4.3.2 Failure symptoms
and countermeasures” in Chapter 3 OperatingMethod, seeing the indicated alarm content.
4.7.5 Failure Phenomena and Countermeasures
When a failure has occurred, take the following countermeasures.
Also, if it was not repaired, please contact our service station or agency.

Chapter 4
CAUTION!
Whenever the internal setting of the system is changed, follow our service engineer’s
instruction.
When any other malfunction other than what appeared in this case is generated or the
replaced fuse has blown again, turn “OFF” the power switch of the operating panel, disconnect
the power cable from the ship’s distribution board and request for a service engineer’s
assistance.
When a failure has occurred and it has not been repaired according to this clause, turn “OFF”
the power switch of the operating panel and request for a service engineer’s assistance on
making a call to the port.
4.7.5.1 Power Supply Abnormality (Alarm Code “1”)
CAUTION!
Pay full attention to avoid electric shock when checking the power supply.
When checking the fuses, turn “OFF” the power switch on the operating panel and further
disconnect the power cable from the ship’s distribution board before checking the fuses.
1. Confirm the state of power supply.
Confirm the automatic steering system type according to the finished plan of this ship.
4.7.5.1.1 One Gyro-Compass System
(1) Stand-Alone Type (Model TG-8000/8500-S)
The system where both, the master compass and the control unit, are not built in the
automatic steering system.
The input terminals of the main power supply (between 1AC1 and 1AC2 of the external
terminal board TB101 in the control unit)
Voltage: 100 / 110 / 115 / 220 V AC, within ±10 %
Frequency: 50 / 60 Hz, within ± 5 %
The input terminals of the emergency power supply (between 1B+ and 1B- of the external
terminal board TB101)
Voltage: 24 V DC, within -20 % to +30 %

(2) Automatic steering system built-in type

The system where both, the master compass and the control unit, are built in the automatic
steering system.
Frequency: 50 / 60 Hz, within ±5 %
terminal board TB101)
4.7.5.1.2 Two Gyro-Compasses System
(1) Stand-Alone Type (Model TG-8000/8500-D)
The system where the master compass and the control unit for two gyro-compasses are not
built in the automatic steering system.
No. 1 Gyro-Compass Side
The input terminals of the main power supply (between 2AC1 and 2AC2 of the
external terminal board TB201 in the control unit)

Chapter 4
The input terminals of the emergency power supply (between 2B+ and 2B- of the
external terminal board TB201 in the control unit)
(2) Automatic Steering System Built-In Type ②
(Model PR-6□37A, PR-6□47A, PR-6□37B and PR-6□47B)
The system where two gyro-compasses are built in the automatic steering system.
(3) Automatic Steering System Built-In Type ③
The system where one gyro-compass out of the two is built in the automatic steering system,
and the power supply unit for No. 2 master compass and No. 2 gyro-compass is separated


Voltage: 100 / 110 / 115 / 220 emergency V AC, within ±10 %
The input terminals of the power supply (between 1B+ and 1B- of the external terminal
board TB101 in the control unit)
The input terminals of the main power supply (between 2AC1 and 2AC2 of the
external terminal board TB201 in the power supply unit)
The input terminals of the emergency power supply (between 2B+ and 2B- of the
external terminal board TB201 in the power supply unit)
(4) Automatic Steering System Built-In Type ④
The system where the control unit for two gyro-compasses is built in the automatic steering
system, and No. 1 master compass and No. 2 master compass are separated

Chapter 4
No.2 Gyro-Compass Side

2. Confirm the breaker’s status of the ship’s distribution board and the cable connection
from the ship’s distribution board.
One Gyro-Compass System
Between the main distribution board and 1AC1 / 1AC2, and 1B+ / 1B- of TB101 in the
external terminal board in the control unit
Two Gyro-Compasses System
Between the ship’s distribution board and 1AC1 / 1AC2, and 1B+ / 1B- of
TB101 in the external terminal board in the control unit
No. 2 gyro-compass side
Between the ship’s distribution board and 2AC1 / 2AC2, and 2B+ / 2B- of
TB201 in the external terminal board in the control unit (power supply unit)
If the above items do not show any problem, check the fuses after disconnecting the main
power supply.
Fuse F101 and F102 are located in the upper side of the external terminal board TB101 of
the control unit.
When it is built in PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, it is located in the right side of the
master compass when the front panel of the system is removed.
F101 - 6.3 A (main power supply)
F102 - 20 A (emergency power supply)


Fuse F101 and F102 are located near the external terminal board TB101 of the control unit.
Fuse F201 and F202 are located near the external terminal board TB201 of the control unit
(or the power supply unit).
When these fuses are built in PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, their location is
different depending on the automatic steering system type, also the power supply unit may be
separated depending on the type.
When it is built in the automatic steering system, confirm the location after removing the
front panel of the automatic steering system and check if it has blown.
F101 - 6.3 A (No. 1 main power supply)
F102 - 20 A (No. 1 emergency power supply)
After checking the above items, immediately contact a service engineer.
4.7.5.2 Power Supply Abnormality (Alarm Code “2”)
1. Select the mode other than “AUTO” for the automatic steering system.
2. Turn “OFF” the power switch once, and turn “ON” again after around 20 seconds have
elapsed.
3. When any alarm is not generated in the above item 2, operate according to “3.4.1
Start” in Chapter 3 Operating Method.
4. When an alarm is generated again in the above item 2, immediately turn “OFF” the power
switch and request our service engineer’s assistance.
4.7.5.3 Inverter Abnormality (Alarm Code “3”)
CAUTION!
When checking fuses, turn “OFF” the power switch on the operating panel and further
disconnect the power cable from the ship’s distribution board when checking fuses.

Chapter 4
elapsed.
3. When any alarm is not generated in the above item 2, operate according to the Operating
Method in the manual.
4. When an alarm is generated again in the above item 2, check the inverter fuse located in
the lower of the master compass. Then, immediately turn “OFF” the power switch and request
for a service engineer’s assistance.
F1 - 12 A
4.7.5.4 Rotor Level Abnormality (Alarm Code “6”)
CAUTION!
When an alarm code “６” is generated; the gyro-compass true heading may have an error.
Turn the steering mode to “MANUAL” then determine the true heading to prevent course
turning with a larger angle.
1. Select the mode other than “AUTO” of the automatic steering system.
2. Turn “OFF” the power switch once, and turn “ON” again after around 20 seconds later.
3. Operate according to “3.4.1 Start” in Chapter 3 Operating Method” of operator’s manual.
4. Observe the heading of the gyro-compass for two hours or more.
5. After checking the heading of the gyro-compass, immediately contact a service engineer.
4.7.5.5 Zero Cross Abnormality (Alarm Code “8”)
CAUTION!
Determination of the gyro-compass true heading during alarm code “8” is generated may
cause a large change of the true heading. During automatic navigation, great care should be
taken because large course change may have happened
2. According to the following procedure, determine the gyro-compass true heading
(indication), currently blinking.
(a) By pushing the DISP switch②, make such state that “SSG” or “GYT” is indicated in
the mode indicator⑨. At this time, the data indicator⑧ is blinking.
(b) Determine the gyro-compass true heading by pushing the ACK / ENT switch④.
(c) If the determined true heading has an error, set the true heading again.
3. Even if it has recovered by these procedures when abnormality of zero cross is generated,
immediately contact a service engineer.
4.7.5.6 System Communication Abnormality (1) (Alarm Code “A”)
elapsed.
3. When any alarm is not generated in the above item 2, operate according to “3.4.1
Start” in Chapter 3 Operation.
4. When an alarm is generated again in the above item 2, turn “OFF” the power switch of this
system, and disconnect the power cable from the ship’s distribution board, then confirm the
connection / contact between the external terminal board of the master compass and the
external terminal board (connector) inside the control unit.
When it is built in PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, the connection is different
depending on the automatic steering system type. Perform it referring to the finished plan of
this ship.
Also, when it is built in the automatic steering system, confirm the connection /contact after
removing the front panel of the automatic steering system.
(a) Stand-alone type (Model TG-8000/8500-S)
External terminal board of the master compass:
MTTRM PWB TB2 MR+ / -
External terminal board of the control unit: GTERM PWB TB1 MR+ / -
(b) Automatic steering system built-in type ① (Model PR-6□1□A / PR-6□1□B)
Connector of the master compass: MTTRM PWB J2
Connector of the control unit: GTERM PWB J12

Chapter 4

(a) Stand-alone type (Model TG-8000/8500-D)
Automatic steering system built-in type ④
(b) Automatic steering system built-in type ②
Automatic steering system built-in type ③
5. After checking the above items 2 to 4, contact a service engineer.
4.7.5.7 System Communication Abnormality (2) (Alarm Code “B”)
elapsed.
3. When any alarm is not generated in the above item 2, Start it as per instructions given in the
manual for Operating Methods.

4. When an alarm is generated again in the above item 2, turn “OFF” the power switch of this
system, and disconnect the power cable from the ship’s distribution board, then confirm the
connection / contact between the external terminal board of the master compass and the
external terminal board (connector) inside of the control unit.
When it is built in PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, the connection is different
depending on the automatic steering system type.
Also, when it is built in the automatic steering system, confirm the connection /contact after
removing the front panel of the automatic steering system.
(a) Stand-alone type (Model TG-8000/8500-S)
MTTRM PWB TB2 MT+ / -
External terminal board of the control unit: GTERM PWB TB1 MT+ / -
(b) Automatic steering system built-in type ① (Model PR-6□1□A / PR-6□1□B)

Chapter 4

4.7.5.8 GPS Communication Stop (Alarm Code “C”) Or Abnormality of GPS Data (Alarm
Code “D”)
2. Confirm if the GPS operates properly.
If not, operate the GPS according to the “GPS Operator’s Manual”.
3. If it was not recovered after performing the above item 2, change the input system according
to the countermeasures when the abnormality of the GPS communication is generated as
will be given in the manual.
4. After checking the above items 1 to 3, immediately contact a service engineer.
4.7.5.9 System Internal Communication Abnormality (1) (Alarm Code “E”) Or System
Internal Communication Abnormality (2) (Alarm Code “F”)
1. Confirm if the external heading sensor signal processing unit of this system operates properly.
If not, operate it according to the separate TOKYO KEIKI HDM Series Operator’sManual.
2. After checking the above item 1, contact a service engineer.

4.7.5.10 Master Compass Heading Abnormality (Alarm Code “G”)

CAUTION!
When an alarm code “G” is generated, the gyro-compass true heading may have an error.
And the new input of the true heading may cause a large change of the true heading. During
automatic navigation, once turn the steering mode to “MANUAL” then determine the true
heading to prevent course turning with larger angle, and after confirming the surrounding
safety of own ship, turn to “AUTO” steering again.
2. Confirm if the gyro-compass true heading indicated in this system coincides with the
heading by some target or by observation.
3. If an error exists in the above item 2, make correction according to “3.4.1 (9)
Confirmation of the true heading”
4.7.5.11 External Heading Sensor Communication Stop (Alarm Code “L”) Or External
Heading Sensor Data Abnormality (Alarm Code “N”)
2. Confirm if the external heading sensor operates properly.
If not, operate it according to the Operator’s Manual for the external heading sensor.
3. If it was not recovered after confirming if the external heading sensor operates properly,
take necessary countermeasures as per the Manual.
4. After checking the above, contact a service engineer if necessary
4.7.5.12 LOG (Serial Signal) Communication Stop (Alarm Code “P”) Or LOG (Serial
Signal) Data Abnormality (Alarm Code “U”)
2. Confirm if the LOG operates properly.
If not, operate it according to the Operator’s Manual of LOG.
3. If it was not recovered after performing the above item 2, change the input system
according to “3.4.5 (4) Countermeasures when the LOG (serial) communication abnormality is
generated”
4. After checking the above, contact a service engineer if necessary.

Chapter 4
4.7.5.13 LOG Contact Abnormality (Alarm Code “U”)

2. Confirm if LOG operates properly.
If not, operate it according to the Operator’s Manual of LOG.
3. If it was not recovered after performing the above item 2, change the input system
according to the guidelines in the manual.
4.7.5.14 E5V Abnormality (Alarm Code “R”)
2. Confirm that all equipment connected to this system properly operate.
(Refer to the finished plan maintained in the ship for the connected equipment.)
When an abnormality is generated operate it according to every Operator’s Manual of the
equipment
4.7.5.15 The Gyro-Compass Does Not Operate, When Power Switch On The Operating
Panel Is Turned “ON”
CAUTION!
Pay full attention to prevent an electric shock when checking the main power supply.
When checking the fuses, turn “OFF” the power switch, on the operating panel and further
disconnect the power cable from the ship’s distribution board before checking the fuses.
1. Confirm the power applying state of the main power supply and the emergency power
supply.
2. If the above item 1 does not show any problem, check the fuses after disconnecting the
main / emergency power supply.
One gyro-compass system
Fuse F101 and F102 are located in the upper side of the external terminal board
TB101 of the control unit

When it is built into PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, it located on the right side of the
master compass (after removing the front panel of the system). Please check if it has blown.
F101 - 6.3 A (main power supply)
F102 - 20 A (emergency power supply)
Two gyro-compasses system
Fuse F101 and F102 are located near the external terminal board TB101 of the control unit.
Fuse F201 and F202 are located near the external terminal board TB201 of the control unit
(or the power supply unit).
When it is built into the PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, its location is different
depending on the automatic steering system type, also the power supply unit is separated
depending on the type.
Please operate it according to the vessel’s requirements. When it is built in the automatic
steering system, confirm the location after removing the front panel of the automatic steering
system and check if it has blown.
3. After checking the above items 1 and 2, immediately contact a service engineer.
4.7.5.16 Each Repeater Does Not Operate
CAUTION!
When checking the fuses, turn “OFF” the power switch, and further disconnect the power
cable from the ship’s distribution terminal board.
1. Confirm the power switch of the repeater side.
2. Check the fuses since each repeater circuit of the external terminal board has an
individual fuse. When it is built in PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, the fuses are located
in the right side of the master compass after removing the front panel of the system. (They are
in the external terminal board “GTERM PWB”.)
Chapter 4
Refer to the finished plan maintained in the ship for details of repeater’s connection circuit.
Step type:
F5 to F9, F11 to F14 - 1 A
Serial type:
F1 to F10 - 1 A
3. In the case where the repeater output circuit is expanded as an option, check each fuse
(F110 to F190) of the expanded unit side.
4.7.5.17 All Repeaters Do Not Operate
CAUTION!
When checking the fuses, turn “OFF” the power switch, and further disconnect the power
cable from the ship’s distribution board.
1. Check the fuse after disconnecting the main / emergency power supply.
Fuse F15 is located in the external terminal board “GTERM PWB” of the control unit.
For two gyro-compasses system, also confirm F17. Fuse F17 is located in the external
distribution board “DTERM PWB” in the control unit.
When it is built into PR-6000 Automatic Steering System, it located in the right side of the
master compass (after removing the front panel of the system). Check if it has blown.
4.8 The Course Recorder
It is navigational equipment for automatically recording the course of the vessel over a
period of time. The record is done on continuous paper belt. The recorder is operated from a
gyro compass or a remote magnetic compass.
This unit is designed to provide the evidence of the courses that the ship has been following
while steering it. It plays a vital role as evidence in the unfortunate occurrence of an accident
like a collision or grounding or when there is an enquiry related to how the ship was steered.
It is a graphic record-keeping device that also has a built-in clock which also keeps the time
accurately. It is capable of recording even the smallest alterations in course and if the ship has
been wandering either due to the weather or the compass itself. If it is due to the weather, then
adjustments can be made on the autopilot.

The two important inputs to record the course are:
1) The feed from the gyro compass which indicates the course and gives signals to control
the spirally grooved drum, which moves the course and zone stylus.
2) The clock that is connected to the paper feed roller, controls the speed at which the paper
moves under the recording stylus, so that the time graduations on the papar move at the
correct speed.
The paper looks like a graph paper with vertical graduations for the time scale and horizontal
graduations for the course scale. It has three sections as follows:
1) The timescale which may be found either on the extreme right or left side of the paper
(depending upon the manufacturer). Usually the graduations have 10-minute intervals.
Normally the time is set to the correct UTC or GMT prior to starting.
2) The course section which occupies the middle section of the paper, is graduated for 90O
as follows:
000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90
180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
360 350 340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270
The scale is magnified so that the course that the vessel followed, can be read easily to the
nearest degree. The ambiguity of any error is taken care of in the zone section.
The zone section is thus found on the side that is opposite to the time scale. It consists of
four columns, each corresponding to a quadrant namely 0 to 90, 90 to 180, 180 to 270 and 270
to 360. So, depending on which column the zone pen is in, the appropriate scale can be read on
the course section.

Chapter 4
Image Courtesy: Tokyo Keiki Inc
Figure 4.11 – A Course Recorder
4.8.1 Example of a Course Record
With reference to the first zone, at the bottom and reading upward, the chart shows that the
heading was between 0 and 90 (in the 1st quadrant) until 13:45. The vessel then swung into the
2nd quadrant. Sighting across the record at 13:40, the course is seen to be 085. Again sighting
across at 13:50, the course is read in the 2nd quadrant as 110.
4.8.2 Required Markings on the Paper
a) The date and time that the voyage commences, the voyage number and port of departure.
b) Position at noon-time everyday
c) During arrival at and departure from a port, the time of the pilot boarding and departure.
d) Any alterations of course at sea and the time of altering the course. It will also indicate if
the recorder’s clock is functioning well enough.

Weather conditions, wind, sea state and swell – whether head or beam swell may be also
recorded on the chart.
Rudder adjustments may also be recorded.
The recorder’s clock must be checked and the error with reference to GMT must be
recorded. In case the error is large, it should be corrected by adjusting the paper. In case the
clock’s error is way off the acceptable mark, get the recorder serviced by an authorised agency
/ technician.
4.8.3 The Recording Pen / Stylus
Either ink pens or conducting wires are used. The pen belongs to an older design while the
wire is used with more recent designs that incorporates thermal paper.
There are usually 2 pens – one for the zone section and one for the course section. They are
hinged so that they can be raised whenever the paper is changed.
4.8.4 Working Principle of the Recorder
The drum consists of two sections – one with a continuous zig-zag groove cut in it and going
around the drum and the other, a continuous stepped groove that is running around the drum.
There is also a horizontal guide bar with a slit in it through which the pens are fitted and run.
The gyro signal is amplified and fed into the servo motor. This rotates the drum in a
particular direction. The course pen moves along the zig-zag groove across the paper. If the
drum turns clockwise, the pen will move from left to right and vice versa.
The zone pen will stay in its present groove (say 90O to 180O) until the course has reached
the junction. If the drum turns any more clockwise, the course pen will begin to move to the
right and the zone pen will slip into the next zone (180O to 270O). The course being steered can
be read simply by checking where the zone pen is. Then the scale on course section of the paper
can be used to read the course being steered as is indicated by the course marker.
4.8.5 Care and Maintenance
The course recorder should be checked every watch, by the watch-keeping officer. This will
ensure that the pens are recording the course according to the Gyro Compass. It will also help
to check if the clock is working satisfactorily.

Chapter 4
Landmarks and course alterations must be recorded on the paper.
When the paper roll is coming to an end, a red line across the paper will be noticed. Keep a
new roll ready so that the data is not lost.
The unit can be switched off in a port, and the pens must be raised.

Chapter 5
Magnetic Compasses
5.1 Introduction
History states that the magnetic compass was invented in China between the 2nd century BC
and 1st century AD, in the times when the Han dynasty ruled. The first compass was made on
lodestone, a naturally magnetized ore of iron. The magnetic compass is a pretty simple
instrument that has a magnetic needle or a magnetized bar that can turn freely upon a pivot and
align itself with the earth’s magnetic field and indicate the direction of the magnetic north of a
planet’s magnetosphere. Those cardinal points of north, south, east and west are very easy to
determine. The Magnetic compass was used for the first time in maritime navigation between
the years 1111 AD and 1117 AD. It was in the shape of a fish, and it floated in the bowl of
water and pointed south.
The role of this compass in present day navigation is substantially reduced, but because of its
independence from power failures, it continues to remain an essential element in the ship's
overall navigational equipment.
5.2 Regulations
With reference to SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 12, ships of 500 GRT and upward need to
be equipped with a standard magnetic compass with a reflector for the use of the helmsman. If
without the reflector than another compass for steering.
The regulation also stipulates that the magnetic compass should be properly adjusted and a
table or curve of deviation be available on board.
Modern magnetic compasses are more advanced in their magnetic material, structure,
stability and accuracy. The magnetic compass installed in the ship’s monkey island has the
following properties:
• Ship steel structure
• Vibration
• Pitching / Rolling
• Visibility
• Speed
Chapter 5
• Durability
• Appearance
5.3 Differences Between Magnetic North and True North
The magnetic needle or a magnetized bar can turn freely upon a pivot and align itself with
the earth’s magnetic field and indicate the direction of the magnetic north of a planet’s
magnetosphere. The magnetic north is not the actual geographical north (map north). There is
a difference between the magnetic north and the true north and this is known as declination and
is marked in degrees. Depending on where you are, the angle between the true north and the
magnetic north is different. In the U.S., the angle of decline varies from about 20O west in
Maine to about 21O east in Washington. The maker provides a declination chart for further
correction. We have two types of north; maps are drawn in relation to the true north while a
compass point to the magnetic north. The navigational officer must decide on one North as his
point of reference and base all his calculations on that.
5.4 Types of Magnetic Compasses
There are two types of magnetic compasses available:

• The dry card compass
• The wet card compass
The dry card compass is generally used as a standard compass and is too sensitive for
steering purposes, especially in bad weather and even small disturbances causes the dry card to
oscillate.
The wet card compass is a steering compass. This compass is less sensitive and the
oscillation is damped in the liquid and hence more useful as a steering compass. The wet card
compass bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure ethyl alcohol, which has the
following properties:
• A low freezing point about -30OC
• Low coefficient of expansion
• Does not discolour the card
• Low specific gravity - about 0.93

Magnetic Compasses
Ships may use the wet card compass for steering, while the gyro compass as the main
direction indicating instrument. The top of the bowl is of transparent glass. The bottom is
of frosted glass to diffuse the light coming from an electric bulb below.
Allowance for expansion must be given as the increase and decrease of atmospheric
temperature expands and contracts the liquid inside the bowl. Different methods are
adopted to cope with this problem. Two types of arrangements namely fitting of
corrugated chambers and fitting of nut-and-screw expansion chambers are available.
The former arrangement is similar to the attachment of corrugated bellows in an aneroid
barometer. The chamber increases or decreases in volume whenever the liquid inside the bowl
expands or contracts due to variations in atmospheric temperature.
5.5 Construction
The steering compass is normally located on the monkey island inside a binnacle. The
binnacle contains the lens pipe, the reflection pipe and the image mirror. This is a cylindrical
container made of teak wood / aluminium / fiberglass and has brass fittings. No magnetic
material is used in its construction.
The compass bowl is slung in the upper part of the binnacle. The compass bowl contains a
gimbal ring and a correcting device as in normal magnetic compasses. The optical lens
magnifies the image of the compass card and reflects it on the reflecting mirror. The mirror
cover can be moved up and down a few millimetres and can be rotated 360°. A small door in
the mid-section allows access to a light source, which is a 40 / 60 W, special filament light bulb
that can be adjusted from 0 to 40 / 60 watt by means of a rheostat to get the desired light
intensity.
The number of magnets in the bucket, the bucket's position with reference to the compass
card and the number of hard iron magnets depends on the disturbing forces. A qualified
“compass adjustor” can calculate this force after conducting certain tests.
Once the compass has been adjusted, the magnets should not be disturbed and the doors
giving access to tile corrector magnets should be kept locked.
Quadrennial correctors (two soft iron spheres), are fitted in brackets, one on either side of
the binnacle. The brackets have a sliding way or slots so that the distance between the spheres
can be altered as desired during the adjustment of the compass.

Chapter 5
A Flinders bar, which is a soft iron corrector, with a diameter about 7.5 cm, is inserted in a
60 cm-long brass case and is fitted either on the forward or aft part of the binnacle. The position
forward or aft depends on where the superstructure area is greater.
The helmet, the top of the binnacle is provided with a large brass helmet. This protects the
compass bowl from direct sunlight, rain, spray, dew, frost etc. during non-use.
In the forward, inside part of the bowl, there is usually a small projection with a line marked
on it. This line is called the “lubber line”, and it represents the direction of the ship’s head. The
compass is fixed on the centre line ship, with the lubber line aligned towards forward. The
reading of the compass card, which is in line with the lubber line, is the compass course of the
ship at that time.
Figure 5.1 – A Wet Card Magnetic Compass
Figure 5.2 – The Cylinder Container

Magnetic Compasses
5.6 The Importance of Comparing Compasses
The needles of a magnetic compass do not point to the True North but to the Magnetic North
pole. Mariners using a compass of this type have to make an allowance in their steering, and
this allowance differs not only from place to place but also from year to year (because the
magnetic poles slowly alter their positions). This is known as variation. Further, the magnetic
compass is affected by the magnetism of the ship itself and this error is the deviation.
The solution to the above problem is through the use of the marine Gyro Compass.
In spite of all the above advantages, the basic disadvantage of the gyro systems is the
requirement of electric power and that too a 3-phase power supply which is not possible from
a back-up battery. This disadvantage creates a need for the carrying of a magnetic compass by
all ships as a reliable safety measure in case of an electrical failure.
Since the power failure could be sudden and unexpected, it becomes necessary to often
compare the magnetic compass and gyro compass and check the error and the deviation. This
is done at least once during the navigational watch as well as after every course change. In case
of a gyro or power failure, the ship can continue to be navigated since the errors are known.
In case the ship is installed with a Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC), the auto steering
can be re-connected to the magnetic compass via the transmitting system and the ship can
continue on her voyage on the autopilot.
5.7 Precautions, Care and Maintenance
• The doors giving access to the corrector magnets should always be kept locked.
• The wooden parts of the binnacle should be varnished and not painted, as paint may cause
the doors to jam.
• The soft iron spheres and their brackets should be painted. This prevents rust.
• All magnetic materials like aerials, electrical wires and equipment etc., should be kept away
from the compass.
• The binnacle light should be switched off during the daytime.
• The helmet should always protect the azimuth mirror and the compass card from sprays,
direct sunlight, rain, etc., except when bearings are being actually taken.
• In a hot climate, avoid direct sunlight on the compass bowl. In cold climates, turn on the
light bulb in the binnacle and insulate it against the cold air.

Chapter 5
• Apply lubricating oil to the compass bowl and gimbal ring bearing
• When there is an air bubble in the compass bowl, please refer to the troubleshooting notes
to get rid of the bubble.
• Always keep the surface of the compass bowl, bottom glass, lens and image mirror clean.
• When screws and nuts are removed for compass adjustment, apply grease on them.
• Cover the compass on the compass deck with a waterproof stand cover.
• Maintain a magnetic compass log book.
5.8 Troubleshooting the Wet Card Magnetic Compass
Causes Possible Causes

No power source 1. The power supply is off
2. A cable is faulty
Tiny air bubbles 1. Air bubbles trapped in the gap of the compass bowl are set
free by vibration and shock. These bubbles do not become
bigger. Place the compass with the side plug screw facing
up. Remove the plug. The liquid in the compass will either
flow out or have an air space due to temperature difference.
Make sure the room temperature is at 20OC before filling the
compass with distilled water.
Large air bubbles 1. It is possible that the glass is broken or the packing is
damaged. Inspect and replace it with a new one.
Unsteady compass card 1. If the ship changes its heading, there may be a strong
magnetic piece or piece of iron near the compass.
Table 5.1 – Basic Troubleshooting Chart

5.8.1 Magnetic Compass (SH-165A2 Series)
(1) When a bubble is formed in the compass bowl, it impossible to read the card. The unit
must be overhauled.
a. In case of a small size bubble in the space might appear because of vibration and shock
but do not increase in size. Set the liquid input hole on the side wall of the compass bowl to the
top position and release the screw then the bubble may be purged out with water. If it does not
purge, remove the screw and add distilled water and retighten the screw again firmly. Clean the
liquid filling hole and perform the above under a 20℃ condition.
b. In case of a large-size bubble
An overhaul or repair by the manufacturer due to broken glass or broken packing is done.
Magnetic Compasses
(2) When the compass card is unsteady or has moved with ship’s turning.
These symptoms appear due to a strong magnetized material which is placed around
themagnetic compass or an incorrect deviation correction is performed.
5.9 Compass Considerations for Steering and Autopilots
The following educative and interesting article is an un-edited version published by Paul
Wagner, Executive Chairman, AutoNav Marine Systems Inc. It is inserted with his kind consent
and can be found as part of the website www.autonav.com; the figures however, have been
digitally enhanced / redrawn for clarity.
The re-entry of Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC) and Flux Gate Magnetic Compass
is likely to re-kindle interest in the Magnetic Compasses.
The autopilot compass is perhaps the most critical component in an autopilot system. No
matter how good the other components may be, no autopilot can steer better than the heading
information provided by its compass.
Most modern autopilots use an electronic Flux Gate compass, or equivalent, which directly
senses the earth’s magnetic field. These direct sensing compasses are frequently claimed to be
far superior to “old fashioned” fluid compasses. In fact, electronic compasses have been in use
for over 70 years and their limitations are well known to compass experts.
They are in common use today mainly because they are less expensive to manufacture than
the conventional fluid-filled compass with its floated card, magnets, pivots, jewels and sealing
system. The flux gate consists of field sensor, usually an inductor, mounted to a gimbaled
platform which is intended to sense the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field.
The earth’s field has two components: the horizontal field, which gives directional
information, and the vertical field, which provides no useful heading information (see Figure
5.3).
If the sensor should move from its intended horizontal position due to roll, pitch or
slamming in a seaway, the sensor will pick up some of the vertical field, mixing it with the
horizontal field and causing an error in actual course.
The same problem would occur in a conventional fluid compass except that the pivot and
jewel offer a second line of defence in decoupling the sensor (card and magnets) from vessel
motion.

Chapter 5
It is a seldom recognized fact that this extra isolation from vessel motion, coupled with
fluid damping, results in a conventional fluid compass having much greater stability than any
electronic compass under most conditions.
Figure 5.3 – Simplified section through the Earth’s magnetic field

Note: B and R signify Blue and Red poles. The lines marked V and HH show the vertical and
horizontal directions in various latitudes.
At mid latitudes in the U.S., one degree of sensor tilt off horizontal will have an apparent
two-degree shift in indicated heading, even though the vessel is still on course.
In higher latitudes where the horizontal field decreases in strength and the vertical field
increases, one degree of tilt can cause over 10 degrees’ compass error. The Great Lakes and
Eastern parts of Alaska are particularly bad areas in this regard (see Figure 5.4).
A few electronic compass manufacturers fill their compass sensor with a heavy oil to
dampen the gimbal action and minimize these vertical field errors. Others resort to electronic
damping, which either increases the compass dead band (lowers its sensitivity) or averages the
heading (delays the availability of current heading information). Some designs use more
sophisticated signal processing, but the end result is roughly the same. Any delay in autopilot
response to heading changes, especially in quartering seas, results in excessive yaw and the
need for excessive rudder corrections.

Magnetic Compasses
Some electronic compass manufacturers recognize this deficiency by offering a rate gyro
which provides a more current short-term heading reference than their sluggish and over
damped electronic compass is capable of.
H = 0.188
0
66 40’ H = 0.22
T = 0.474 60
0
T = 0.44
H = 0.3
0
30
T = 0.348
Z = 0.436 Z = 0.38 Z = 0.174
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.4 – Horizontal and vertical components of the Earth’s magnetic field
The field is shown for (a) London; (b) Northern Spain, and (c) the Sahara Desert.
Note: H, Z, and T are respectively the horizontal component, the vertical component, and the
total force, all expressed in oersted units.
Another electronic compass manufacturer has a “turn” button on the compass display. They
recommend that this button be activated when a change of course is made.
This button simply changes the compass damping to minimum and is a tacit admission that
the normal amount of damping, which is required to provide a steady display, causes such a
delay in heading indication that the helmsman would overshoot a course change. Clearly, any
autopilot using this heading information would have great difficulty steering in quartering seas
where immediate correction of course changes is essential.
To verify the severity of compass errors induced by electronic compasses, a simple test can
be made using a well-known brand of hand-bearing compass which uses an un-gimbaled flux
gate sensor in a flat hand-held digital readout configuration. The user must maintain this sensor
perfectly horizontal to avoid errors induced by sensing the earth’s vertical field. I am not sure
how this is to be achieved on a heeled and rolling deck!

Chapter 5
To measure the tilt errors, hold the hand-bearing compass down flat on the edge of a seat
with the vessel at the dock, i.e., no vessel motion to confuse the measurement.
Take a reading, and then, without rotating the compass to a different heading, tip it a few
degrees up or down and note the change in indicated heading. If this compass were controlling
your autopilot, you may appreciate the resulting sluggish steering.
Secondary
transmitter
Gyro in
Corrected dial
casing
Variation Setting
Flux gates Gimbals Uncorrected dial
Mechanical drive
Synchro 975 c/s

amplifier
Flux gate 400 c/s

array 115V
4875 c/s 3-
oscillator
Flux gate
excitation Follow-up
motor
Gyro Motor
Supply
to gyro motor
Master Indicator
Figure 5.5 – A Schematic Diagram of the Compass

Over 50 years ago, during World War II, direct sensing electronic compasses using flux
gates were used on aircraft and even on vessels, due to the ability to have the compass sensor
remotely mounted away from strong magnetic interference and to provide multiple repeaters
(see Figure 5.5). However, due to high acceleration such as turning and banking in an aircraft
and rolling and pitching on vessels, it was determined that simple pendulous support of the
sensor resulted in unacceptable course instability.
Magnetic Compasses
To resolve this problem on aircraft, a vertical gyro was integrated into the gimbaled sensor
so the sensor always remained horizontal. On ships, a directional gyro was used for heading
reference, but since these would slowly drift away from the North, they were slaved to a flux
gate sensor.
This sensor would be unstable for the reasons previously stated, but when averaged over
about one minute would provide a reasonably stable reference for the drifting gyro and keep
the heading smooth and reasonably accurate.
The cost to produce these systems with the older technology precluded their use on small
commercial vessels or yachts.
A more sophisticated and more modern approach to a flux gate controlling the directional
gyro is now produced by a leading compass manufacturer, who uses multi-axis gyros to provide
enhanced stability in the face of heavy acceleration from roll and pitch, etc. in addition, this
newer design provides heading output to the NMEA 0183 standard, making it usable with a
wide range of equipment, including autopilots, which require better compass stability than that
available from simple, non-fluid damped flux gate sensors. While considerably more expensive
than simple flux gate compasses, it provides an economical alternative to conventional north-
seeking marine gyrocompasses.
None of the above flux gate or equivalent direct sensing electronic compasses eliminate
compass errors due to vertical heeling error. This phenomenon is largely unheard of and is
almost never mentioned by compass manufacturers who claim to have automatic compass
compensation for magnetic deviation.
As discussed earlier, the earth’s magnetic field consists of vertical and horizontal
components. On a vessel having ferrous (e.g., steel) construction, the steel in the hull distorts
the horizontal component and causes errors in the reading of compass course.
With conventional liquid card type compasses, these errors were compensated for by
placing magnets in the horizontal plane around the compass, to provide equal but opposite fields
to those Caused by the steel in the ship.
All electronic compasses only correct for this horizontal field error. On non-ferrous vessels,
this is generally acceptable; however, on vessels with large amounts of ferrous metal on board,
the earth’s vertical field induces a changing horizontal field in the magnetic deviation, as the
vessel rolls or heels; hence the name, vertical heeling error.

Chapter 5
As a vessel rolls, the compass error varies, causing oscillation in the indicated course, even
though the vessel may still be on the same heading. Not only does this make hand steering
difficult, but it also causes autopilots to wander and cause unnecessary steering corrections.
On sailing vessels, which may remain heeled for 30 degrees or more for some time, large
fixed errors occur, and variable errors due to rolling are superimposed on this. Under these
conditions, an uncompensated vertical heeling error can have serious consequences.
The flux gate stabilized gyrocompass may give acceptable performance where the roll
period of the vessel is well below the averaging time of the unstable flux gate North reference,
but if the vessel has a long rolling period, this can begin to degrade the North reference stability.
On a heeled sailboat, within minutes of heeling, large errors can develop, since the roll
filtering is no longer effective. The only way to correct this is to use the tried and true technique
of installing a permanent magnet directly above or below the sensor and through its center,
while adjusting the distance and polarity for minimum heeling error.
Professional compass adjusters use a “vertical force instrument” which measures the
vertical field errors and allows precise compensation. Vessel owners may perform an
approximate compensation by adjusting the magnetic in a similar manner by monitoring for
maximum compass stability (minimum autopilot activity) while rolling in a seaway.
On commercial vessels or any vessel going offshore and where vertical heeling error is a
possibility, the services of a qualified compass adjuster should be contemplated.
There are some compass adjusters whose experience may be limited and do not correct for
or even understand what vertical heeling error is, and if they express any hesitation about
making this correction or don’t seem to understand what you are talking about, find another
compass adjuster! Incidentally, this vertical heeling error correction is only valid for the
magnetic latitude at which the compensation was made. If the vessel is expected to go on long
ocean voyages where the latitude will change by more than approximately 5 degrees, an
additional correction made with “Flinders Bars” should be carried out. Just as horizontal
compensation requires quadrantal spheres (soft iron balls) to be placed around the compass,
vertical compensation also requires a vertical soft iron corrector to be mounted and operated in
conjunction with the vertical heeling error magnet to maintain compensation over wide latitude
changes.
The ultimate in compass stability is achieved with a true North seeking gyrocompass. While
very expensive, the stability is unmatched. Traditional technology uses a spinning inertia wheel
which possesses high directional stability despite vessel roll or pitch.

Magnetic Compasses
Through mechanical or electronic means this gyro wheel is controlled to point to the earth’s
geographic North Pole and transmitting devices send this information to various repeater
stations. The more modern designs provide this to NMEA 0183 format. Unfortunately, the cost
of the gyrocompass precludes its use on smaller yachts and workboats.
In summary, a simple air-suspended flux gate or equivalent electronic direct sensing
compass is only suitable for calm seas and/or low latitudes, and a fluid-filled sensor is
acceptable for heavier seas and higher latitudes.
An improvement in performance, especially on steel vessels may be achieved with a flux
gate-aided directional or rate gyro, and for the most demanding applications, a North-seeking
gyro compass is the preferred choice. With the above increasing performance, increasing costs
may be expected.
While there are many factors that could be discussed concerning the design and
construction of autopilots, it may be seen that the compass and its stability are of prime
importance. No autopilot can steer better than its heading reference.
5.10 The AutoNav Flux Gate Compass (as installed on ships)
AutoNav’s unique fluid-damped flux gate compass offers unmatched stability and
instantaneous course correction. The compass, due to its direct effect on course accuracy, is the
most important part of any autopilot. An unstable compass will cause unnecessary rudder
movements allowing the vessel to fall off course.
The AutoNav Flux Gate compass achieves steady course holding accuracy through the use
of a fluid damped gimbal system which is designed to absorb vessel heel angles up to an
exceptional 45 degrees!
Conventional flux gate compasses lack this stability forcing manufacturer to use excessive
electronic damping which slows down the autopilot’s response to course errors thereby
resulting in the user turning the pilot off in heavy weather - just when it is needed the most.

Chapter 5
Figure 5.6 – Fluid-filled Flux Gate Compass

AutoNav’s digital signal processing and rate of course change algorithms enable responsive
performance especially in quartering seas.
The AutoNav compass can be used in the heaviest of seas and in high magnetic latitudes;
in all the places where normal flux gate compasses fail to perform. AutoNav’s state of the art
automatic compass deviation technology can automatically correct compass deviation errors,
so compass readout and steering performance are perfectly accurate on all headings.
The flux gate compass unit is waterproof to allow greater installation options which helps
in finding a suitable mounting location away from magnetic interference caused by electronics,
steel machinery, tanks, and motors.
5.10.1 Easy-mounting Sensor
On large vessels, and frequently on steel vessels, it is preferred to use the vessels magnetic
compass for the autopilot. The CI 200 sensor can be mounted to the vessel’s compass and will
provide very stable heading references for the autopilot.
5.10.2 Gyro Interface for Accuracy and Stability
On large vessels, a gyro compass is often used to obtain the utmost in heading accuracy
and stability. A Gyro interface to connect NMEA 0183 heading data, and stepper or synchro
heading data, for transmission to the autopilot can be provided.

Chapter 6
Ship’s Speed Logs
6.1 Introduction
A merchant ship takes time to travel from its port of departure to its destination. To calculate
this time, a Navigational officer or the Master needs two things namely the distance travelled
and the speed of the vessel. The distance from the source to the destination is obtained from the
navigational chart and the speed from the installed speed log. From this data, the time required
to reach the destination is calculated as shown in equation 1.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = Equation 1
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
The above is the ideal time required for a vessel to reach its destination and excludes rough
weather. But the navigational officer or master always considers some extra time for rough
weather as shown in equation 2.
i.e., Time required for a voyage = TIdeal time + Textra time Equation 2
Logs must thus provide, as a minimum, information on the distance run and forward speed
i.e., ‘through the water’ or ‘over the ground’ - for general use in navigation and manoeuvring;
for radar plotting aids and track-control instruments. It is required to be carried by ships >500
grt, on international voyages as per SOLAS Chapter V.
6.2 Main Types of Logs Fitted on Modern Ships
• Electro-magnetic Speed Log (E.M. log)

• Pitometer Speed Log (Pitot Tube Pressure Log)
• Doppler Speed Log (also called ‘Doppler Sonar’ Log)
• Impeller Speed Log
6.3 Principle of Operation of the Electro-magnetic Log
It works on Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction which states that “a small e.m.f.
will be induced in a conductor moving across a magnetic field. If the magnetic field remains
constant, the induced e.m.f. will be directly proportional to the speed of movement of the
conductor”.

Chapter 6
Speed
In the E.M. & logDistance Instruments
the magnetic field is produced by a solenoid that is housed inside a
streamlined (or flush)
(Speed Logs)sensor unit, under the keel. The conductor is the seawater. The minute
e.m.f. (created by the flow of sea water due to the movement of the ship) is detected by two
small electrodes set in the outer casing of the sensor.
Speed
Indicator
Distance Switch Master Unit

Recorder Unit
Ship’s Keel
Streamlined housing
with a solenoid (a.c. current)
and sensors to pick up the e.m.f.
Flow of Sea-water
Direction of Vessel Movement
Figure 6.1 – Schematic Diagram of the Electromagnetic Log

6.3.1 Errors / Other Effects on Accuracy
6.3.1.1 The ‘Zero’ Error
• It is caused by the direct inductive pick-up between the solenoid and the sensor’s leads
• It produces a false velocity reading even when the vessel is stationary
• It can be adjusted by altering the ‘zero’ setting on the scale during calibration
6.3.1.2 Water Conductivity
• The induced e.m.f., and therefore the speed, will vary with the conductivity of the sea-water
that is affected by the change in salinity and temperature.
6.3.1.3 Streamlining of the Sensor’s Housing
• The projection of the sensor housing may cause a ‘drag’ in the water, resulting in a speed
error, which can be reduced by proper streamlining of the housing e.g., by using a rod meter.

Ship’s Speed Logs
6.3.1.4 Vessel Movement

• The vessel’s rolling and pitching affects the actual water flow and the perceived flow in
relation to the hull
• It is minimised by reducing receiver sensitivity
6.3.1.5 Limitations of the Electro-magnetic Log
• It can record ‘speed through the water’ only
• The true speed through the water can be affected by ocean currents
• The e.m.f. pick-up sensors may be covered with deposits or paint causing erroneous readings
6.4 Principle of Operation of the Pitot Tube Log
It measures the pressure of water in a pitot tube that is caused by the movement of the ship
through the water. The pressure change is proportional but non-linear, to the increase in speed
of movement of the vessel. A hollow pitot-tube rod meter projects from the ships keel with an
orifice at its end, facing forward (the ‘impact’ or ‘impulse’ tube that monitors the dynamic
pressure). Another tube is placed forward of the impact tube and terminates with an orifice at
the bottom plate level (the ‘static’ tube) i.e., facing downwards.
The impact and static tubes are connected to a bellow-type differential unit and controller,
which converts the difference of pressure between the tubes, into speed. As the static tube opens
downwards, it is affected by vessels draught; to overcome this, it is possible that the static tube
opens sideways (on both sides).
Controller / Transmitter Speed Indicator
Distance Recorder
Linkage
Bellows Type
Differential Unit
Ship’s Bottom
Static Tube Orifice
Flow of water
Impact Tube Orifice
Direction of vessel’s movement
Figure 6.2 – Schematic Diagram of a Pitometer Speed Log (Pitot Tube Pressure Log)

Chapter 6
6.4.1 Factors Affecting Accuracy

6.4.1.1 Calibration
Initial adjustments are required to obtain correct ‘zero’ of speed readings
6.4.1.2 Water Oscillation in the Tubes
Oscillations due to heaving can cause the differential unit to record erroneous speed
readings; this is reduced by providing ‘strainer’ valves.
6.4.1.3 Tube Obstructions
Blockages of tubes / orifices may occur due to external material and so compressed air
‘blowing through’ is to be carried out regularly.
6.4.1.4 It Can Record Speed Through the Water Only
True speed through the water can be affected by ocean currents. As the water pressure /
speed relationship is not linear, the differential unit can only process speed readings correctly
only over a particular speed range.
6.5 Principle of Operation of the Doppler Speed Log
Modern vessels are installed with a doppler speed log, which works on the principle of the
“Doppler effect”, to calculate the speed to find the difference between the outgoing frequency
and the incoming frequency of the system.
The doppler speed log measures the ship's speed by using the Doppler Effect, which is
observed as a frequency shift resulting from relative motion between a transmitter and a
receiver or reflector of acoustic or electromagnetic energy. A common example of the Doppler
Effect is a train. When a train is approaching you, the whistle has a higher pitch than normal.
You can hear the change in pitch as the train passes you.
The log speed has a dual-beam for better calculations (we can also use one beam), one
directed in the fore direction and the other in the aft direction, which emits ultrasonic waves at
an angle of θ (generally 60° with respect to the ship’s keel) to the waterline towards the ship’s
fore and aft directions.
The frequency of the received signal is then compared with that of the transmitted frequency
to measure the doppler shift to calculate the ship’s speed.

Ship’s Speed Logs
The relative motion causes the Doppler shift and the ultrasonic waves reflected at the water
mass (plankton or any underwater objects) are received at the frequency of fr = fo + fd where
fd is the number of frequency shifts counted at the receiver circuit. To calculate the ship's speed,
the following formula is used:
𝑓𝑑 𝐶
𝑉= 𝑋 Equation 1
𝑓𝑜 𝛳
Where C is the underwater velocity
Fr = f0 + fd
f0
Figure 6.3 – Doppler Log Speed System Echo Propagation
Received signal Transmitted signal Received signal

Incoming from astern Towards the Fwd and the stern Incoming from ahead
The frequency decreases The frequency is constant The frequency increases

proportional to the ship’s speed proportional to the ship’s speed
Figure 6.4 – Dual Beam System Frequency Response

Chapter 6
Ultrasonic waves are emitted at an angle of relative to the water line toward ship's fore
and aft directions. If the ship's speed is V, the source of the ultrasonic wave (transducer)
approaches or goes away from the reflecting points on the seabed at a speed of Vcos . This
relative motion causes the Doppler shift and the ultrasonic waves reflected at the seabed are
received at frequencies of fo + fd and fo – fd by the fore / aft transducer. A processor in the DS-
80 computes the difference of fo + fd and fo – fd to extract only the Doppler shift factor fd.
The sound velocity in water changes with water temperature and water pressure but the
change by water temperature is automatically compensated by using temperature sensor.
6.5.1 Doppler Speed Log (Errors)
6.5.1.1 Transducer Alignment
It is caused by the angle of the beam Øº (usually 60º) being altered when the vessel is
trimmed; the error is usually very small
6.5.1.2 Vessel Motion
It is found in single beam systems, where pitching (forward and aft transducers), causes
error in forward and aft speed – or in case of athwartship transducers, rolling causes errors in
athwartship speed which is reduced by use of dual opposing beams (the Janus configuration).
6.5.1.3 Velocity of Sound in Water
Any difference in the assumed velocity of the acoustic energy and the actual velocity has
one of the greatest effects on accuracy. The velocity may vary due to salinity and temperature.
It may be eliminated by mounting salinity / temperature sensors and automatically
compensating for changes
6.5.2 Doppler Speed Log (Limitations)
6.5.2.1 Power Losses
The returning signal (which contains the received frequency information) must be above
ambient ‘noise’ to be useful. Power losses of this signal may occur due to attenuation in water,
and scattering / absorption by the sea bed (in case of bottom tracking).
Ship’s Speed Logs
6.5.3 Block Diagram

Display
Figure 6.5 – Block Diagram of Doppler Log Speed

6.5.3.1 Transducer
The transducer converts one form of signal into another form of signal. Here electrical
energy is converted into ultrasonic signals and vice versa. It generally consists of a ceramic
transducer element for reception and transmission of ultrasonic signals.
6.5.3.2 Transceiver
The transceiver generally consists of the following two parts:
6.5.3.2.1 Transmitter
It generally consists of a power amplifier for the ahead and astern signals and a duplexer
circuit. A signal is fed from the distribution box clock circuit is power amplified and send out
to the transducer.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.6 – System Configuration of DS-80

6.5.3.2.2 Receiver
This circuit receives an amplifying signal from the transducer and to select an effective
Doppler signal from the return signals applied to a distribution box frequency tracking circuit.
6.5.3.3 Duplexer
This circuit is designed to change from receiver to transmitter at every clock cycle and this
clock cycle is set in the distribution box. Generally, this cycle should be 1 msec.
6.5.3.4 Distribution Box
The distribution box is the central part of the system. It, generally, distributes the power
supply to each unit of the system and takes care of the transmission and reception timing and
signal strength also considering sea water temperature and other parameters during
manipulation of all calculations and sends the signals to the display unit.
Ship’s Speed Logs
6.5.3.5 Display Unit

The display unit shows relative speed related data and also provides some functions to
correct and change the display value.
6.5.3.6 Conditions Affecting the Speed Log
The following condition will affect the accuracy of the speed log.
1. Water temperature
2. Salinity
3. Pitching / rolling
In case of the Doppler sonar DS-80, basically rolling and pitching without heaving doesn’t
affect the calculations of the speed indication. However, if the vessel or transducer has a
constant inclination to the port side or the starboard side, the DS-80 shows a constant speed
error to be compensated by the offset setting in menu.
6.6 Troubleshooting
Symptoms Possible Causes

Cannot turn the system On 1. There is a loose power cable
2. There is a blown fuse
3. The ship’s power line 110 / 220 V AC is supplied
Power is ON but nothing is 1. The Contrast is too low
displayed on the screen
The Speed indication blinking for 1. The connection of the transducer cable is bad
some time 2. Foreign matter such as oysters or barnacles are
on the radiating face of the transducer.

Chapter 6
6.6.1 Checking the Transducer of the DS-80

6.6.1.1 Check the DC Resistances of Transducer Cables
Figure 6.7 – Resistance of the Transducer Cables

6.6.2 Check the Impedance of the Transducer
Figure 6.8 – Impedance of the Transducer

Adjust the potentiometer “R” so that the voltage between B and C becomes half of the one
between A and C.
And then measure the resistance of “R”. (Note the impedance is uneven with the
transducer. Generally, it’s between 30 and 100 .

Ship’s Speed Logs
6.6.3 Error Indications
Figure 6.9 – Error Indications

Chapter 6
6.6.4 Menu Settings
Figure 6.10 – Menu Settings

Ship’s Speed Logs
6.6.5 Troubleshooting the Yokogawa Electro Magnetic Log (EML 500 Series)

Chapter 6

Chapter 7
Echo Sounder
7.1 Introduction
Many accidents have occurred due to ships being unaware of the depth of water or rather
the under-keel clearance as it is known today. Some areas have more depth and some have less;
nowadays, shallow waterways and channels into ports are constantly dredged in order to allow
bigger ships to come alongside and discharge their cargoes.
In the past, navigators relied on charts and some were outdated too. Ships are now
mandatorily fitted with echo sounders to indicate the sea depth below the keel in metres / feet.
The echo sounder uses acoustic waves and their subsequent echoes to find out the depth of sea
water. It is also very important in river navigation, when ships travel inland to discharge their
cargo. As per IMO resolution A.224(VII), a ship has to be installed one echo sounder in working
order and with a printing facility, to locate and record the depth on paper.
Figure 7.1 – Echo Sounder Operation

The echo sounder radiates an ultrasonic beam wave that has a certain width, spread from the
transducer toward the sea bottom. The wave travels in the water at a velocity of about 1500
metres per second (depending on the density and temperature) and it is reflected at the sea
bottom towards the transducer. By measuring the time until the reflected wave is received after
radiation of the ultrasonic wave, the sea depth can be measured.

Chapter 7
The formula for measuring sea depth is as follows:

𝐶
Depth of sea =
𝑇
Where:
C = Velocity of the ultrasonic beam
T = The Total time required by the beam to reflect back to the transducer after transmitting.
Example
Let us consider 150 m as the sea depth. The ultrasonic wave will arrive at the sea bottom
150 1
with a lapse of 1/10 sec after its emission (we know = 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) and the associated reflected
1500
wave will arrive at the surface after a further lapse of 1/10 sec. According to this theory, a time
of 1/10 sec. If the echo wave taken time to return from sea bottom to ultrasonic transducer is 1/10
sec then the depth is about 150 meters.
7.3 Block Diagram
As already mentioned, the echo sounder uses ultrasonic pulses to detect the seabed and other
underwater objects.
Display Unit Recorder Unit
Navigational Equipment
Distribution Box
and Alarm Units
Junction Box/
Power Supply Unit
Matching Box
Transducer
Figure 7.2 – Block Diagram of an Echo Sounder System’s Onboard Installation

Echo Sounder
The display unit is capable of displaying images in colour as per the depth of the sea.
Electrical pulses are converted into acoustical energy in the transducer fitted on the ship’s hull.
The same transducer acts as a transceiver, which means it converts electrical energy into
acoustic energy and sends it to the sea bed, receives acoustic energy from the seabed and
converts it back into electrical energy, after which it sends it to the receiver section for further
processing.
The distribution box contains all the processing units, the power supply unit and the I/O
distribution unit. The processing unit decides the sampling time for sending and receiving
acoustic signals from and to the transducer. This time interval changes as per the selection of
the system’s frequency. The processor measures the time of pulses travelling between the
seabed and the transducer and displays the water depths in the graphical form or other forms.
The power supply unit used 110 / 220 V AC which is converted into 24 V DC power supply
for operation.
The I/O distribution unit is used to feed the echo sounder’s data to other navigational
equipment for safe navigation purposes and also takes the feedback for the warning alarm in
low depth values as compared to the pre-set values by the operator.
The Recorder unit is used for recording all data and also used for further reference or
investigation purposes.
The composition block diagram depicts the operation of the echo sounder. The signal control
section provides a start signal for transmission.
The transmitter starts to emit an ultrasonic wave from the transducer in response to this
signal where a part of the wave enters the receiver section and records the zero line.
Upon receipt of the associated return wave incoming into the transducer, the receiver section
and signal control section amplify a very low voltage of the return wave up to a level enough
to record on the recording paper.
The amplified signal is then fed into the recorder section.

Chapter 7
Transmitter Signal Control Unit Recorder
Receiver Drive
Transducer
Mechanism
Power Supply
Section
Figure 7.3 – Composition Block Diagram

7.3.1 Transmitter Block Diagram
Signal Control Keying / Power

Trigger Oscillator Transducer
Section Draft Amplifier
Figure 7.4 – Transmitter Section Block Diagram

The transmission pulse from the signal control section enters the trigger section. The trigger
section generates an inverted pulse of equal shape with the time duration 0 to 45 m sec and
gives it to the keying / draft section. In the keying / draft section the navigational operator will
select the range of depth by tuning in this section and the output is sent to the oscillator block.
The oscillator provides a too low output power to measure over a considerably deep-sea
area. For this reason, the oscillator output is fed to a driver and amplifier. The output of the
amplifier is fed to the transducer and the transducer converts the electrical signal into an
acoustic signal.
7.3.2 Receiver Block Diagram
The transducer receives the acoustic signal and converts it into an electrical signal with low
frequency and feeds it to a high frequency amplifier. In this section the required frequency
range is selected and amplified for further processing. It is generally a two- or multi-stage
single-tuned amplifier. The gain control section takes the signal from the high frequency
amplifier and increases the gain of the signal and feeds it to the frequency converter.

Echo Sounder
The frequency converter converts the frequency into an intermediate frequency range for
easy processing. The intermediate frequency amplifier amplifies the signal and feeds it to the
output power amplifier for amplifying the overall power of signal and sending it to the signal
control section that will be displayed on the LCD and printed on the recorder.
Intermediate
Gain Control High Frequency Frequency Output To Signal
Frequency
Circuit Amplifier Converter Amplifier Control Section
Amplifier
High
Local
Frequency
Oscillator
Amplifier
Figure 7.5 – Receiver Section Block Diagram

7.3.3 Transducer Unit
The transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into other forms of energy.
Here, it converts electrical energy into acoustic energy and vice versa. Generally, it is made up
of barium titanate-type oscillator elements. It is a two-terminal device that is connected directly
with a supply cable. It is installed in one or two positions depending on the length of the ship.
If the transducer installation requires a cable length of > 20 metres then a matching box is used
for impedance matching purpose for the transfer of maximum power because the long cable has
its own impedance and this impedance causes power loses.
7.4 Maintenance
7.4.1 Recorder Cleaning

The recorder is susceptible to getting dirty inside, with carbon powder being coated over the
recording paper. Sometimes clean the carbon and other dirt.
7.4.2 Power Feed Rail Cleaning
The power feed rail is also liable to be dirty due to the wear of the recording pen brush,
carbon of the recording paper, etc., until it no longer feeds the power. Clean the feed rail surface
as required.
7.4.3 Driving and Driven Pulley
If the pulley sound is abnormal during operation of the recorder, the bearing in the pulley
could be damaged due to wear. Replace it with a new pulley.

Chapter 7
7.4.4 Window Glass Cleaning

The window glass inside is bound to be dirty due to the carbon powder from the recording
paper whenever the recorder operates. Clean the glass if necessary. Do not use petroleum
solvents such as gasoline, thinner, etc., for cleaning.
7.5 Troubleshooting
Symptoms Possible Causes
A fuse blows when the unit is 1. The power line voltage is too low
switched on 2. Check the fuse and rectify the defective power unit
3. The transmitter section is defective
Even with the power switch on, the 1. There is a poor connection of a fuse is blown or there
system does not operate is an open circuit
2. The power switch is defective
3. The power cable is disconnected
4. The power regulator circuit is defective
There is no echo sounding picture 1. The transducer cable is not connected
or there is less sensitivity 2. The transducer cable is damaged
3. The insulation of the cable is damaged
4. The transducer is defective
5. The receiver section is defective
6. The frequency setting is wrong
There is heavy noise 1. There is noise from the generator
2. The ground wire is installed wrongly
3. The transducer cable and power chord are installed too
close to each other
4. The transducer cable is damaged
The printer is not starting 1. A fuse is blown
2. A cable is damaged
3. There is a loose connection

Echo Sounder
7.5.1 Furuno Echo Sounder FE 800
7.5.1.1 Replacing the Fuse / Battery
If a fuse blows, find the cause before replacing it. Use only designated fuses. Using the
wrong fuse will damage the unit and render the warranty null and void. Consult your dealer for
replacement of fuses. A battery installed on a circuit board inside the transceiver unit preserves
data when the power is turned off. The life of the battery is about five years. When the battery
voltage is low, a warning message “Displayed time may be incorrect. Please re-set the clock.”
appears after the self-test.
When this happens, contact your dealer to request a replacement of the battery. Press any
key to proceed to the main display screen.
Note: The message “Displayed time may be incorrect. Please re-set the clock.” appears
when the FE-800 is turned on for the first time or after changing the battery. In this case, the
battery doesnot need replacement, however the clock must be set.
Item Type Code Number
Lithium Battery BR-1225-A/BK 000-178-989-10
Glass Tube Fuse (for AC input, 2 pcs) FGMB 250V 2A PBF 000-157-497-10
7.5.1.2 No Picture, No Reading Measure

The voltage is low Check the supply voltage.
A fuse is blown Replace the fuse if it is safe to do so
The power cable is damaged Repair the cable.
7.5.1.3 No Echo Sounding Picture

The transducer cable is damaged Repair the cable.
The transducer cable connections are loosened Tighten the connections.

Chapter 7
7.5.1.4 Irregular Display

There is low sensitivity Increase the gain
There is low reflectivity from the seabed. A muddy seabed is suspected.
Marine life is growing on the transducer Remove the marine life from the transducer
when the vessel is dry-docked.
7.5.1.5 Loss of Seabed Display

It is out of range Check the range scale setting.
Air bubbles are caused by going astern or running This is normal. It is not a sign of
over other ships’ wake equipment trouble.
7.5.1.6 There Is A Loud Noise

The transducer is wrongly installed Find cause of the noise and relocate the transducer
if the noise persists.
Other echo sounders nearby If more than one echo sounder is working on the
ship, there is no ideal measure to overcome the
problem.
7.5.1.7 There is Surface Noise

There is aeration near the surface of the water It is not an equipment problem.
Rough weather It is not an equipment problem.
7.5.1.8 Fan and LCD Backlight Life Expectancy

Item Life Expectancy
Fan 60,000 hours at 60°C
LCD backlight 60,000 hours at 35°C

Chapter 8
Radars
8.1 Introduction
Today most ships use radar for navigation purposes. Understanding the importance of
radar requires a knowledge of its history. After the First World War, liners were getting
bigger and faster; would there be another Titanic disaster? The ship’s whistle was
acknowledged to be inadequate as the primary anti-collision aid in a fog. Strategic coastal
lighthouses started to sport huge lights and fog signal emitters. By the 1930s, the technology
of short-wave radio had matured. Several countries continued Guglielmo Marconi’s
pioneering experiments in target detection by radio, particularly aimed at marine collision
avoidance. It was realised that to cover surface targets, the best wavelengths were a few
centimetres. The first commercial marine radars typically came complete with their own cabin
and roof-mounted scanners in 1946. Initially they were not very reliable and it took time for
deck officers to accustom themselves to the strengths and limitations of this radically new aid
to navigation. Nevertheless, the basic concept was sound, early problems were gradually
beaten and the radar became mandatory for all ships. Here, the frequencies around 3 GHz and
a wavelength of 10 cm (S band, 3000 MHz), were found best for detection in severe rain, in
other conditions 9 GHz (3 cm, X band, 9400 MHz) being preferable. Some ships got the best
of both worlds and carried both.
Figure 8.1 – A Navigational Operator on Radar Watch

Chapter 8
8.2 Purpose
The skill and experience of the navigator is to get a ship from position X to position Y
without hitting anything. There are many obstacles present in the sea like icebergs, other
vessels, shoals of fish, etc. The radar is the tool used to locate these hazards and assist the
navigators in making timely manoeuvring decisions.
Radar, an acronym for Radio Aids to Detection and Ranging, detects an object by
transmitting radio waves in known directions from a narrow- beam antenna or scanner which
scans the horizon, then timing the instants of reception of echoes from these targets. Each
detected target is displayed map-wise at its correct range and bearing. With additional features
like anti-collision tasks, prudent seamen also still use radar to cross check their positions
against known shore targets, despite the advent of satellite navigation systems as the prime
on-board position finder. The radar’s basic task is to pick out targets against a background of
unwanted electrical noise within the radar receiver and unwanted reflections of objects of no
interest to the observer, such as rain and waves.
8.3 Scope
Only radars used on ships bore navigation and collision avoidance. For VTS and related
tasks such as sea surveillance of drug interdiction and sea traffic research studies, centimetric,
non-coherent, pulsed low pulse repetition frequency surface to surface surveillance radars
with directional rotating common transmit- receive scanners were used. ‘Non-Coherent’
means that the radar uses only the amplitude of echoes, ignoring signal phases.
8.4 Uses of a Radar
There are many specialist radars used for war ships, the oil industry’s support vessels ,
research crafts and Merchant Navy vessels, etc,.
8.4.1 Merchant Vessels
About 90% of the world’s International trade is transported by Merchant vessels. Their
radars are operated by the Master, officer of the watch (OOW) and, if embarked, the pilot.
These officers primarily use the radar as an important tool to do the following:
1. Assess the traffic situation – the position and tracks of other vessels, usually employing an
Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) or the simpler Automatic Tracking Aid (ATA);
anticipate likely traffic movements, and make timely manoeuvring decisions under the
Collision Regulations to give a safe clearing range of typically 1.5 to 4 km.
Radars
2. The assessment may be that one’s own ship is the ‘stand on’ ship under the regulations, the
decision then being usually to maintain course and speed, keeping a close eye on the
target’s manoeuvres. Accurate tracking demands particularly good detection performance.
3. Monitor movement of the other ship for collision avoidance.
4. Monitor the own ship’s progress relative to sea- marks or coastal features, particularly as
port approaches. Coastal echoes can be difficult to interpret, so reflectors are used to
pinpoint otherwise radar-inconspicuous lighthouses and buoys.
5. Detect ice, uncharted wrecks or other obstructions.
6. Rendezvous with pilot cutters.
7. Maintain anchor watch, for both own ship dragging and movement of other vessels.
8. Make landfall. Since the advent of satellite navigation, this long-range task has lost some
of its former importance.
8.4.2 Leisure Craft
Beside general navigation, the skipper or helmsman operates the radar for obstruction
avoidance, monitoring the position of competitors when racing and sometimes to detect sea or
precipitation clutter - to find smoother water, fairer weather or a good racing wind. Special
radars have evolved for leisure craft.
8.4.3 Fishing Vessels and Small Commercial Vessels
The watchkeeper is usually the skipper or mate, who operates the radar for most of the
above tasks. In addition, fishing vessels have to detect dan buoys which mark nets, monitor
activities of other fishing vessels, perhaps hope to detect flocks of birds feeding on fish and
use clutter returns to help keep an eye on the weather.
The bigger yacht radars are often also fitted to small commercial vessels such as tugs and
harbour workboats which are too small to have to carry radar within the international Safety
of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS, Section 1.4.5) but which choose to do so for operational
convenience and safety. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has produced
guidelines on appropriate performance for two radar sizes.

Chapter 8
8.4.4 High Speed Craft

Collision avoidance is usually the first priority for fast ferries and other high speed craft
(HSC). They use slightly modified conventional marine radar, augmented by night-vision
infrared optical sensors for waterlogged obstructions which are poor radar targets.
8.4.5 Vessel Traffic Services
VTS systems provide a service to shipping, while technically similar vessel traffic
management and information services (VTMIS) provide vessel movement data to the port
management. For our purposes we shall lump them together. VTS operators, sometimes
called watch standers, use radar to gain awareness of the traffic situation, confirm manoeuvres
and positions reported-in by radio or by the radio based automatic identification system fitted
to all ships over 300 gross tons (AIS; from 31 December 2004) and maintain tracks on all
significant targets within the surveillance area.
8.4.6 Military Applications
For general navigation, in Naval parlance Marine and Pilotage (M and P), many warships
carry navigational radar generally similar to those on merchant ships. The radars in this
chapter are devoid of any form of anti-jamming facilities (electronic protection, formerly
called electronic counter-countermeasures, ECCM) and are unsuited for warfare. However,
outfits similar to VTS and marine radars are used for safety surveillance of coastal gunnery
and missile-firing ranges, and although little publicised, increasingly for drug, intruder and
piracy interdiction by coast guard or gendarmerie services.
8.5 Regulators
At first, the marine radar was seen as experimental and the whole merchant marine
organisation was far less closely regulated than today but innovation flourished.
When designs had settled down and it became obvious that the radar was useful and here
to stay, some of the leading maritime nations began to require new designs to be type-
approved by their laboratories, to national specifications.

Radars
8.5.1 UNCLOS
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea codifies international law and
customs of use of the sea which have evolved over the centuries and sets down the rules
binding States on international marine affairs. It covers such concepts as the right of innocent
passage and defines the limits of the coast States’ jurisdiction. Changes are made within the
IMO framework at Diplomatic Conferences of Contracting Governments.
8.5.2 IMO
The International Maritime Organisation, with headquarters in London, is the United
Nations agency charged with regulating maritime technical matters, with strong emphasis on
safety of life. IMO is a sister of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), and the
two cooperate on air-sea rescue and other topics of mutual interest. IMO’s Marine Safety
Committee. If MSC agrees that the question merits attention, it will instruct the appropriate
sub-committee (on which the administrations are represented) to investigate; observers may
be invited to speak on topics where they have specialist expertise and concerns. Most radar
subjects fall to the Sub-committee on Safety of Navigation (NAV) but a few are more
appropriately handled by other Sub-committees; maybe Communications and Search and
Rescue (COMSAR), Design and Equipment (DE), responsible for hulls and fittings or even
by the Legal Committee. Resolutions take the form of minimum operational performance
standards (MOPS) or carriage requirements. Having written the performance standard, ISO or
IEC prepare test or technical standards.
8.5.3 ISO
The purpose of the International Organisation for Standardisation is to issue internationally
acceptable technical standards to facilitate world trade. It has over 100 member nations and
over 180 technical committees and has published around 10 000 standards on all manner of
things, although electrical equipment is generally handled by the IEC (see below).
Membership structure is similar to that of IMO. ISO/TC-8 is the ISO Technical Committee on
Ships and Marine Technology, responsible for design, construction, structural elements,
outfitting parts, equipment, methods and technology, and marine environmental matters,
subject to IMO requirements. Users are encouraged to feed back their experience into the
standardisation process. TC-8 links IMO to the marine industry. Of its ten sub-committees,
SC6 deals with navigation.

Chapter 8
8.5.4 IEC
The International Electrotechnical Commission issues detailed test and technical
specifications for electrical and electronic equipment. ISO or IEC, as appropriate, clarify
IMO’s requirements, tie them in with related requirements of bodies such as the International
Hydrographic Organisation (IHO, responsible for coordination of nautical charts) and ITU
(see below), and define methods of testing and required test results to harmonise with IMO
performance standards, without extending the requirements. Older IEC specifications having
three-digit serial numbers have been re-numbered by addition of 60000; for example, IEC936
becomes IEC60936:1999, the suffix indicating date of latest revision.
8.6 Regulations
8.6.1 Radar for Ships Within SOLAS

The following is a particularly clear overview of the main performance standards for
marine radar. Performance standards for marine radars are promulgated by the IEC. Herewith
is a brief description of the current standards.
1. IEC 60936-1, Maritime navigation and radiocommunication equipment and systems -
Radar - Part 1: Shipboard radar - Performance requirements - Method of testing and
required test results. This is the fundamental radar specification all manufacturers must
meet (for equipment to be fitted on SOLAS vessels). It defines all of the important
parameters that the equipment must comply with to achieve type approval. It defines the
range scales to be offered (others may be offered, but it must include those specified),
minimum range requirements, range and bearing discrimination, minimum antenna scan
rate, azimuth stabilisation details, bearing scale details, range and bearing measuring tools
and accuracies, range performance, display modes of operation and other specifications.
(Pope later comments that IEC 60936-1 Annex D contains tighter emission regulations for
radars in the 3 and 9 GHz bands to meet new ITU regulations. WRC 2003 is to consider,
and probably tighten, the boundary between out of band emissions and in band peak
equivalent power, PEP).
Radar - Part 2: Shipboard radar for high speed craft (HSC) - Performance requirements -
Method of testing and required test results. This standard is, in effect, an extension of the
above, and describes the additional requirements for radar which are to be fitted to HSC.

Radars
3. The minimum range and range discrimination requirements are more demanding and the
antenna rotation rate is higher (40 rpm minimum). This standard also details the scenarios
that the associated ATA or ARPA must comply with.
Radar - Part 3: Radar with chart facilities - Performance requirements - Method of testing
and required test results. This standard is new, published in 2002. It details the testing
standards and test results required for radars with charting facilities. It also defines what
information can be displayed: in effect, it is only selected parts of the system electronic
navigation chart (SENC) that may be shown. The most important point to make here is
that it is a radar, not a chart display system, and it is vital that the radar information should
not be masked or degraded in any way when the chart information is added to the display
Radar plotting aids - Automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA) - Methods of testing and
required test results. This standard, details the minimum number of targets we have to
track, the tracking accuracy to be achieved, alpha-numeric data to be displayed for the
tracked targets, details on guard zones and acquisition zones, operational warnings, trial
manoeuvre details, interfacing, symbols and other specifications.
Radar plotting aids -Automatic tracking aids (ATA) - Methods of testing and required test
results. The ATA specification is very similar to that of the ARPA, except that the ATA
has to track a minimum of 10 targets compared to the ARPA’s 20. Also, for the ATA, trial
manoeuvre and history dots are not required.
7. IEC 60872-3, Radar plotting aids - Electronic plotting aids (EPA) - Methods of testing and
required test results. This is the simplest of the three plotting standards. EPA is a manual
plotting system. Again, the standard defines how many targets are to be manually plotted,
how the information is to be displayed, symbols to be used, accuracy to be required and
other specifications
8. IEC 60945, Maritime navigation and radiocommunication equipment and systems -
General requirements - Methods of testing and required test results. This standard deals
with issues such as environmental testing for heat, cold, humidity, vibration and corrosion.
It also deals with electromagnetic emissions and susceptibility to electromagnetic
interference, illumination of controls, compass safe distance, equipment manuals and
acoustic noise.
Chapter 8
8.7 The Principal of Range Measurement

Environment
Scanner height ‘H’ Refractive index
(it may roll, yaw or pitch varies with height and
causes rays to curve
Waveguide
Direct rays
Energy scattered
All rays are and lost
Transmitter/ Receiver
bi-directional
Target height
‘h’ may change
Processing and Display
Indirect rays
Sea surface
Echo, clutter
and noise
Forward reflection at grazing point Depends on
wave height
The operator controls Wave reflected unwanted clutter
and monitors the
display, and make
decisions
Figure 8.2 – The Operator Controls the Radar and Observes the Target
8.7.1 Range
The distance between the Radar and the target is called the range of the target, R. We
know that the radar transmits a signal to the target and accordingly the target sends an echo to
the radar with the speed of light, C.
Let the time taken for the signal to travel from the radar to the target and back to the radar
be ‘T’. The two-way distance between the radar and target will be 2R (from the radar to the
target and back from the target to the radar), since the distance between the radar and the
target is R.

Radars
Now, the formula for speed is:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Then, Distance = Speed X Time

2R = C X T
𝐶𝑋𝑇
𝑅= Equation 1
2
We can find the value of R by knowing the value of time ‘T’ required for the echo pulse to
travel.
8.7.2 Pulse Repetition Frequency
Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse. The duration between the two
clock pulses should be properly chosen in such a way that the echo signal corresponding to
the present clock pulse should be received before the next clock pulse. A general radar
waveform is shown in Figure 8.3 below.
Time
Figure 8.3 – Radar Output Waveform

The radar transmits a periodic signal. It has a series of narrow rectangular-shaped pulses.
The time interval between the successive clock pulses is called pulse repetition time, Tp.
Then, the reciprocal of pulse repetition time is called pulse repetition frequency, fp.
Mathematically, it can be represented as:
1
𝑓𝑝 = 𝑇𝑝 and vice versa Equation 2
Therefore, pulse repetition frequency is nothing but the frequency at which the radar
transmitted the signal.

Chapter 8
8.7.3 Maximum Unambiguous Range

We know that radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse. If we select a
shorter duration between the two clock pulses, then the echo signal corresponding to the
present clock pulse will be received after the next clock pulse. Due to this, the range of the
target seems to be less than the actual range.
So, we have to select the duration between the two clock pulses in such a way that the
echo signal corresponding to the present clock pulse will be received before the next clock
pulse starts. Then, we will get the true range of the target and it is also called the maximum
unambiguous range of the target or simply maximum unambiguous range.
Substitute, R = Run and T = Tp in equation 1
𝐶 𝑋 𝑇𝑝
𝑅𝑢𝑛 = 2
Equation 3
From equation 2, we will get the pulse repetition time, Tp as the reciprocal of pulse
repetition frequency, fp, that is mathematically expressed as:
1
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑓𝑝 Equation 4
Substitute, equation 4 in equation 3

1
𝐶𝑋 ( )
𝑓𝑝
𝑅𝑢𝑛 = 2
𝐶
𝑅𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑓𝑝 Equation 5
From the above equation, we can calculate maximum unambiguous range of the target
8.7.4 Minimum Range
We will get the minimum range of the target, when we consider the time required for the
echo signal to be received at the radar after the signal has been transmitted from the radar as
pulse width. It is also considered as the shortest range of the target.
Substitute, R = Rmin and T = t in equation 1
𝐶𝑡
Rmin = Equation 6
2
The Radar range equation is useful when it is required to know the range of the target
theoretically.

Radars
8.7.5 Derivation of the Radar Range Equation

The standard form of the radar equation is also called the simple form of a radar’s range
equation. The standard form of a radar’s range equation is derived as follows:
We know that power density is nothing but the ratio of power. So, the power density, Pds
at a distance, R from the radar can be mathematically express as:
𝑃𝑡
Pdi = 4𝜋𝑅2 Equation 1
Where Pt is the amount of power transmitted by the radar transmitter.

The above power density is valid for an isotropic Antenna. In general, the radar uses
directional antennas. Therefore, the power density Pdd due to directional antenna will be
𝑃𝑡 𝐺
Pdd = Equation 2
4𝜋𝑅2
The target radiates the power in different directions from the received input power. The
amount of power, which is reflected back towards the radar, depends on its cross section. So,
the power density Pde of the echo signal at the radar can be mathematically expressed as:
Ϭ
Pde = Pdd (4𝜋𝑅2 ) Equation 3
Where: Ϭ is the radar’s cross section of the target

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3
𝑃𝑡 𝐺 Ϭ
Pde = (4𝜋𝑅2 ) (4𝜋𝑅2 ) Equation 4
The amount of power, Pr received by the radar depends on the effective aperture, Ae of the
receiving antenna.
Pr = Pde Ae Equation 5
Substitute, equation 4 in Equation 5
𝑃𝑡 𝐺 Ϭ
Pr = (4𝜋𝑅2 ) (4𝜋𝑅2 ) Ae
𝑃𝑡 𝐺Ϭ 𝐴𝑒
Pr = ( (4𝜋)2 𝑅4 )
𝑃𝑡 𝐺Ϭ 𝐴𝑒
𝑅 4= ( (4𝜋)2 𝑃𝑟 )

Chapter 8
𝑃𝑡𝐺Ϭ𝐴𝑒 1
R= (( )2 )4 Equation 6
4𝜋 𝑃𝑟
From the above equation we find out the standard form of the radar range equation.
8.7.6 The Standard Form of The Radar Range Equation
If the echo signal has power that is less than the power of the minimum detectable signal,
then the radar cannot detect the target since it is beyond the maximum limit of the radar’s
range. Therefore, we can say that the range of the target is said to be maximum range when
the received echo signal is having power equal to that of the minimum detectable signal. We
will get the following equation, by substituting R = Rmax and Pr = Smin in the above
equation 6.
Rmax = (( )2 )4
4𝜋 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
The above equation represents the standard form of radar range of the equation and finds
the maximum range of the target.
8.7.6.1 Example
Calculate the maximum range of radar for the following specifications:
• Peak power transmitted by the Radar, Pt = 250 kW
• Gain of transmitting Antenna, G = 4000
• Effective aperture of the receiving antenna, Ae = 4 m2
• Radar cross section of the target, Ϭ = 25 m2
• Power of minimum detectable signal, Smin = 10−12 𝑊
Solution: We can use the standard form of the radar range equation in order to calculate
the maximum range of the target for the given specification above.
Rmax = ((4𝜋)2 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛)4
Substituting all the given parameters

(250 𝑋 103 )(400)(25)(4) 1
Rmax = ( )4
4𝜋2 (10−12 )
Rmax = 158 km
Therefore, the maximum range of radar for the given specification is 158 Km.
Radars
8.8 Radar Band, Frequency and Wavelength
The following table shows complete details of the wavelength, frequency and band used in
radar.
Former Name L S C X J (Ku in USA)
Band frequency 1000-2000 2000-4000 4000-8000 8000-12500 12500-18000
limits (MHz)
Marine Radar None 2900-3100 None 9200-9500 None
allocation (MHz)
Marine Radar None 2.9-3.1 None 9.2-9.5 None
allocation (GHz)
IMO name - 3 GHz - 9 GHz -
Common present - 3050 - 9375, 9410, -
frequency (MHz) 9440
Equivalent 20 10 6 3 2
wavelength (cm)
NATO equivalent D E/F G I J
band name
Radio band UHF UHF/SHF SHF SHF SHF
Table 8.1 – Different Band of Radar and Characteristics
8.9 Types of Radars
Radars can be classified into two types based on the type of signal with which the radar is
operated.
8.9.1 Continuous Wave Radar
A Continuous Wave Radar uses frequency modulation, and thus is called the Frequency
Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar. It is also called Continuous Wave Frequency
Modulated Radar or CWFM Radar.
This type of radar requires two Antennas, of which one is used to transmit the signal and
other is used to receive the signal. This radar is used to measure both the speed and the
distance of the target. This radar gives an accurate measurement of the relative velocity of the
target. Hence these are used mostly where the information of velocity is more important than
the actual range.
Merchant ships do not travel at high speeds like other carriers. Hence it is important to
measure the range of the target to avoid collisions.
Chapter 8
8.9.2 Pulse Radar

It is a radar which operates with a pulse signal to detect non-stationary targets is called a
Moving Target Indication Radar or simply an MTI Radar. It uses a single antenna for both
transmission and reception of signals with the help of a duplexer. The MTI radar works on the
Doppler-effect principle to distinguish between non-stationary objects and stationary objects.
Merchant ships use a Pulse radar because the antenna occupies less space and the
shipowner finds it cost-effective.
8.10 Basic Operation of a Radar
Conventional marine and VTS radars generate a steady train of pulses i.e., bursts of
oscillation of microwave power. An antenna transmits the energy in a continuously rotating
beam as shown in Figures 8.4 and 8.5. Any object in its path scatters the radiation reaching it.
Very little returns to the radar. The range is measured by calculating the delay before
reception.
Reference Bearing
Vertical
Ship’s head
Scanner Target
location Bearing
Target range Rotating beam
Reflecting
Target
Figure 8.4 – Perspective View (Radiolocation and Ranging)

Radars
Figure 8.5 – Plan (Radiolocation and Ranging)

Some typical shipborne radar performance parameters - like many of those quoted later on,
are approximate and vary from one radar to another. The pulses have quite a high power of
about 10 kW but a very short duration, 1 s or less. A pulse is transmitted at the speed of
light, 300 m / s, sweeps out and strikes any scatterer on or above the sea surface lying in its
path, indicated by the direct path of Figure 8.6. Some of the incident energy is absorbed
within the scatterer.
The remainder is scattered through a broad solid angle. The tiny part returning to the
antenna forms an echo. Knowing that transmission and echo each propagate at the speed of
light, the elapsed time to reception measures echo range, Figure 8.6, with uncertainty
inversely proportional to the pulse length. The two-way scaling is 150 m / s or 6.67 s / km.
Time and range are often interchangeable. Each transmitter pulse is in effect ‘time stamped’
for measurement of the echo’s delay.

Chapter 8
Max instrumented range

Range, Km
Pulse 1 Pulse 2
Transmission
Slope = velocity of light
(300 m / µs)
Target
Echo
After max range of pulse 1
300 m/µs
0,0 Time, µs Elapsed time 0, 0

Measured range
Figure 8.6 – Ranging (Radiolocation and Ranging)

After waiting long enough to receive the echo from a possible scatterer at the longest range
of interest, another pulse is transmitted, the time between successive transmissions being the
sweep time or pulse repetition interval, typically 0.001 s or 1 ms. A steady train of such
pulses is emitted, the pulse repetition frequency (prf) being 1/0.001 = 1000 pulses per second
(pps); pps is preferred to Hz to stress the extremely non-sinusoidal waveform. Sometimes the
prf varies with the control settings. A few ancillary displays may operate ambiguously, with
two transmissions simultaneously in flight
The directional antenna radiating the pulses is called a scanner. Its beam rotates
continuously at 25 rpm and typically covers 25° in elevation to cater for the roll of the
platform (i.e., the ship carrying the radar), but is only 1° wide. Any particular scatterer is
therefore scanned every 60/25 = 2.4 s for a period of 2.4/360 = 0.0067 s, being illuminated by
a packet of 0.0067/0.001 = 6.67 successive sweeps. Any echoes received during this period
are assumed to come from objects that are lying on the known azimuth bearing currently
being illuminated, the azimuth accuracy approximating the beam width as shown in Figure
8.7.
The positions of all detected objects in the range and bearing (polar or R, 0 coordinates)
are therefore determined on each scan. Their echoes are laid down to scale as plots on a
display screen called a plan position indicator (ppi) which informs the operator of their
positions relative to the radar.

Radars
Plots are refreshed by the new measurements taken on each scan. By following the
progress of a plot over several scans, the operator can determine the object’s track or course
made good relative to the radar
Targets are all objects, such as ships, of current interest to the operator. Although the
Collision Regulations are written round aspect (relative bearing of target centreline) as
indicated visually by navigation lights, often the radar discrimination is too coarse separately
to display the individual scatterers comprising the target object and thus its aspect. Heights
cannot be determined by radar. The radar is valued for its ability to position targets in the
range as well as the bearing, and its general independence of cooperative equipment at the
target. Although good signal processing facilities do the necessary work in presenting the
clearest possible display, only the operator can decide what to do next.
Predicated
Bearing position at scan 10
Own Scale range proportional

Radar to the echo’s delay
Successive target Scan 4 (current scan)

positions from echo trail Scan 3 (memorised)
Scan 2
Scan 1
Figure 8.7 – Track on PPI Display (Radiolocation and Ranging)

Chapter 8
8.11 Block Diagram of the Radar
Antenna
Transmitter /
Transmitted Received
Receiver
Pulses Echoes
Cell
Trigger
Transmitter Receiver
Display
Trigger
Amplified
Echoes
Rotation
Power Supplies for

the Entire System
Figure 8.8 – Block Diagram of the Radar

Radars
8.12 System Configuration
8.12.1 25 kW, X band, TR up (FAR2827)
Figure 8.9
8.12.2 25 kW, X band TR down (FAR2827W)
Figure 8.10

Chapter 8
8.12.3 30 kW, S band, TR Up - Separate Antenna Motor Control Unit
Figure 8.11
8.12.4 30 kW, S band, TR Down
Figure 8.12

Radars
8.12.5 Inter Switch by LAN HUB is Required for Connecting Three or More Units
Figure 8.13

Chapter 8
8.12.6 Maximum Cable Length
Figure 8.14

Radars
8.13 The Transmitter
The function of the transmitter is to generate pulses of electromagnetic energy that have
the correct repetition frequency, length, shape, power and radio frequency. The pulses
normally travel to the aerial by way of hollow copper tubing which has a precisely machined
rectangular or circular cross-section and is known as a waveguide.
Historically, the waveguide was used because of the considerable losses which were
encountered in attempting to transmit the extremely short wavelengths associated with radar
frequencies along conventional cables of any significant length. While some manufacturers
have now developed co-axial cables, which will pass radar frequencies, others still consider
the waveguide to be a more suitable method. (A co-axial cable is one that has a central
conductor surrounded by insulating material, a copper screen and then an outer sheath.)
Figure 8.15 – Block Diagram of the Transmitting Unit

An essential feature of range measurement is that timing must commence at the instant of
the transmission. This is achieved by using the same pulse to initiate the transmission as is
used to start the corresponding trace on the cathode ray tube or other display as in the case of
modern equipment. This pulse is known as the ‘synchronizing pulse’ or ‘trigger’ and is shown
in the block diagram as travelling along the line connecting the transmitter to the display.

Chapter 8
In the block diagram, a further line is shown connecting the transmitter to the receiver.
This also carries the trigger pulse but in this case the pulse is used to initiate sea clutter
suppression. Sea clutter is the name given to the echoes which are returned by the sea waves
in the vicinity of the observing vessel. IMO Performance Standards set out certain range
performance requirements and these must be achieved when the vessel is rolling or pitching
up to ±10°. While in theory, one might contemplate using some form of gyro stabilization to
maintain the beam in a horizontal plane, in practice the standard has the effect of defining a
minimum vertical beam width of 20°.
8.13.1 Trigger Generator
The trigger generator is a free-running oscillator which generates a continuous succession
of low voltage pulses known as synchronizing pulses, or trigger pulses. Commonly they are
referred to simply as triggers. Each trigger causes the remainder of the transmission elements
to generate a radio frequency pulse, which is sent up the waveguide to the antenna. The
trigger generator thus controls the number of radar pulses transmitted in one second. Most
PRF generators make available two or three pulse repetition frequencies from which the
observer may select the one most appropriate. In practice this may be achieved by designing
the oscillator to ‘free run’ at the highest required frequency and using every second trigger to
produce a medium PRF and every fourth trigger to produce a low PRF. Typical values might
be 3400, 1700 and 850 pulses per second.
In general, there is a requirement for a low PRF when long range scales are selected and a
high PRF in the case of short-range scales. This is to some extent, but not completely,
dependent on the duration of the transmitted pulse (the pulse length). Where more than one
PRF is available it will be found that selection of the appropriate value is made automatically
according to the range scale and pulse length selected by the observer.
8.13.2 Modulator and Pulse-forming Network
The function of the modulator and its associated pulse-forming network is to produce a
pulse of the correct length, power and shape on each occasion that it is activated by the
trigger. The pulse length and power are of considerable importance in the effective detection
of targets, as is the pulse shape, in the accurate measurement of their range.
8.13.3 The Pulse Length
The pulse length is defined as the duration of the transmitted radar pulse and is usually
measured in microseconds (µs).
Radars
In general, if a long pulse is used, the probability of detecting a target (other than one at
extremely short range) will be higher than if a short pulse is used under the same
circumstances. This important general theoretical principle is implicit in the fact that any
given radar receiver can amplify long pulses more effectively than short pulses.
Feature Short Pulse Long Pulse
Long Range target Poor. Used when short range Good. Used when long range scales
detection scales are selected. are selected and for poor response
target at short range.
Minimum range Good. Used when short range Poor. Used when long range scales
scales are selected. are selected and minimum range is
not a major consideration.
Range Good Poor
discrimination
Effect on echo Short radial paint. Produces a well- Long radial paint when short range
paint defined picture when short range scales are selected but the effect is
scales are selected. acceptable when long range scales
are selected.
Effect on Sea Reduces the probability of the Increases the probability of the
clutter making of targets due to saturation making of targets due to saturation
Effect in Reduces the probability of the Increases the probability of the
precipitation making of targets due to saturation making of targets due to saturation
Table 8.2 – Difference Between Short and Long Pulses

8.13.4 The Power of the Transmitted Pulse
It is almost evident that the range at which a target can be detected is dependent on the
power of the transmitted pulse. While many other factors can affect the range at which
detection may take place, in any given circumstances the theoretical maximum radar detection
range is limited by the transmitter power. The power of the radar pulse is a function of its
amplitude which is determined by the pulse-forming network and its associated circuitry.
For small craft radar systems, a transmitter power of as low as 3 kW may be used, whereas
for merchant ships, powers in the range 10 to 60 kW may be encountered.
8.13.5 The Pulse Shape
The pulse shape is of particular significance in the accurate determination of range.
Ideally, the outline (or envelope) of the pulse should be rectangular and, particularly, the
leading edge of the pulse should take the form of a vertical rise.

Chapter 8
The envelope of an ideal pulse then compares the range measurement obtained using an
ideal pulse shape with that obtained using a pulse shape which is less than the ideal shape.
Because of the great disparity between the strength of the transmitted pulse and that of the
returning signals, it is not practical to show their amplitudes to scale. Thus, it must be
appreciated that the transmitted pulse is of extremely high power whereas the received echo,
even after amplification, is comparatively weak and will only be observed where its amplitude
rises to the minimum level at which the receiver can detect signals. That level is called the
‘minimum detectable signal’ and is a receiver’s characteristic.
8.14 The Modulator Unit
Having considered the length and form which the envelope of the pulse must take, some
attention will now be given to the way in which the envelope is generated. The pulse-forming
network (PFN) may be considered to be a reservoir of electrical energy which is charged-up
comparatively slowly from the power supply in the period between pulses and is discharged
very quickly in the duration of the pulse envelope. Consider an example in which typical
values such as a PRF of 1000 and a pulse length of 1 µs are used. The interval between
pulses, which is referred to as the pulse repetition period (PRP), is 1000 µs and hence the time
during which the energy can be stored is 999 µs. As the energy is released in only 1µs (i.e.,
very nearly one thousandth of the time in which it was stored), it is apparent that a
comparatively low power source can be used to produce a very high-power radar pulse, albeit
for a very short duration.
Figure 8.16 – Block Diagram of Modulator Unit

Radars
The modulator unit includes a very fast-operating switch which allows the discharge of the
energy stored in the PFN. A solid-state device known as a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is
suited to this task. (In some literature it is referred to as controlled silicon rectifier (CSR).)
The SCR, is a 4-layer diode, and will allow current to pass in only one direction (the forward
direction) but not in the other direction (the reverse direction). However, in the case of the
SCR, forward current will only begin to flow when a trigger pulse is applied to its cathode
gate. When the trigger pulse is present, the opposition to current offered by the device drops
instantly to virtually zero, producing a pulse of current having an extremely fast rise time.
8.15 The Magnetron
The magnetron (or cavity magnetron as it is more correctly named) was invented in Great
Britain in 1939 and to this day is considered by civil marine radar manufacturers to be the
first choice as a generator of very short pulses of radar energy. When it was first produced,
the magnetron joined the large family of thermionic valves which populated the early radars;
now, fifty years on, it is one of the two valves to survive the solid-state revolution (the other
is the cathode ray tube).
The magnetron is essentially a diode valve in which the anode is a copper cylinder into
which cavities are cut (in the form of holes and slots) of very precise dimensions. The cathode
is a pillar located along the central axis of the cylinder. A horse-shoe magnet applies an
extremely powerful magnetic field, which acts along the axis of the cylinder. In the absence
of the magnetic field, one might expect electrons to flow, in an orderly fashion, radially from
the cathode to the anode when a pulse is applied to the cathode. Because the magnetic field
created by the permanent magnet is at right angles to the electric field created by the pulse,
the electrons are deflected from the path which would take them directly to the anode (an
application of the motor principle). Many electrons will eventually reach the anode only after
a complex oscillatory journey in which their paths may alternately be directed toward and
away from the anode and their speed increased and decreased.
The movement of each electron will be further affected by the electromagnetic influence
of the millions of other electrons moving in its vicinity. The effect is extremely complex but it
can be summarized by saying that if the change of electron velocity is regular and repetitive
then there will be associated with such change, a fluctuating electromagnetic field. If this is of
sufficiently high frequency, it will be capable of radiation into space.

Chapter 8
There are certain limits of a steady electric field (provided by the modulator pulse) and
steady magnetic field (provided by the permanent magnet) outside which, oscillation will not
take place.
However, if the values are selected lie within the appropriate limits, the frequency of the
oscillations that develop, is determined by the physical dimensions of the cavities.
Of the energy supplied to the magnetron, less than half contributes to the maintenance of
the oscillations during transmission. Much of the remainder is dissipated as heat in sufficient
quantity to require the fitting of cooling fins to the magnetron’s assembly.
Figure 8.17 – The Cavity Magnetron
Figure 8.18 – X Band Radar Magnetron

Radars
Figure 8.19 – S Band Radar Magnetron

It follows that the temperature of the magnetron will increase quite rapidly during the
warm-up period (usually considered to be about half an hour) which follows the initial
switching on, with a consequent change in the size of the cavities because of expansion of the
copper cylinder. The transmitted radio frequency is subject to progressive change during this
period. This has important implications when consideration is given to maintaining the
receiver in tune. Systems which comply with the IMO Performance Standards will have a
‘stand-by’ condition in which the magnetron is kept warm by means of a conventional valve
heater while the magnetron is not being used for transmission. When the system is returned to
the transmitting condition, the supplementary heating is reduced or removed as the natural
heating returns. During this transition period a similar drift in frequency can be expected.
The output from the magnetron is picked up from one of the cavities by a small probe
which couples the radar pulse to the waveguide by means of which it is conducted to the
aerial.
8.16 Range Scale and Pulse Length Selector
In this section, it has been suggested that there is a relationship between PRF, pulse length
and range scale. A study of the following table, which shows some representative values, will
indicate that such an association does exist.
For any given range scale, the period between pulses (PRP) must be at least as long as the
time base for that range scale so that the spot has time to write the current radial line and
return to the origin of the display before the next line is initiated (or, in the case of digital
storage, to allow sufficient time for the range data to be read into the memory in real time). If
the pulse repetition period was made equal to the time base, ambiguity would arise because
echoes from a range in excess of the chosen range scale might well arrive during the next time
base. A time delay, known as the receiver rest time, must thus be inserted between the
completion of one time base and the commencement of the next in an attempt to reduce to a
minimum the probability of this happening.
Chapter 8
The combined length of the time base and the receiver rest period must be sufficiently long
to ensure that, other than in exceptional circumstances, all echoes that will be returned from
any given pulse arrive before the next pulse is transmitted. This defines a minimum pulse
repetition period and thus a maximum PRF for any given range scale.
Range scale Pulse length selected
selected
Short Long
(in miles)
PRF PL PRF PL
(Hz) (µs) (Hz) (µs)
0.25 2000 0.05 2000 0.05
0.5 2000 0.05 1000 0.25
0.75 2000 0.05 1000 0.25
1.5 2000 0.05 1000 0.25
3.0 1000 0.25 500 1.0
6.0 1000 0.25 500 1.0
12.0 1000 0.25 500 1.0
24.0 500 1.0 500 1.0
48.0 500 1.0 500 1.0
Table 8.3 – PRF and Pulse Length Relationship
8.17 Receiver Function
The function of the receiver is to amplify the weak returning echoes intercepted by the
aerial and hence produce pulses of a strength and form which will generate a visible response
on the screen of the display. In older systems the pulses will, in analogue form, produce a
brightening of the rotating trace on a PPI. In more modern systems the pulses will be
converted into digital form and read into memory. After processing they will be read out of
memory and used to produce either a radial-scan or a raster-scan PPI. The memory may also
produce data for automatic target tracking.
The returning pulses are extremely weak and the receiver must be sufficiently sensitive to
detect, at its input, signals having a strength of as little as one millionth of a volt. The
transmitter and receiver share a common section of waveguide. If the extremely powerful
transmitter pulse (of the order of kilowatts) was allowed to enter the sensitive receiver,
permanent damage would result. This is prevented by the T/R cell. The T/R cell may be
considered to be an electronic switch which blocks the receiver branch of the waveguide
during transmission.
Radars
It is evident that the signal path through the receiver can be divided into three convenient
sections:
1. The radio frequency section comprising the mixer and local oscillator.
2. The intermediate frequency section comprising the various stages of the IF amplifier.
3. The video section comprising the detector and video amplifier stages.
The sections are particularly convenient as they each represent a stage at which, in setting
up and using the radar system, the observer may exercise control over the receiver. The tuning
control invariably operates in the radio frequency section. Gain and clutter controls may
operate in either the IF or the video section, depending on the receiver design
Figure 8.20 – Block Diagram of Radar Receiver

Chapter 8
8.18 The Radio Frequency Section
8.18.1 The Mixer Principle

It can be shown that if two sinusoidal signals of differing frequencies are mixed, the
resultant complex signal consists of a number of sinusoidal components one of which has a
frequency which is equal to the difference between the two frequencies which were mixed
and which is known as the beat frequency. The principle is more correctly known as the
heterodyne principle and the radar receiver is said to be of the superheterodyne type. The
principle is applied in the radar receiver by mixing the incoming weak echoes, which are
bursts of radio signals at magnetron frequency, with a continuous low power radio frequency
signal generated by a device known as the local oscillator. The envelope of the pulse
produced at the output of the mixer will contain, among others, a component whose frequency
is equal to the difference between that of the magnetron and that of the local oscillator. This
signal is used as input to the IF amplifier.
The IF amplifier is carefully pre-tuned by the manufacturer (to the chosen IF) so that it
will respond only to that component of the mixer output which lies at the chosen beat
frequency. As a result, all the other frequency components generated by the mixing process
are rejected.
8.18.2 Tuning Principles
Since the IF amplifier is pre-tuned to the chosen IF frequency it follows that the local
oscillator must be adjusted so that the frequency which it generates differs from that of the
magnetron (and thus the incoming wanted signals) by an amount equal to the chosen
intermediate frequency. It is this adjustment which the observer makes when tuning the
receiver. The manual tuning control will be located on the display unit so that the observer
can view the picture while making the necessary adjustments, but it is important to appreciate
that it exercises its influence at the very earliest stage of the receiver. In most other
applications of radio receivers great care is taken to ensure that the bandwidth is as narrow as
physically possible. In radar systems designed to receive pulsed signals, the bandwidth is
deliberately widened. It can be shown that the effect of a very narrow bandwidth is to distort
the shape of the pulse to an extent which increases as the pulse length becomes shorter. The
increase in bandwidth carries the penalty of loss of response and susceptibility to interference
from other radar systems, In most marine radar systems the bandwidth, when long pulse is
selected, normally lies in the range 3 to 5 MHz and in the range 15 to 25 MHz in the case of
short pulse selection.
Radars
8.18.3 The Intermediate Frequency Amplifier

The intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier accepts the echoes produced by the mixer
(which are in the form of weak bursts of IF signal within an envelope resembling that
produced by the modulator) and boosts them to the level at which it is possible to extract the
pulse envelope. As there is a limit to the factor by which any single amplifier stage can
increase the strength of a signal, the IF amplifier is assembled in the form of a series of
individual stages which progressively amplify the received echoes. The following are some
characteristics considered during amplification of weak signals.
1. Stage gain and saturation.
2. Overall gain
3. Thermal noise
4. Bandwidth
Because an amplifier consists of a multistage amplifier and each stage has a different
amplification level and its saturation value and also knows about the overall gain of the
amplifier used. Take thermal noise and bandwidth during amplification of the signal - it
should be as low as possible.
8.18.4 The Linear IF Amplifier
Traditionally this was the type of multi-stage amplifier which was employed in all marine
radar systems. It has now been superseded by the logarithmic amplifier in radar systems. This
type of amplifier is so called because, provided that saturation does not take place at any
stage, there is a linear relationship between the output and input signals, i.e. the overall gain is
constant. Thus, provided that the input signal is below that value (the limiting input) which
will produce saturation of the last stage, all echoes will be amplified by the same factor.
The major shortcoming of the linear amplifier is that it has a limited dynamic range and a
large proportion of received signals will saturate the amplifier under normal conditions. This
will allow unwanted responses such as those from the sea and from precipitation to mask even
very strong targets.
The observer has to seek to offset the shortcomings which the limited dynamic range
imposes by judicious adjustment of the overall gain. If the gain is adjusted so that the noise
just appears on the display then there will be maximum probability of detecting weak targets,
but strong echoes will all appear equally bright and masking will take place.
Chapter 8
If the gain is adjusted so that masking is eliminated then noise and weaker echoes will be
insufficiently amplified to be displayed on the screen.
8.18.5 The Logarithmic Amplifier
The logarithmic amplifier is designed to reduce the range of input signals that will saturate
the receiver. Some marine radar systems offered logarithmic amplification from the mid-
1960s, but it is since the early 1970s that the use of this technique has become commonplace.
The amplifier is so called because at the higher levels of signal input the output signal is
proportional to the logarithm of the input. The essential feature of the logarithmic amplifier is
that the gain and limiting output of all stages must be the same, whereas in the case of the
linear amplifier this need not necessarily be the case, for this reason the observer has no
control of the gain in this unit. Where a logarithmic amplifier is employed, both gain and sea
clutter controls operate at a later stage in the video section.
Thus, comparing linear and logarithmic amplifiers, it is evident that the former produces a
saturated output when the last stage saturates whereas the latter will not do so until the input
signal has risen to such a level as to saturate the first stage. Hence the logarithmic amplifier
increases the range of signals which can be handled without saturating the receiver. This
increase makes it possible to design a receiver which will not be saturated other than by
exceptionally strong echoes.
8.19 The Video Section
The word ‘video’ means that signal which, when applied to the CRT, produces the picture.
The function of the video section is to extract the envelope (i.e., the rectangular outline) of
each received pulse and to amplify and condition it so that it can be used as the input to
computer’s memory for storage and processing and / or is used to produce a visible response
on the screen of the cathode ray tube.
8.19.1 The Detector
The function of the detector is to extract the rectangular envelope from the amplified IF
signals. In the radar case the modulating signal is represented by the rectangular pulse
envelope and the carrier by the radio frequency oscillations produced by the magnetron.
Hence, considering the IF oscillations as representative of the original carrier, the function of
the demodulator or detector is to recover the modulating signal, i.e., the rectangular envelope.

Radars
Figure 8.21 – Function of the Detector

8.19.2 The Video Amplifier
This unit boosts the pulses which are produced at the output of the detector to a level at
which they are suitable for storage in the memory or are capable of producing a visible
response on the screen of the cathode ray tube. In most modern marine radar systems the
video bandwidth is fixed, but there are some systems in which the video bandwidth, rather
than the IF bandwidth, is switched with pulse length.
As the amplitude of the signal is increased through successive stages, its polarity may
change from positive to negative with alternate stages. This arises because the operation of
many single-stage amplifiers introduces a 180° phase shift between input and output signals.
8.20 Aerial Function
The aerial unit is required to focus the transmitted energy into a beam, rotate the beam at
an appropriate angular speed, relay rotation and heading marker data to the display and
intercept returning signals within the same directional limits as those specified for the
transmitted beam.
Figure 8.22 – RADAR Antenna

Chapter 8
The following are characteristics of a good antenna:

1. Antenna radiation pattern
2. Radiation intensity
3. Directivity and gain
4. Radiation efficiency and power gain
5. Input impedance
6. Effective length
7. Bandwidth
8. Sensitivity
8.20.1 Antenna Radiation Pattern
The radiation in any given direction is represented by the length of a line drawn from the
origin, in the chosen direction, which terminates at its intersection with the pattern. The line
can be measured in watts per unit solid angle, but as we are principally concerned with
representation of shape, it is more convenient to use what is known as a ‘normalized pattern’,
in which units are unnecessary. In the normalized pattern the maximum value is considered to
be unity and the other values represent the ratio of the radiation intensity in the chosen
direction to that of the maximum radiation intensity. It is of interest that if a power pattern is
normalized it will give the same shape as the normalized radiation pattern.
Figure 8.23 – Normalized Pattern from a Directional Source

Radars
8.20.2 Radiation Intensity

For many purposes this is a more convenient measure of the radiation from an aerial
because it is independent of the range at which it is measured. Radiation intensity is defined
as the power per unit solid angle, i.e., the power incident on that portion of the surface of a
sphere which subtends an angle of one radian at the centre of the sphere in both the horizontal
and the vertical planes. To illustrate the concept, consider again the case of an isotropic
radiator located in space.
If the power delivered to the aerial is W watts then as it travels outwards it will be
uniformly distributed over the surface area of a sphere of ever-expanding radius but which
subtends a constant angle of 4π radians at the centre of the sphere. Thus, the radiation
intensity at any point in the field of an isotropic radiator is given by
𝑊
Radiation intensity =𝑈 = 4𝜋
8.20.3 Directivity
The antenna has a point source which radiates uniformly in all directions - Again, this
cannot be realized in practice because any practical antenna will radiate better in some
directions than in others. In fact the essential characteristic of a radar antenna is that it does
precisely that, radiating particularly well in one chosen direction. However, a convenient
measure of its directional ability can be obtained by comparing the radiation from the
practical antenna with that which would be obtained from an isotropic source.
8.20.4 Antenna Gain
This is a measure of the effectiveness with which the aerial can radiate the power delivered
to it by the transmitter, within specified angular limits of azimuth and elevation. Aerial gain is
given the symbol G and is defined as
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝐺=
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
Clearly the aerial gain is a ratio having no units. Its maximum possible value would occur
in the ideal situation in which none of the energy supplied by the transmitter was wasted and
all of it was concentrated within the infinitely narrow limits of a straight line. In practice this
ideal cannot be achieved because some of the transmitter power will be dissipated in
overcoming electrical resistance in the aerial and the energy cannot be concentrated along a
single line.
Chapter 8
However, good design techniques make it possible to reduce the electrical losses in the
aerial to very small values, and the special aerials used in marine radar can, where required,
concentrate the power within very narrow limits of azimuth.
8.20.5 Impedance of the Antenna
We know that antennae have some impedance value and connect to the waveguides or
coaxial cables that have internal impedance. For maximum power transfer, we need to match
the impedance of the antenna with the waveguide or coaxial cable.
As per the maximum power transfer theorem, input impedance is kept high and output
impedance kept as low as possible. Some radar systems use impedance matching devices for
maximum power transfer.
8.21 T/R Cell
In a radar, a transmit / receive (TR) switch alternately connects the transmitter and receiver
to a shared antenna. In the simplest arrangement, the switch consists of a gas-discharge
tube across the input terminals of the receiver.
When the transmitter is active, the resulting high voltage causes the tube to conduct,
shorting together the receiver terminals to protect it, while its complementary, the anti-
transmit/receive (ATR) switch, is a similar discharge tube which decouples the transmitter
from the antenna while not operating, to prevent it from wasting received energy.
Figure 8.24 – Block Diagram of the T/R Cell

Radars
8.22 RF Transreceiver Function
Table 8.4 – Range and PRF
8.23 Comparison of X-band and S-band Radar
Feature Comparison
Target Response For a target of a given size, the response at the X-band
is greater than at the S- Band
Bearing Discrimination For a given antenna width the horizontal beamwidth
effect in an S- band will be approximately 3.3 times
that of an X- band system
Vertical beam structure The vertical lobe pattern produced by an S- band
antenna is about 3.3 times as coarse as that from an
X- band antenna located at the same height
Radar horizon The radar horizon with the S- band is slightly more
distant than with the X- band
Sea clutter response The unwanted response from sea waves is less at the
S- band than at the X- band, thus the probability of the
target being masked due to saturation is less.
Precipitation response The probability of detection of targets which lie within
an area of precipitation is higher with the S- band
transmission than with the X- band transmission
Attenuation in precipitation In any given set of precipitation conditions, S- band
transmission will suffer less attenuation than those at
X- band
Table 8.5 – Comparison of X-band and S-band Radar

Chapter 8
8.24 Sub Units
8.24.1 Processor Unit RPU-013 for All Transceiver Types, Except for TX High Voltage
Figure 8.25
8.24.2 Processor Unit (Top Cover Opened, Without the Shield Cover)
Figure 8.26

Radars
8.24.3 Processor Unit Bottom
Figure 8.27
8.24.4 X Band Scanner Unit with a Radiator 1.2 M, 2.0 M, 2.4 M
Figure 8.28
Chapter 8
8.24.5 X Band, TR UP, Cover Removed (Front-end)
Figure 8.29
8.24.6 X Band, TR UP, Cover Removed (Rear-end)
Figure 8.30
Radars
8.24.7 X Band, TR UP, Cover and Terminal Board Removed (Rear-end)
Figure 8.31

Chapter 8
8.24.8 X Band RF Module, Receiver Side (Shield Cover on the RFC Board Is Removed)
Figure 8.32
8.24.9 X Band RF Module, Transmitter Side (Shield Cover Is Removed)
Figure 8.33

Radars
8.24.10 X Band, TR DOWN, Scanner Unit
Figure 8.34
8.24.11 X Band, TR Down, Transceiver Unit
Figure 8.35
Chapter 8
8.24.12 X Band, TR DOWN, RF Module
Figure 8.36
8.24.13 S Band Scanner Unit
Figure 8.37
Radars
8.24.14 S Band TR UP, Receiver Circuit on the Right
Figure 8.38
8.24.15 S Band TR UP, Transmitter Circuit on the Left
Figure 8.39

Chapter 8
8.24.16 PSU007 Scanner Motor Power Control (Terminal Board and Relays)
Figure 8.40
8.24.17 S Band TR Down Scanner Unit, Cover Removed
Figure 8.41

Radars
8.24.18 S Band TR Down, Transceiver Unit
Figure 8.42

Chapter 8
8.24.19 Band TR Down, Terminal Board Removed
Figure 8.43

Radars
8.24.20 Monitor (MU201CR, MU231CR)
Figure 8.44

Chapter 8
8.24.21 Control Unit RCU-014
Figure 8.45

Radars
8.24.22 RCU-014 Bottom Cover Removed
Figure 8.46

Chapter 8
8.24.23 Dismounting the Track Ball
Figure 8.47
8.24.24 Card I/F Unit CU-200
• By using RAM card, radar setting data and installation data can be saved.
Figure 8.48

Radars
8.24.25 Console Unit
Figure 8.49
8.24.26 Console, Cover Removed
Figure 8.50

Chapter 8
8.24.27 HUB-100 Switching Hub
Figure 8.51

Radars
8.25 Installation
8.25.1 Antenna Location (1) Minimum Detection Range

IEC62388 Recommendation for Mounting the Antenna Unit
The antenna unit is generally either on top of the wheelhouse or on the Radar mast or on a
suitable platform – mainly to permit maximum visibility.
A line of sight from the antenna unit to the bow of the ship should hit the surface of the sea
not more than 500 metres or twice the ship’s length, depending which is smaller, for all load
and trim conditions.
Figure 8.52

Chapter 8
8.25.2 Antenna Location (2) Vertical Separation

IEC62388 Recommendation
• Install the antenna unit away from interfering high-power energy sources and other
transmitting radio antenna.
• Keep the lower edge of the antenna unit above the safety rail by 500 mm or more.
Figure 8.53 – Vertical Separation

• No funnel, mast or derrick should be within the vertical beam width of the antenna unit in
the bow direction, especially zero degrees ±5 , to prevent blind sectors and false echoes on
the radar picture.
• It is rarely possible to place the antenna possible unit where a completely clear view in all
directions is available. Thus, you should determine the angular width and relative bearing
of any shadow sectors for their influence on the radar at the first opportunity after fitting.
• Locate a direction finder antenna clear on the antenna unit to prevent interference to the
direction finder. A separation of more than two meters is recommended.
• A magnetic compass will be affected if the antenna unit is placed too close to the magnetic
compass. Observe the compass safe distances to prevent deviation of the magnetic
compass.
• Do not paint the aperture, to ensure proper emission of the radar waves.
• The antenna base is made of cast aluminium. To prevent electrolytic corrosion of the
antenna base, use the seal washers and a corrosion-proof rubber mat and ground the unit
with the grounding wire that is supplied.
• Deposits and fumes from a funnel or other exhaust vent can adversely affect the aerial
performance and hot gases may distort the radiator portion. The antenna unit must not be
mounted where the temperature is more than 55 C.

Radars
• Leave sufficient space around the unit for maintenance and servicing. See the antenna unit
outline drawing for recommended maintenance space.
8.25.3 Antenna Location (3) Blind Sector
IEC62388 Recommendation
Mount the antenna unit so that any blind sectors caused by objects (mast, etc.) are kept to a
minimum. No blind sector should exist in the arc of the horizon from right ahead to 22.5 aft
of the beam to either side (see Figure 8.54 below). Also, individual blind sectors of more than
5 , or the total arc of both blind sectors of more than 20 , should not occur in the remaining
arc. Note that any two blind sectors separated by 3 or less are regarded as one sector.
Figure 8.54

Chapter 8
8.25.4 Fleet Broad Band Vs Radar

The antenna unit should be at least 5 meters away to protect the low-noise amplifier in the
FELCOM 500/FELCOM 250 antenna unit. If this distance cannot be secured be sure the
antenna unit is not within the radar beam. However, never install the antenna unit within 3 m
of a radar antenna.
Figure 8.55
8.25.5 Inmarsat C Vs Radar
• If both Inmarsat-B/F and Inmarsat-C ship earth stations are installed, separate the
Inmarsat-B/F antenna at least 8 m from the Inmarsat-C antenna.
• Separate the antenna unit from an S-band radar as follows:
Figure 8.56
Radars
8.25.6 Radiation Hazard

Chapter 8
8.25.7 Grounding and Protection of Bolts
Figure 8.57

Radars
8.26 Alarm Menu [MENU][3]
8.27 Own Ship Info
Own ship data is measured from the bow’s left corner.

• The scanner’s position and conning position are used to offset to centre of radar sweep
when the REF point is CCRP (Consistent Common Reference Point).
• The GPS antenna position compensates the Cursor and other L/L data with regard to the
scanner and conning position.

Chapter 8
Figure 8.58
8.28 Maintenance
8.28.1 Magnetron Replacement Procedures

Note: When mounting a new magnetron, do not touch the magnet with a screwdriver or put it
on an iron plate. After replacement, connect the lead wire correctly.
8.28.2 Handling of a Magnetron after a Long-duration Storage
The magnetron that has been kept in storage for a long time may cause sparks and operate
unstably when its operation is started. Perform ageing with the following procedure:
1. Warm up the cathode for a longer time than usual. (20 to 30 minutes in the STBY
state)
2. Start the operation from the short pulse range and shift it gradually to the longer pulse
ranges. If the operation becomes unstable such as the magnetron current is unstable
during the process, return it to the standby mode immediately. Keep this state for 5 to
10 minutes until the operation is restarted.
8.28.3 Replacement Procedure
1. Turn off the circuit breaker of the respective Radar and safety switch of the scanner
unit. The Safety switch is located on the rear side of the scanner (a safety switch is
optional)

Radars
Figure 8.59 - Circuit Breaker of the RADAR Being Turned Off

2. Remove the pedestal cover. Make sure that there is no foreign matter or dust adhered
to the gasket when you put the cover back on.
Figure 8.60 - Radar Pedestal Cover

Chapter 8
Figure 8.61 – Removed Pedestal Cover of Radar

3. Remove the magnetron fixture (optional).
Figure 8.62 – Removal of the Magnetron Fixture

4. To remove the magnetron, use a nonmagnetic screwdriver because if the magnetron
comes in contact with any metal or magnet, its performance may deteriorate.

Radars
Figure 8.63 – Removal of the Magnetron with a Non-magnetic Screwdriver

5. Mark the electrical connections of the Magnetron.
Figure 8.64 – Mark the electrical connection

6. To install a new Magnetron, make sure that all specifications are matched as per the
maker.
Please read the Magnetron Data sheet specification.
7. Cut the electrical cable of the new magnetron as per the old magnetron cable’s length.

Chapter 8
Figure 8.65 – Mark the cable size and cut the new magnetron cable and clamp
8. Put the magnetron cable in the marked position and tighten it fully with a
screwdriver.
Figure 8.66 – Install the New Magnetron In The Scanner

9. When installing it into the scanner make sure it does not touch any body or metal part
of the magnetron cable. If it does, it releases an electrostatic charge and its
performance deteriorates.
10. Follow the removal procedure in reverse order to box back the scanner.

Radars
8.28.4 Verification After Replacement

1. Turn on the power supply for the radar, allow sufficient time for the radar to be
preheated (about 20 to 30 minutes and put the radar unit to STBY mode).
2. Start emitting radio waves from the short pulse range and gradually change the
emission to the longer pulse range. Open the service engineer menu to perform tuning
adjustments.
If the operation becomes unstable, such as the magnetron current is unstable, bring
the radar unit back to STBY mode and restart emission after allowing for an interval
of 5 to 10 minutes.
3. Emit radio waves in the long pulse mode for about 15 minutes and reopen the service
engineer menu to perform tuning adjustments. Adjust the setting in the service
engineer menu until the tuning indication bar on the display unit reaches the
calibration marking. Check in the service engineer menu that the magnetron current is
between the 6th and 9th calibration marking (varies from maker to maker).
4. Reset the time in the radar console for the new magnetron.
8.28.5 General Maintenance
8.28.5.1 Fuse and Battery
Unit Power Fuse to use
Processor unit 24 VDC 20 A
100-115 VAC 10 A
220 -230 VAC 5A
Display Unit MU-201CR 24 VDC 5A
100-230 VAC 2A
Display Unit MU-231CR 24 VDC 6A
100-230 VAC 2A
Display Unit MU-170C 24 VDC 5A
12 VDC 10 A
Table 8.6 – Fuse Ratings

Chapter 8
8.28.6 Life Expectancy of Major Parts

Parts Types Life expectancy Remarks
Antenna Motor D8G-516 (24RPM, X
BAND)
D8G-571 (42 RPM,
X-BAND)
GOB-8222 (18/22
RPM, X-BAND)
RM-7398 (21/26
RPM, S- BAND)
RM-7435 (21/26 Gear Motor
RPM, S-BAND) 10,000 Hours
RM-6585 (22 RPM,
X-BAND)
RM-9519 (45 RPM,
S-BAND)
RM-9520 (45 RPM,
S-BAND)
RM-9520 (45 RPM,
S-BAND)
Carbon Brush MG120-5X6X11 D8G 10,000 HOURS Check for wear
(X-BAND) when replacing
magnetron.
Replace if worn.
Magnetron MAF-14258 (X- 4,000 Hours Check no. of
BAND, 12KW) hours used at Tx
MG4010 (X-BAND, 4,0000Hours time. Reset time
12KW) after
replacement.
MG5436 (X-BAND, 4,000 Hours
25KW)
MG5223F (S-BAND, 7,0000 Hours
30KW)
Backlight unit for Display Unit 201LHS2F 45,000 Hours (25℃) Replace when
brilliance is
MU-231CR 35,000 Hours (50℃)
uneven or too
low
LCD ASSY. 856JAU1745V3 40,0000 Hours
Table 8.7 – Life Expectancy of Major Parts

Radars
8.28.7 Weekly
1. Remove the dirt and dust from the internal unit of the radar. (inside the Bridge unit)
2. Tighten the electrical connection.
3. Note down the current, Transmission time and Running time of the magnetron.
8.28.8 Monthly
1. Clean the scanner with a clean cloth or a damp cloth.
2. Open the scanner box. Before opening, make sure that the power supply is off and allow
time for discharge of all static charge.
3. Remove the dirt and dust from the scanner box.
4. Tighten the electrical connection of the internal part of the scanner.
5. Apply light grease into the gear wheel of the motor and rotate the scanner by hand to check
the proper distribution of grease and confirm that there is no additional grease inside the
scanner box; also check that there is no noise from the motor.
8.29 Troubleshooting
Problem Causes Remedy

The power supply is turned 1. There is a blown fuse 1. Replace the blown fuse
on but the radar does not 2. The main voltage is not 2. Correct the wiring and input
operate at all available / the polarity is voltage
reversed
3. The power supply board is 3. Replace the power supply
faulty board.
The brilliance is adjusted but 1. The SPU board is faulty 1. Replace SPU board
there is no picture 2. Check the panel light and 2. Beep sound when key is
fan pressed.
1. Antenna drive mechanism is 1. Replace antenna drive
The antenna is not rotating faulty mechanism
2. Defective antenna drive motor 2. Press relay reset button
relay
The data and marks are not 1. The SPU board is faulty 1. Replace the SPU board
displayed in the transmit
status

Chapter 8
Problem Causes Remedy

After adjusting the gain with 1. The IF amplifier is faulty 1. Replace IF amplifier
A/C SEA set at minimum, 2. Signal cable between the 2. Check continuity and isolation
marks and indication appear antenna and the processor of coaxial cable
but there is no noise and unit
echo 3. The video amplifier board is 3. Check video coaxial line for a
faulty secure connection. If the
connection is good then
replace the SPU board
Marks, Indication and noise 1. TX high voltage protection 1. Reset power to restors normal
appears but no echo circuit has activated operation.
2. Magnetron 2. Check magnetron current
replace Magnetron.
3. Modulator board 3. Replace modulator board
4. SPU board 4. Replace SPU board
Picture not updated or 1. Bearing signal generator 1. Check the connection of signal
picture freeze-up board cables.
2. Replace SPU board 2. Replace the SPU board.
3. Turn off and on the RADAR 3. Turn off and on the Radar
Incorrect orientation of 1. SPU board 1. The message GYRO appears

picture when the heading pulse is not
received during standby
2. Gyro interface 2. Replace the gyro interface
Cannot operate radar from 1. SPU board 1. Replace the SPU board
on screen boxes
Radar properly tuned but 1. Deteriorated magnetron 1. With the radar transmitting on
poor sensitivity 48 nm range, check magnetron
current. If the current is below
normal, magnetron may be
defective. Replace it.
2. Detuned MIC 2. Check MIC defective current. If
it is below normal value, MIC
may have become detuned
MIC must be tuned.
3. Dirt on radiator face 3. Clean the radiator surface
4. Water ingress to the 4. Remove water from the feeder
waveguide or other feeder line
line
5. Second trace echo rejected 4. Disable the second trace echo
is ON rejector.

Chapter 9
Electronic Chart Display & Information System
9.1 Introduction
ECDIS stands for Electronic Chart Display & Information System. Earlier, the Navigation
officer or the Master was required to carry nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and
display the ship’s route for the intended voyage, and to plot and monitor the position throughout
the voyage. Buying updated nautical charts and publications for every voyage was very costly
for the owner and then again, a manual entry can create errors in the voyage plan.
To replace all manual jobs with electronic equipment, all charts and updated information are
available in a centralized database. These updated electronic charts are bought by the owners
and managers and shared with their ships for navigational use. The advent of electronics charts
since the 1990s provides the ship with additional information, which could be displayed on the
screens of the Electronic Chart Display & Information System.
Recognizing the advantages of ECDIS for navigation tasks, in 2009, the IMO adopted
further amendments to the SOLAS regulation V/19, to make the carriage of ECDIS mandatory.
9.2 Regulations
The amendment to SOLAS Regulation V/19 requires all newly-built passenger ships of 500
gross tonnes and more, as well as newly built cargo ships, including tankers of 3000 gross
tonnes and more, engaged in international voyages, to be fitted with an ECDIS. For existing
ships, they are introduced for ships of certain sizes engaged in international voyages.
The amendment entered into force on 1 January 2011, making ECDIS mandatory for new
ships built after set dates and also phasing in the requirement for existing ships.

Chapter 9
9.3 Navigation Tasks for Officers
For good navigation, navigation tasks are divided among the navigation officers as per the
chart below:
Steering Positioning
Navigation
tasks
Voyage
Monitoring
Planning
Figure 9.1 – Navigation Tasks

9.3.1 Voyage Planning (ECDIS Function)
The ECDIS is used in the preparation phase of an upcoming voyage. Preparation includes
route definition, route calculation and route optimization.

Route Chart
Planning Planning
Voyage
Planning
Route
User Chart
Calculation
Planning
Figure 9.2 – Voyage Planning

9.3.2 Route Planning on an ECDIS
The route is created by Navigational Officers in two ways:
1. Modifying the existing route to create a new route.
2. Create a new route from the beginning.
A route consists of the following points:
1. Position of each waypoint
2. Turning instruction for each waypoint
3. Safety limit between waypoints (channel limit)
4. Safe water calculations based on the safety limits
5. Required steering accuracy for each individual leg
6. Speed restrictions for each leg
The ECDIS gives warnings / alerts to the operator if the way point is misleading for the
voyage.

Chapter 9
9.3.3 Route Calculation

Route calculation for voyage planning includes the following:
1. Distance between consecutive waypoints
2. Course between waypoints
3. Calculation of the wheel-over point
4. Total distance
5. Estimated time for the voyage
The ECDIS gives grounding alerts based on the available depth information in the digital
chart data base.
9.3.4 Chart Planning
Chart planning consists of the following steps:
1. Load new S57 and ARCS charts.
2. Update existing S57 and ARCS charts.
3. Manage chart permits.
4. Manually update charts.
9.3.5 User Chart Planning
User chart planning consists of the following steps:
1. Create operator navigation charts.
2. Process chart alerts based on symbols, lines and areas of the user chart.

9.3.6 Positioning
Positioning means using all available methods available to calculate and keep the ship’s
position up-to-date during a voyage.
The calculation of the ship’s position is based on available navigation sensors. The system
integrates valid information from different sensors and uses the Kalman filter technology for
calculation of the final position.
Direct
Dead Positioning
Reckoning Sensor
Positioning
Manual
Correction
Figure 9.3 – Final Position Calculation
9.4 Direct Positioning Sensor
In this technique, the satellite and radio navigation equipment for measuring the position is
fed to the ECDIS.
9.4.1 Satellite Navigation Equipment
1. GPS
2. GPS navigator with a differential correction, DGPS
Chapter 9
3. Local position-fixing systems

9.4.2 Radio Navigation Equipment
1. Loran C
9.4.3 Dead Reckoning Equipment
In this technique, the following equipment feed the ship heading and the ship’s speed to ECDIS:
9.4.3.1 Ships Heading Measuring Devices
1. Gyrocompass
2. Magnetic compass
3. GPS gyrocompass
9.4.3.2 Ships Speed Measuring Devices
1. Single-axis speed logs
2. Dual-axis speed logs
3. Radionavigation equipment
4. Satellite navigation equipment
9.4.3.3 Manual Correction
This is a user-executed position correction where the radar echoes and information from
synthetic charts are combined, verified by the operator and adjusted if necessary.
9.4.4 Monitoring
For navigation officers, monitoring means a continuous check of navigation data, operator
actions and performance of the system. Another part of the monitoring is the display of
electronic sea charts and conning information.

Man
Overboard Alarms
Monitoring
Electronics
Data
Sea Chart
Logging
Data
Distribution
Figure 9.4 – Monitoring Operation
9.5 The Electronics Sea Chart Display
The following information is available on the electronic sea chart. The navigational officer
takes future decisions of the ship’s route based on this information:
1. Own ship position
2. Planned track
3. Planned safety lines
4. Ship’s predictor
5. Chart alerts
6. Tracked targets
7. Chart information
8. AIS targets

Chapter 9
9.5.1 Alerts
Most of the ECDIS systems have the following alerts incorporated:
1. Route monitoring alerts
2. Position calculation alerts
3. Position monitoring alerts
4. Waypoint approach alerts
5. Alerts for sensor failure
6. Alerts for system failure
7. Alerts for incorrect operator action
8. Alerts based on chart database
9.5.2 Man Overboard and Grounding
Most of the ECDIS systems have the built-in man overboard function which records the
position and the time of a man overboard, in a one-touch operation. It also provides grounding
alerts to users.
9.5.3 Data Logging
The ECDIS may log the following information:
1. Past track history
2. Events
3. Dangerous targets
4. Voyage recording
9.5.4 Data Distribution
Sharing of information is the most common feature of an ECDIS. Data is distributed via the
ECDIS’s computer system.

9.6 Block Diagram
Display
Unit
Keyboard Navtex
220 /110 V AC
AIS
UPS ECDIS
Processor DGPS
24 V DC
Gyro Ship’s Echo Wind

Speed Log Sounder
Figure 9.5 – Block Diagram of ECDIS

The ECDIS screen is divided into several areas. Each area shows the status of the above
connected equipment data. In this system, the navigational officer or master orders electronic
charts for particular routes. These electronic charts are server-based and up-to-date in
information. The navigational officer plots the way point as per the requirements of a short
route and defines some conditions in the way point plot like depth, speed, ETD, etc.
After completion of route mapping, the ECDIS calculates the ETA and efficient speed that
consumes less fuel and the maximum profit for the voyage. The ECDIS also alerts the
navigational officer if any the vessel is approaching a grounding depth and also locks the
position if a man overboard accident occurs. This is like a magical system that maps the route
as well as alerts the navigational officer of future incidents.
But again, the ECDIS can misbehave, so navigational officers need to be alert at all times
during voyages and also need to carry particular charts for particular voyages or should have
backup ECDIS systems on the vessel.

Chapter 9
9.6.1 ECDIS Multi Station Block Diagram
X Band S Band
Radar Radar
Processor Processor
Hub
ECDIS 1 ECDIS 2
Processor Processor
Figure 9.6 – ECDIS Multi Station Block Diagram

For better communication between ECDIS 1 and ECDIS 2, a LAN cable with a HUB device
is used. In the above figure, all four are connected with a hub and all data is shared with the
Radar and ECDIS and it is also possible to share an ECDIS individual screen with another
ECDIS. Updating of one ECIDS also leads to updating other systems by this multi station
configuration. On ships using this multi station configuration, if one ECDIS is out of operation
then the standby ECDIS comes into operation for voyage monitoring.
9.7 Troubleshooting
When this equipment does not operate correctly, check the following points before asking
for repairs.
Consult with your nearest subsidiary company, branch office, or sales office if the problem
does not get solved even after checking and correcting these points, or if there are any abnormal
conditions other than the following items:
9.7.1 The power supply is not available. Alternatively, the equipment does not start even if
the Power button of the operation unit is pressed.
The AC or the DC power supply is not connected. Connect the AC or the DC power supply.
The breaker on the front of the power supply unit Switch on the breaker and verify if the power supply
(NBD-913) is not turned on. is available
The AC or the DC power supply is not within the Connect the AC or the DC power supply within the
specified voltage range. specified voltage range.


The internal wiring is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
The power supply unit (NBD-913) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
The central control unit (NDC-1590) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
The operation unit (NCE-5605) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
9.7.2 The power supply to the monitor is not available

The display unit is not activated. Activate the display unit.
Display unit (NWZ-208/NWZ-207) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
9.7.3 Although the power is supplied to the monitor, the screen’s display is off
The brightness of the monitor is set to the Adjust the brightness of the monitor to the appropriate
minimum level. level.
9.7.4 The brightness of the monitor cannot be adjusted.

9.7.5 The trackball or the option keyboard cannot be operated.

9.7.6 The trackball cannot be moved smoothly.

The trackball is dirty. Clean the trackball.
9.7.7 Although the power is supplied and the screen’s display is okay, the display is
frozen, disabling processing to advance to display the task menus.
The central control unit (NDC-1590) is abnormal. Make a request to the distributor for
repairs.

Chapter 9
9.7.8 Some task menus cannot be selected.

The device license has not been installed. Install the license of the device to be used.
9.7.9 The cursor is not displayed correctly.

The central control unit (NDC-1590) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for
repairs.
9.7.10 Characters / symbols are not displayed correctly.

9.7.11 The GPS Position information is not displayed.

The communication is not set correctly. Set the communication correctly.
The power supply for the GPS equipment is not turned Turn on the power supply for the GPS
on. equipment.
The GPS equipment does not carryout positioning. Check the state of the GPS equipment.
The connection with the GPS equipment is abnormal. Check the connection with the GPS
equipment. When GPS equipment is
connected to the serial LAN interface circuit,
check if the LED of the corresponding port is lit
at data reception.
The power supply for the serial-LAN interface circuit Turn on the power supply for the serial-LAN
(CMH-2370) is not turned on. (This is the case where interface circuit.
the GPS equipment is connected to the serial-LAN
interface circuit)
The serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH-2370) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
(This is the case where the GPS equipment is
connected to the serial-LAN interface circuit)
9.7.12 The azimuth of the Gyrocompass is not displayed. Alternatively, the azimuth rotation
direction is not displayed correctly.
The communication is not correct. Set the communication correctly.
The power supply for the Gyro compass equipment Turn on the power supply for the Gyro compass
is not turned on. equipment.

9.7.13 The log is not displayed or the values are not displayed correctly.
The power supply for the serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH- Turn on the power supply for the serial-
2370) is not turned on. (This is the case where the log LAN interface circuit.
equipment is connected to the serial-LAN interface circuit).
The serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH-2370) is faulty. (This is Make a request to the distributor for
the case where the log equipment is connected to the serial- repairs.
LAN interface circuit).
The Gyro interface circuit (CMJ-554) is not set correctly. (Case Set the Gyro interface circuit correctly
where the log equipment is connected to the Gyrointerface according to the log equipment.
circuit).
The Gyro interface circuit (CMJ-554) is faulty. (Case where Make a request to the distributor for
the log equipment is connected to the Gyrointerface circuit). repairs.
The internal wiring is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for
repairs.
The central control unit (NDC-1590) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for
repairs.
9.7.14 Rudder angles are not displayed. Alternatively, the values are not displayed correctly.
The power supply for the rudder angle Turn on the power supply for the rudder angle indicator.
indicator is not turned on.
The connection with the rudder angle Check the connection with the rudder angle indicator.
indicator is abnormal. When a rudder angle indicator is connected to the serial
LAN interface circuit, check if the LED of the
corresponding port is on with data reception.
The power supply for the serial-LAN Turn on the power supply for the serial-LAN interface
interface circuit (CMH-2370) is not turned circuit.
on. (Case where the rudder angle indicator
is connected to the serial-LAN interface
circuit or the rudder angle indicator is
connected to the analog option circuit)
9.7.15 Rudder angles are not displayed. Alternatively, the values are not displayed correctly.
The serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH-2370) is faulty. (This is the Make a request to the distributor
case where the rudder angle indicator is connected to the serial- for repairs.
LAN interface circuit or the rudder angle indicator is connected to
the analog option circuit)
The analog option circuit (CMJ-560) is not set correctly. (Case Set the analog option circuit
where the rudder angle indicator is connected to the analog option correctly according to the rudder
circuit) angle indicator.
Chapter 9

The analog option circuit (CMJ-560) is faulty. (Case where the Make a request to the distributor
rudder angle indicator is connected to the analog option circuit) for repairs.
The internal wiring is faulty. Make a request to the distributor
for repairs.
The central control unit (NDC-1590) is faulty. Make a request to the distributor
for repairs.
9.7.16 Wind direction / wind speed (anemoscope / anemometer) data is not displayed.
The power supply for the anemoscope / Turn on the power supply for the anemoscope /
anemometer is not turned on. anemometer.
The connection with the anemoscope / Check the connection with the anemoscope /
anemometer is abnormal. anemometer. Check if the LED of the corresponding
port of the serial LAN interface circuit is on when
there is data reception.
The power supply for the serial-LAN interface Turn on the power supply for the serial-LAN
circuit (CMH-2370) is not turned on. interface circuit.
The serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH-2370) is Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
faulty.
9.7.17 Water depth values are not displayed.

The communication is not set correctly. Set the communication correctly.
The power supply for the echo sounder is Turn on the power supply for the echo sounder.
not turned on.
The connection with the echo sounder is Check the connection with the echo sounder. Check if
abnormal. the LED of the corresponding port of the serial LAN
interface circuit is on when there is data reception.
The power supply for the serial-LAN Turn on the power supply for the serial-LAN interface
interface circuit (CMH-2370) is not turned circuit.
on.
The serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH-2370) Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
is faulty.
The central control unit (NDC-1590) is Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
faulty.

9.7.18 Sensor signals are not displayed.

The communication is not set correctly. Correct the error with the communication.
The power supply for the sensor equipment Turn on the power supply for the sensor equipment.
is not turned on.
The connection with the sensor equipment is Check the connection with the sensor equipment. Check
faulty. if the LED of the corresponding port of the serial LAN
interface circuit is lit when there is data reception.
The power supply for the serial-LAN interface Turn on the power supply for the serial-LAN interface
circuit (CMH-2370) is not turned on. circuit.
The display unit such as the serial-LAN Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
interface circuit (CMH-2370), analog option
circuit (CMJ-560), and central control unit
(NDC-1590) are faulty.
9.7.19 Contact signals are not sent from the output.

The power supply for the serial-LAN interface Turn on the power supply for the serial-LAN interface
circuit (CMH-2370) is not turned on. (This is the circuit.
case where the contact signal output is
acquired from the serial-LAN interface circuit)
The serial-LAN interface circuit (CMH-2370) is Make a request to the distributor for repairs.
faulty. (Case where contact signal output is
acquired from theserial-LAN interface circuit)
9.7.20 The UPS does not function

The connection with the UPS Check the connection with the UPS.
is faulty.
The UPS is not set correctly. Set-up the UPS correctly.
The UPS battery is Replace the battery.

completely discharged
The UPS is faulty. Make a request to the distributor for repairs.

Chapter 9
9.7.21 A popup window is displayed: The system has detected an error.

A communication error occurred. Close the popup window and after checking that there is no
problem even if the power of this equipment is turned off, turn off
the power and turn it on again.

Chapter 10
Global Positioning System
10.1 Introduction
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio navigation system, which was
developed by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) for the US armed forces. The
GPS provides suitably equipped users with highly accurate position, velocity and time data.
This service is now provided globally, continuously and under all-weather conditions to users
at or near the surface of the earth.
In the maritime industry, GPS gives the relative position of the ship because ships are at sea
and most often can’t compare their location with reference to a fixed object. The error correction
is done by an experienced navigators based on calculations with the help of various charts.
Space Segment
Time 2 Time 3
Time 1
Distance 2 Time 4
Distance 3
Distance 1 Distance 4
Control Segment
(GPS Antenna) User Segment
Figure 10.1 – Architecture of the GPS

Chapter 10
10.2 GPS Segmentation
The GPS consists of the following three segments:

• Space segment
• Control segment
• User segment
10.2.1 GPS Space Segment
The space segment consists of a constellation of GPS satellites in semi-synchronous orbits
around the earth. Each satellite broadcasts radio-frequency ranging codes and a navigation data
message. The basic GPS Space segment consists of 24 operational satellites. The satellites are
placed in 6 orbital planes with 4 operational satellites in each plane. The satellite orbital planes
have an inclination of 55°, relative to the equator and the orbital height is of 20,183 km (10,898
nautical miles). The satellites complete an orbit in approximately 12 hours. The relative phasing
of satellites from one orbital plane to the next is 40°. The satellites are positioned such that a
minimum of 4 satellites are observed by a user, anywhere on the earth and each satellite will be
observed for approximately 5 hours at a time.
10.2.2 GPS Control Segment
The GPS Control Segment consists of one Master Control Station (MCS) at Falcon AFB in
Colorado Springs (USA), plus five monitoring stations at the MCS, Hawaii, Kwajalein, Diego
Garcia and Ascension. All monitor stations except Hawaii and Falcon are also equipped with
ground antennas for communication with the GPS satellites. The monitoring stations passively
track all GPS satellites in view, collecting ranging data from each satellite. This information is
passed on to the MCS where, after extensive computations, the satellite ephemeris and clock
parameters are estimated and predicted. The MCS is responsible for tracking, monitoring and
managing the satellite constellation and updating navigational data messages.
10.2.3 GPS User Segment
The User Segment consists of a variety of military and civilian GPS receivers specifically
designed to receive, decode and process the satellite signals. They include stand-alone receiver
sets, as well as equipment that is integrated with or embedded into other systems. They serve a
variety of user applications including navigation, positioning, time transfer, surveying and
altitude reference.

10.3 Block Diagram of the Marine GPS Receiver
The navigator uses GPS signals for many systems like the Radar, VHF, ECDIS and so on.
This receiver shows the relative position of the ship because we already know that the ship’s
position is not compared with the reference position of earth stations on the surface of the earth.
The earth stations have fixed positions. Hence the GPS data that is taken from satellites shows
an error which needs correction. The marine GPS receiver consists of the following blocks:
1. Antenna
2. Receiver
3. Buffer amplifier
Figure 10.2 – Block Diagram of the GPS Receiver

Chapter 10
10.3.1 Antenna
The GPS uses a parabolic antenna for tracking the satellites in both longitudinal and
latitudinal directions; the entire assembly is installed in a small dome. Generally, this dome is
maintenance free and is also used for protection from dust, dirt and environmental effects.
• It utilises power from the receiver - up to 24 V DC and it depends on the maker and model.
• To measure the resistance of the antenna, use a digital multimeter in the resistance mode.
Connect one probe to the centre of the antenna connector and another probe to the outer
shell of the connector. The resistance of the antenna should be between 45 to 50 .
10.3.2 Receiver
The GPS receiver shows the following data and this data is transmitted to various other
systems onboard through the buffer, using the NMEA protocol.
• Latitude
• Longitude
• Time
• Date
These are basic data which is displayed in all makes and models. There are some models
which show some additional information like the zone, ship’s speed, etc.
The receiver measures the transmission time required for a satellite signal to reach the
receiver. Transit time is determined using code correlation techniques.
The actual measurement is a unique time shift for which the code sequence transmitted by
the satellite correlates with an identical code generated in the tracking receiver.
The receiver code is shifted until a maximum correlation between the two codes is achieved.
This time shift multiplied by the speed of light is the receiver’s measure of the range to the
satellite.
This measurement includes various propagation delays, as well as satellite and receiver
clock errors.
Since the measurement is not a true geometric range, it is known as a pseudo-range.
The receiver processes these pseudo-range measurements along with the received ephemeris
data (satellite orbit data) to determine the user’s three-dimensional position.

A minimum of four pseudo-range observations is required to mathematically solve for four

unknown receiver parameters (i.e., latitude, longitude, altitude, and clock offset).
If one of these parameters is known (for example, the altitude is fixed) then only three
satellite pseudo-range observations are required and thus only three satellites need to be tracked.
A GPS receiver measures distance from the satellite to a receiver using the travel time of
radio signals.
So, we require:
• Precise and synchronised clocks to measure the time difference
• The whereabouts of the satellites and
• any signal deterioration or bending due to atmospheric causes.
10.3.3 Buffer Amplifier
Since the driver is not capable of sending data to multiple devices on its own, the buffer
circuit is used to connect to multiple devices. The block diagram shows how the receiver sends
data to the buffer and then the buffer sends this data to other connected equipment A 24 V DC
supply connected to the buffer to drive the circuits.
10.4 GPS Errors and Their Classification
10.4.1 Receiver Dependent Errors

• Clock Error
• Noise Error
10.4.2 Satellite Dependent Errors
• Clock Offset
• Group Delays
10.4.3 Propagation Errors
• Ionosphere Delay
• Troposphere Delay
• Multipath delay

Chapter 10
10.5 Maintenance of the GPS
10.5.1 Battery
The data processing unit is provided with a built-in lithium battery to protect the RAM for
the data processing unit and the receiving control unit, crystal clock against power interruption.
The life of the lithium battery is about five years.
If a battery is being replaced, care should be taken to see that there are no broken connector
terminals. If the 3 V cell is not fitted properly then the settings will not change.
10.5.2 Sensitive Component
The PCB uses a lot of CMOS IC’s. When removing an IC from a PCB, care should be taken
not to break the leg of the IC and not to let static electricity from bare hands affect the PCB.
Use a well-grounded electrostatic discharge strap while working and keep PCBs in certified
anti-static packing.
10.5.3 Fuse
If a fuse blows, the reason should be determined and corrected. A fuse of the same size and
current rating should be used for replacement. A larger size and amperage fuse may cause
damage to the receiver unit.

10.6 Generic Guidelines for Troubleshooting
WARNING
Do not attempt to check or repair the interior of this equipment by if you are not
qualified, as doing so may cause a fire, an electric shock or a serious malfunctioning.
If any malfunctions are detected, contact the service center or an agent. However, here
are some guidelines for troubleshooting.
10.6.1 Power Is Not Supplied When the Power Switch Is Pressed

The power is not distributed from the inboard Supply the power from the distribution panel.
distribution panel.
The power is not supplied from the power supply unit Check if the wiring of the power unit is
(NBD-577C). correct.
Check if the output voltage of the power unit
is correct.
The supply voltage of power supply (NBD-577C) is out Replace the power unit.
of range. (DC19V to DC35V)
A DC input is not supplied to the connection box Check if the wiring is correct
(option).
The fuses in the connection box are blown out. Check if the wiring is correct and replace the
fuses.
The termination in the connection box is broken. Replace the connection box.
The power is not supplied to the connection box. Check the wiring and confirm that the
connection is correct
The IC in the AIS controller is broken. Replace the CQD-2983 circuit board.
The power module in the controller is broken. Replace the CBD-2983 circuit board.
The key switch is broken. Replace the switch panel (CDJ-2983).
10.6.2 The transponder software version is -.--.

The transponder power is not turned on. Check the voltage at the end of transponder
cable. Replace the transponder cable if required.
The transponder is not turned on. The IC which Replace the transponder.
supplies a power in the transponder is broken.

Chapter 10
10.6.3 There is no response after pressing a key on the operation panel.

The panel unit malfunctions. Replace the CDJ-2983 circuit board.
The DPU malfunctions. Replace the CDJ-2983 circuit board.
10.6.4 Some pixels are missing on the LCD.

The LCD malfunctions. Replace the LCD unit.
The control unit malfunctions. Replace the CDJ-2983 circuit board.
10.6.5 No alerting sound is generated.

The Buzzer has been turned off Turn on the buzzer
The buzzer malfunctions. Replace the CDJ-2983 circuit board.
The control unit malfunctions.
10.6.6 The Display does not come on.

The control unit is malfunctioning. Replace the CDJ-2983 circuit board.
The LCD is malfunctioning. Replace the LCD unit.
10.6.7 No AIS message is received.

The transponder is not turned on. Confirm whether the transponder
is turned on.
The whip antenna is damaged. Replace the whip antenna.
The following alert number appears: 003, 004, or 005. Replace the transponder.
The synthesizer in the receiving circuit is unlocked.

10.6.8 No AIS message is transmitted.

The following alert numbers appear. Replace the transponder.
001, 052, 53: Power circuit fault
001, 054: PA collector current abnormal
001, 055: PA temperature abnormal
001, 058: PA protection circuit operated
001, 060: TX synthesizer unlock operated
003, 004, 005: RX synthesizer unlock operated
001, 057: Antenna not connected Check if the antenna is connected.
Check the setting of the antenna selection
externally and internally.
001, 002: VSWR abnormal Check if the antenna is connected.
Ensure that there are no objects around the
antenna.
Replace the antenna and check for normal
transmission.
MMSI has been set “000000000” Set the MMSI correctly.
10.6.9 External sensor data (external GPS, gyro, and rate-of-turn) cannot be loaded.
The cable is not connected properly. Check the connection.
The polarity of the serial cable is incorrect. Check the polarity and connect it.
The interface between the sensor and connection Check the interface before connecting.
box is incorrect.
The sentence that the sensor generates is not Check the output command and the version.
supported by the AIS.
The sentence that the sensor generates does not Check the output sentence and sensor setting of
match the sentence setting of the controller. the JHS-183.
The sensor data flag has been set to “invalid”. Check if the sensor is working correctly.
The sensor (GPS, gyro, rate-of-turn indicator) Replace the sensor.
malfunctions.
The control unit malfunctions. Replace the CDJ-2983 circuit board.

Chapter 10
10.6.10 Internal GPS data cannot be loaded.

Internal malfunction Execute TEST2 of self-diagnosis. If the result is “NG”, replace the
transponder.
10.6.11 There is a difference between internal GPS data and external GPS data.
The external GPS data is abnormal. Confirm the external GPS setting.
If there is any failure, replace the external GPS.
The internal GPS data is abnormal. Replace the transponder.
10.6.12 Heading data is mismatched.

External senor data is abnormal. Confirm the external sensor setting. If there is any failure,
replace the external sensor.
The value of the NSK unit is abnormal. Re-set the initial value of the NSK unit. If the setting is not
available, check the dip switch setting. Replace the NSK
unit if necessary.
10.6.13 There is a difference between Nav status and actual Nav status.
Nav status is set to “at anchor”, “moored” or “aground” Change the Nav status to another.
and the SOG is over 3kn. The condition that the Nav
status is set by “under way sailing” and the SOG is
under 1kn is continued for 2 hours or more.

10.7 Troubleshooting the GPS - Type JMR 7500
10.7.1 The power does not turn on when the power switch is pressed.
Power is not being supplied by the ship’s junction box. Check the cabling from the junction box.
Power is not being supplied by the power supply Check the power supply unit cabling.
equipment (option).
The fuse connected to the power cable has blown. If there are no problems in the cabling,
replace the fuse.
The power supply equipment (optional) fuse has If there are no problems in the cabling,
blown. replace the fuse.
The display unit switch is broken. Consult the manufacturer or an affiliate.
10.7.2 The LCD display does not display anything.

The LCD display is broken. Consult with JRC or an affiliate.
10.7.3 The alarm is not activated

The buzzer is defective Consult with JRC or an affiliate.
The alert sound is turned off. Refer to the manual for setting the alert sound.
10.7.4 The click does not sound.

The key press sound is turned off. Refer to the manual for setting the Click sound.
10.7.5 There is no reception (from the sensor)

The sensor connection cable is cut. Check the connection cable.
The sensor is defective Contact the manufacturer or an affiliate.

Chapter 10
10.7.6 There is no reception (from external devices)

The polarity of the serial cable is incorrect. Check the polarity of the cable.
The interface does not match. Check the interface.
An unsupported command has been entered. Check the entered commands and version.
10.7.7 There is no transmission (to external devices)

Output settings have not been configured. Refer to the manual
The configured channel is incorrect. Refer to the manual
The DISP-DPU or connector board is defective. Contact the manufacturer or an affiliate.

Chapter 11
Differential Global Positioning System
11.1 Introduction
A satellite navigation system can provide much higher accuracy as compared to any other
technology for long and medium-range navigation systems. The Differential Global Positioning
System (DGPS) was developed to meet the requirement of position and distance-measuring
applications that require higher accuracies than a standalone GPS could deliver. The DGPS
involves the use of a ground station’s reference receivers at a known location to measure the
systematic GPS errors and, by taking advantage of the spatial correlation of the errors, the errors
can then be removed from the measurement taken by moving or remote receivers located in the
same general vicinity.
11.2 The DGPS Concept
A typical DGPS architecture is shown in Figure 11.1. The system consists of a Ground
station reference receiver located at a known location that has been previously surveyed, and
one or many more DGPS user receivers. The receiver antenna, differential correction
processing system, and data link equipment are collectively called the “Ground Station”. Both
the DGPS user receiver and the ground station receiver antenna data can be collected and stored
for later processing, or sent to the desired location in real time, via the data link. The DGPS is
based on the principle that receivers in the same vicinity will simultaneously experience
common errors on a particular satellite ranging signal. In general, the mobile receivers use
measurements from the ground station reference receiver to remove the common errors. In
order to accomplish this, the DGPS user’s receiver must simultaneously use a subset or the
same set of satellites as the reference station. The DGPS positioning equations are formulated
so that the common errors cancel.

Chapter 11
Satellite 1 Satellite 2 Satellite 3
Distance 2 Satellite 4
Distance 3
Distance 1 Distance 4
DGPS Receiver Onboard

GPS Antenna
Corrections
DGPS
Reference Data Link
Receiver
DGPS Ground Station
Figure 11.1 – DGPS Architecture

The common errors include signal path delays through the atmosphere, satellite clock and
ephemeris errors; as the receiver uses the satellite’s location in position calculations, an
ephemeris error, a difference between the expected and actual orbital position of a GPS satellite,
reduces user accuracy. The extent of influence is decided by the precision of the broadcast
ephemeris from the control station upload.
The common satellite errors are residual system errors that are normally present in the PVT
(Position, Velocity, and Time) solution. Errors that are unique to each receiver, such as receiver
measurement noise and multipath, cannot be removed without additional recursive processing
(by the reference receiver, user receiver, or both) to provide an averaged, smoothed, or filtered
solution.
DGPS techniques are employed depending on the accuracy desired, where the data
processing is to be performed, and whether real-time results are required. If real-time results
are required then a data link is also required.

11.3 DGPS Implementation Types
The DGPS consists of two subunits namely the reference receiver and the data link. The
reference receiver is used for differential measurements and equations while the data link is
used to update the rate of correction to DGPS users.
11.3.1 Ranging Code Differential GPS
The ranging-code differential technique uses the pseudo range measurements of the receiver
station (RS) to calculate pseudo range or position corrections for the user receiver. The RS
calculates pseudo range corrections for each visible satellite by subtracting the “true” range
determined by the surveyed position and the known orbit parameters from the measured pseudo
range. The DGPS user receiver then selects the appropriate correction for each satellite that it
is tracking, and subtracts the correction from the pseudo range that it has measured. The mobile
receiver must only use those satellites for which corrections have been received.
If the receiver station provides position corrections rather than pseudo range corrections, the
corrections are simply determined by subtracting the measured position from the surveyed
position. The advantage of using position corrections is obviously the simplicity of the
calculations. The disadvantage is that the reference receiver and the user receiver must use the
exact same set of satellites.
11.3.2 Carrier Phase Differential GPS
The carrier-phase measurement technique uses the difference between the carrier phases
measured at the ground station reference receiver and the DGPS user receiver. A double-
differencing technique is used to remove the satellite and receiver clock errors. The first
difference is the difference between the phase measurement at the DGPS user receiver and the
ground station reference receiver for a single satellite. This eliminates the satellite clock error
which is common to both measurements. This process is then repeated for a second satellite.
A second difference is then formed by subtracting the first difference for the first satellite
from the first difference for the second satellite. This eliminates both receiver clock errors
which are common to the first difference equations. This process is repeated for two pairs of
satellites resulting in three double-differenced measurements that can be solved for the
difference between the reference station and user receiver locations. This is inherently a relative
positioning technique; therefore, the user receiver must know the reference station location to
determine its absolute position.

Chapter 11
11.3.3 DGPS Data Link Implementation

The DGPS can also be implemented in several different ways depending on the type of data
link used. The simplest way is no data link at all. For non-real-time applications, the
measurements can be stored in the receiver or on suitable media and processed at a later time.
In most cases to achieve surveying accuracies, the data must be post-processed using precise
ephemeris data that is only available after the survey data has been collected.
Differential corrections or measurements can be up-linked in real-time from the reference
station to the DGPS users. This is the most common technique where a large number of users
must be served in real-time. differential corrections can be transmitted to the DGPS user at
different frequencies. With the exception of satellite data links there is generally a trade-off
between the range of the system and the update rate of the corrections. The following table
lists a number of frequency bands, the range, and the rate at which the corrections could be
updated using the standard format.
Frequency Range (Km) Updated Rate (sec)
LF (30-300 kHz) >700 <20
MF (300KHz - 3 MHz) <500 5-10
HF (3 MHz - 25 MHz) <200 5
VHF (30 MHz - 300 MHz) <100 <5
L Band (1 GHz - 2 GHz) Line of Sight Few seconds
Table 11.1 – DGPS Data link frequencies

11.3.4 Wide Area DGPS
The accuracy of a DGPS solution developed using a single receiver station will degrade with
the distance from the receiver station’s site. This is due to the increasing difference between the
reference and the user receiver ephemeris, ionospheric, and tropospheric errors. They usually
employ a network of reference receivers that are coordinated to provide DGPS data that is valid
over a wide coverage area. Such systems typically are designed to broadcast the DGPS data via
a satellite, although a network of ground transmission sites is also feasible. A user receiver
typically must employ special algorithms to derive the ionospheric and tropospheric corrections
that are appropriate for its location from the observations taken at the various reference sites.

11.4 DGPS Segments Architecture
Space Segment
Satellite 1 Satellite 2 Satellite 3
Satellite 4
DGPS Receiver Onboard

GPS Antenna
User Segment
DGPS
Reference Data Link
Receiver
DGPS Ground Station
Control Segment
Figure 11.2 – DGPS Segment Architecture

11.4.1 DGPS Space Segment
The DGPS works on the principle of the GPS segment architecture and the space segment
consists of 24 operational satellites. The satellite is placed in 6 orbital planes with 4 operational
satellites in each plane. The satellite orbital planes have an inclination, relative to the equator
of 55° and the orbital height is of nearly 20,000 Km. The satellites complete an orbit in
approximately 12 hours. The relative phasing of satellites from one orbital plane to the next is
40°. The satellites are positioned such that a minimum of 4 satellites are observable by a user
anywhere on the earth and each satellite will be observable for approximately 5 hours at a time.
The space segment consists of a constellation of GPS satellites in semi-synchronous orbits
around the earth. Each satellite broadcasts radio-frequency ranging codes and a navigation data
message.
Chapter 11
11.4.2 DGPS Control Segment

The DGPS Control Segment uses the GPS Control Segment for the operation and it consists
of one Ground station with reference antenna installed at surveyed location on land and it
directly communicates with the GPS satellites. Ground stations passively track all GPS
satellites in view, collecting ranging data from each satellite. DGPS users send data to nearby
Ground stations with different frequency ranges for the correction of location and time.
Received data from the DGPS user is processed with the Data link unit and compared with
reference position data and calculates error based on algorithm and the correction data is sent
to DGPS users on different frequency ranges.
11.4.3 GPS User Segment
The user segment consists of a variety of military and civilian GPS receivers specifically
designed to receive, decode and process the satellite signals. They include stand-alone receiver
sets, as well as equipment that is integrated with or embedded into other systems. DGPS
receivers take data from GPS satellites and send the same data to the Ground station. Then after
processing the data, the correction data is sent back to the DGPS receiver and displayed on the
display unit. They serve a variety of user applications including navigation, positioning, time
transfer, surveying and attitude reference.
11.5 Block Diagram of the DGPS Receiver
Marine vessels use two sets of DGPS systems, one is used for navigation purposes and the
other one kept in the standby mode or used alternatively. The DGPS receiver consists of the
following sub units:
• DGPS antenna
• DGPS receiver
• Power supply unit
• Selector switch
• Buffer unit

1. GMDSS Console
Junction Junction Buffer 2. S Band Radar
Box Box Selector Output 3. X Band Radar
Switch 4. AIS
5. VDR
DGPS 1 DGPS 2 NMEA 6. Gyro Compass
Receiver Receiver Protocol 7. Navtex
8. Clock
Power 24V DC
Supply
Unit
24V DC 110 V / 220 V AC
Figure 11.3 – Block Diagram of DGPS Receiver

11.5.1 DGPS Antenna
The DGPS uses the parabolic antenna for tracking satellites in both longitudinal and latitude
direction, all assembly installed in small size dome. Generally, this dome is maintenance-free
and is also used for protection from the environment’s dust, dirt and other effects.
• It draws its power from the receiver (up to 24 V DC) and it depends on the maker and model.
• To measure the resistance of the antenna used, set the DMM in mode and connect the
probe to the centre of the antenna connector and the other probe to the outer shell of the
connector. The resistance of the antenna should be between 45 to 50 .
11.5.2 DGPS Receiver
The DGPS receiver displays the following data and this data is transmitted to various other
onboard equipment through buffers using the NMEA protocol.
• Latitude
• Longitude
• Time
• Date

Chapter 11
The above is basic data which is shown in all types of makes and models. There are some
models which show additional information like zone, ship speed, etc.
11.5.3 Power Supply Unit
DGPS display and receiver units work on 24 V DC supplies. The ship has 110 / 220 V AC
supply and this supply is converted into 24 V DC; it also is connected to an alternate power
source from the radio battery.
11.5.4 Selector Switch
Merchant ships that have having two DGPS units continue to feed data to other navigational
equipment as per the block diagram. As the other DGPS unit is kept in the standby mode for
emergency purposes, it is the duty of the Navigational Operator to change over the DGPS unit
as per the running hours calculated by the operator. This change-over takes place with the help
of a selector switch.
11.5.5 Buffer Unit
A buffer is used in navigational communication equipment because the driver alone is not
capable of sending data to multiple devices and hence uses a buffer circuit to run or connect
multiple devices.
As per the block diagram of the DGPS receiver, the receiver sends data to the buffer and the
buffer sends data to a number of connected systems. A 24 V DC supply is connected to the
buffer to drive the other circuit. The communication protocol is based on the NMEA protocol,
which is a two-wired serial data transfer protocol.
11.6 Sources of DGPS Communication Error
The following noise sources affect the performance of the DGPS:

• Ionosphere propagation delay
• Tropospheric propagation delay
• Satellite clock drift

• Multipaths
• Receiver noise

11.6.1 Space Segment - Satellite Clock Error

This error occurs when the ground station, DGPS user and the satellite use different clock
(transmission) rate for data transfer. For more practical purposes this error is completely
compensated as long as the ground station, DGPS user and satellite use the same clock
correction data.
11.6.2 Control Segment - Propagation Error (Ionosphere and Troposphere)
DGPS users are near the ground stations, the respective signal paths to the satellite are close
enough together that the compensation is almost complete. As the DGPS user to ground stations
distance is increased, the different ionospheric and tropospheric paths to the satellites can be
far enough. Thus, as the distance between the ground stations and the DGPS user receiver
increases, the effectiveness of the atmospheric delay corrections decreases.
11.6.3 User Segment - Receiver Noise
The DGPS receiver consists of different modules and each module has some characteristics.
These characteristics are affected by the environmental effect and source point. We know that
thunderstorms create light and loud noises that will affect the electronics device.
11.6.4 Multipath Error
We all know that radio waves propagate through different media like ground, sky and line
of sight. If a transmitter sends a signal at time T0sec the same signal reaches the receiver at
T0+1 sec in one medium and at T0 +2 sec in another medium. If the receiver processes both the
signals then a multipath error occurs and generates noise. The above error normally occurs
when the sensitivity of the receiver antenna is too low or the tuning circuit has some trouble.
11.7 Maintenance of the GPS
11.7.1 Battery
The data processing unit is provided with a built-in lithium battery to protect the RAM for
the data processing unit and the receiving control unit is provided with a crystal clock against
power interruption. The life of the lithium battery is about five years.
Once the battery is removed, please insert the same battery and make sure that there are no
broken connector terminals. If the 3V battery is properly connected then the setting won’t
change.

Chapter 11
11.7.2 Sensitive Components

The PCB uses a lot of CMOS IC’s. If you are going to remove an IC from a PCB, be careful
not to break the leg of the IC and not to cause static electricity to the PCB.
11.7.3 Fuses
If a fuse blows, the reason must be found and corrected. The defective fuse must then be
replaced with one of the same current rating and the same size. Using a higher-ampere fuse
may cause damage to the receiver unit.

Chapter 12
Anemometer
12.1 Introduction
A good navigational officer and master always takes note of weather conditions like sea
swell, wind speed, wind direction, etc. Navigational officers predict weather changes by noting
the speed and direction of the wind because a change in the speed of wind directly brings about
a climate change. The navigational officer can safely divert the ship when he predicts a storm
or any other environment changes. Ships are fitted with a wind indicator / anemometer system
to aid in safe navigation.
12.2 Block Diagram of a Wind Indicator
Transmitter
Speed Direction
Receiver
Speed Direction
Figure 12.1 – Block Diagram of a Wind Indicator

The anemometer is made up of a transmitter and a receiver. The unit measures the wind
direction and relative wind speed. They are connected with cables. The transmitter sends out
the wind direction and speed to the receiver. The receiver, receiving the signals from the
transmitter, indicates the wind direction and wind speed value.
Calculation to obtain true wind direction and speed (with respect to the ground) from the
relative values are generally done using the calculation board.

Chapter 12
Figure 12.2 The Anemometer Transmitter and Analog Receiver
Figure 12.3 Another Modern Variant of the Anemometer
12.3 Operation
12.3.1 Wind Speed

It basically consists of a tachogenerator. So, as the propeller for the transmitter is rotated by
the wind and it causes the internal small generator to turn. It is obvious that the number of
revolutions of the generator is proportional to the resultant electromotive force and the wind
speed is proportional to the number of revolutions of the propeller.
This means that the electromotive force created is proportional to the velocity of the wind.
Accordingly, actual winds speeds can be indicated if it is calibrated and it depends on the
maker’s dial / digital display corresponding to the different speed (which is nothing but a simple
DC voltmeter).

Anemometer
Wind Speed
Receiver
Tachogenerator
A B A B
Figure 12.4 – Wind Speed Measurement

12.3.2 Wind Direction
An AC synchro is used for measuring the wind direction. It utilizes the property of the
synchro that can convert the mechanical changes in the angles into a corresponding electrical
signal for the telemetric indication of the measured values.
The synchro is composed of a single-phase primary winding in the rotor and a three-phase
secondary winding in the stator.
When the shaft of the synchro at the transmitter’s side is aligned with the shaft of the synchro
on the receiver’s side, the value of voltage induced by the synchro on the transmitter side is
equal to the voltage to be induced in the one at the receiver side (the vectorial sum is zero).
Hence no current is allowed to flow in the secondary winding (refer Figure 12.5). Therefore,
no torque is created in this case.

Chapter 12
S2 S2
V V
V V V V
2 2 2 2
S3 Stator S1 S3 Stator S1
R1 R1
Rotor Rotor
R2 R2
Figure 12.5 – The Wind Direction Measurement Circuit When Both are Aligned
If the shaft of the synchro at the transmitter’s side is turned in a direction that is different
from the shaft of the synchro at the receiver’s side, then a voltage is obviously induced at the
former is not equal to the voltage induced in the latter hence current is allowed to flow in the
secondary winding (Refer Figure 12.6.). In short, the vectors shift and a resultant emf is noticed.
As a result, a strong rotating force is created in the receiver due to such current flowing in
the secondary winding, creating a torque which acts to bring its shaft to the same direction and
stop at the point where it comes to align with the shaft of the transmitter. Through the follow
up motion of the synchro at the receiver side to that of the one at that transmitter side, both the
transmitter and receiver align with each other.

Anemometer
S2 S2
3 V
2
3V
0V 2
Stator Stator
S3 S1 S3 S1
300 300
R1 R1
Rotor Rotor
R2 R2
Figure 12.6 – The Wind Direction Measurement Circuit When Current is Flowing
12.4 Maintenance
Ball bearings are used inside the rotary part of the transmitter and receiver. Generally, these
are sealed bearings. They must be carefully handled while being disassembled.
The wind direction mechanism consists of a small metal brush which is to be carefully
handled or else it will break. Six monthly inspections are to be carried out. Be careful with the
small parts that are used in this unit.
12.5.1 Wind Speed
12.5.1.1 There is No Indication
a. There is a disconnection at either the generator side or at the meter’s coil.
b. There is a break in the cable.

Chapter 12
12.5.1.2 The Indication is Erratic

a. There is a faulty contact in the connector.
b. A cable may be damaged
12.5.1.3 Unstable Indication
a. There is a faulty contact with the slip ring in the transmitter
b. There are metal particles in the wind speed indicator
12.5.1.4 The Indication is Excessively Low
a. The bearing for the generator is faulty
12.5.2 Wind Direction
12.5.2.1 The Indicator Does Not Work
a. Electrical power is not supplied to the indicator
b. The power switch is defective
c. There is a faulty contact in the connector
12.5.2.2 There is a Mismatch in Wind Direction
a. The axis matching in the installation of the transmitter is faulty.
b. There is an erroneous wiring for the synchro circuit (phases are not matched).
c. There is a disconnection or short circuit in the cable.
d. There is a loose coupling connecting the rotary shaft for the synchro
12.5.2.3 The Indicator is Incapable of Following the Wind Direction
a. There is a short circuit in the cable
b. There is a fault in the synchro itself
12.5.2.4 There is an abnormal sound heard from the receiver
a. There could be a short circuit in the cable or winding perhaps.

Anemometer
12.5.3 Anemoscope
CAUTION!
The touch screen can be easily damaged with an external shock.
Please reboot the system after switching it on / off when there is a system error.
12.5.3.1 There is Nothing on The Screen
The power supply is off. Check if power supply switch is off or if the power cable is defective. Reboot
it by switching on-off after checking the communication cable.
12.5.3.2 An Image on the Screen Remains Frozen

The communication cable is not connected. Reboot it with by switching it on-off after checking
the communication cable connection.
There is an error signal indicated on the screen. Reboot it by switching it on-off.
12.5.4 The Electric Horn Is Not Functioning

The electric horn cable is not connected with the terminal block. Check the cable condition.
Check if the DC 24 V is available on the back of the alarm panel Request manufacturer to repair the
of the electric horn’s connection terminal block alarm panel if the issue is not found
12.5.5 The System is Not Working due to an Error on The Screen

System error Reboot it by powering it on-off.
System error Replace it as per the instruction of next page’s run file after receiving the
run file from the manufacturer, in case it does not work even after trying for
a reboot sequence.
12.5.6 The Buzzer or the Buzzer Stop Switch Is Not Working
Buzzer or buzzer stop switch trouble. Request the manufacturer to repair it.
12.5.7 There is Partial or No Illumination

The light bulb is defective / the bulb is not Replace / lock the bulb in place
fitted properly

Chapter 12
12.5.8 There is a Faint Sound from the Reflector, the RPM Has Reduced, The Sound is
Abnormal
The power supply is lower than the rated voltage Make sure the right voltage is applied
12.5.9 Life of the Light Bulb is Short

Power supply higher than rated voltage Make sure the right voltage is applied
12.5.10 The Light Bulb is Overheating / Transformer is Damaged

Light bulb is using more than the rated Make sure the right voltage is applied
voltage
12.5.11 There is no rotation

There is a problem with the motor Contact the manufacturer
12.5.12 The Sound Tone is Higher Than the Standard One

The Supply voltage is higher than the rated voltage Make sure the right voltage is applied
12.5.13 There are 2 Kinds of Sounds

The signal sound line is short circuited Check the cable connection
There is a problem with the sound tone selection switch Contact the manufacturer
12.5.14 There is No Sound

There is a problem with the horn Check the cable connection
There is no power supply Check the power supply
The wiring is wrong Contact the manufacturer

Chapter 13
Weather Facsimile
13.1 Introduction
The history behind it is that pictures were sent from one source to another with the help of
a high frequency signal; it was also known as “Radio Photo” by some. Richard Rager, an
electrical engineer working at the Radio Corporation of America invented a method for sending
photographs through radio transmission. He called his system the wireless photogram and later
it was adopted to be used in the newer telephone wires. In the 1960’s, the United States Army
transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test site
using the Courier satellite.
A decade after the introduction of Radio fax, the National Weather Service (NWS) began
transmitting weather maps using the Radio fax technology. The NWS named this new service
Weatherwax. The cover of the regular NOAA publication on frequencies and schedules reads
“Worldwide Marine Radio Facsimile Broadcast Schedules”.
Facsimile machines were used in the 1950’s to transmit weather charts across the United
States via land-lines first and then internationally via HF radio. Radio transmission of weather
charts provides an enormous amount of flexibility to marine and aviation users for they now
have the latest weather information and forecast at their fingertips to use in the planning of
voyages. Radiofax relies on the facsimile where printed information is scanned line by line and
encoded into an electrical signal which can then be transmitted via physical lines or radio waves
to remote locations. Since the amount of information transmitted per unit time is directly
proportional to the bandwidth available, the speed at which a weather chart can be transmitted
will vary depending on the quality of the media used for the transmission.
13.2 Block Diagram
The weather facsimile system consists of the following sub modules:

• Whip Antenna
• Weather facsimile receiver
• Matching box

Chapter 13
13.2.1 Whip Antenna

It consists of a straight flexible wire or rod. The bottom end of the whip is connected to the
radio receiver. The antenna is designed to be flexible so that it does not break easily and the
name is derived from the whip-like motion that it exhibits when it is disturbed. The length of
the whip antenna is determined by the wavelength (of the radio waves). The most common type
is the quarter wave whip, which is approximately one quarter of a wavelength long. The whip
antenna is the most common type of monopole antenna used in the higher frequencies namely
the HF, VHf and UHF radio bands.
Figure 13.1 – A Whip Antenna

Weather Facsimile
Figure 13.2 – Block Diagram of the Weather Facsimile

13.2.2 Weather Facsimile Receiver
The Weather facsimile receiver prints weather images on paper as per the selected weather
station’s channel. It operates in the following modes:
• Automatic reception
• Manual reception
• Timer reception

Chapter 13
Figure 13.3 – Weather Facsimile Receiver

13.2.3 Automatic Reception
In the automatic mode, once the facsimile station from which to receive is chosen, the system
goes into standby to await the start signal from the facsimile station. There is also an alternate
option - enter the frequency into the system and auto search the station.
The AUTO START SEARCHING FRAME is displayed, and recording starts when the auto
start signal is received. The RCD LED is illuminated while receiving the message. Recording
stops automatically when the auto stop signal is received. The recording can also be stopped
manually by pressing the RCD key.
13.2.4 Manual Reception
In the manual reception mode, a facsimile broadcast already in progress may be received. It
may also be received from a facsimile station that does not use start and stop signals
13.2.5 Timer Reception
Most facsimile stations transmit facsimiles in accordance with a schedule issued by a
relative meteorological observatory (one can find facsimile schedules in the publication
“Meteorological Facsimile Broadcasts,” available through meteorological observatory bodies).
If one wishes to receive a certain facsimile broadcast on a regular basis, the timer mode will
virtually allow “hands-off” automatic operation.

Weather Facsimile
Figure 13.4 – Weather Report

The weather facsimile system uses the ship’s 110 / 220 V ac supply for operation. The
system also has a back-up power supply of 24 V DC for its emergency mode of operation.
13.2.7 Matching Box
If the antenna is placed more than 9 meters from the receiver unit then it uses a matching
box for maximum power transfer. It is because an antenna that is placed more than 9 metres
from the receiver results in additional cable impedance added on the antenna side; the mismatch
of impedance that occurs, causes more power losses. The matching box matches both the input
and the output impedance in such a way that maximum power should be transferred.
13.3 Maintenance
13.3.1 Backup Battery

The manganese lithium battery inside the main unit backs-up data when the power is turned
off. The life of the battery is about five years. Have a qualified engineer replace the battery
before its expected expiry, to ensure that important data will not be lost.
13.3.2 Lubrication
Lubricate the paper feed gears with 1-2 drops of machine oil or clock oil every 2-3 months.
The gears may be accessed by opening the paper access lid.

Chapter 13
13.3.3 Cleaning
Dust and dirt may be removed from the main unit with a soft cloth. Do not use chemical-
based cleaners to clean the cabinet or the control panel, as they can remove the paint and other
markings.
Clean the thermal head with a cotton cleaner (supplied) every month. Ethyl alcohol may be
used to remove stubborn foreign material. Do not use any other liquid to clean the thermal head.
13.3.4 Replacement of the Recording Paper
When the roll of paper is nearly empty the message ‘PAPER OUT!!’ appears on the screen.
When this happens, replace the paper as shown in the manual.
Causes Remedy
No power source 1. The breaker is switched off
2. There is a faulty cable
Paper not coming out 1. The paper feed button not working
when the paper feed 2. The paper feed mechanism is stuck
switch is pressed
3. The paper sensing head is damaged
There is no reception 1. The station is not selected (look at the frequency and time of
from the station station)
2. There is a station time mismatch
3. The antenna cable may be broken
4. The antenna may be faulty

13.4.1 Troubleshooting the Weather Facsimile JAX-9B
If the JAX-9B has a failure, it should be diagnosed by an authorized service engineer to
replace any defective part. However, the user can carry out some troubleshooting as indicated
below:
13.4.1.1 The Paper Feed and Recording Are Not Happening

The recording paper is tilted or slackened Align the recording paper properly.
and deviated from the paper sensor.

Weather Facsimile

Unlocked top cover. (Mechanism part with Push down the top cover firmly until it is locked with a
the thermal head) click.
The paper sensor (left below the rubber Clean the paper sensor carefully.
roller) is contaminated with paper dust.
13.4.1.2 Recording Does Not Start.

The parameter SCAN SPEED is erroneous. Adjust the SCAN SPEED.
The reception is not good. Change the frequency to a good receiving condition.
The registering operation of a timer Press the [PROG] switch. The timer program mode is
program has not been completed. finished.
The display of the LCD is still in a program
mode.
13.4.1.3 Printing Becomes Blurred or Fails

The thermal head is not cleaned. Clean the thermal head.
13.4.1.4 The Timer Program Receiving Does Not Start

"Clock Error!!" is displayed when JAX-9B Set the correct time.
is powered on. Replace the backup battery.
The internal clock is set with an in correct Set the correct time.
time.
The POWER switch is switched over from Set the POWER switch to ON before setting it to
OFF to TIMER. TIMER.
The program is corrupted. Check the timer program list by printing.
Correct the program.
The receiving start time is overlapped for Check the "ERROR" message in the printed timer’s
two or more programs. program list.
Correct the program with "NG" message
13.4.1.5 The [MANU] Switch Input Is Not Accepted

The registering operation of a timer program has not Press the [PROG] switch.
been completed. The timer program mode is finished.
The display of the LCD is still in a program mode.

Chapter 13
13.4.1.6 The [FEED] Switch Input Is Not Accepted

Time is indicated on the LCD. Press the [CLK] switch.
Check to see if the timer mode is finished.
13.4.1.7 The [CLOCK] Switch Input Is Not Accepted

The registering operation of a timer Press the [PROG] switch.
program has not been completed. Check to see if the timer program mode is finished.
The display of the LCD is still in a
program mode.
13.4.1.8 The [PROG] Switch Input Is Not Accepted

Time is indicated on the LCD. Press the [CLK] switch.
The timer mode is finished.

Chapter 14
Navigation and Signal Lights
14.1 Mandatory Requirements
(a) The navigation lights must be connected directly or through a transformer to the main or
emergency switchboard i.e., no switches are to be in between the source and the dedicated
distribution board. The distribution board must be easily accessible to the officer of the
watch.
(b) The masthead, side and stern lights shall be connected separately to the above
distribution board which is reserved for this purpose.
(c) Each light shall be controlled and protected in each insulated pole by a switch and fuses
or by a circuit breaker mounted on the above distribution board (in case of failure of the
ship’s mains, the double pole switch may be changed over to an emergency source of
supply).
(d) The bulb shall provide a uniform intensity output as mentioned in Table 20.7 below -
hence a cage winding is used.
(e) Each light shall be provided by an automatic indicator which gives an audible and / or
visual warning in the event of an extinction of the light. If an audio device alone is used,
it shall be connected to a separate source of supply – e.g., a battery. If a visual signal is
used, which is in series with the light, means must be provided to prevent the extinction
of the light owing to the failure of the visual signal.
(f) The visual device must be so connected that its failure does not extinguish the navigation
light circuit.
(g) Provision shall be made on the bridge for such navigational lights to be transferred to an
alternative circuit.

Chapter 14
Intensity Corresponding Visible Range

Lamp
(Candelas) (Nautical Miles)
Masthead Lamp 94 6
Side Lamp 12 3
Stern Lamp 12 3
Low Lamp 12 3
Other Navigation Lights 12 3
Ship at Anchorage
4.3 2
less than 50 metres long
Table 14.1 – Intensity Requirements of Lamps

The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and National Authorities prescribe the
number, position and power rating of navigation lights aboard ships. By far the most common
arrangement is to have five specially designed navigation ‘running’ lights referred to as Fore
mast, Main mast (or Aft mast), Port, Starboard and Stern. Two anchor lights fitted forward and
aft, may also be controlled from the Navigation Light Panel.
The sidelights are red for port and green for starboard while the other lights are white.
Special incandescent filament lamps are used each with a power rating of 65W, but 60W and
40W ratings are permitted in some cases. The following formula will help to calculate the
minimum permissible intensity of navigation lights:
Luminous Intensity I = 3.43 x 106 x T x D2 x K-D;
Where T = 2 x 10-7 lux; D is the visible range in nautical miles; K is the atmospheric
transmissivity constant at a value of 0.8 corresponding to an approximate meteorological
visibility of about 13 nautical miles.
Due to the essential safety requirement for navigation lights, it is becoming a common
practice to have two fittings at each position, or two lamps and lamp-holders within a special
dual fitting. Each light is separately supplied, switched, fused and monitored from a Navigation
Light Indicator Panel in the wheelhouse. The electric power is provided usually at 220 V AC
with a ‘main’ supply fed from the section of the main switchboard that is meant for the essential
services. An ‘alternative’ or ‘stand by’ power supply is fed from the emergency switchboard.
A changeover switch on the Navigation Light Panel is used to select the main or standby power
supply. The Navigation Light Indicator Panel has indicator lamps and an audible alarm to warn
of any lamp or lamp-circuit failure.

14.2 Operation
Each lamp-circuit has an alarm relay which monitors the lamp’s current. The relay may be
electromagnetic or electronic. A basic double navigation light’s schematic circuit with
alternative power supplies is shown in Figure 14.1. A similar circuit is depicted in Figure 14.2.
Obviously, the light fittings are in exposed positions, so during maintenance checks, one should
concentrate on water-tightness and on the condition of the supply cable.
Buzzer
Alarm Supply Fore

Indicator Mast
Main Supply
Alarm Relay Coil Fuses

Emergency
Supply Lamp Change Over
Switch
Supply
To other Navigation Light Circuits
Change-over
Switch
Figure 14.1 – A Basic Double Navigation Light Circuit (Energised)
Audio Alarm
(Buzzer)
Double Pole Alarm Supply

N/C Contact
Supply Change-over Switch of Relay (open)
Indicator Lamp
Main Supply
Relay Backup Resistor
Fuses Navigation
Emergency Supply Light
Figure 14.2 – Alternative Navigation Light Circuit (Energised)

Note: Dimmers are not permitted to be incorporated with navigation lights’ circuits

Chapter 14
Referring to Figure 14.2, when the double pole switch is closed the navigation light is
illuminated. Current in the relay circuit causes the relay coil to energise, which pulls the NC
(normally closed) contact open so that the audio alarm (buzzer) circuit is now open. Only a low
voltage lamp is needed for the indicating lamp. This ensures a small voltage drop across that
part of the circuit. Keeping regulatory requirements in mind, if the indicating lamp fails, the
circuit is completed through the back-up resistor, so the navigation light does not fail.
In the event of a short circuit, the dedicated fuses will rupture and thus isolate the defective
lamp. So, if the navigation light fails, or if a fuse blows, the current in the circuit ceases and the
relay is de-energised. The NC contact springs back to activate the buzzer circuit. In case of
failure of the ship’s mains, the double pole switch may be changed over to emergency supply.
A similar circuit is depicted in Figure 14.3. The recommended caged filament lamp is also
shown. Caged filaments last longer as they can withstand shock and vibration. Now various
signal lights with colours of red, green, white and blue are arranged on the signal mast. These
lights are switched-on to provide a combination to signal states relating to various international
and national regulations. Pilotage requirements, health, dangerous cargo condition, etc., are
signalled with these lights. White Morse code flashing lights may also be fitted on the signal
mast.
The NUC (Not Under Command) state is signalled using up to two all-round red lights
(depending on the length of the vessel), vertically mounted and at least 2 metres apart. Such
important lights are fed from the 24 V DC emergency supply system but some ships may also
have an additional NUC light-pair fed from the 220 V AC emergency power supply.
Lights and signals are to be exhibited appropriately to other ships to indicate whether the
vessel is under way, at anchor, not under command or even aground. The required lights are to
be shown from sunset to sunrise and during bad visibility.
Note:
A ship is ‘Under Way’ when she has no ropes running ashore or to the buoy, nor is she at
anchor or aground.
A ship is ‘Not Under Command’ generally when either the propeller or the rudder is not
functioning satisfactorily.

Main Standby
Supply Supply
Supply Change-over Switch
Lamp On/Off
Supply for Alarms
Fuses
Indicator
lamp
Audible
Alarm
Relay Circuit
Caged Filament Lamp
Lamp 1 Lamp 2
Figure 14.3 – A Navigation Light Circuit (De-energised)
14.3 Modern LED-based Navigation Lights
Each light designed for use in vessels even over 50 metres, incorporates a microprocessor
which facilitates dimming to meet operational requirements and a health check or heart-beat
monitoring function. The circuit can monitor the light’s performance and activates an alert
when the optical performance for high visibility is compromised or the unit fails to facilitate
planned or critical maintenance.
Each light is designed to be both robust and compact, with a mounting base that allows easy
replacement of the LED and lens or the whole unit, if it is required to do so. The lights are
designed to work with both AC and DC supplies, are sealed with IP 67 Ingress Protection
standards and meet stringent electromagnetic compatibility requirements.
The sidelights have been designed to meet the requirements of reducing from full intensity
to zero within 30 of the required angular rotation to avoid overlapping of signals.

Chapter 14
14.3.1 LED Navigation Light Panel

The Glamox Control Touch Panel consists of a control unit with a switch and monitoring
unit. Here, the Control Unit (front plate) consists of an aluminium plate with a printed foil and
up to 48 switches for lights and up to 4 freely-programmable settings, for example “Sailing” or
“At Anchor”. Dimmable coloured light emitting diodes and mast symbols are illuminated when
the respective light is switched on, with visual and acoustic alarms, alarm acknowledgment in
the case of failures and while testing alarms too.
The Switch and Monitoring Unit is mounted on a plate, which is accommodated in a steel
box. It contains the relay cards, power supply unit and fuses or circuit breakers.
In case the control unit fails, the lights can be operated manually in the switch and
monitoring unit.
There is bus interface connection to external systems for data transfer (e.g., RS485, RS232,
USB).
Image Courtesy: Glamox.com

Figure 14.4 – The Glamox Navigation Light Panel
14.4 Signals for a Power-driven Ship Under Way (At Night)
14.4.1 Masthead Light

(If the vessel is less than 50 metres in length, then only one light would suffice). These
lights are carried one behind the other on the two masts when the vessel is greater than 50
metres in length. The forward light is lower than the after light. Their visibility is at least 6
miles and they show a bright white light over an arc of 2250, namely from right ahead to 22.50
abaft the beam on either side of the vessel.
14.4.2 Side Lights
A bright green light on the starboard side and a bright red light on the port side; these are
generally carried abreast of the bridge and are provided with special screens so that each light
is visible over an arc of 112.50 to show light on its own side from right ahead to 22.50 abaft the
beam on its respective side. Screens are painted matt black. Visibility of these lights is at least
3 miles.
14.4.3 One Stern Light
It is fixed right astern and shows a bright white light over an arc of 1350 (67.50 from right
aft on each side of the vessel); visibility is to be at least 6 miles. A towing light shall be a yellow
light above the white stern light but with the same characteristics
14.4.4 Ship at Anchorage
A ship of 50 metres or more in length will have one bright white light in the fore part of
the vessel and a second bright white light at a lower level near the stern. Both lights are to be
visible all around the horizon (3600) for a distance of at least 3 miles. If the ship is less than 50
metres long, only one all-round white light is required. It may be of reduced visibility as well,
but of not less than 2 miles.
14.4.5 Ship Not Under Command
If not making way through water, the ship shall show only two red lights one over the other
at least 1.5 to 2 metres apart, visible all around the horizon for a distance of at least 3 miles.
These lights are either hoisted on a flag halyard on the bridge or shown on the Christmas Tree
if the ship has one. If the ship is making way through the water, she shall also show the two
sidelights and the stern light.

Chapter 14
14.4.6 Ship Aground

Every ship when aground shall show the appropriate anchor lights and the two red lights
for vessels not under command.
14.5 Relevant Rules
14. 5.1 Relevant SOLAS Regulations (Chapter II–1)

Part D – Electrical Installations
Regulation 41 – Main Source of Electrical Power and Lighting Systems
Regulation 45 – Precautions against shock, fire and other hazards of electrical origin
14. 5.2 Summary of SOLAS Regulations
1) A main electric lighting system that provides illumination throughout areas of the ship that
are normally accessible to and used by passengers or crew must be supplied from the main
source of electrical power.
2) The arrangement of the main electric lighting system must be such that a fire or other
casualty in spaces where the emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming
equipment, if any, the emergency switchboard and the emergency lighting switchboard are
installed, will not render the main electric lighting system inoperative.
3) Lighting fittings must be so arranged as to prevent temperature rises which could damage
the cables and wiring. They must also be designed and installed is a manner that prevents
the surrounding material from becoming excessively hot.
4) All lighting and power circuits terminating in a bunker or cargo space must be provided
with a multi-pole switch outside the space for disconnecting such circuits.
5) The arrangement of the emergency electrical lighting system must be such that a fire or
other casualty in spaces containing the emergency source of electrical power, associated
transforming equipment if any, the emergency switchboard and the emergency lighting
switchboard will not render the main electrical lighting system inoperative.

Extract from Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
Part C - Lights and Shapes - Rule 22 - Visibility of Lights
Quote
The lights prescribed in these Rules shall have an intensity as specified in Section 8 of Annex
I to these Regulations so as to be visible at the following minimum ranges:
(a) In vessels of 50 metres or more in length:
- a masthead light, 6 miles,
- a sidelight, 3 miles;
- a sternlight, 3 miles;
- a towing light, 3 miles;
- a white, red, green or yellow all-round light, 3 miles.
(b) In vessels of 12 metres or more in length but less than 50 meters in length:
- a masthead light, 5 miles; except that where the length of the vessel is less than 20 metres,
3 miles;
- a sidelight, 2 miles;
- a sternlight, 2 miles;
- a towing light, 2 miles;
- a white, red, green or yellow all-round light, 2 miles.
Unquote

Chapter 14
14.6 The Portable Daylight Signalling Light
The signal lamp was initiated by the Royal Navy in the 19th century. Before the
signal lamp, they used Flag signals for communication. They soon found the new lamp
signalling method more effective than using flags for signalling. The signalling lamp
flashes “dots” i.e., a quick flash and “dashes” i.e., a flash with a duration longer than
the dot, for communication. This is commonly known as the Morse Code, which is not
so popular in the shipping industry today but is a very good means of back-up
communication.
The Begbie Signal Lamp came into being in the 1880’s. It was a kerosene lamp with
a had a powerful lens to focus the beam of light over a long distance. A shutter was
operated by a knob on top of the lamp. The operator pointed the lamp towards the next
signal station and flashed his message using the Morse code by working the shutter.
Now a handheld electrical light is used. The on-off switch is used to send signals with
the light. The current signalling lamp also called the Aldis Lamp or Morse lamp is a
semaphore system using a visual signalling device for optical communication. Please
scan the QR Code in Figure 14.6, to see a video of how it is used at sea.
14.7 Regulations
Safety of Life At Sea (SOLAS) Chapter V, Regulation – 19, states:

• Ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002 shall be fitted with a signalling lamp.
• All ships of 500 gross tonnes and greater and all passenger ships, irrespective of their size,
shall be fitted with signalling lamps.
• It should be a daylight signalling lamp, or other means, to communicate by light during day
and night using an energy source of electric power not solely dependent upon the ship’s
power supply.
According to recommendations enclosed in the Resolution MSC, 95(72) adopted in
May 2000:
• The Daylight signalling lamp should solely depend upon the ship’s main or emergency
source of electrical energy.

• The Daylight signalling lamp should be provided with a portable battery of weight no more
than 7.5 Kg.
• The portable battery should have sufficient capacity to operate the daylight signalling lamp
for a period not less than 2 hours.
• Connect the signalling lamp chord CD to the power supply.
• Hold the grip ❷ in your hand, then grasp the switch lever ❸ with your hand simultaneously
and the lamp is lit.
• Turn the lamp in the direction of the receiving side, then collimate it with the sighting
telescope ❹and ❺
• Operate the signal lever❻ and a light beam is discharged for signal transmission.
Figure 14.5 – Daylight Signalling Lamp

Chapter 14
Please scan the QR code to see a short video of its operation
Figure 14.6 – Onboard Daylight Signalling Lamp
Figure 14.7 – Yard Supply Ship 24 VDC Charging Socket

The ALDIS lamp uses a sealed 24 V Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery for emergency use,
for at least 2 hours. The battery and its charger are placed in a single box. Note that the battery
is subjected to self-discharge even during the storage period. Therefore, it should be stored
under trickle charging conditions to cope with emergencies. If a trickle charge is not applied,
charge it fully before using it.

Figure 14.8 – A Daylight Signalling Lamp’s Battery Charger
14.9 Maintenance
14.9.1 Lamp Replacement

With reference to Figure 14.5:
• Loosen clamp screws ❼, then remove the front frame ❽.

• In this case, be careful not to damage the reflector, since it comes out with the front frame.
• While pulling the signal lever ❻, remove the lamp ❾.
• Insert a new spare lamp into the socket.
14.9.2 Focusing Adjustment
To adjust the focus, project the light of the signalling lamp on a screen or wall, measure the
width of the light beam for the adjustment. In controlling the scattering of the light beam, turn
the focus adjusting knob ❿. The following table indicates the dimensions corresponding to a
beam angle of 6O.
Distance (m) 3 5 10
Width (m) 0.32 0.53 1.03
Table 14.2 – Daylight Signalling Lamp Focus Adjustment Ratio

Chapter 14
14.10 Precautions
14.10.1 Halogen lamp

• The Lamp bulb should not be handled with bare fingers, as skin oils can cause the bulb to
get dim. If the bulb is touched with bare hands, wipe it clean with a cloth and alcohol.
• To avoid risk of burns or personal injury, never insert a lamp into a live socket. Make sure
that the switch is OFF.
• Don’t bump or bounce the unit
• Don’t touch the lamp when it is ON as the temperature is considerably high and you may
burn your flesh.
14.10.2 Battery
• Don’t keep the battery in a high temperature zone or confined space.
• In the case of a flooded cell, the electrolyte may leak if the battery is kept in a slanted
position.
• It has a self-discharging property like most batteries. Please charge it regularly to make sure
it is always ready to use.
• The battery charger must always be kept in a good condition.

Chapter 15
Air Horn (The Ship’s Whistle)
15.1 Introduction
The ship has a whistle installed for the Navigating Officer to give signals at the time of
traffic, emergency or for other general purposes. The air horn is equipped with diaphragms
which are vibrated by compressed air. The air supply can be controlled via a solenoid valve
either electrically or manually. Where the air supply line is not installed (mostly at the forward
mast), an electrically driven motor with a pump must be used for the supply of air. The solenoid
valve-based air horn is simple in construction and requires little maintenance. When the
solenoid valve is opened or the electric motor-driven pump is run, compressed air is allowed to
enter the diaphragm chamber. Its pressure is reduced by the air regulator and overcomes the
elasticity of the diaphragm, to be subsequently discharged out of the horn.
15.2 Block Diagram
Solenoid Valve
or a Motor with a Pump
Heaters
Forward Air Horn Aft Air Horn
110 V / 220 V AC Aft

Electrical Circuitry
Fwd
Free Signalling / General Emergency
Auto Fog Signalling Switch Alarm Switch
Port Side Stbd Side

Switch Switch
Bridge
Switch
The heater is used to avoid ingress of moisture into the solenoid valve or motor that drives pump
Figure 15.1 – Block Diagram of the Air Horn

Chapter 15
An Air Horn for Ships A Vintage Horn
Geoar C 138 DB Horn
Figure 15.2 – Different Types of Air Horns

The air horn has switches in three locations namely on the Port Wing, on the Stbd wing and
inside the Bridge. When any one of the switches is pressed, the signal goes to the selected air
horn. From the selector switch solenoid valve-activated respective horn, the compressed air
passes to the diaphragm and the horn blows. The air horn system delivers free signalling and
automatic fog signals for navigational purposes; it also includes the general emergency alarm
switch for future use.

Air Horn (The Ship’s Whistle)
15.3 Operation
Set the power supply switch to “source on” and note that the source pilot lamp is lit.
15.3.1 Free Signalling
Press the push button; the solenoid valve on the air horn is energized and the air horn
operates. Release the push button to stop the air horn.
15.3.2 Automatic Fog Signalling
Set the Automatic fog signal switch to position “1-blow” or “2-blow’.
15.3.2.1 Automatic “1-blow” Fog Signalling
In this case, a signal of “5 seconds ON, 55 seconds OFF” is continually repeated, the repeat
period begins at 60 seconds.
15.3.2.2 Automatic “2-blow” Fog Signalling
In this case, the signal of “5 seconds ON, 2 seconds OFF, 5 seconds ON, 48 seconds OFF”
is continually repeated, the repeat period begins at 60 seconds.
15.3.3 General Emergency Alarm Signalling
When the General Emergency alarm is switched ON, the system will automatically sound
the general emergency alarm sequence of 7 (seven) short blast followed by 1(one) long blast.
This sequence will be continually repeated.

Chapter 15
Symptoms Possible Causes / Remedies
No Power 1. Turn the Power Supply Switch On
2. The Cable is faulty
3. The Fuse is blown
The heater is off 1. The heater’s fuse is blown
2. The cable is faulty
The air horn is not working 1. The solenoid’s coil is not energized
2. The cable is faulty
3. The fuse is blown
4. The inside spring / lever / rod is stuck
The air horn blows continuously 1. The valve push rod is stuck and
continues to allow air
2. The manual push button is pressed
3. The switch is pressed

Chapter 16
Very High Frequency Communication System
16.1 Introduction
Very high radio frequency (VHF) range as defined by the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) is from 30 to 300 MHz, with corresponding wavelengths of 10 meters to 1 meter.
In the marine industry, radio waves in the VHF band are used for audio broadcasting, general
messaging, distress messaging and transmitting in the simplex mode of data transmission. The
simplex mode means that the system performs only one operation at a time - that is receiving
messages or transmitting messages, one at a time.
Radio waves in the VHF band propagate mainly by a line of sight and ground reflection
path and cover nearly 160 km. VHF radio waves of good strength can penetrate building walls,
make less atmospheric radio noise and cause less interference of electrical equipment as
compared to HF radio waves.
The mandatory requirement for all passenger and cargo ships of over 300 gross tons engaged
in international voyages is that they must use a VHF radio telephone and DSC watchkeeping
receiver. These are the requirements of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
(GMDSS).
Image Courtesy: oarnorthwest.com

Figure 16.1 – Reflection of Radio Waves in the Atmosphere

Chapter 16
16.2 Block Diagram of the VHF Radio System
The VHF communication system is based on the line of sight mode and the system is
configured with the following sub blocks:
• VHF transceiver
• VHF controller
• VHF antenna
• Power supply module
• External interface signal
Antenna Antenna
for DSC
Handset
External
VHF VHF Speaker
Controller Transceiver
VDR
GPS AIS
Printer
AC / DC Power
Junction Supply Unit
Box
24 V DC
VHF
110 / 220 V AC
Controller 1
VHF
Controller 2
Figure 16.2 – Basic Block Diagram of The VHF System

16.3 VHF Transceiver
The VHF transceiver, as the name itself defines, is used for data transmission and reception
of information. It consists of an electronic circuit and performs the following operations:
1. It receives information signals from the antenna and sends them to each controller
2. It transmits the information signal from the controller to the antenna.
3. It tunes to the frequency as per the selected frequency range of the controller.
4. It provides an impedance matching property to the antenna for maximum power
transmission.
5. It communicates with the external interface equipment as per the block diagram.
Figure 16.3 – The Hand-held and Table-top Versions of VHF Sets
16.4 VHF Controller
In the VHF system there are a number of controllers present as per the system developed.
Normally 2 or 3 VHF controller configuration systems are developed. The VHF controller
normally consists of a display with a selection channel unit, a printer and a handset.
The VHF controller is used to select different channels to make calls or send / receive
messages like Channel-16, Channel-70, etc. This subunit is placed at the front of the Navigation
Bridge (varies as per plan) and generally selects the international communication channels like
CH-16 or CH-70, etc.

Chapter 16
16.5 VHF Antenna
Merchant vessels use omnidirectional antennas for VHF communication. An

omnidirectional antenna is a class of antenna which radiates equal power in all directions,
orthogonal to the axis and with varying power depending on the angle to the axis. All merchant
vessels also use the omnidirectional antenna because of the low cost and minimum maintenance
required. The antenna is installed where the radio waves (which are of the line-of-sight type)
are not blocked by obstructions such as masts, booms, the bridge, etc. When two VHF units are
installed or two or more antennas are installed, be sure to install them in locations four meters
or more, vertically apart in order to prevent mutual interference.
Figure 16.4 – Antenna Installation Diagram

16.6 Inspection After Installation
After installing the VHF radio system, check the antenna and cable, using the insertion type
power meter (C M power meter).
Normally, when the forward power Pf is 20-25 W then the reflected power Pr should be less
than 1W.
Example: When Pf = 25 W and Pr = 1 W, SWR = 1.5
√𝑃𝑓+ √𝑃𝑟
SWR=
√𝑃𝑓−√𝑃𝑟
16.7 Power Supply Module
A merchant vessel’s VHF radio system works with a dc source of power and this source is
provided by a rectified 110 / 220 V AC ship supply and 24 V DC by a GMDSS battery. If there
is power loss of the radio VHF system then a particular alarm and error code is generated to
indicate to the operator that there is power loss of a particular supply and corrective action
should be taken.
16.8 External Interface Signal
The basic radio VHF system uses two inputs - GPS and AIS (as shown in the block diagram).
Radio VHF units need to transmit / receive messages to particular ships nearby or to stations
as are identified by the AIS. With this AIS the operator automatically identifies the name and
IMO number of the ship. After selection, the ship’s or station’s operator can easily transmit the
message or information. DSC or Transmitted messages also contain the location of the ship and
as per the message, the receiver will take further action.
Radio VHF systems send a signal to the VDR to record the message / information and
another signal is sent to an external speaker to be heard loud and clearly. The VDR data is used
for further company or PSC investigation purposes.

Chapter 16
Sr No. Error Message Description Possible Causes

1 Remote Error in data interface between There is a faulty connection in
controller faulty the main unit and the remote the signal line
controller The power switch is off
2 CPU board faulty Fault in EEPROM There is a faulty EEPROM
3 Printer power off Printer power error The printer’s power is off
4 Antenna faulty A Fault in the transmission Check the antenna or cable
antenna
5 Tx faulty A fault in the transmitter The transmitter is faulty
6 Rx faulty A fault in the receiver The receiver is faulty
7 WKR faulty A fault in the DSC receiver There is a fault in the watch
keeping receiver
8 INVALID channel A non-existent channel selected It could be an operator’s mistake
9 Printer faulty No ready signal for the printer The printer is not connected

16.9.1 VHF JHS-780
16.9.2 Procedures for Locating Malfunctions

If it is required to locate any malfunction, with the exception of it being done in the presence
of qualified service personnel, perform only the following:
1）First, check the power supply voltage, the fuses and the connectors.
2）If there are no problems with the above, use a tester to check for errors.
16.9.2.1 Faults Requiring No Instrument to Locate Them

Probable Causes
・ Blown power supply fuse
・ Faulty contacts
・ Broken antenna cables
・ Defective switches, volume, etc.
・ Other problems that can be visually detected

Chapter 16
16.9.2.2 Malfunctions That Can Be Fixed with A Multi Meter and Then Rectified
Probable Causes
・ Power supply voltage confirmation
・ Breaks in internal wiring
16.9.2.3 Malfunctions Requiring Special Instruments

Probable Causes
・ Crystal oscillator frequency error
・ Decrease in the transmitting power and the reception
sensitivity
・ Decrease in the transmitter modulation level
・ Malfunctions in the semiconductors, ICs, and similar
equipment
16.9.2.4 Nothing is Displayed on The Screen

Probable Causes
・ The controller cable is faulty
・The power supply voltage is abnormal
・ The power supply fuse has blown
・ The power switch is malfunctioning
・The display circuit is malfunctioning
・ The control circuit is malfunctioning
16.9.2.5 The Tx Is Displayed but No Voice Is Transmitted

Probable Causes
・ The handset is malfunctioning
・ The controller cable is faulty
・ The AF signal transmission circuit is malfunctioning
16.9.2.6 The Tx is Not Displayed and Transmission Is Not Possible

Probable Causes
・ The handset PTT switch is malfunctioning
・ The hook detection circuit is malfunctioning
・ The transmission circuit is malfunctioning

16.9.2.7 The Reception’s Sensitivity Is Poor

Probable Causes
・ The antenna is damaged
・ There is a break or a short circuit in the antenna cable
・ There is a faulty contact in the antenna connectors
16.9.2.8 There is No Sound from The Speaker Even When Squelch Is On, Without
Reception
Probable Causes
・ The speaker is faulty
・ The SQL control is faulty
・ The receiver circuit is malfunctioning
16.9.2.9 The Speaker works but the Own Ship Cannot Receive Any Calls
Probable Causes
・The antenna is damaged
・There is a break or a short circuit in the antenna
cable
・There is a faulty contact in the antenna connectors
・The receiver is malfunctioning
16.9.2.10 Turning SQL Does Not Suppress any Noise

Probable Causes
・ The SQL control is faulty
・ The receiver circuit is malfunctioning
16.9.2.11 There is No Response from the Other Station Via the Radio Telephone or DSC
Call
No operator is present in that station, or is unavailable to respond due to Wait and retry later.
other duties.

Chapter 16
16.9.2.12 It is not possible to Control the Radio Telephone Or DSC, but the Volume Control,
The Dimmer, and Power Key
The controller is in the monitor mode. Press ENT to obtain the access right and after that, retry the
operation.
16.9.2.13 Even by Pressing ENT on The Monitor Controller, The Access Rights Cannot
be Obtained
Another controller with higher priority is in use for After finishing with the other controller, retry
communicating or performing menu operations. the operation.
16.9.2.14 If the System Is Left on a Screen Other Than the Status Display for A While, it
Returns to the Status Display
After leaving if for 10 minutes, the inactivity timer Regulated specification by ITU-RM.493-11. (Do
would be activated and returned to the status not leave the equipment during menu operation.)
display.
16.9.2.15 The Received Distress Call Log Is Erased Without Operating

Received distress calls are automatically deleted Regulated specification by IMOA.803(19).
after 48 hours.
16.9.2.16 When A Portable Transceiver Is Brought Close to A Controller, Noise is Heard

from A Portable Transceiver
It is based on the influence of the radio frequency The Controller screen lighting is switched off or
noise slightly generated from the lighting circuit of a portable transceiver is kept away 1m or
a controller display. more.

Chapter 17
Medium and High Frequency Radio Equipment
17.1 Introduction
The MF / HF radio equipment, which was designed and developed for medium and long-
range communication, fully complies with all the requirements of GMDSS equipment. The
maritime MF / HF radio system is a combined transmitter and receiver like the VHF system.
Typically, Marine MF / HF radio systems operate in the frequency range of 1.6 MHz - 30 MHz.
While the VHF works in the line of sight, the MF / HF radio refracts the signal within the
atmosphere providing increased range. This refraction plays an important role in long distance
ship to ship or ship to shore communication.
Marine industries need MF / HF for communication because, when the distance involved
gets beyond 30 NM’s or so, the VHF marine radio is no longer useful for either normal or
emergency communication. This is where the MF / HF radio comes into use.
17.2 Radio Wave Propagation
To be able to effectively communicate and to achieve the full benefit from the HF radio
system, the MF / HF radio operator must have at least a basic understanding of radio wave
propagation. Radio wave propagation means to reach from transmitter to receiver; propagation
is the refraction or reflection of radio waves in different media.
Radio waves propagate in the following ways:
1. Ground wave
2. Direct wave
3. Sky wave.

Chapter 17
Ionosphere
Sky Wave
Ground Wave
Direct Wave
Earth
Transmitter Receiver
Figure 17.1 – Radio Wave Propagation Medium

17.2.1 Ground Wave
Ground wave propagation occurs at lower frequencies and is rarely effective above the 3
MHz band. It is ideal for relatively short distances of 100 to 200 nautical miles during the day,
and occasionally up to 400 nautical miles at night. It is thus a method of radio wave propagation
which utilises the area between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere for signal
transmission.
17.2.2 Sky Wave
In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected
back towards the earth from the ionosphere. Due to refraction of the signals in the ionosphere,
longer distances can be achieved, often thousands of miles during the day and many thousands
of miles at night.
17.2.3 Direct Wave
In radio transmission, it is a wave that arrives at a point via a direct path through the
propagation medium, without reflection, refraction, diffraction, or scattering from objects,
including the earth, ionosphere, or surrounding objects, except that it may be refracted by the
atmosphere or the earth. It is also known as line-of-sight communication; generally on-board
the VHF uses this principle for communication. It is short range communication nearly 20-30
NM. If any curvature or obstacle interrupts the radio waves then the signal ceases at that point
and further communication is disrupted.

The wave propagation depends on noise and interferences of the environment. It means
wave propagate less during the day than at night. This phenomenon occurs because during the
day, isotropic layers contain more ions and these charged ions interfere with the radio waves
that get attenuated or sometimes get reflected or refracted. The following are some ranges of
radio wave propagation with different frequencies.
MF / HF Frequency Nautical Miles Nautical Miles
(MHz) During the Day at Night
2 180-200 380-420
4 360-420 580-640
6 580-640 1180-1220
8 780-820 1580-1620
12 1180-1220 2380-2420
16 1580-1620 3180-3220
22 2180-2220 4000+
Note: For ground wave propagation, 2 MHz is used.
Table 17.1 – Frequency Versus Range During the Day and Night

Chapter 17
17.3 Block Diagram of the MF / HF System

Transmitter
Antenna
Receiver antenna
DSC receiver antenna

Antenna
Tuner
Transmitting /
Receiving
Section
Controller
Section
Power Supply
AC Batt
Input / Output
Section
Output power supply
to bridge equipment
110V / 220 V AC
Printer Morse 24 V DC
Keyboard Key Input Power
Supply
Figure 17.2 – Block Diagram of MF / HF System

The MF / HF system generally consists of three parts:
1. Power supply unit
2. Controller unit (master control unit)
3. Transmitter / Receiver unit


The MF / HF system has two modes of input power supply:
1. 110/ 220 V AC
2. 24 V DC
The DC-DC converter stabilizes the DC voltage for the respective unit, such as the power
amplifier.
17.3.2 Output Power Supply from the MF / HF System
1. ~ +26 V: Nearly 1.0 A and 2.5 A system for the control voltage and low voltage
circuitry.
2. ~ +80 V: Nearly 10 A with AC input, 6.0 A with DC input for the power amplifier.
3. ~ +26 V: 27 A for battery charging.
The charging circuit charges the battery at a constant current of 27 A; the battery voltage
reaches a set level, at which point the constant voltage control circuit functions to lower the
charging current and to maintain the voltage at the set level.
This unit is also capable of powering international VHF radio telephones and Ship Earth
Station (SES) equipment for marine satellite communication and emergency 24 V DC lighting
is generally placed in front of the MH / HF system.
17.3.3 Controller Unit (Master Control Unit)
The control circuit is the master circuit in the MF / HF system, and centrally controls the
telegraph, telephone and data communication via the controller.
Generally, this circuit consists of a CPU, a peripheral circuit including EPROMs, EEPROMs
RAMs, MIC circuit and AF signal line control circuit. The CPUs and the peripheral circuit
control data via the data I/O circuit of the following instruments:
1. Remote controller
2. Transmitter exciter unit
3. Transmitter antenna tuner unit
4. MF / HF receiver
5. W/K receiver
Chapter 17
6. DSC
7. NBDP (Narrow Band Direct Printing)
8. GPS
The CPU has a number of I/O ports to check the results of control and operation, and to
control the display of messages from the respective device, self-diagnostic tests, and the
displays for identifying problems. Other than system initialization and self-diagnosis, the
control circuit does not deliver any data. In addition, it controls the switching of the MIC and
AF line to various instruments.
17.3.4 Digital Selective Calling (DSC)
The DSC is responsible for communicating the digital information that is suitable for
automatic processing in distress, safety and general communication. The setting, control and
display of calling frequencies are performed by the controller, which controls the DSC via the
master controller.
The DSC system consists of the following circuits:
1. Microprocessor circuit
2. I/O circuit with RS-232 protocol communication
3. FS modem
4. AF signal circuit
5. AGC circuit
6. Mark and space signal filter circuit
7. Wave detector
17.3.5 Transmitter
Transmit data is sent from a timer IC circuit as an FS-DC (TTL) signal. This passes the filter
circuit for a space signal (1700 Hz +100 Hz band) to attenuate undesired components. The
level of the FS signal is adjusted by the ATT circuit, and then sent to the transmitter.

17.3.6 Receiver
Input signals from the receiver are input to the primary side of the AF transformer and
converted by the AGC circuit to 5 V (peak to peak level) signals. These pass the mark signal
filter circuit (100 Hz width) and space signal filter circuit (100 Hz width) and are then combined
to form a composite signal after passing the LPF circuit. This composite signal is detected by
the demodulation circuit and passes via the CPU to be stored in the RAM.
The timer IC circuit, which is a peripheral circuit of the CPU, generates the following three
clocks:
1. Mark frequency (1615 Hz) and space frequency (1785 Hz) FS signals
2. 10 mS timing clock signals for sending data from the CPU
3. Clock signals for the software timing
17.4 Narrow Band Direct Printing (NBDP) Equipment
The NBDP consists of a microprocessor-based circuit that is required for controlling telex
communications. The data required in telex communications is created by the controller for the
input to the NBDP and is controlled by the controller via the master controller circuit in the
system’s cabinet.
There are several telex modes used according to their purpose:
1. Automatic request (ARQ) mode
2. Forward error correction (FEC) mode
3. Direct mode
17.4.1 Automatic Request (ARQ) Mode
The transmitting station sends messages in blocks consisting of 3 characters each. The
receiving station automatically performs error detection on each block that is received. If no
error is detected, it sends a control signal requesting the next block. If an error is detected, it
sends a control signal requesting re-transmission of the same block. Retries are continued until
the receiving station receives the block with no error.

Chapter 17
17.4.2 Forward Error Correction (FEC) Mode

In this mode, the transmitting station cannot confirm if the receiving station received the
message correctly or not. However, each character is sent twice at 40 mS intervals. If the
receiving station detects an error, it selects and prints one of the two received characters that is
error free. If both contain errors, then a space is printed.
17.4.3 Direct Mode
In this mode, the transmitting stations send data as a character of the same data or the error
data received to the receiving station. The receiving station prints the same data as it was
received (with or without error in the data character). In this mode, there is a possibility of an
error in the message due to no error correction techniques and is less useful in the shipping
industry.
17.5 MF / HF Receiver / Transmitter
Image Courtesy: Furuno

Figure 17.3 – A Furuno Unit
17.5.1 Receiver
Received signals between 90 kHz and 30 MHz are sent to a high frequency input tuning
circuit and an input over-voltage protection circuit. When the signal is attenuated for any
reason, the signal is controlled before the signal it is to a tuning circuit. The tuning circuit
consists of a multistage circuit and covers a 1.6 MHz to 30 MHz frequency range. The internal
microcontroller controls the tuning and matches the frequency.

The received signal output from the tuning circuit passes through a 35 MHz low pass filter,
it is amplified by a wide band high-frequency amplifier, and then passed to the first mixer. The
received signal is mixed with the 70.54 MHz to 100.45 MHz first intermediate frequency. The
converted output is sent to the second mixer via a crystal filter and the first intermediate
frequency amplifier. The crystal filter has a central frequency of 70.45 MHz and a pass band of
approximately 16 kHz. In the second mixer, the received signal is mixed with the 70 MHz
second local oscillator signal from the synthesizer and is converted to the 455 kHz second
intermediate frequency.
The converted output from the second mixer is sent to a filter with a central frequency of
455 kHz and a 12 kHz pass bandwidth, to a noise blanker gate and also to the noise amplifier.
After passing the noise blanker gate, the received signal is sent via the selected filter from the
6 kHz, 3 kHz, 1 kHz and 0.3 kHz nominal bandwidth intermediate frequency filters to the 455
kHz second intermediate frequency amplifier.
The received signal, amplified by the three stage second intermediate frequency amplifier,
is sent to the AGC (Automatic gain control) circuit, intermediate frequency output circuit, and
demodulation circuit.
The AGC voltage detected by the AGC circuit is fed back to the first and second
intermediate frequency amplifiers to control the gain of each amplifier.
The 455 kHz intermediate frequency output is sent to the back DSB demodulator. The DSB
demodulation circuit operates as a synchronous demodulator by extracting the carrier
component from the received signal.
The demodulated output is sent to the audio power amplifier.
The output from the audio power amplifier drives then a headphone.

Chapter 17
90 kHz to 30 MHz
Tuning Circuit
1.6 MHz to 30 MHz LPF
Attenuator Amplifier
And Over-voltage 35 MHz
Protection
AGC
Mixer Crystal Filter

Amplifier
7.54 MHz to 100.45 MHz (7.45 MHz)
Noise Blanker Selected Filter

Mixer Filter
Gate and Noise 6 MHz, 3 MHz,
(70 MHz) (455 kHz)
Amplifier 1 MHz and 0.3 MHz
Speaker / Power
Demodulator
Head Phone Amplifier
Figure 17.4 – Block Diagram of the MF / HF Receiver Unit

17.5.2 Transmitter
The MF / HF basic transmitter consist of three parts:
1. Exciter section
2. Frequency multiplier
3. Power section
17.5.3 Exciter Section
The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a stable sine wave signal at the rest
frequency, when no modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change frequency when
it is fully modulated, with no measured change in amplitude. The buffer amplifier acts as a
constant high impedance load on the oscillator, the buffer amplifier has a low gain. The
modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator’s frequency by application of the message signal.
The positive peak of the message signal generally lowers the oscillator’s frequency to a point
below the rest frequency and the negative message peak raises the oscillator frequency to a
value above the rest frequency. The greater the peak-to-peak message signal, the larger will be
the oscillator’s deviation.

17.5.4 Frequency Multiplier

The Frequency multiplier is a tuned-input, tuned-output RF amplifier, in which the output
resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the input frequency.
17.5.5 Power Station
The final power station unit develops the carrier power, to be transmitted and often has a
low-power amplifier driven to the final power amplifier. The impedance matching network
matches the antenna’s impedance to the correct load on the final power amplifier.
Exciter Section Frequency Power Station Unit Antenna

Multiplier
Carrier Buffer Frequency Driven Power

Oscillator Amplifier Multiplier Amplifier Output
Amplifier
Reactor
Modulator
Audio Input
Figure 17.5 – The MF / HF Transmitter

Chapter 17
17.5.6 Antenna Tuner
Figure 17.6 – An Antenna and the Tuner

In the antenna tuner block diagram, the detector consists of a phase detector, an SWR
detector and a load detector. A high frequency tuning circuit consists of π type circuits. The
control circuits consist of a CPU-based protection circuit and monitors high frequency output
voltage and the power supply voltage. The tuning of the high frequency tuning circuit is
changed by a control circuit following a program sequence based on information from the
detector. This operation is repeated until the SWR is less than the reference value. This unit is
placed just before the antenna mostly with the antenna or inside the bridge. Whenever a manual
tuning operation is carried out, make sure the instruction manual is read carefully and the tuning
potentiometer is very finely tuned because every setting gets a selected new frequency and time
is also required for a stable SWR.

Chapter 18
Navigational Telex (NavTex)
18.1 Introduction
The NavTex (Navigational Telex) is a worldwide, one-way, coastal telex broadcasting

system. Coastal NavTex broadcasting stations with specific ID’s transmit Navigational
warnings, Meteorological warnings, Search and Rescue (SAR) information and other
navigational information like information from the Hydrographic Office for NavTex receiver-
equipped vessels sailing in coastal waters. NavTex is thus a system for the broadcast and
automatic reception of marine safety information by means of a narrow band direct printing
telegraph.
NavTex was developed to provide a low cost, simple and automated means of receiving this
information onboard a vessel, within an approximate distance of 370 km offshore. It uses
medium frequency for information transmission. The navigational and meteorological
warnings, search and rescue, and other information are collected by the NavTex coast station
and are broadcast in English at a frequency of 518 kHz all over the world. 490 kHz is used for
transmitting messages in the local language.
The broadcasting time for each broadcast is less than 10 minutes. Usually, a 4-hour
broadcasting time is allotted for each station. There are no user fees associated with receiving
NavTex broadcasts, as the transmissions are typically transmitted from the National Weather
Authority, the Navy, the Coast guard or the National Navigational Authority.

Chapter 18
Navigational Meteorological Search and Rescue Other Urgent Safety-related

Warning Information Information Information
Navtex Coordinator
Navtex Station
Operator Selection Navtex Receiver Automatic Functions

Select Transmitter Dedicated Assess signal
Identification display device quality
character and / or printer Compare with
Suppress optional memory
message subjects Reject incomplete
not required messages and
suppressed
message types
Figure 18.1 – Information Providers
18.2 Regulations
NavTex is a component of the IHO/IMO worldwide navigational warning service

(WWNWS) defined by the IMO Assembly resolution A.419 (XI), and NavTex has been
included as an element of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) which
has been implemented since 1st Feb 1992.
In the GMDSS, NavTex’s receiving capability has become part of the mandatory equipment
in certain vessels under the provision of the revised Chapter IV of the1974 SOLAS convention
from 1st AUG 1993.

18.3 Service Area and Range
A NavTex station has a pre-defined area for which it is responsible for sending information;
this is called the Service Area for the NavTex station. The NavTex coordinator of the respective
country will decide the service area for the NavTex station, when it is set up initially.
If it does not overlap the service area of a NavTex station of a neighbouring country, there
is no issue for the NavTex coordinator to set up such a service area.
If any dispute arises over setting-up of the service area, the IMO NavTex Coordination Panel
helps in resolving the issues setting this up.
The range is often limited by the transmitter and is usually between 250 and 400 nautical
miles; this range is affected by surrounding factors. The range is preferably more than the
service are so that the station can reach the ships even before they enter the designated service
area. Hence ranges differ from one station to another.
To find out a station transmitter’s range, open ADRS 1,2,3,4,5 on the dedicated computer
and select NavTex under the “View” option. Scroll down in the Geographical Area Menu and
under the NavTex option, choose the station.
Figure 18.2 – Map of Station Transmitters

Chapter 18
This will open a window showing the information of that station as shown below:
Figure 18.3 – Range of a Dedicated Station

All stations enroute can be found in a similar manner as shown below:
Figure 18.4 – Range of a Dedicated Station

18.4 Sub Units of the NavTex Receiver

The NavTex receiver uses the ship’s 110 / 220 V AC supply and it is converted into 24 V
DC by the AC-DC converter circuit, for its operation. It also uses the ship’s 24 V DC source
for emergency operation purposes.
18.4.2 Printer
The NavTex receiver uses a Narrow Band Direct Printing (NBDP) printer, which is a way
of communicating with text rather than by voice. It utilises 24 V DC from the receiver and also
takes all data from the receiver and prints the information.
18.4.3 Output Signal
This signal is used to alert the Navigation officer when any information is received by the
NavTex receiver. It is connected with an external buzzer which buzzes when a message is
received from a coastal station.
18.4.4 Antenna
The NavTex receiver uses a whip antenna, which consists of a straight flexible wire or rod.
The bottom-end of the whip is connected to the radio receiver. The antenna is designed to be
flexible so that it does not break easily.
The name is derived from the whip like motion that it exhibits when it is disturbed. The
length of the whip antenna is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves it uses. The
most common type is the quarter wave whip, which is approximately one quarter of a
wavelength long. The whip antenna is the most common type of monopole antenna and is used
in the higher frequency namely HF, VHF and UHF radio band.

Chapter 18
Figure 18.5 – A Whip Antenna
Display Antenna
Unit
Receiver
Unit
Power Supply Printer

Unit
110 V / 220V AC 24 V DC
Figure 18.6 – Block Diagram of NavTex Receiver System

18.4.5 Receiver / Display Unit
Figure 18.7 – A NavTex Receiver
18.5 Decoding a Message Received by the NavTex Receiver
The display unit uses the following message format:

For automatic identification of messages, each message starts with nine control characters,
called “Header codes”.
The first characters are always “ZCZC” and common to all messages. This part is used for
message synchronization. The latter four characters are B1, B2, B3 and B4 indicate the origin,
category and serial number of the message.
Character B1 is the identification letter of the NavTex station “A” to “Z”.
Character B2 indicates the type of message. “A” to “Z”, as listed below.
Character B3 and B4 indicate the serial number of the message. The serial numbers are
counted up from “01” to “99”, and start from “01” again. Number “00” is specially reserved
for important emergency messages.
The end of each message is indicated by “NNNN” (four successive N’s).

Chapter 18
The General message format is summarized below:
The following are the examples of messages:

A: Navigational warning
B: Meteorological warning
C: Ice report
D: Search and rescue information / pirate attack warnings
E: Meteorological forecast
F: Pilot, VTS messages
G: AIS service messages
H: LORAN message
I: Spare
J: SATNAV message
K: Other electronic navigational aid system message
L: Navigational warning (additional to “A”)
M to U: Not currently used
V to Y: Special services allocation by the IMO’s NavTex Co-ordinating Panel
Z: No message on hand
Figure 18.8 – A Navtex Message

Chapter 18
The Station IDs are also from A to Z
Figure 18.9 – A Map of NavTex Stations

Like our phones, the NavTex also cannot receive two transmissions at the same time. While
receiving a transmission from one station, the NavTex will reject the reception of a second
transmission. For this reason, each Navtex station is allotted a fixed time to transmit their
messages. Each Navtex station type (Character B1) gets a fixed period of 10 minutes to transmit
a message. However, it is permitted to transmit messages of utmost priority. Important
messages can be transmitted during the next available period when the frequency is unused.
Vital messages can be transmitted immediately subject to no interference with other ongoing
transmissions. For routine messages, the schedule is as follows:

Table 18.2 – Transmitter Identification Versus Start Time

A phasing signal is used to lock-in one station to prevent another station’s signal from
corrupting the information being received.
18.6 Maintenance
18.6.1 Display Unit Connectors

Check for tight connections.
18.6.2 LCD / Display Unit
The LCD will, in time, accumulate a coating of dust which tends to dim the picture. Wipe
the LCD lightly with a soft cloth to remove the dust.

Chapter 18
18.6.3 Ground Terminal

Check for tight connections and remove any corrosion.
18.6.4 Replacement of the Battery
A battery is installed inside the display unit, and it preserves data when the power is
turned off. The life of the battery is about 3-5 years, and its voltage is checked when the
power is turned on. When its voltage is low, the BATTERY icon appears on the display to
alert you. When this happens, contact your dealer to request replacement of the battery.
18.6.5 Thermal Paper
When the thermal paper runs out completely, the message “Printer error” appears.
Replace the paper, following the maker’s instructions.
Causes Possible Causes / Remedies

There is no power supply 1. The power supply switch is Off
2. A fuse is blown
The equipment receives unwanted messages 1. Confirm that the “Manual” Receive Mode is
chosen on the NavTex menu.
A NavTex signal cannot be received. 1. Check the equipment by a diagnostic test.
2. Check the broadcasting schedule.
3. Check if the antenna cable is firmly fastened.
The paper feed is okay but no / poor recording 1. Check if the correct thermal paper is being used.
takes place
The paper has darkened. 1. Keep the paper in a well-ventilated and cool
place.
The recording is not proper for the external 1. Check the settings of the printer on the System
printer. Menu.
2. Check the printer cable.
3. Check that the power of the printer is turned on

Chapter 19
Automatic Identification System
19.1 Introduction
The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is a Maritime Navigation and Radio

Communication System. This system intends to enhance the safety of life at sea, the safety and
efficiency of navigation and the protection of the marine environment by communicating
navigational information automatically on VHF channels between ships, and from the ship and
the shore. It is fitted on a ship for identification. It is an automated tracking system that displays
other vessels' static, dynamic and other information. It has a broadcast transponder system
which operates in the maritime VHF band. The AIS is only an aid to navigation and should not
be used for collision avoidance. Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) ashore use AIS to identify,
locate and monitor vessels. There are two types of AIS as follows:
Class A - Mandated for all vessels that are 300 GRT and above engaged on international
voyages as well as all passenger ships.
Class B - Provides limited functionality and is intended for non SOLAS vessels. It is primarily
used for vessels like pleasure crafts.
The AIS works on the frequency range from 156.025 MHz to 162.025 MHz and has the
following default channels:
AIS 1 – Works on 161.975 MHz, channel 87B (simplex for ship to ship)
AIS 2 – 162.025 MHz, channel 88B (Duplex for ship to ship)
19.2 Regulations
The IMO convention for the Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS) regulation V/19.2.4 requires
all vessels of 300 GT and above engaged in international voyages and all passenger ships to
have the AIS installed.
19.3 Block Diagram
The AIS system consists of the following associated equipment:

• Transponder
• Monitor Unit
• Antennae
Chapter 19
• Power Supply Unit

• I/O Signals
GPS
Antenna VHF Antenna
Monitoring
Unit
Transponder
Unit
Alarm System
External Display,
Pilot Plug, Sensor
Power Supply
Unit
110/220 V AC 24 V DC
Figure 19.1 – Block Diagram of AIS

19.3.1 Transponder
The AIS transponder unit is used for both transmitting and receiving data. This unit is
installed separately or together with the monitoring unit depends on the maker’s design
configuration. It is connected with two antennae i.e., the VHF antenna and the GPS antenna
with an in-built GPS receiver. Some manufacturers make single antennae and use the ship’s
GPS feed data for plotting. It transmits or receives data in the frequency range of 156.025 MHz
to 162.025MHz or channel 87 B (161.975 MHz) and 88B (162.025 MHz). The Transponder
takes the GPS data input for calculation of distance from one ship to another and also plots the
location on the monitoring unit.
19.3.2 Monitoring Unit

The start-up screen displays the program version number and the results of the ROM, RAM
and back-up data test, showing “OK” or “NG” (No Good) as the result. If “NG” (No Good)
appears for any of the check results, try resetting the power to restore normal operation. If that
does not work, contact the manufacturer for advice. After the start-up test is completed, the
plotter display appears and the system is ready for use. After starting-up and for further
initialization, it gets the MMSI number and stores it in the ROM. All the information needs to
be transmitted and are manually inserted into the AIS system at every voyage through the
display monitor. The information is divided into four types: static data, dynamic data, voyage
related data and short safety related message.
Figure 19.2 – Monitor Unit of AIS

19.3.3 Static Data
• MMSI (Maritime Mobile Service Identity)
• IMO number (where available)
• Call sign and name - Length and beam
• Type of ship
• Location of position-fixing antenna on the ship
The equipment transmits its own ship static data within two minutes of start-up and it is
transmitted at six-minute intervals.

Chapter 19
19.3.4 Dynamic Data (depends on speed and course alteration)

• Ship’s position with accuracy indication and integrity status
• Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
• Course over ground (COG)
• Speed over ground (SOG)
• Heading - Rate of turn (ROT) where available
Dynamic data is transmitted every 2 s to 3 min depending on the ship's speed, and course
change. Voyage-related data, such as ship’s draft, hazardous cargo, destination and estimated
time of arrival are transmitted at six-minute intervals.
19.3.5 Voyage Related Data
• Ship’s draught
• Navigation status (manual input)
• Hazardous cargo (type)
• Destination and ETA (at master’s discretion)
Voyage related data is transmitted at every six-minute intervals.
19.3.6 Short Safety Related Messages
Free format text messages are addressed to one or more destinations or to all stations in the
same region.
19.3.7 Antenna
The AIS uses VHF systems for data transmission / reception and GPS systems for plotting
the data. The Transponder unit is connected with the VHF antenna for ship data transmission
/ reception purposes and the in-built GPS receiver uses a GPS parabolic antenna for plotting
the ships in the vicinity, on the monitor display. Some transponders use a single antenna for the
VHF data exchange and use the ship's GPS data feed for the plotting on the monitor. Both the
antennae use coaxial cables for the connection to the transponder unit.


The AIS uses ship 110/220 V AC power supply source and converts it into 24V DC using
an AC-DC converter unit. It also uses power supplied by the ship's reserve source of energy
24 V DC.
19.3.9 I/O Signals
The AIS system is using input output signals for external world communication purposes.
The output signals are as follows:
• External display
• Pilot plug
• Alarm system
• PC
• Beacon receiver
• VDR
• Radar
• INMARSAT satellite
• The input signals are as follows:
• Sensors
• Gyrocompass
• GPS
• Rate of turn

Chapter 19
Satellite
Aids to Navigation
VTS Centre
Ship 1
AIS Ship 2
Transponder
Own Ship
Region 1
Region 2
Region 3
Figure 19.3 – AIS System Architecture

The system operates in three modes – autonomous (continuous operation in all areas),
assigned (data transmission interval remotely controlled by authority in traffic monitoring
service) and polled (in response to interrogation from a ship or authority). It is synchronized
with the GPS time to avoid any conflict among multiple users.
The VHF channels 87B and 88B are commonly used and in addition there are local AIS
frequencies. Shipborne AIS transponders exchange various data as specified by the IMO and
ITU on either frequency automatically set up by the frequency management telecommand
received by the DSC receiver on ship.

19.4 Maintenance
Regular maintenance is necessary to maintain satisfactory performance. A monthly

maintenance program should be established.
19.4.1 Connectors
Check that all connectors on the rear panel of the transponder unit and monitor unit are
firmly connected.
19.4.2 Cabling
Check the cabling for damage. Replace it if it is damaged.
19.4.3 Ground Terminal
Check the ground terminal on the monitoring unit and transponder unit for rust. Clean it if
necessary.
19.4.4 Ground Wire
Confirm that the grounding wires on the monitoring unit and transponder unit are firmly
fastened.
19.4.5 Monitoring Unit, Transponder Unit
Dirt and dust should be removed from units with a soft, dry cloth. For the LCD, wipe it
carefully to prevent scratching, using tissue paper and an LCD cleaner. To remove dirt or salt
deposits, use an LCD cleaner, wiping slowly with tissue paper so as to dissolve the dirt or salt.
Change paper frequently so the salt or dirt will not scratch the LCD. Do not use solvents such
as thinner, acetone or benzene for cleaning any unit; they can remove paint and marks and
deform the equipment.

Chapter 19
Causes Remedy
Cannot turn on the power 1. Check that the power connector is firmly fastened.
2. Check the power supply.
Cannot transmit or receive. 1. Check that the VHF antenna cable is firmly
fastened.
2. Check the VHF antenna.
3. For transmitting messages, try different Tx
channels.
No position data 1. Check the GPS antenna for damage.
2. Check the GPS antenna cable and its connectors.
The sensor’s data cannot be loaded 1. Check the serial cable polarity
2. The serial cable may be damaged
3. The sensor is malfunctioning

Chapter 20
Long-range Identification and Tracking
20.1 Introduction
LRIT is a system that is developed to track and monitor vessels engaged in international
voyages, globally. It is regulated by the IMO under SOLAS Chapter V 19/1 and thus
compliance is mandatory under this regulation.
It came into force on the 1st of January 2008.
Originally, LRIT was based solely on Inmarsat-C GMDSS sending automated reports to a
central LRIT Data Management Centre.
It is not the same anymore, but conceptually, LRIT still has ships reporting through
mandated equipment to the LRIT system for access by contracting governments.
20.2 LRIT Definitions
20.2.1 Ship-borne Equipment

A transmission system, which automatically send’s LRIT information without any need for
human intervention onboard a vessel
20.2.2 LRIT Information
A pre-defined data-set including the vessel’s position
20.2.3 Application Service Provider
A service provider that is contracted by the Administration to handle activation, testing,
communications and interfacing to the data centre.
20.2.4 Data Centre
The Data Centre is the central storage for LRIT information. All contracting governments
must either establish a National Data Centre or form part of a group of contracting governments
establishing a regional or cooperative data centre.
20.2.5 International Data Exchange
The International Data Exchange is the central facility for exchanging LRIT information
between National, Regional and Co-operative Data Centres.

Chapter 20
All vessels must send their LRIT information to an Application Service Provider / Data
Centre appointed or operated by the Flag State
The Flag State can at all these times monitor the vessel, request on-demand transmissions
and change the automatic reporting interval.
If a vessel is operating within 1000 nautical miles of the coast of another State or has
announced its intention to enter a port under this State’s jurisdiction, the LRIT data from the
vessel is automatically distributed to this state through the International Data Exchange. In such
a case, this State at all times monitors the vessel, requests on-demand transmissions and changes
the automatic reporting interval.
Figure 20.1 – LRIT Working Principle

20.4 Requirements for A Vessel to Comply with LRIT
• There must be an automatic transmission of the vessel’s LRIT information at 6-hour

intervals without any need for human intervention onboard the ship.
• The system must be remotely configurable for transmission of LRIT information at variable
intervals (from every 6 hours down to every 15 minutes
• The vessel must send LRIT information on-demand
• Interface to the vessels global navigation satellite system or have internal positioning
capability.
• The LRIT system must be supplied from the mains and emergency power supply.
• The system must be tested for electromagnetic compatibility taking into account the
recommendations by the IMO.
The system should send the following information:
1) Identity of the vessel
2) Position of the vessel
3) Time and data of the position provided
20.5 Roles and Responsibilities
The Communication Service Provider (CSP) provides the communication infrastructure and
services that are necessary for establishing a communication path between the ship and the
Application Service Provider (ASP). The LRIT information transmitted from the ship will
travel across the communication path set up by the CSP to the ASP.
The ASP, after receiving the LRIT information from the ship, will add additional
information to the LRIT message and pass along the expanded message to its associated LRIT
Data Centre. Functionality required for the programming and communicating of commands to
the ship borne equipment is provided by the ASP.
LRIT Data Centres will store all incoming LRIT information from ships instructed by their
Contracting Governments to transmit LRIT information to that Data Centre. LRIT Data Centres
will disseminate LRIT information to LRIT Data Users according to the Data Distribution Plan
(DDP).

Chapter 20
The Data Distribution Plan will contain the information required by the Data Centres for
determining how LRIT information will be distributed to the various Contracting Governments.
The DDP will contain information such as standing orders from Contracting Governments
and geographical polygons relating to Contracting Governments coastal waters, ports and port
facilities.
The Data Centres will process all LRIT messages to and from the International LRIT Data
Exchange (IDE). The IDE will process all LRIT messages between LRIT Data Centres. The
IDE will route the message to the appropriate Data Centre based upon the information contained
within the DDP. The IDE will neither process nor store the positional data contained within
LRIT messages.
LRIT Data Users may be entitled to receive or request LRIT information in their capacity
as a flag State, port State, coastal State or Search and Rescue (SAR) service.
20.6 Distributed Architecture
Figure 20.2 – LRIT System Architecture

LDCs, International Data Exchange, Safeguard Zones
International
Data Exchange
Internet and Cloud

Computer Services
LDC 1 LDC 2 LDC 3 .... LDC n
Zone Zone Zone Zone
Overlapped Zones
Figure 20.3 – Engineering Aspects of LRIT

Chapter 20
20.7 International LRIT Data Centre
Figure 20.4 – A Schematic Diagram of the International Data Centre

1. Contracting Government seeks LRIT

positional data from its LRIT Data
Centre for a ship being monitored via
another LRIT Data Centre
6. LRIT Data Centre 1 forwards
2. Requesting LRIT Data

Centre routes the request to
the International LRIT Data 3. International LRIT Data Exchange
Exchange, adding Providing routes the request to the Providing
Data Centre for the ship LRIT Data Centre indicated in the
data requested
from the DDP. request.

Maintain
Journal
International
Requesting LRIT LRIT Data Providing LRIT
Data Centre Exchange Data Centre
Maintain
5. International LRIT Data Journal 4. Providing LRIT Data Centre
Exchange routes the LRIT forwards the LRIT positional
positional data to the data for the ship to the
Requesting LRIT data International LRIT Data
Centre. Exchange
Figure 20.5 – International LRIT Data Exchange

Chapter 20
Figure 20.6 – LRIT Communications
20.8 Conformance Test
The Conformance test is an over-the-air test of an LRIT System, where it is tested that the
LRIT system complies with the performance standard and the functional requirements.
While most GMDSS-C and SSAS systems comply with the performance standards, not all
will fulfil the tolerance for the functional requirements:
For automatic LRIT Transmissions, a 4% loss of data will be accepted.
For reprogramming requests and on-demand requests, an 8% loss of data will be accepted
(4% in each direction).
The conformance test must be conducted by a recognised Application Service Provider or
an entity that is authorised by the ASP.

Chapter 21
Closed Circuit Television
21.1 Introduction
A camera is an optical instrument used to capture an image. There is a large revolution in

the development of camera technology. The use of photographic film was pioneered by George
Eastman, who started manufacturing paper film in 1885. His first camera, called the ‘Kodak’,
was first offered for sale in 1888. The world’s first successful video tape recorder, the Ampex
VRX-1000, was invented in the year of 1956 by Ampex.
The Shipping industry uses a closed-circuit television camera (CCTV) and can produce
images or recording for security or other evidence. The inventor of the CCTV camera was
Walter Bruch. The main function of a CCTV camera is to capture light and convert it into a
video signal. The CCTV camera has a charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor. The CCD converts
light into an electrical signal and then signal processing circuits convert this electrical signal
into a video signal that can be recorded and displayed on a screen. The recording data can be
stored in a single chip known as the memory card or a hard disc.
21.2 Regulations
There are no SOLAS or IMO regulations about installing CCTV systems on board. The
CCTV installation is the requirement of the owner and the manager for the security of the ship.

Chapter 21
21.3 Sub Modules of the CCTV System and Connection Diagram
Figure 21.1 – Connection Diagram of the CCTV System

Closed Circuit Television
21.4 Tools Required for Installation
The following are the tools required for the CCTV camera system installation
• LAN cable tester
• RJ45 crimper Tool
• RJ 45 jack
• Wire stripper/ cutter
Figure 21.2 – Tools Required for a CCTV Camera System’s Installation

Pin T568A T568B Signal 10 / 100 Base Tx Signal 100
Base T
1 White / Green White / Orange Tx+ TP1+
2 Green Orange Tx- TP1-
3 White / Orange White / Green Rx+ TP2+
4 Blue Blue Unused TP3-
5 White / Blue White / Blue Unused TP3+
6 Orange Green Rx- TP2-
7 White / Brown White / Brown Unused TP4+
8 Brown Brown Unused TP4-
Table 21.1 – Colour Coding and Pin Function of the LAN Cable

Chapter 21
21.5 Crimping Procedure for the LAN Cable
Cut the LAN cable as per the RJ 45 jack length
Figure 21.3 – Cut the LAN Cable

Arrange the LAN cable wire as per the T568B protocol
Figure 21.4 – LAN cable wire arranged as per T568B protocol

Insert the RJ 45 jack and confirm that the cable touches the end point of the jack and crimp
it well.
Figure 21.5 – LAN Cable Inserted and Crimped Tightly

Chapter 22
Television and Radio Antennae
22.1 Introduction
Ships have TV / Radio arrangements provided in various places like in some cabins, smoke
rooms, etc., for the entertainment of the crew. They can watch local channels or listen to local
news/ music during coastal sailing or a port stay.
22.2 Regulations
22.2.1 Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 as amended (MLC,2006)

Extract from Title 3 - Accommodation and recreation facility. Guidelines B3.1.11- Recreation
facility, mail and ship-visit arrangement.
The 4th point quotes that television viewing and reception of radio broadcast arrangement
should be made available on board for all crew / officers.
22.3 Block Diagram
The TV and Radio system consists of the following sub modules:

• Antenna
• TV / Radio Booster amplifier
• Splitter
• Coaxial cable
• Connection box
These individual units have different functions in the TV / Radio system’s operation, which
are described below:
22.3.1 Antenna
The TV / Radio system uses an omnidirectional antenna to receive signals from all directions
without any need for continuous adjustment.

Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 – An On-board Omnidirectional Antenna

22.3.2 TV / Radio Booster
The TV / Radio booster is an antenna amplifier also known as an aerial amplifier. It is a
device that amplifies an antenna signal usually into an output with the same impedance as the
input impedance. This booster amplifier amplifies the antenna’s signal and reduces the ghost
noise received at the antenna and delivers a strong signal to the splitter for further processing.
Figure 22.2 – TV / Radio Booster

Television and Radio Antennae
TV / Radio
Booster Amplifier
Splitter
Crew’s Smoke Room Officer’s Smoke Room

Connection Box Connection Box
Officer’s Cabins
Figure 22.3 – Block Diagram of the TV / FM Antenna System

22.3.3 Splitter
The TV / Radio splitter is designed to equally divide the signal on the input port of the
splitter to each of the output ports. For example, we consider a single-input three-output splitter;
if 100% of the signal level is fed into the input port, then 33.33 % of the signal will be available
at each of the output ports. This is typically measured in db.
Figure 22.4 – Onboard 1-Input and 3-Output Splitter

22.3.4 Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable is used to carry radio signals, video signals, measurement signals and data
signals. Ships consist of metallic objects and generate electromagnetic noise (interference) in
an open loop wire. It has a low electromagnetic interface and hence on board ships a coaxial
cable is used for communication and data exchange purposes.

Chapter 22
The signal starts from the antenna which is direct through a coaxial cable and each cable has
RLC parameters. RLC parameters cause losses and the amount of loss depends upon a number
of factors that is:
• Cable type
• Cable length
• Cable rated in dB loss per length
• Specified frequency
The RG-6 coaxial cable is mostly used for Television reception.
22.3.5 Connection Box
It is a simple plug and play type. One each is installed in the crew recreation room, the
officer's recreation room and the officer's room (optional) to directly connect the TV with the
booster amplifier so that the local channels can be watched.
The system normally uses the ship’s 110 / 220 V AC supply and the 24 V DC supply is used
for backup in times of emergency.
Causes Remedies
The booster amplifier has no power 1. The power switch is off
2. The power cable is faulty
No signal on any TV 1. The connection box cable is not connected to the TV
2. The booster power switch off
3. The ship is too far from land
4. The splitter section cable is removed
5. The antenna’s coaxial cable is faulty
No signal on a single TV 1. The TV connection box is not connected
2. The splitter cable is removed

Chapter 23
Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System
23.1 Introduction
The navigational officer of a ship is assigned has navigational watch duties on the bridge
and sometimes is tired or ill and this leads to negligence. We know that a ship’s navigation
depends wholly on electronic equipment and if they are not monitored / controlled properly,
accidents occur. The BNWAS is thus a Navigator’s Fitness Check system that monitors the
activity on the bridge and monitors for the awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW). This
purpose is achieved by a series of indications and alarms to alert the OOW first and, if he or
she is not responding, then to automatically alert the Master or another qualified OOW.
Additionally, the BNWAS may provide the OOW with a means of calling for immediate
assistance if required. The BNWAS should be operational whenever the ship’s heading or track
control system is engaged, unless it is inhibited by the Master.
23.2 Regulations
1. BNWAS must be installed on ships that are constructed on or after 01 July 2003.
2. IMO resolution A.694(17), General Requirements for shipborne radio equipment that is part
of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) and for Electronic
Navigational Aids
3. IMO resolution A.830(19), Code on alarms and indicators
4. IMO MSC / Circ.982, Guidelines on Ergonomic Criteria for Bridge Equipment and Layout
23.2.1 IMO Carriage Requirements
23.2.1.1 New Ships
All ships constructed on or after the 1st July 2011 of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and
passenger ships irrespective of size
23.2.1.2 Existing Ships
• Passenger ships not later than the first survey on or after 1st July 2012
• Ships of 3.000 gross tonnage and above not later than the first survey on or after 1st July
2012

Chapter 23
• Ships of 500 gross tonnage and above but less than 3.000 gross tonnage not later than the
first survey on or after 1st July 2013
• Ships of 150 gross tonnage and above but less than 500 gross tonnage not later than the first
survey on or after 1st July 2014.
23.3 Block Diagram
The Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System consists of the following:
Auto Pilot BNWAS Alarm Panel

on the Bridge
Power Supply
110 / 220 V AC BNWAS Main Circuit BNWAS Alarm Panel
in Master’s Cabin
Port Wing
Push Button
BNWAS Alarm Panel
in C/O’s Cabin
Stbd Wing
Push Button
BNWAS Alarm Panel
BNWAS Alarm Panel
in the Recreation Room
in 2/O’s Cabin
Bridge Console
Push Button
BNWAS Alarm Panel
in 3/O Cabin
Motion Sensor
Ship General BNWAS Alarm Panel in

Alarm Bell Crew / Officer’s Pantry
Figure 23.1 – Block Diagram of A BNWAS System

Figure 23.2 – Typical Layout of The BNWAS Platinum System and its Components

Chapter 23
30 sec after
specified interval elapses Buzzer Stopped → Ack
Red Flashing light on the

Pre-warning 1st Stage Bridge Panel
Visual Yellow flashing light on the Timer
1)
Visual + Audible Timer Reset Panel Starts
Alarm Alarm
If Buzzer is not Stopped or Ack,
Specified interval 15 sec 15 sec Alarm is forwarded,
3 to 12 minutes Visual + Audible Alarm
Visual + Audible
Alarm
2)
2nd Stage
90 to 180 sec
3rd Stage
3) Visual + Audible
Alarm
1) Bridge Panel ; Timer Reset Panel
2) Back-up Navigation Officers’ Cabins and all panels in public areas
3) Navigation Officers’ Cabins; Panels in all public areas continue the alarm
Figure 23.3 – Time Intervals for the 3 Stages of Alarms

23.4 The BNWAS Main Circuit
This is a microcontroller-based system, that is programmed in such a way that users can
interact and plot the time and other priority data easily. It performs an operational sequence of
indications and alarms as per Resolution MSC.128(75) adopted on 20 May 2002.
• Once it is operational, the alarm system should remain dormant for a period of between 3
and 12 min (Td).
• At the end of this dormant period, the alarm system should initiate a visual indication on the
bridge.
• If it is not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible alarm on the
bridge 15 minutes after the visual indication is initiated.
• If it is not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage remote audible alarm
in the back-up officer’s and / or the Master’s location 15 seconds after the first stage audible
alarm is initiated.
• If it is not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote audible alarm
at the locations of further crew members capable of taking corrective actions 90 seconds
after the second stage remote audible alarm is initiated.
• In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible alarms may
sound in all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage audible alarm is
activated in this way, the third stage alarm may be omitted.
• In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a longer
value on installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the back-up
officer and / or Master to reach the bridge.
23.4.1 Extension Panel
The extension alarm panel is installed in the Navigational Officer’s cabin and in the crew
space for activating the second and third stage alarms. This extension panel helps the ship to
avoid navigational-related accidents.

Chapter 23
23.4.2 Reset Function

It should not be possible to initiate the reset function or cancel any audible alarm from any
device, equipment or system not physically located in areas of the bridge providing a proper
look out.
The reset function should, by a single operator action, cancel the visual indication and all
audible alarms and initiate a further dormant period. If the reset function is activated before the
end of the dormant period, the period should be re-initiated to run for its full duration from the
time of the reset. To initiate the reset function, an input representing a single operator action by
the OOW is required. This input may be generated by reset devices forming an integral part of
the BNWAS or by external inputs from other equipment capable of registering physical activity
and mental alertness of the OOW. A continuous activation of any reset device should not
prolong the dormant period or cause a suppression of the sequence of indications and alarms.
The reset of BNWAS is done by two modes:
1) Push Button
Generally, BNWAS has three push buttons in different locations such as the Port wing, Stbd
wing and inside the bridge. When the alarm is initiated the Navigational officer resets the
BNWAS by pressing the push button.
2) Motion Sensor
This is an advanced feature of the BNWAS. When the navigational officer moves in front
of the sensor, the BNWAS is automatically reset.
23.4.3 Power Supply
It uses the ship’s main power supply of 110 / 220 V AC, converted to 24V DC supply for
the system. All extensions take power from the main circuit for operation.
23.4.4 I/O Communication
The BNWAS also runs in the auto mode and takes an input from the autopilot system.
Normally, the Navigational officer puts it in the manual mode at sea and turns it off in the port.
Push buttons and motion sensors are the inputs to the system. The Extension alarm panels are
the output devices of the system. All output extension panels communicate with the help of
NMEA protocol.

23.5 Troubleshooting the BNWAS
Causes Remedies
There is no power supply 1. The main switch is off
2. The ship’s main power supply breaker is off
3. The fuse is blown
4. A cable is faulty
No reset is accepted when the push 1. The push button is malfunctioning
button is pressed 2. The cable is broken
The motion sensor is not working 1. The motion detector is disabled
1. The motion detector is faulty
23.5.1 Troubleshooting the BNWAS JCX-161
23.5.1.1 The LCD On the Operation Panel Appears Blank

The power switch of NCK-175 has been turned off. Turn on the power supply
breaker.
The display has been dimmed. Adjust the dimmer.
23.5.1.2 NYG-5 Reset Does Not Work.

Probable Cause Remedies
There are air conditioning devices around NYG-5. Move the air conditioning devices away from the
NYG-5.
23.5.1.3 The Visual Indication Does Not Work on NCJ-895 / 896.

23.5.1.4 The Visual Indication Does Not Work at NCD-2257.


Chapter 23
23.5.1.5 The Count Down of the Dormant Period Does Not Start
The operation mode has been set to Automatic, and Set the operation mode to “MANUAL ON”.
the track control system is not active.

Chapter 24
Ship’s Security Alert System
24.1 Introduction
A merchant vessel does not carry arms for self-protection; it is totally prohibited as per the
IMO. We are aware that the vessel travels in high-risk areas or areas where chances of pirate
attacks are high. In the past, many ships have been attacked by pirates and the vessel’s Master
did not get enough time to call for help from the coast guard, or the company or even a third
party.
The consequences of an attack on the ship are loss of the ship itself at times, loss of cargo,
loss of life and loss of the owner's money and reputation. The IMO has studied all pirate attack
cases and has developed a system which will, as a ship security alert, directly inform the
company and a third party of any such attack.
The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) is again not a GMDSS communications system but
it may be associated with GMDSS equipment installed on a ship. Carriage of SSAS is a
requirement under the regulations of chapter XI-2 of SOLAS. The ship’s security alert system
is thus fitted to a ship for the purpose of transmitting a security alert to the shore to indicate to
a competent authority that the security of the ship is under threat or has been compromised.
SSAS is a system that contributes to the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO)’s
efforts to strengthen maritime security and suppress acts of terrorism and piracy against
shipping. The system is a joint project between Cospas-Sarsat and the IMO. In the case of
attempted piracy or terrorism, the ship’s SSAS beacon can be activated, and appropriate law-
enforcement or military forces can be dispatched.
Unlike the GMDSS distress alert, which is designed to be received by all possible stations,
the SSAS is intended to allow a covert activation to be made which alerts the competent
authority ashore and does not raise an alarm on board ship nor alert other ships. It comprises a
minimum of two activation points, one of which is on the navigation bridge.

Chapter 24
INMARSAT Satellite
Headquarters
Ground
Station
Ship’s Head Office /

Monitoring Centre
Figure 24.1 – Overview of the SSAS

The SSAS report contains data that is sent to up to two or more locations, as specified by
the ship’s captain or authorized personnel. No audible or visible alarm is generated while the
SSAS report is being transmitted in order to prevent discovery by the intruders.
The SSAS is protected with a password to prevent unauthorized setting or testing of it by
anyone other than the ship’s Master or the authorized personnel.
24.2 Regulations
SOLAS Regulation XI-2/6 requires vessels of 500 GT or more constructed before 01 July
2004 to install an SSAS.

24.3 Block Diagram
Antenna
AC-DC Power Communication Unit Personal

110 / 220 V AC Printer
Supply Unit With Internal GPS Computer
Junction Box
SSAS Alert SSAS Alert SSAS Alert

Switch Switch Switch
Maximum 3 Units In Different Places
Figure 24.2 – Block Diagram of SSAS Architecture

24.3.1 AC-DC Power Supply Unit
The SSAS unit requires a 24 V DC supply for operation and it converts 110 / 220 V AC
supply into 24 V DC and supplies it to all its units for operation. It uses the ship’s reserve power
(a battery source) for emergency purposes.
24.3.2 Personal Computer and Printer
The Master or an authorized person can access the communication unit with the help of a
computer and it communicates with a serial communication protocol RS232. The system needs
a password to access the data.
The data contains all the ship's information - it's destination address and priority and much
more. All changes are printed on paper. It also needs an annual testing report for PSC inspection
purposes.

Chapter 24
24.3.3 Antenna
It is a parabolic antenna used for continuous access to the INMARSAT system for
transmission of SSAS data to its destination address. It is enclosed in a dome shaped cover and
is maintenance free.
Figure 24.3 – SSAS Components

24.3.4 SSAS Alert Switch
SSAS alert switches are installed in designated places like the bridge, the Master's cabin or
the Master’s room; it all depends on company policy. It is a rectangular box with a red switch
covered with glass to protect it from being pressed accidentally.
24.4 Communication Unit with Internal GPS
This is the heart of the SSAS and it contains all the ship information like ship’s name, MMSI
No., position, etc. and the destination address to send the SSAS data is also stored. The above
data can be changed by an authorized person and it is password protected. When a Master or
the authorized person presses the SSAS switch, it triggers the communication unit and the
communication unit sends the SSAS data to the stored first priority destination address.
If once again the Master or the authorized person presses the SSAS switch then the SSAS
data is sent to the second stored priority destination address. The delay between the first and
the second press must be more than 30 sec. The Master or the authorized person can change the
above address and priority as per company instructions and the access is password protected.
The number of stored destination addresses may change from maker to maker.
Some makers give two or three and some give five. The SSAS data sending request can be
cancelled by pressing the button one more time within 30 sec (it is optional).
24.5 Maintenance
24.5.1 Antenna
Check that the terminal connection must be dirt and dust-free and covered with insulation
tape.
24.5.2 SSAS Switch
Check that the SSAS switches are covered with protecting glass to avoid accidental pressing.
The condition of the glass must also be checked and maintained without any cracks or damage.
24.5.3 SSAS PCB
Check that the power at the input terminal of the SSAS PCB is 24 V DC. The tightness of
all terminal connections should be checked. Also check that they are covered and vibration free.

Chapter 24
Symptoms Causes
No Power 1. There is no input power supply
2. The AC-DC power supply unit is faulty
3. A cable is broken
SSAS data is not transmitted 1. The SSAS switch is not pressed
2. The SSAS switch cable is faulty
3. The distribution box cable is faulty
4. The SSAS communication is faulty
5. The antenna is faulty
6. The antenna cable is faulty
SSAS is not connecting to the computer 1. The computer has no serial connection
software
2. The serial connection cable is faulty
3. The serial connection port is faulty

Chapter 25
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
25.1 Introduction
The GMDSS serves as a lifeline from the ship to the shore, when a vessel is in distress. The
state of distress is defined as when a vessel is threatened by serious and / or imminent danger
and requires immediate assistance.
International Maritime Communications Standards have been rising for over a century. After
the loss of the Titanic in 1912, maritime nations came together in 1914, to work on improving
the safety standards of international shipping. This led to the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and, eventually,
GMDSS being implemented.
The full implementation of the GMDSS occurred on February 1, 1999, more than 20 years
ago and about 87 years after the sinking of the Titanic.
GMDSS is a requirement for all SOLAS vessels; cargo vessels over 300 gross register
tonnage (GRT), as well as passenger ships such as ocean liners, ferries and cruise ships; but
there are tens of thousands of non-SOLAS vessels that use GMDSS as well.
The most recognisable component of satellite GMDSS is the “Red Button”. When a vessel
is in distress, a person can hold down the button for more than 3 seconds to send either a Distress
Alert or a Distress Call to a Maritime Rescue Coordination Center (MRCC).
As per a statement by Iridium on its website, “most GMDSS satellite users only have access
to Distress Alert and Maritime Safety Information. However, with the introduction of the
Iridium system, mariners will be able to buy an all-in-one, more affordable terminal that will
provide Distress Alert, Maritime Safety Information, and Distress Voice. This will allow for
better communication, therefore enabling more effective search and rescue operations for safer
seas in the future.”
The International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea has developed the regulations that
state that, while watchkeeping, vessels at sea listen continuously to the radio on specific
terrestrial radio frequencies. Mariners may be aware of the three frequencies namely 500 kHz
and 2182 kHz in the medium frequency band (MF) and channel 16 on very high frequency
(VHF), which have been utilized for decades as international calling and distress channels.

Chapter 25
Earlier, as per the requirements of SOLAS 74 regulations, ships over 1600 GRT, utilized
two manually operated systems for distress alerts which were:
• Morse Code telegraphy on 500 kHz MF.
• Radio Telephone on 2182 kHz or 156.8 kHz (Channel 16) on VHF.
The major disadvantage of this system is that a highly trained Morse code operator was
needed to handle the telegraphy alerting and communications traffic on 500 kHz. The need to
carry an additional designated Morse code operator and radio officer on the ship subsequently
increased the running cost of the vessel. As compared to that system, GMDSS is an easy and
fast operating method of radio communication and no specialist is required. The GMDSS
equipment is used for both long as well as short-range communication purposes.
Short range communication uses MF or VHF radio or both frequency bands in the GMDSS,
mainly during on-scene SAR operations. Earlier communication could be established only up
to 150 nautical miles, but in the GMDSS system, long range communication can be established
with the help of satellite communication. Satellite communications use the excellent Inmarsat
system, and provide the mariner with virtually instantaneous access to a global radionet in the
advent of distress
25.2 GMDSS Equipment Carriage Requirement.
Every vessel, over 300 grt, which chooses to operate subject to the GMDSS regulations,
must be provided with the following minimum fittings of radio communications equipment:
• A VHF radio installation providing communications on channels 6, 13 and 16 with the
facilities for DSC alerting on channel 70.
• A receiver for continuous DSC watch on channel 70.
• Two radar transponders (SART) transmitting in the 9 GHz maritime band.
• A NAVTEX receiver.
• A receiver for the reception of maritime safety information transmitted by Inmarsat's
Enhanced Group Call (EGC) system if on voyages in sea areas of Inmarsat coverage where
NAVTEX is not provided.
• A satellite EPIRB capable of being manually or automatically activated to float free.

• Two (three on ships over 500 grt) waterproof VHF hand-held transceivers for on-scene
communications.
• MF communications on 2182 kHz (optional until Feb 1999).
• Carriage requirements for GMDSS radio equipment can be summarized as below:
Sea Area A1- Ships shall carry VHF equipment and a satellite EPIRB.
Sea Area A2 - Ships shall carry VHF and MF equipment and a satellite EPIRB.
Sea area A3 – Ships shall carry VHF and MF equipment, a satellite EPIRB and either
HF or satellite communication equipment.
Sea area A4 – Ships shall carry VHF, MF and HF equipment and a satellite EPIRB.
For the above sea area, all ships carry equipment for receiving MSI broadcasts.
Figure 25.1 – Some Mandatory Equipment

All ships have now installed a simple push button operation, which initiates distress alerts
on the three communication systems and produces audible and visual alarms on receipt of a
distress alert. The prime concern of any radio communications operator when a vessel is in
imminent danger is that of distress alerting. GMDSS regulations require that each vessel must
be able to transmit a ship-to-shore distress alert by at least two totally independent means. The
two pieces of equipment used for this purpose must be totally independent of each other
including their power supplies.

Chapter 25
To briefly explain an Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon or EPIRB, it is a safety

device carried by a vessel to alert search and rescue services and allow them to quickly locate
you in the event of an emergency. It does this by transmitting a coded message on the 406 MHz
distress frequency via satellite and earth stations to the nearest rescue coordination centre.
An EPIRB usually works on 406 / 121.5 MHz and can be manually or automatically
activated and some models are also water activated.
Image Courtesy: sentramarindo.com

Figure 25.2 – EPIRBs by Two Different Makers
The transitional timetable for fitting GMDSS equipment on ships over 300 grt is as follows:
• The existing ships may comply with GMDSS requirements from 1 February 1992.
• All ships must carry NAVTEX receivers and satellite EPIRBs from 1 August 1993.
• All new vessels must comply fully with GMDSS provisions from 1 February 1995.
• From 1 February 1999 all vessels must fully comply with the GMDSS.

25.3 Basic Functions of The GMDSS System
The basic function of the GMDSS is to inform Search and Rescue authorities ashore, in
addition to ships near the vicinity of the casualty. They must be rapidly alerted to a distress
incident so that they can assist in a co-ordinated Search and Rescue operation with the minimum
of delay.
Figure 25.3 – General Diagram of the GMDSS Radio Network

The IMO specifies that ships on international voyages must carry radio communications
equipment that meet the nine functions in the specific sea areas in which the vessel trades:
1. Distress alerting-ship-to-shore. There must be a means of transmitting ship to shore distress
alerts by at least two separate and independent methods, each using a different radio
communications service.
Chapter 25
2. Receiving distress alerts - shore-to-ship.

3. Transmitting and receiving distress alerts - ship-to-ship.
4. Transmitting and receiving SAR coordination communications.
5. Transmitting and receiving on-scene communications.
6. Transmitting and receiving locating signals. (radar transponders and standard navigation
radar equipment.)
7. Transmitting / receiving maritime safety information (MSI).
8. Transmitting and receiving general radio communications from shore-based radio networks.
9. Bridge-to-bridge two-way communications.
Figure 25.4 shows that a ship in distress is inside a highly efficient radio network composed
of a number of interlocking subsystems. If the casualty ship has correctly fitted all GMDSS
radio equipment it will be able to alert and effectively communicate with a wide range of other
radio stations. Rescue messages are sent to Rescue Coordination Centres via two ways based
on the ship’s causality. In the first method the causality ship sends signals to the INMARSAT
satellite; the INMARSAT satellite then sends a message to a nearby coastal earth station and
the Rescue Coordination Centre.
The Rescue Coordination Centre compares coordinates with the Coastal Earth Station and
sends rescue coordinates to Search and Rescue forces (a helicopter or a Naval vessel nearby),
for rescuing operations.
In the second method, when the ship is going to sink and has activated the Emergency
Position Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB), which has in-built GPS and ship information, a
signal is sent to the COSPAS SARSAT satellite on 406 MHz frequency and the COSPAS
SARSAT satellite sends this signal to Local User Terminal stations (LUT); Local User Control
Centre (MCC) and the Mission Control Centre sends the message to the Rescue Coordination
Centre (RCC). Based on the received information, the Rescue Coordination Centre sends rescue
coordinates to a Search and Rescue force (a Helicopter or a Naval vessel nearby) for rescue
operations. With reference to Figure 25.3, the casualty is shown communicating with a coastal
radio station using VHF or MF and with two other vessels using VHF.

A ship in distress would not normally be in a position to use all of the elements shown. The
systems to be utilized would depend upon the radio range of the equipment fitted on the ship,
which in turn depends upon the geographical area in which the ship travels during its voyage.
Four sea areas for communications within the GMDSS radio network have been specified by
the IMO.
EPIRB Signal
VHF Signal
Helicopter
INMARSAT
Signal
Rescue
Coordination
Centre
Coast-Earth
Local User
Station
Terminal /
Mission
National / Control
International Centre
Networks
Coastal Radio
Station MF, HF, VHF
Sea Area A1 Sea Area 2 Sea Area A3 Sea Area A4
Figure 25.4 – Different Radio Signals for Message Transmission and Reception
When a ship sinks, a float free unit EPIRB is automatically activated. The EPIRB transmits
on 406 MHz and the homing signal on 121.5 MHz and location information using AIS.
With reference to INMARSAT – it is a system of geostationary satellites that provide two-
way communication for sea areas A1 to A3 on 1.5 and 1.6 GHz band frequency.
Note: Sometimes the Iridium satellite is used with the INMARSAT satellite. The Iridium
satellite is an orbiting satellite providing two-way communication for sea areas A1 to A4. Sea
areas will be explained in article 25.4.
The VHF / MF radio signal is short range communication purpose and used for ships to
communicate with coastal radio stations or from one ship to another.
Chapter 25
GMDSS equipment can be used for following additional functions:

1. Maritime safety Information (MSI)
• Navigational warning
• Metrological warning
• Search and Rescue information
2. General radio communications
• Medical advice
• Vessel traffic services
• Ship reporting
• Public correspondence
Figure 25.5 – The Main Unit of a GMDSS System

Figure 25.6 – The GMDSS Console by JRC
25.4 Sea Areas
Whilst it should be remembered that the GMDSS is a totally global system it is not necessary
for all ships to carry the full range of GMDSS communications equipment. The IMO specified
radio equipment to be carried is determined by the declared geographical area of operation of
a vessel within the GMDSS radio network. Areas of operation are designated as follows:
25.4.1 Area A1
This area is within radio communications range of shore-based VHF coastal radio stations
that provide continuous alerting by digital selective calling (DSC). Typically, the radio range
would be approximately 20 to 30 nautical miles. Due to the huge expenses of providing a large
number of VHF coastal radio stations around their coastline, many countries will not be very
active in Area AI. This means that ships must be fitted with radio equipment to satisfy Area A2
requirements when plying within home-trading voyages.
25.4.2 Area A2
It is an area beyond sea area A1, but within the radio range of shore-based MF coastal radio
stations providing distress alerting using DSC. Typically, the radio range is 100 to 150 nautical
miles.
Chapter 25
25.4.3 Area A3
It is an area within the coverage area of the Inmarsat geostationary satellites providing for
continuous alerts. This is approximately the total surface area of the world excluding areas
North and South of 75 O Latitude; or the total surface area of the world for those vessels which
choose not to fit a satellite Ship Earth Station (SES) but use HF communications instead.
25.4.4 Area A4
All other remaining areas of the world, namely the polar regions north and south of 75 O
latitude, outside the Inmarsat satellite coverage area.
Figure 25.7 – Sea Areas
25.5 Digital Selective Calling (DSC)
Digital selective calling forms a critical part of the terrestrial element of the GMDSS. Under
international telecommunications regulations, all transmitting stations must identify themselves
and consequently, each station is provided with a unique selective code. All Morse
communication techniques used for groups of calls and the sequential frequency code used
audio signal with a four-to-five-digit code to identify ship or coastal stations.
This outdated code is, however, soon to be replaced by the more reliable digital selective
code calling system (DSC), in which the identities will be in decimal notation. Both ship and
coastal station identities known as the Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) number, will
be coded in nine characters as shown below.
25.5.1 Specific Ship Station Identities
MIDX4XsX6X7X8X9. The first three digits (MID) identifies the country, followed by six
digits to identify the ship station. As an example, 257123456 indicates a ship that is registered
in Norway, as codes 257 and 258 are allocated to Norway.
25.5.2 Group Ship Stations Identities
OMIDXsX6X7X8X9. The first zero signifies a ship’s group call, the MID identifies the
country assigning the call and the five digits identify the group of vessels being called.
25.5.3 Specific Coast Station Identities
00MIDX6X7X8X9. The first two zeros signify a coastal radio station. The remaining
characters are as previously identified.
25.5.4 Group Coast Station Identities
00MIDX6X7X8X9. The first two zeros signify a coastal radio station. The remaining
characters are as previously identified.
Once the DSC broadcast has been activated the transmission format as shown in Figure 25.8
is sent automatically. The first two blocks of each message frame are essential in order to enable
the receiving DSC unit to achieve synchronization. This is crucial in all data transmission
systems to provide the receiver data decoder with the correct epoch information to enable
message data to be received.
Figure 25.8 illustrates the sequence of the distress call, relay and acknowledgement
information which is transmitted in a DSC call. In the distress mode all messages will produce
a hard copy on the associated printer. A distress call is initiated simply by pressing the 'red'
button or keying in a specific selected code. An incoming distress call initiates the Narrow Band
Direct Printer (NBDP) along with audible and visual alarms. The transmission speed of a DSC
alert varies depending upon the frequency band used. On MF IHF it is relatively slow at 100
bauds (twice the speed of a standard telex), and on VHF where greater usable bandwidth is
possible, it rises to 1200 bauds. A Baud is the standard unit used to express the speed of digital
transmission.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.8 – Sequence of Distress Call, Distress Call Relay, Distress Acknowledgement
With all methods of digital transmission, it is necessary to include some form of error
correction coding in the transmission. This leads to repetition of some data causing a high
redundancy rate. However, the big advantage of the system is that suitable receiving apparatus
can identify and correct errors caused in the transmission medium. A DSC sequence transmits
each single character twice plus an overall message check at the end. A single call on MF/HF
therefore varies between 6.2 and 7.2 seconds, whereas on the faster baud rate of the VHF the
same call would be transmitted between 0.45 and 0.63 seconds depending upon message
content. In order to improve the chances of a DSC alert being received it is automatically
transmitted for five consecutive attempts. Additionally, when a DSC alert is broadcast on MF
or HF it is transmitted up to six times on any or the entire frequencies available (one on MF and
five on HF). An 'end of sequence' code informs the receiver that the message has ended and to
initiate an error checking operation to verify data.
Once a valid alert has been received and acknowledged by an RCC, a SAR operation will
be initiated. On-scene communications are, by definition, short-range communications and will
normally take place on VHF or MF between the casualty and other ships or aircraft in the area.
Locating a casualty may be done by using the 9 GHz SART transponder.

25.5.5 DSC Frequencies

Frequencies – either scanned or manually selected
VHF DSC Channel 70
MF DSC 2187.5 KHz
HF DSC 4207.5; 6312; 8414.5; 12,577 and 16,504.5 KHz
MFNBDP 2174.5 KHz
HF NBDP 4177.5; 6268; 8376.5; 12,520 and 16,695 KHz
25.6 The GMDSS Satellite Segment
Satellite equipment, satellite communications play a crucial role in the operation of the
GMDSS. Suitably equipped vessels can transmit a distress alert and receive an
acknowledgement virtually instantaneously irrespective of their geographical location. There
are two satellite segments in the GMDSS each providing different services as per the sea area.
They are as follows.
• The Inmarsat global communications system providing instantaneous duplex
communication based on geostationary satellite coverage.
• The COSPAS-SARSAT locating system based on polar orbiting satellites.
25.6.1 INMARSAT
The shipping industry needs long range communication techniques for distress assistance
and this problem is solved by the INMARSAT system. The INMARSAT development idea
originated within IMO in 1966. Following the extensive study of IMO experts, many
international conferences were convened and, on 3 September 1976 unanimously adopted the
Convention and Operating Agreement on the International Maritime Satellite Organization
(INMARSAT). As per the Convention, INMARSAT is to provide for the space segment
necessary for improving maritime communication thereby assisting in improving distress and
safety of life at sea communications.
There was an Intergovernmental takeover in 1979. After 20 years of successful operation,
the member states and signatories decided to challenge the rapidly growing competitions from
private providers of satellite communication services by pioneering the first privatization of an
intergovernmental organization while adhering to the continuous public service obligations
with governmental oversight. The restructuring arrangement entered into force in 2001.
Chapter 25
The resulting intergovernmental organization (Known as a IMSO) continues with 105

parties and a small secretariat charged with overseeing the company’s public service duties to
support the GMDSS. The INMARSAT system has the following four major components:
1) INMARSAT space segment
2) Land earth stations
3) INMARSAT satellite access stations
4) Ship earth stations
25.6.2 INMARSAT Space Segment
INMARSAT presently operates multiple constellations of 13 geostationary satellites and
also including I-3, I-4 and I-5 spacecrafts. These spacecrafts provide the L- band connectivity
used for Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN) and GMDSS services, over the I-3 and I-
4 satellites, as well as Ka band over the I-5 for their Global Xpress services. Figure 25.9
illustrates the INMARSAT current constellation of primary I-3 and I-4 satellite used for
GMDSS services on INMARSAT C, Mini C, F77 and Fleet Safety terminals, Satellites in both
constellations are located on the geostationary orbit – 35,786 kilometres above the earth's
equator and operate on L- band frequencies (1.5 / 1.6 GHz). Backup I-3 and I-4 satellites are
used as a contingency for GMDSS as shown in Figure 25.9.
4F3
98W 4F1
AORW / 143.5 E
MER POR /
APAC
3FS
94W
4F2
AORE 4F4 64E
25E IOR /
IOR / MEAS
EMEA
Figure 25.9 – INMARSAT-3 and INMARSAT-4 Satellite Constellation

In 2018, INMARSAT successfully migrated INMARSAT C and Mini C services onto a new
constellation consisting of I-3 and I-4 satellites. The recognized INMARSAT C and Mini C
GMDSS services provided by INMARSAT have been managed through four primary satellites
located over four ocean regions as depicted below in Table 25.1.
IOR AOR-E POR AOR-W
Indian Ocean region Atlantic Ocean region East Pacific Ocean region Atlantic
Ocean region
West
INMARSAT- 4 F4 25° E INMARSAT-3 F5 54° W INMARSAT-4 F1 143.5° INMARSAT-
E 4 F3 98° W
Table 25.1 – INMARSAT C and Mini C Primary Satellites

The primary satellites are supported by three (I-3/I-4) satellites to ensure rapid restoration
of essential GMDSS services in the unexpected event of a prime satellite failure.
25.7 Land Earth Stations (LES)
Land earth stations used for INMARSAT C and Mini C services provide the link between
the satellites and terrestrial telecommunications networks. A typical Land earth station consists
of a parabolic antenna about 11 m to 14 m in diameter, which is used for transmission of signals
to the satellite at 6 GHz (uplink frequency) and for reception for satellite at 4 GHZ (downlink
frequency).
The same antenna or a dedicated antenna is used for L-band transmission at 1.6 GHz and
reception at 1.5 GHz of network control signal. The type of communication service provided
varies depending on the LES. Each ocean area also has a network coordination station (NCS)
which assigns communication channels, on demand, to ship earth stations (SES) and other
LES’s and also monitors the signals transmitted by these stations.
25.8 INMARSAT Satellite Access Stations (SAS)
The Satellite Access Stations (SAS) owned and operated by INMARSAT are used for the
Broadband Global Access Network services including INMARSAT fleet safety. The SAS
consists of a parabolic antenna typically of 13 m to 18 m in diameter, which is used for
transmission of signals to the satellite at 6 GHz and for reception from the satellite at 4 GHz.
The same antenna is typically used for the L- band transmission at 1.6 GHz and reception at
1.5 GHz of network control signals. The SAS provides communication channels on demand to
SES’s for both GMDSS and commercial services.

Chapter 25
INMARSAT has purpose built 4 Maritime Safety Servers (MSS), 2 situated in the
INMARSAT headquarters – London and 2 in the Burum SAS, Netherlands, providing
geographical redundancy and 100% application redundancy within each server.
The MSS is connected to the BGAN SAS for communications over the I-4 satellite
constellation linked to Fleet Broadband terminals, whilst also being connected to the
INMARSAT C network coordination stations to enable broadcast to INMARSAT C Mini C
terminals. This interoperability ensures that vital search and rescue (SAR) information and
Maritime safety Information (MSI) is simultaneously broadcast to all INMARSAT GMDSS
approved systems through one input, SafetyNET for MSI and RescueNET for SAR broadcast.
25.9 Ship Earth Stations (SES)
GMDSS can be fast grown because the INMARSAT ship earth station is capable of two-
way communications, such as INMARSAT C, Mini C, Fleet Safety and Fleet F77.
25.9.1 INMARSAT C SES
INMARSAT C SESs are small, lightweight terminals designed for a two-way message
communication. INMARSAT C SESs cannot be used for radiotelephone communications; they
operate at 600 bits/sec and provide access to the international index and data communication
networks, electronic mail (e-mail) services and computer database.
INMARSAT C SES’s provide core functionality in the GMDSS through the reception of
maritime safety information (MSI), Distress Alert capability and can also serve as a backup for
other INMARSAT SESs on large ships and also fulfill a potential vital role as a fixed or portable
transmitter/receiver for use on board ship or survival craft. The system uses an omnidirectional
antenna and its characteristics are important for a vessel in distress as the SES continues to
operate even when the vessel is listing severely.
25.9.2 Fleet F77 SES
INMARSAT Fleet F77 is a legacy maritime service that offers GMDSS capability providing
voice and high-speed fax and data services at up to 128 kbps. The Fleet F77 terminal is a small
self- contained SES consisting of above deck equipment, about 0.85 to 1.32 m in diameter
containing a parabolic antenna and electronics circuit, and below deck equipment consisting of
electronic units (PCB’s), power supplies and interface connections. The Interface to other
equipment such as telephone, computer, ISDN terminal adapters, etc. comprise the below-deck
equipment.

Note: According to the notice given by INMARSAT, Fleet 77 services have been stopped
since 1 December 2020
25.9.3 INMARSAT Fleet Broadband
Fleet Broadband is a service which supports standard and streaming IP services in addition
to traditional circuit switched voice and ISDN data. It is based on the 3G standard and provides
constant, simultaneous access to voice and broadband data. Generally, four types of terminal
are available: Fleet One which offers standard IP up to 100kbps with an antenna of 27.5x22.1
cm weighing 2.5 Kg; FB 150 which offers standard IP up to 150 kbps with an antenna that is
0.27 m diameter; FB250 which offers standard IP up to 284 kbps and streaming IP up to 128
kbps with an antenna of 0.32 m diameter and FB 500 which offer standard IP up to 432 kbps
and streaming up to 256 kbps with an antenna of 0.55 m diameter. All terminals also support
voice, fax and SMS.
The above deck equipment use stabilized directional antennas which are smaller than those
used with fleet terminals. The system operates through the four I-4 satellites which provide
global coverage, offering services including voice distress and the urgency priority services of
medical advice, medical assistant and maritime assistance.
25.9.4 COSPAS SARSAT Satellite
The system was developed under a Memorandum of Understanding among the Agencies of
the former USSR, United States of America, Canada and France, signed in 1979. The system
was put in operation in 1985 and in 1998 the four states providing the space segment signed the
International Cospas-Sarsat program agreement to ensure the continuity of the system and its
availability to all states on a non-discriminatory basis. Presently 40 states and organizations,
non-parties to the agreement, have also associated themselves with the programme, most of
them contributing ground receiver stations (LUT’s) and Mission control Centre (MCC).
The COSPAS SARSAT system is a satellite aided SAR system designed to locate distress
beacons transmitting on the frequency of 406 MHz. It is intended to serve all organizations in
the world responsible for SAR operations whether a distress occurs at sea, in the air and on
land. The COSPAS-SARSAT system has originally demonstrated that the detection and
location of distress signals can be facilitated by global monitoring based on low altitude
satellites in near polar orbits. The system has subsequently been enhanced by the addition of
geostationary satellites. Further enhancements at the pre operational state are in hand to add the
use of medium earth orbit satellites provided by GPS, GLONASS and Galileo satellites.

Chapter 25
25.9.4.1 Basic Concept COSPAS-SARSAT System

The basic Cospas-Sarsat system concept is shown above in Figure 25.10. There are three
types of satellite beacons, namely emergency locator transmitters (ELT’s) used for airborne
carriers, emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) used in maritime carriers and
personal locator beacon (PLB’s) used on land carriers. These beacons transmit signals that are
detected by Cospas-Sarsat satellite equipment with suitable receivers / processors. The signals
are then relayed to a ground receiving station, called a local user terminal (LUT), which
processes the signal to determine the beacon location. An alert is then relayed, together with
location data and other information, via an MCC, either to national RCC, to another MCC or
to the appropriate SAR authority to initiate SAR operations.
COSPAS – SARSAT
SAR Forces
Ship in distress LUT MCC RCC
Figure 25.10 – Basic Concept of COSPAS-SARSAT Satellite (Courtesy IMO)

MEOSAR Satellite
MEOSAR Satellite
LEOSAR Satellite
GEOSAR Satellite
MEOSAR Satellite
Please Scan the QR Code to see a short YouTube video

Figure 25.11 – COSPAS-SARSAT Satellite Orbital Structure
As shown in Figure 25.11, the Cospas-Sarsat system comprises of three types of satellites,
those in the low altitude earth orbit (LEO) which forms the LEOSAR system, those in the
geostationary earth orbit which form the GEOSAR system and those in the Medium Earth orbit
which form the MEOSAR system.
The Cospas-Sarsat normally maintains a constellation of four or more LEOSAR satellites
with SAR payloads (normally two Cospas and two Sarsat). Earth satellite makes a complete
orbit of the earth around the poles in about 100 minutes, traveling at a velocity of 7 km/s. The
satellite views a swath of the earth approximately 6,00 km wide as it circles the earth. When
viewed from the earth, the satellite crosses the sky in about 15 minutes.
Each satellite, circulating the earth around the poles, views the entire earth’s surface as the
earth rotates underneath it. It takes one half rotation of the earth (12 hours) for any location to
pass under the satellite. With the minimum of four satellites, it may extend further by 43
minutes for the message to be rebroadcast to a LUT. The LEOSAR system is able to
independently calculate the location of distress signals for the beacon using the Doppler
processing technique. The LEOSAR polar orbiting satellite, Doppler shift is used to locate the
beacons. The carrier frequency transmitted by the beacon is reasonably stable during the period
of mutual beacon- satellite visibility.

Chapter 25
To optimize Doppler location, SAR transponders are placed on satellites in low altitude near
polar orbits. The low altitude results in a low uplink power requirement pronounced Doppler
shift, and short intervals between successive passes.
The LEOSAR is operating in two coverage modes for the detection and location of beacons,
namely the real time mode and the global coverage mode. In the real mode, EPIRB sends signals
on 406 MHz to the satellite, the Doppler shift measured and beacon digital data, which includes
ship identification etc. are recovered from the beacon signal. The Same data is transmitted to
the real time signal to LUT for further processing.
25.10 GMDSS Equipment Maintenance
Obviously, it is of prior importance that the GMDSS communication equipment be

maintained in proper working order. In the past ships carried radio officers whose job it was to
maintain all radio equipment in good order. Today this maintenance is carried out by the Second
Officer, the Electro Technical Officer and the Shore based technician.
25.10.1 Self-Testing
Ships that have communications equipment to be used in the GMDSS radio network must
be fitted with some form of self-testing system in order that an operator may verify the
equipment's performance. During a switch-on or restart procedure, in GMDSS each electronic
Unit performs function tests on the various electronic boards, cables and supplies. A
combination of the blink rates of the LEDs on the unit indicate the probable cause of any failure
detected. Vessel having Second Officer (Radio officer is who has qualified exam of GMDSS
equipment) who has regular interval self-test carried out of each GMDSS equipment and note
down in company maintenance record book.
25.10.2 Power Supplies
GMDSS equipment operates with the ship's emergency sources of energy. A reserve source
of energy must be provided as the sole supply to the GMDSS equipment in the event of failure
of the ship's emergency supply. The reserve energy source, which will usually be batteries, must
be capable of simultaneously operating the VHF radio installation plus the additional primary
alerting radio installation appropriate for the sea area in which the ship is sailing. This may be
a terrestrial MF/HF transceiver or a satellite SES.
The GMDSS reserve batteries must be totally independent of the ship's electrical system
except for a battery charging arrangement.

The capacity of the reserve batteries must be such that the GMDSS equipment can be
operated continuously for 6 hours on those ships which fully comply with the GMDSS
regulations. These days most of the ships use sealed lead acid batteries commonly known as
the maintenance-free battery, with a higher capacity, which will thus allow the ships GMDSS
equipment to run for a longer time.
The Battery capacity is represented in Ampere Hours (AH); the higher the AH, the longer
the running time of the equipment.
25.10.3 Battery Maintenance
No matter how reliable maritime equipment is made to be, it is often the battery supply
which causes a system failure. Not because battery technology is inadequate but because of
insufficient or improper battery maintenance. In common with all things natural or man-made,
batteries will not last forever. However, with periodic maintenance the secondary batteries
which form the reserve energy supply for the GMDSS equipment can be kept in prime
condition. It is obviously critically important that the GMDSS emergency batteries are able to
supply power when called upon to do so.
Figure 25.12 – Two Batteries Each Containing Six Cells Are in Series To Provide 24 V
Secondary cells are better suited to supply the reserve power requirements of equipment
operating within a rugged environment. These cells can be discharged and recharged many
times. In addition, they are robust and able to supply much greater amounts of energy on
demand.
Secondary cells are not used singly but will be grouped together in batteries providing a
terminal voltage of 6 V or 12 V. Obviously they can be further grouped to provide multiples of
these voltages. The lead acid secondary battery is commonly found in most high-energy
situations because of the following reasons:
a. The energy density tends to be very high.
Chapter 25
b. They are able to work reliably over large temperature ranges.

c. They are very robust and will stand some ill treatment.
d. They tend to be cheap.
e. If it is well-maintained, it will reliably deliver energy for even up to 5 years.
The lead acid battery contains electrolytes and electrolytes have a specific gravity which is
measured with the help of a hydrometer. The value of a fully charged cell's specific gravity is
1280 to 1300 and the cell should not be permitted to discharge below the specific gravity
reading of 1180 down to 1100. Always follow the simple safety and cleanliness rules when
using a hydrometer to check the reading.
Lead acid batteries should be regularly 'cycled' (one time Charging and Discharging is one
cycle) in order to maintain battery efficiency. Cycling requires that the batteries should be
partially discharged and recharged at regular intervals. There are specific rules governing the
design and location of the reserve battery room. In practice, the room will be located as high as
possible on the vessel and as close as possible to the equipment which is to be supplied with
energy. If a ship is sinking it is expected that the reserve batteries will continue to supply energy
until seawater reaches them. Hence, the battery room is as high as practicable on the ship. In
addition, long cable runs between battery and equipment possess relatively large resistance and
consequently will cause loss of voltage. Follow all the company standard safety procedures
during work on the battery and keep the battery room well-ventilated because during charging
lead acid cells, the inflammable gas, hydrogen, is released. If the gas builds-up in the locker,
and if it is ignited by a stray spark or a smoker an explosion will result! Make a note of the
battery status every Saturday in the company record book and also carry out an annual load test
to determine the performance of the battery. Always follow company safety procedures before
commencing a job.
25.10.4 Antenna Maintenance
Antenna systems do not require constant maintenance but they do need to be inspected at
intervals, particularly after the ship has been through storms and heavy weather. There are very
low chances of physical damage to the antenna or for ingress of water into the feeder cable. But
if any break in the insulation is found, or the cap or sleeve is removed or damaged, immediate
replacement is a must. During the coaxial cable connection, make sure that the connector is dry
and there is no water ingress.

Dried sea salt or exhaust deposits from a ship's funnel may form a conductive surface on
antenna insulators leading to a loss of transmitted power. Insulators can be inspected visually
or, during the hours of darkness, it may be possible to see the RF energy arcing across the
insulator. Another loss of radiation efficiency is caused by RF energy being lost from bad
connections. This may be seen at night as a corona discharge into the atmosphere. Too much
vibration and regular movement can cause feeders to become detached from the antenna. It is
essential therefore that the feeder coaxial cable is secured to the ship's superstructure at regular
intervals.
25.10.5 Some Good Practices for Antenna Maintenance
• Do check the antennae regularly, particularly after heavy weather.
• Do ensure that all weather proofing covers are in place and secure.
• Do ensure that all insulators are clean. If the surfaces are contaminated, clean them with
desalinated water. Do not use an abrasive cleaner.
• Do ensure that all coaxial cables connecting the antennae with the equipment are undamaged
and securely fixed to the ship's superstructure.
• Do make sure that any 'earth' connection which is made by bonding the outer screen of a
cable to the ship's superstructure, is clean and tight.
25.10.6 GMDSS Tester
The vessel must pass an annual Radio survey by shore certified technicians. Check the
operation of all the radio equipment and obtain a Radio testing certificate. Testing of the ship’s
GMDSS equipment is designed to check the transmitting and receiving functions of the
GMDSS according to the requirements of part IV of the Rules on conventional equipment of
sea vessels of the Register and DSC Protocol of the IMO requirements 493-8 and 541-7х
without emitting to the broadcast on distress frequencies on MF/HF/VHF.
During the test of the transmitting channel the device allows to:
• Check the reliability of formation and reception of the DSC messages of Distress format on
frequencies MF, HF2187,5 kHz, 8414,5 kHz; VHF - 156,525 MHz without emission to the
broadcast.
• Check the decoding of the received DSC signals.
• Display the received DSC signals on the LCD.
• Sound the reception of the DSC signal.
Chapter 25
• Indicate the time of reception of the DSC message.

• Indicate the power level of the transmitting GMDSS equipment on LCD.
• Indicate the synchronized bit quantity, message, previous to the DSC message phase,
indicating the correct operation of the transmitting HF path of the GMDSS equipment of a
vessel.
• Make qualitative estimation of the transmitting HF path: the transmitter - linkage - antenna
of the GMDSS equipment by level of power.
• Estimate the frequency’s stability of the checked transmitter by the received DSC message.
• Print test results.
During the test of the receiving channel the device allows to:
• Form and send to the input of the MF/HF receiver not less than three types of DSC messages:
'Distress -5', "Distress - 1", "Safety" for MF, HF on the frequencies 2187,5 kHz, 8414,5 kHz;
for VHF on the frequency 156,525 MHz.
• Form and send to the input of the VHF receiver not less than three kinds of the messages
DSC "Distress-5", "Distress-1", "Safety" on frequency 156,525 MHz.
• Estimate the receiver's ability to restore the information by sending of messages with a single
mistake.
• Print the test results of the receiving section
Note: The device should be stored in the Radio room protecting it from the influence of
atmospheric precipitation. Store the device at temperatures between 278 K (almost 5°С) and
313 K (almost 40°С) and at the relative humidity of air no more than 80 %.

Chapter 26
Marine Electric Clock
26.1 Standard Marine Electric Clock System (MCS-970)
The Marine Electric Clock System is a device for indicating the precise time and date to the
analogue / digital slave clocks as well as for recording and monitoring the operation data of the
vessel.
By using a 10.000 MHz TCXO crystal oscillator to compensate for temperature changes,
the MCS-970 system excels in safety and precision as the system has 0.1 second error per
month. These systems are manufactured to be shock and vibration proof, as well as are protected
from air pressure and salt. The system was tested at the IEC60945 standard and approved for
CE.
As a general feature, the clock is the ideal solution for distribution of both Local and UTC
time on board ships. The Master Clock is equipped with several outputs and inputs for control
of Slave Clocks as well as distribution of time to computers and other equipment needing the
correct time. The Slave Clock outputs can be individually programmed for different types of
clocks. External radio receivers / time synchronisation sources can be connected when higher
accuracy is needed.
The clock is also used for the control and regulation of various energy consumers such as
electrical striking plates and buzzers for pause signalling. The Master Clock has a built-in
yearly programmer with two relay outputs.
The Master Clock is generally equipped with 10 buttons and a 2 x 16-character LCD. To
facilitate the change of time zones, two of the buttons are dedicated to this purpose. A light
dimmer makes it possible to adjust the background-illumination to the surrounding light level.
26.1.1 Salient Features of the Marine Electric Clock System (MCS-970)
• Power Source: AC110 / 220V, 1Ø, 50 / 60 Hz.
• Emergency Power: AC or DC 24V (Ripple < 5%).
• Power Consumption: AC < 50 VA; DC < 1.6A (At 24V DC).
• Automatically switch to DC when AC power cause failure.

Chapter 26
• Certification: DNV CE.

• Temperature: -200C ~ + 450C.
• Humidity: Less than 90%.
26.1.2 Capacity and Function of The System
• Cristal Oscillation Frequency: 10.000 MHz (TCXO).
• Accuracy: Within ± 1.0 sec per a month.
• Dual Clocks in Main Unit: –. Master (UTC) : Three Hands, 0.5 sec. Leap, Ø80mm
Dial; – Slave (LTC) : Two/Three Hands, 30sec. Leap, Ø80mm Dial.
• Output Signal Form.
• Slave Clock: Up to 80ea.
• Battery Slave Clock (Optional).
• Digital Slave Clock (Optional).
• Built-in lighting control system (Dimmer).
• Fully protects: Power source and slave line circuit.
• Robust mechanism architecture and excellent stability.
• Easy time control: CW and CCW direction for slave clocks.
• High speed time setup.
• 30-sec Time adjust switch.
• “TIME” : Stopping time of all clocks for a while.
• “DIMMER” : Adjust illumination of back (EL) light.
• 4/5 AC/DC Power Fuse : 1.3A/5.0 A.
• 6/7. 0.55/30 S Out Fuse : 1.0A / 1.0A.
• 8/9. DC/AC Power Switch.

Marine Electric Clock
Image Courtesy: inameq.com

Figure 26.1 – The MCS 970 Master Unit and Slave Clocks
26.2 Generic Troubleshooting Guide for a Master Clock System
The clock’s life depends greatly on maintenance and management. To prevent any damage,
check it periodically. To avoid an electric shock or a short circuit, make sure you turn off the
main source switch of the main unit and then check it.
(1) Cleaning: With a soft cloth, wipe the accessible parts and remove any oil or dirt.
(2) Inspection of Components: Inspect the abnormality of the components, such as rust of
load wires, condition of soldering, corrosion of the copper foil in the printed circuit boards.
(3) Voltage checking: Check the voltage of the circuit regularly.
26.2.1 If A Warning Signal Is Generated or if the Clock has Stopped

Probable Causes Remedies Remarks
There is a ruptured Check the AC/DC power supply Upper LED of the failed fuse is
AC fuse turned on
There is a DC fuse Check for a short in the BD1. Replace a fuse.
There is a ruptured Check the 0.5 A Fuse Line,
0.5 A fuse TR8-11 transistor.
Ruptured 30 A fuse Check the 30 A Fuse Line, TR4-7 transistor.

Chapter 26
26.2.2 All fuses are okay but it is not working

Power IC1 is defective. Check the voltage of IC1. (5V ± 0.3V)
26.2.3 The Clock Is Slow or Fast

Probable Causes Remedies Remarks
The reference frequency oscillator Check the crystal frequency CPU Board TP1 10,000,000 Hz
has failed using a counter.
The CPU’s Program has failed Try an initial reset
26.2.4 GPS Signal Has Failed

The GPS input signal has failed Check for a short or an open circuit in the signal
line.
Input polarity is reversed Try reversing the polarity
There is a baud rate difference Check the position of the dip switches
26.2.5 The Master Dimmer Has Failed

The line or connector of the light has failed Check the line or J2, J3
PC1-3's circuit of the CPU Board has failed Check PC1 - PC3 Check R24 - R26
26.2.6 The Time Is Not Correct

Probable Cause Remedies
The backup battery has failed Check BT1 voltage on the CPU board. (3.5V ± 1V)

Chapter 27
Alarm Systems
27.1 Fire Alarms and Detection
We know that the cargo deck, cofferdams, paint stores and machinery spaces are classified
as hazardous areas. Since fire detection is of paramount importance onboard a ship or for that
matter everywhere, the explanation of the various sensors that lead to its detection have taken
priority over other alarm indication systems. As a fire grows it passes through four stages of
development namely:
1. Incipient (developing)
2. Smouldering
3. Open Flame
4. High Heat
27.1.1 Requirements of a Basic Fire Alarm System
✓ Must be able to sense a fire
✓ Must have some means to indicate the occurrence of a fire to persons concerned
✓ Must always be in a state of operational readiness
27.1.2 Requirements of a Typical Fire Detection System
✓ Quick Response
✓ Accurate Detection
✓ False Alarm Immunity
✓ Fault Tolerance
✓ Networked panels
✓ Enhanced Survivability
✓ Expandability
✓ Audio Integration
✓ Interface with other safety systems
✓ Adequate coverage of the hazardous area

Chapter 27
27.1.3 Initiating Devices

Initiating devices can automatically transmit an alarm signal when a condition indicative
of fire to which they respond occurs. Apart from manual arrangements they can be:
Smoke Detectors (light obscuration, light scatter or ionization types)
Heat Detectors (they operate at a fixed value or with the rate of rise in temperature)
Flame Detectors (they react to radiation emanating from flames)
Sprinkler-line flow-switches
27.1.4 Indicating Devices
These devices generate a signal that indicates / notifies that a condition indicative of fire
has occurred. The primary purpose of such a device is to notify occupants that an emergency
condition has arisen. The most common indicating devices are:
Horns
Bells
Strobe Lights
Sirens
Chimes
Audio Speakers
27.1.5 Control Panel
• Provides the central annunciation of alarms or faulty conditions

• Generates displays and indicates the nature of an abnormal condition
• It is also a means of transmitting an alarm to a remote location
27.1.6 Power Supply
Most systems supply 24 V directly to the panels. If the main power supply to the control
panel is the line voltage, internal transformer-rectifier blocks are used to step-down and
convert the line voltage to a low voltage (typically 24 V DC).
In the event of interruption of the main power supply, these systems have auxiliary power
sources (battery back-up) to keep them on-line.

Alarm Systems
27.1.7 Virtues of an Intelligent Fire Alarm System

User-friendly operator interface
Accurate and reliable detection of fire
Incredibly fast response time
Networking of panels
Integrated user prompts
Integrated audio system
Process-adapted, flexible automation
Real-time data capturing and routing
Uninterrupted operations and enhanced survivability
An automatic fire alarm system comprises of components for automatically detecting a fire,
initiating an alarm and other actions as arranged; the system may also include manual call
points. A system with at least these basic capabilities is to be installed in the cargo,
accommodation and service spaces of certain classes of passenger ships and in the cargo spaces
of ships carrying explosives. Tankers too are no exception to this rule. Such systems are also
fitted in the machinery spaces of cargo ships specially designed for unmanned operation and
on the vehicle decks of certain roll-on-roll-off ships depending on the conditions of carriage of
the vehicles contained there-in.
Fire detectors operating on various principles are currently available and the types presently
found in service onboard ships will be included in the following list:
1) Heat detectors which operate at a predetermined temperature;
2) Heat detectors which operate when the rate of temperature rise of the surrounding air
reaches a set limit;
3) Smoke detectors which operate when smoke obscures a light beam falling on a
photoelectric cell;
4) Smoke detectors which operate when a beam of light is scattered by smoke and caused to
fall on a photoelectric cell;
5) Combustion products detectors which operate when an electric current flowing through an
ionised atmosphere is changed;

Chapter 27
6) Flame detectors which react to radiation emanating from flames;

7) The sprinkler system also incorporates an automatic fire alarm and detection system but
this can be described in the section dealing with fixed fire extinguishing systems and hence
is beyond the scope of this chapter.
8) Other types of fire detectors are available such as line detectors, laser beam detectors, etc.
27.2 Heat Detectors
27.2.1 Fixed Temperature Type

The means of operation is extremely simple usually being either a bi-metallic strip or a
soldered joint. In the first type, the bi-metallic strip is used to make or break an electric circuit
at a pre-set temperature, which in some cases is 780C.
When it is arranged to make a circuit, the contacts are usually encapsulated in glass to
prevent the contacts from being affected by the atmosphere, since any corrosion may prevent
the passage of current when the contacts are required to complete and activate the circuit. Heat
detectors incorporating bi-metallic strips are especially useful in places such as boiler rooms
where rapid variations of temperature are likely to be encountered and preclude the use of the
rate-of-rise type of detector.
Contact Points Thermostat terminals
Insulated pin
Heat detecting plate

Circular bi-metal disc
Cap
Figure 27.1 – The Bi-metallic Detector

Alarm Systems
27.2.2 Rate of Rise Type

This type of detector works on the principle that provided the rate of increase in the
temperature of the surrounding air is above a given minimum value, the detector will operate
between given time limits, the latter depending on the rate of increase of temperature. It is likely
to operate when the temperature exceeds 540C for a rate of rise of less than one minute and
generally operate before the temperature exceeds 780C. The response times of heat sensitive
detectors depend on various factors one of which is the height that the detector is situated above
floor level.
As the magnitude of the fire to which a detector will respond increases considerably with
the height of the deck head on which it is mounted, the Grade I detector is more suitable for
higher deck heads.
In unattended machinery spaces too, any heat-sensitive detector of this specification
should be of a Grade I type, because its faster response time. It is of interest to note that the
standard also requires all detectors made in compliance with it to function at a given
temperature, according to its grade, when the rate of increase in temperature is very low. Thus,
in effect, this type of device now incorporates the fixed temperature characteristic of the
previously described detector.
Figure 27.2 shows a thermal type of detector that works on the bi-metallic strip principle.
It consists of two such strips; one insulated from rapid changes of temperature and the other
although enclosed, being exposed to such changes. Contacts at the ends of the strips form a
part of an electric circuit.
Thus, on a slow rise of temperature - say due to normal climatic conditions, the heat input
to both strips are similar and hence the contacts remain apart. On a rapid increase in
temperature, the unprotected strip responds more quickly than the insulated strip with the result
that the contacts meet and the alarm is activated.

Chapter 27
Figure 27.2 – The Rate of Rise Detector (Bi-metallic Strip Type)
27.3 The Combustion Detector
As shown in Figure 27.3, most detectors of this type use two ionised chambers in series.
One of the chambers is open to the surrounding atmosphere while the other is enclosed. The
atmosphere in both chambers is ionised by a radioactive source with elements such as
americium* and radium (also known as radionuclides) being used.
* Pronounced as “am-er-iss-ium”, an artificially made radioactive metallic element
symbol Am), that emits gamma radiation (The Oxford Paperback Dictionary -1988 Edition).
Regarding the US Environmental Protection Agency’s guidelines on their website,
http://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclides/americium.html, Americium (with the chemical
symbol Am) is a man-made radioactive metal, (with the Atomic Number 95) when plutonium
atoms absorb neutrons in nuclear reactors and in nuclear weapons detonations. It has several
different isotopes, all of which are radioactive.
The most important isotope of Americium is Am-241. Americium is a silver-white,
crystalline metal that is solid under normal conditions. All isotopes of americium are
radioactive. Americium-241 primarily emits alpha particles, but also emits gamma rays. A
mixture of americium-241 and beryllium emits neutrons. Americium-241 has a half-life of
432.7 years.

Alarm Systems
Protected Chamber Relay
Alarm Circuit’s
Supply
Power
Alarm Supply
Amplifier / Trigger Circuit
Un-protected Chamber
Mounting Base
Supply Points
Field Effect Transistor

Printed Circuit Board
Enclosed Chamber
Detector Operated’ Lamp
Radio-active Source
Open Chamber
Figure 27.3 – Ionization Chamber of the Combustion Detector

Smoke detectors containing Am-241 bonded to a metal foil, also provide some radiation
exposure. However, the radiation exposure people receive from a smoke detector is very low.
The health risk reduction from the fire protection vastly outweighs the health risk from the
radiation. That said, you should still handle smoke detectors containing americium with care.

Chapter 27
To avoid exposure:
• never dismantle a smoke detector
• never burn a smoke detector in your fireplace
The ionisation of the atmospheres in the two chambers under normal conditions permits a
minute current to flow, caused by the positive and negative ions created by the radiation and
moving in opposite directions (Refer Figure 27.4).
The supply voltage across the two chambers is therefore divided. On the products of
combustion (which may even be too small to be seen by the naked eye) entering the outer
chamber, the tendency is for them to collect ions by collision.
+
+
Radioactive Source
- –
Galvanometer
Figure 27.4 – Principle of Operation of the Ionization Chamber

The ‘aerosols’, as they are known, are much larger than the ions; the latter are virtually
stopped by the collision. A reduction in the ion flow obviously means a reduction in the voltage
across the chamber and hence a change in the voltage at the common terminal.
The latter, as stated, is connected to the input of a transistor amplifier, the output of which
activates an alarm relay (only one transistor is shown to simplify the concept). The alarm will
continue to operate until the electrical power is switched off. The sensitivity of this type of
detector can be varied by altering the levels of radiation in the chambers or by modifying the
transistor amplifier circuit.
Such a detector is most suitable for use in machinery spaces and can be adjusted to a high
level of sensitivity especially when unmanned operation is required and where prompt detection
of fire is imperative. However, this very feature is to some extent a disadvantage as false alarms
can occur when the sensitivity is too high; too many false alarms produce a loss of confidence
in the equipment.

Alarm Systems
It is worth noting here that this type of detector does not depend on the combustion products
being visible; it is the number of particles that is important. Thus, many particles although they
may be invisible will cause the indicator to activate the alarm while a smaller number of
particles, which may be in the form of smoke, may not necessarily do so.
From a more practical point of view, the presence of steam in the outer chamber will
activate this type of detector and it is important to site them well clear of any steam leak-off
source, e.g., from turbine glands.
Note: Modern techniques avoid the use of radioactive elements in detectors as disposal of
defective / old ones poses many practical difficulties.
27.4 Detectors Reacting to Radiation Emanating from Flames
Detectors of this type can be either the infrared or ultra-violet light type. They are intended
to respond to radiated heat and light emitted from flames during combustion and to avoid false
alarms being given by natural or artificial light.
The detectors thus ignore fixed light sources and rapidly flickering illumination
predominantly produced by lighting. The detectors discriminate between flames and other light
sources by responding only to low frequency flickering produced by flames (typically 1 to
15Hz). This is achieved with the help of appropriate light filters.
Heat radiating from hot machinery will therefore not affect this type of detector. The
circuitry of the system is also arranged such that the detector will not activate the alarm on
immediately sensing radiation, e.g. the striking of a match to light a cigarette, but only if the
flame persists for a pre-determined time.
The flame flicker techniques have the advantage of still allowing the detection of flames
through a thin layer of oil, water vapour, ice or dust. (Refer Figures 27.5, 27.6 and 27.7). One
obvious drawback of such a detector is that if smoke happens to screen the detector from the
fire before the detector has an opportunity of sensing it, its operation is unlikely.
Another disadvantage is the possibility of the detector reacting to light being received from
a vibrating source. Careful positioning during installation, of course, can overcome this. With
the presently mentioned drawbacks in mind, these radiation type detectors are seldom, if ever,
used independently. They always operate in tandem with types previously mentioned.

Chapter 27
Trigger Circuit To Alarm Circuit

and Flasher Trigger Circuit
and Flasher
Time Delay Circuit

and Integrator
Plug-in connections
Time delay circuit
Selective Amplifier and integrator
(Tuned to frequency)
Amplifier
Photo-electric Cell
Combined Infra-red
Lens and Filter
Figure 27.5 – Infra-red Flame Detector
Specially Coated
Wire Electrodes
Gas-filled
Glass Envelope
Quartz Window
Ultra-violet Radiation from Fire
Figure 27.6 – Ultra-violet Flame Detector Figure 27.7 – Flame Detector Housing

Alarm Systems
It is considered that a fire detector system for use in machinery and for boiler spaces should
ideally consist of smoke or ionisation-type detectors in the main areas. These must be backed-
up by one or two infra-red detectors, so situated as to monitor the protected space as much as
possible and one or more thermal detectors of the rate-of-rise-type for use in spaces such as
boiler rooms. Hence flame detectors are used in the engine room especially above the main
engine, boilers, purifier spaces and above the waste oil incinerator. It goes without saying that
such intricate equipment is worthless if it is not regularly serviced and tested. One is advised to
be conversant with the practicalities of the system in his ship, if not with the intricate electronics
involved.
27.5 The Fire Alarm Control Panel
The main fire control panel, which is fitted in wheelhouse, is capable of the following:
1. It monitors the condition of all fire detectors, that are divided into zones and loops i.e., it
identifies the defective detectors, open or short circuits and earth faults in detector loops.
2. It indicates the location of the fire detectors and call points that are activated so as to quickly
reach the scene of fire or take any necessary action.
3. The panel is also linked to manual call points in the engine room, accommodation and other
locations. Manual call points are essentially switches connected in the fire detector loops.
4. With Reference to ABS Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels 2019 - Part 4 Vessel
Systems and Machinery, Chapter 7 Fire Safety Systems, Section 2 Provisions for Specific
Spaces, paragraph 3.4 – Locations Requiring Manually Operated Call Points (2013) quote,
“Manually operated call points, see 4-7-3/11 for the fixed fire detection and fire alarm, are
to be installed throughout the accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations.
One manually operated call point is to be located at each exit. Manually operated call
points are to be readily accessible in the corridors of each deck such that no part of the
corridor is more than 20 m (66 ft) from a manually operated call point.
The statement “Manually operated call points are to be installed throughout the
accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations” above, does not require the
fitting of a manually operated call point in an individual space within the accommodation
spaces, service spaces and control stations.

Chapter 27
However, a manually operated call point is to be located at each exit (inside or outside) to
the open deck from the corridor such that no part of the corridor is more than 20 m (i.e.,
66 feet) from a manually operated call point. Service spaces and control stations which
have only one access, leading directly to the open deck, are to have a manually operated
call point not more than 20 m (i.e., 66 feet) (measured along the access route using the
deck, stairs and / or corridors) from the exit. A manually operated call point is not required
to be installed for spaces having little or no fire risk, such as voids and carbon dioxide
rooms, nor at each exit from the navigation bridge, in cases where the control panel is in
the navigation bridge.” unquote.
5. They are operated by breaking the front glass and regularly tested with the help of a
customised key. The main purpose of the manual call station is to raise an alarm in case of
emergency like fire or flooding.
6. It activates the ships general alarm / fire alarm in case fire detector is activated anywhere
in engine room, accommodation or other locations after a preset delay time. The smoke,
heat and flame detectors are tested with appropriate test kits provided by the manufacturer.
Figure 27.8 – A Modern Fire Alarm Panel and a General Alarm Bell

Alarm Systems
Figure 27.9 – A Modern Fire Detection System’s Panel
Here the brief explanation pertains to a product tanker. This arrangement is similar in other
types of vessels too with of course minor alterations to suit the requirements on board.
The main supply to the panel is 220 V AC fed from both the main and emergency
switchboards. 24 V DC is also fed from the battery charger and 24 V DC distribution board.
Manually operated call points in the control stations, accommodation and service spaces
are installed about 20 metres from each other and generally at each exit. As mentioned earlier,
the detectors and manual call points are connected in a loop. This helps to quickly identify the
scene of fire and likewise, faults in the circuit (Refer Figure 27.10).
Loop A shown in Figure 27.10 will also include locations such as the passageways on
other decks (from the D deck to the A deck, upper deck), the galley (which has heat
detectors and manual call points), emergency generator room, cargo control room, foam
and fire control room and dry provision stores.

Chapter 27
AC 220 V (MSB)
AC 220 V (ESB)
DC 24 V
(Battery Charger & DC 24 V DB)
General Emergency Alarm

Fire Alarm
(PA Main Panel in Wheel House)
Fire Alarm Control Panel
Fire Repeater Panel

(Foam and Fire Control Room)
General Emergency Alarm

Fire Alarm
(Engine Control Room)
Manual
Call Point Smoke Detectors
Line
SD SD SD SD
Isolator
Loop A
Wheel House Electrical Eqpt. Room
SD SD SD SD
Passageway – Starboard, Centre and Port
Figure 27.10 – Loop A of the Fire Alarm System

Loop B will include the engine room area starting from the Engine Control Room,
passageways, casing, entrance, workshop and store. Thermal detectors will be installed in
the ECR and workshop while smoke detectors will be installed elsewhere (including these
two locations). The Navigation Bridge is informed before inhibiting the fire sensors in
workshop. The alarms can generally be disabled only from the bridge.
Fire detectors are inhibited (especially during hot work) by means of a timer that keep the
fire detector isolated for the specified time. After the specified time, the workshop fire
detector will get connected to the fire control panel once again.
Loop C includes the engine room 2nd and 3rd decks and the engine room floor (smoke
detectors will be installed in these locations).

Alarm Systems
Loop D will take care of the shaft generator room and comprise of smoke detectors and
manual call points.
Loop E comprises of the air conditioning room, the gas sampling locker and paint / bosun
stores which have smoke detectors and manual call points too.
Loop F is shown in Figure 27.11 and includes the incinerator, auxiliary boiler, inert gas
system, main engine, generator engines and the purifier system. This loop incorporates
flame detectors too and they will be installed near the engines (generally above them).
Smoke detectors are also installed in the engine room but are carefully located to prevent
nuisance alarms.
Note:
The span of coverage per detector is generally not more than 12 metres (horizontally).
Every zone has the means to isolate its associated detectors by cutting off the power supply.
This may be necessary when hot work is carried out for example in the workshop.
A “Switched Off” zone is indicated by a “Zone Off” indicator; this is also known as “Zone
Isolation”. Press the same push button again to switch the zone “On”; the “Zone OFF”
indicator goes off.
A test button is provided to check the operation of the alarms.
The continuity of the wiring in the detector is continuously monitored such that interruption
in the circuit (due to a break in wiring) would activate an audio-visual warning. Most
systems have different sounds to help one distinguish between a genuine alarm and a fault
condition.
The detection of faulty detector heads is also incorporated in most modern systems. In the
absence of such a facility, the only way to prove that a detector is working is by simulating
the condition e.g. with a hot air blower or smoke, provided it is safe to do so.

Chapter 27
Line
SD SD SD SD
Isolator
Incinerator I.G. System
Line Line
SD SD
Isolator Isolator
Fire Alarm Control Panel
Aux. Boiler
Line
FD FD
Isolator
Main Engine
FD SD FD SD
Generator Engines
Line
SD SD
Isolator
Purifier
Release push button for

FD Flame detector
local fire fighting system
Figure 27.11 – Loop F of the Fire Alarm System

27.5.1 IMO Fire Control Signs
SOLAS Chapter ll-2, Regulation 28.2.10 requires all fire equipment location markings to
be photoluminescent material or marked by lighting. Resolution A.654 (16) amending
Chapter ll-2, Regulation 20 requires the use of these symbols in the Fire Control Plan and
Booklet as an International Standard.

Alarm Systems
Some of the symbols relevant to this chapter have been depicted below:
Manually Push Button /

Emergency
Control Station Fire Alarm Panel Operated Call Switch for Fire
Telephone Station
Point Alarm
Fire Alarm Horn Fire Alarm Horn Fire Alarm Horn

Fire Alarm Bell Fire Alarm Horn
CO2 Halon Sprinkler
Release Station
Flame Detector Smoke Detector Heat Detector Gas Detector CO2
27.6 Fire Fighting Systems
There are many methods of extinguishing a fire. In oil tankers, (fluoro-protein) low
expansion foam generators are used. Low expansion foam gives a good “throw” and is resistant
to wind drift.
However, research has found that high pressure water mist is more effective for suppressing
fires and will be explained later in this chapter. The high pressure, high fog or functional mist
system has a few advantages wherein it requires less than half the flow that is needed for a low-
pressure system, smaller pipe diameters are effective and there are lower friction losses.

Chapter 27
Figure 27.12(a) – Foam Pump Figure 27.12(b) – Foam Pump Starter
Figure 27.13 depicts a basic CO2 fixed fire extinguishing system. This is only to give one
a brief idea as to how fire may be extinguished by smothering. On resolving to operate the CO2
system in the event of a fire, the door of the local control cabinet is opened to activate the pilot
cylinders.
This action in turn activates an alarm, which is routed through a door switch, whose circuit
is depicted in Figure 27.14. In addition to activating the alarms, the related ventilation systems
(fans, etc.) are shut down and the vents in that area are closed.

Alarm Systems
Figure 27.13 – A CO2 Fire Extinguishing System including Smoke Detector Installation
Note: Portable fire extinguishers are deliberately not mentioned in this article as they are
beyond the scope of this chapter.
27.6.1 Alarms for Engine Room and Pump Room Systems
Should any cylinder discharge accidentally, it will pressurise the main line up to the stop
valve. This line is monitored by a pressure switch which will activate the CO2 alarms.
Overpressure of the main line is prevented by a safety valve, which will vent the gas to
atmosphere.
The pressure of the control air in the release cabinets is monitored by a pressure switch. A
drop in pressure will activate the Pilot Air Pressure Low alarm in the control room. If the system
power supply fails, the CO2 Power Failure alarm will operate in the control room.

Chapter 27
In a tanker, the following are possible from within the foam generator and fire control room:
✓ Stopping of the cargo pump;
✓ Control of the engine room fire dampers, showing whether they are opened or closed;
✓ Control of ventilation fans in locations such as the engine room, steering gear
compartment, accommodation spaces, etc.
✓ The rotating lights and air horns will operate in the engine room.
✓ Emergency starting and stopping of the fire pumps
✓ Emergency trips for the engine room fuel and lubricating oil systems
Figure 27.14 – CO2 Cabinet Door Alarm

Note: To test the CO2 alarm, open the cabinet door

Alarm Systems
Extract from ABS Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels - 2019
Part 4 Vessel Systems and Machinery - Chapter 8 Electrical Systems
Section 2 System Design
Quote
11.9 Emergency Shutdown Systems
11.9.1 Ventilation Systems (2013)
11.9.1(a) Propulsion machinery spaces. Power ventilation systems serving these spaces are to
be fitted with means for stopping the ventilation fan motors in the event of fire. The means for
stopping the power ventilation serving machinery spaces is to be entirely separate from the
means for stopping the ventilation of spaces in 4-8-2/11.9.1(b), 4-8-2/11.9.1(c), 4-8-
2/11.9.1(d). See 4-7-2/1/9/5.
11.9.1(b) Machinery Spaces other than propulsion machinery spaces. Power ventilation
systems serving these spaces are to be fitted with means for stopping the ventilation fan motors
in the event of fire. The means for stopping the power ventilation serving machinery spaces is
to be entirely separate from the means for stopping the ventilation of spaces in 4-8-2/11.9.1(a),
4-8-2/11.9.1(c), 4-8-2/11.9.1(d). See 4-7-2/1/9/5.
11.9.1(c) Cargo spaces. Electrical ventilation systems installed in cargo spaces are to be fitted
with remote means of control so that the ventilation fan motors can be stopped in the event of
a fire in the cargo space. These means are to be outside the cargo spaces and in a location not
likely to be cut off in the event of a fire in the cargo spaces. Particular attention is to be directed
to specific requirements applicable to the ventilation systems of cargo spaces of each vessel
type provided in Part 5C.
11.9.1(d) Accommodation spaces, service spaces, control stations and other spaces. A control
station for all other power ventilation systems is to be located on the navigation bridge, in
firefighting station, if fitted, or in an accessible position leading to, but outside of, the space
ventilated. See 4-7-2/3.7.3.
11.9.2 Fuel Oil, Lubricating Oil and Thermal Oil Systems (2005)
Fuel oil transfer pumps, fuel oil unit pumps and other similar fuel pumps, lubricating oil service
pumps, thermal oil circulating pumps and oil separators (purifiers, but not including oily water
separators) are to be fitted with remote means of stopping.

Chapter 27
These means are to be located outside the space where these pumps and separators are installed
or at the firefighting station, if fitted, so that they may be stopped in the event of a fire arising
in that space.
11.9.3 Forced-draft Fans
Forced- or induced-draft fans for boilers, incinerators, thermal oil heaters and similar fired
equipment are to be fitted with remote means of stopping. These means are to be located outside
the space in which this equipment is located or at the firefighting station, if fitted, so that the
fans may be stopped manually in the event of a fire arising in that space.
11.9.4 Unattended Machinery Spaces
For vessels intended to be operated with an unattended propulsion machinery space, the
emergency shutdowns of equipment in 4-8-2/11.9.1 through 4-8-2/11.9.3, associated with the
propulsion machinery space, are to be located in the fire-fighting station, as required by 4-
9-6/21.3.
Unquote
27.7 Modern Methods of Fire Detection and Suppression
As seen in the preceding articles, all detection and suppression systems are in vogue due to
their tried and tested reliability.
However, the need of the hour is minimisation of damage by speeding up the whole
process! This has resulted in numerous debates and innovations. These findings prove that the
existing technology has poor reliability as the most commonly used detectors are smoke
detectors and we all know that there no smoke without a fire!
Delays for manual suppression can also be long and most of them are not designed for pre-
emptive action. The first step in this direction is the development of early warning and fire
detection systems. These will help to increase sensitivity and decrease detection time,
simultaneously decreasing nuisance alarms.
The future microprocessor-based neural network and fire pattern recognition systems will
include acoustic detectors, optical detection systems, gas sensors (carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and oxygen to name a few).
These in turn will be interfaced with alarms that are not only audio-visual types but also
would provide alpha-numeric information on the control panels. These advances in technology
would undoubtedly help to pinpoint the origin of the fire using cubic pattern neural networks
i.e. pattern vectors in multi-dimensional spaces.

Alarm Systems
27.7.1 Early Fire Warning and Detection

The first step in this direction will be the development of an extensive database of
signatures for real fire and nuisance alarm sources. It is understood that there are more than 135
patterns or signatures which may be used to design and train the neural network.
These patterns contain both magnitude and slope information for each sensor which include
ionization, photoelectric, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide types. The prototypes used in
the early fire warning and detection system are proving faster than photoelectric and ionization
types.
27.7.2 The Supervisory Control System
This system will be integrated with sensor information modules and the control system
itself. It will be capable of providing situation awareness to personnel in-charge of the whole
operation and also control damage with the help of self-governing pre-emptive actions; of
course, this will mean that algorithms will be used to control smart pumps and smart valves in
the fire-main system that have embedded pressure sensors and actuators with embedded
microprocessor and network transmitters and receivers. Figure 27.15 depicts a conceptual
system and it is not long before ships have such systems installed.
Sensors (inputs)
Automated Systems
Thermocouples
EFWDs Fluid Systems
Gas Detectors - Fire Main
Optical Density - Chilled Water
Pressure - Fuel, Lubricating Oil
Flow Rates High Pressure Water Mist
Door Closure, etc. Ventilation
Figure 27.15 – Overview of the Supervisory Control System

27.7.3 Hyper-mist Fire Fighting System
It is a very high-pressure water mist system. When operated, it creates a fog that effectively
puts out the fire while also providing a quenching or cooling effect.

Chapter 27
It can be automatically activated when two different types of fire detectors are triggered in
the same fire zone. The water mist will thus be automatically released into the protected area
where a fire is detected and an audible and visible alarm is activated in that protected area.
It can also be operated remotely in the manual mode. All new ships have this installed and
the systems are very effective.
This system is independent of any other fixed firefighting system such as the foam or the
CO2 system. The following are the most common areas covered by water mist system during
emergencies:
1. Incinerator
2. Auxiliary boiler
3. Auxiliary generators
4. Main engine cylinder head platform
5. Purifier
6. Inert gas generator
7. Steering gear room
A fresh water pump takes suction from a fresh water tank to supply high-pressure water to
(through non-return valves) the sprinkler system. Each area is isolated by valves that can be
opened during emergency situations involving a fire. The system is kept in a constant state of
readiness.
This system has the following effects and features:

1. Cooling effect (quick cooling by evapouration of latent heat).
2. Oxygen replacement effect (replacement of air with water vapour generated in a large
quantity and absorption of radiation heat).
3. It is safe and harmless to the human body and environment friendly.
4. Shut-off effect (the floating fog forming walls of water).
5. Smoke eliminating effect (the floating smoke particles are adsorbed and settled by the fog).

Alarm Systems
6. It utilizes small quantities of water and the piping diameter is small thereby facilitating easy
installation. Thus, the quantity of water stored is much less.
High-pressure water is injected through a special nozzle that works within a pressure range
of 40 to 100 kilograms force per square centimeter (depending upon the design of the system),
which breaks the water droplets into fine mist. The nozzles and nozzle tips that are designed in
special shapes to permit spraying in a wide range. As a result, it is possible to discharge the fire
extinguishing agent in such a way that it encompasses the fire, so that the fire may be
extinguished effectively. The diameter of the water mist particle ranges from 50 to 200 µm,
which improves the fire extinguishing effect and efficiency of the system.
The distance between any two nozzles is very critical as the area covered by one nozzle
must be such that no space is left unsprayed in the fire-affected area.
The following conditions must be maintained at all times to ensure that the hyper mist
system is on standby for operation:
1. Sufficient water level must be retained in the fresh water tank
2. Make sure the power supply is available.
3. The fire alarm system must be in operation.
4. The drain and test valves must be closed.
5. The area around the hyper mist water pump must be clear of any obstructions.
After confirming the extinction of a fire, the water mist system can be stopped manually by
cancelling the signal from the fire alarm system and pressing the Stop button on the control
panel or the local point.

Chapter 27
27.8 Dead Man Alarm
A dead man alarm is also known as an engineer’s safety alarm. It was devised to ensure the
safety of engineer’s and crew in the engine room while carrying out inspections or attending to
“alarm” situations alone.
27.8.1 General Description and Location of Units
Dead Man Alarm
Alarm Buzzer Dead Man Alarm
Dead Man
Alarm
Pre-warning Mains On
Start / Stop
Accept
Running Main Switch
Figure 27.16 – Main Unit in the ECR Figure 27.17 – On / Off and Accept Unit
In the Engine Room

Alarm Systems
Dead Man Alarm
Running Buzzer Alarm
Figure 27.18 – Bridge Unit in the Wheel House

27.8.2 System Specifications
Power Supply – 24 V DC
Current Consumption – Less than 1A
Maximum Load on relay contacts – 5A
27.8.3 Modes of Operation
27.8.3.1 Standby
The power is on and the Engine Room is manned. The running sequence can only be started
by the On / Off Unit. If the “Unmanned” input terminals are jumped, the system goes into the
“Unmanned” mode when it is switched on.
27.8.3.2 Unmanned
The system is now armed for being started by the engine alarm system.
27.8.3.3 Running
The monitoring sequence is now running. This is indicated by the flashing green “Running”
lamp. The operator has to press the “Accept” button by certain intervals, in order to avoid an
alarm.
The running mode can only be stopped by pressing the Start / Stop button when leaving the
Engine Room. If the running mode was started by the Engine Room alarm system, this has to
be accepted first.

Chapter 27
27.8.3.4 Pre-warning
If the operator has failed to press one of the Accept buttons within the preset time
(maximum 27 minutes), the pre-warning alarm sounds in the Engine Room and the Accept
buttons will light up so that the alarm may be reset by pressing any one of them to start the
Running sequence all over again.
27.8.3.5 Dead Man Alarm
If the operator does not press the accept button within the preset time (maximum 3 minutes)
after the pre-warning alarm, the alarm will now be activated on the Bridge Unit. The Alarm can
be muted by pressing a red button or mute switch and reset by pressing the Accept button.
27.8.3.6 Initiating the Running Sequence
This is achieved by:
1. Turning on the power
2. Switching from manned to unmanned mode
3. By pressing the Start / Stop button
4. By activation from the Engine Alarm System, when it is in the unmanned mode
27.8.4 SafePage 3000™ Wireless Paging, Information and Dead Man Alarm System
The Following article in reproduced with permission from Henning E. Larsen, Marketing
Manager Gertsen & Olufsen AS / G & O Technologies AS Savsvinget 4 Denmark-2970
Hørsholm (www.gertsen-olufsen.dk).
Quote
Introduction
The Safepage 3000™ system is a wireless portable two-way communication system
providing crew on ships, oil rigs, production platforms and other locations, the possibility to
move freely around the vessel or area and always be in contact with the remaining crew via the
Master Unit. The system is designed and approved for usage in intrinsically safe areas (EeX)
and is, contrary to other communication systems, supplying a unique radio coverage all over
the vessel using very few components e.g. easy to install. The system typically consists of
several Portable Units (EeX), a Master Unit (e.g. on the bridge), 1-2 Repeaters (one on deck
and one in the engine room) and 1 central Antenna.

Alarm Systems
Master Repeate
Unit r
Repeate Portable
r Handset
System Components
The Master Unit
It is supposed to be mounted inside the bridge (or in the Cargo Control Room) and consist
of a box comprising the electronic equipment and a separate external antenna. The Master Unit
contains a graphic LCD-display with a dimmable back-light for indication of alarms and system
status, a keypad for acknowledge of alarms, paging, dimmer and system set-up and finally a
LED for “Alarm” indication.
The antenna is ruggedly designed to operate in all weather conditions and is connected to
the Master Unit via a coaxial cable. It has several digital inputs and outputs and two RS232 and
one RS485 serial ports.
The Portable Handset (EeX)
It contains a graphic LCD-display with a back-light for indication of alarms and system
status, a keypad for resetting the Dead Man Alarm timer, Emergency Call and activation of the
back-light for the display. Finally, the handset contains three LEDs indicating “Alarm”,
“Paged” and “Battery Low”. When not in use, the portable handset is placed in a battery charger
unit.
The SafePage 3000™ system provides Wireless Paging, Data Exchange/Information &
Safety Monitoring of up to eight engineers when working alone in remote areas (e.g. cargo area
and engine room) allowing the engineers to move freely around. There is an emergency button
and Dead Man Alarm timer function in the portable unit with which the engineers at regular
intervals can report that they are in good health. Otherwise, the officer on the bridge is alerted
by a Dead Man Alarm raised on the Master Unit.
Unquote

Chapter 27
27.9 Miscellaneous Alarm Indication Systems
The other alarm systems in engine rooms can vary extensively from simple individual alarm
lights activated by the closure of electrical contacts, to sophisticated data logging and alarm
annunciation systems incorporating such facilities as alarm point scanning, memory banks and
automated shut-down operations.
This latter type of equipment could be interfaced with computer systems with which many
new vessels are being equipped.
An alarm system basically consists of one or more actuating devices, or transducers,
providing a signal related to the process variable state.
It has a monitoring device such that, if the variable being measured exceeds preset limits,
an alarm is activated. This can be both visual (a flashing light) and / or audible (klaxon or bell).
Some of the systems that require alarms to be incorporated are as follows:
Air compressors Main propelling machinery including
essential auxiliaries
Bilge and ballast systems Transverse thrust units
Boilers and their ancillary equipment Oil fuel transfer and storage systems
Cargo pumping systems for tankers Steering gear
Cargo and ballast pumps in hazardous Thermal fluid heaters
areas
Cargo tank, ballast tank and void space Miscellaneous machinery or equipment
instrumentation where specified (e.g. (where control, alarm and safety systems
water ingress detection) are specified e.g. the elevator)
Controllable pitch propellers Valve position indicating systems
Electric generating plant Waste-heat boiler
Incinerators Water-jets for propulsion purposes
Inert gas generators Refrigeration Plants
27.9.1 The Bridge Alarm Console
On a tanker, it is generally situated directly behind the main bridge console and could
contain the following:
Signal light control panel Fire alarm pushbutton

Two navigation light panels General and emergency alarm
No.2 VHF main unit Automatic telephone
Echo sounder main unit INMARSAT telephone

Alarm Systems
Alarm panel with buzzer stop and test Message indicator for Inmarsat
button
Changeover switch from At Sea to Alarm buzzer for Satcom
Harbour
Navtex CRT for the alarm monitoring system
GMDSS alarm unit No.3 operator control panel
27.9.2 Group Control Panel

The group panel is situated directly behind the main chart table and contains the
following:
1. Master fire alarm panel
2. Gas detection repeater panel for the ballast tanks and pump room
3. Elevator alarm, buzzer and direct telephone to the elevator
4. Master clock
5. Fog and gong automatic system
6. Rudder and course log printer
7. IG system indicator panel
8. Deck lighting control panel
9. Alarm indication for the infirmary, refrigeration rooms and auto telephone trouble
10. Start/stop for the bilge, fire and GS pumps and emergency fire pump
27.9.3 Operation of a Basic System
There are many vessels fitted with simple alarm systems comprising a series of pressure-
operated or temperature-operated electrical switches. When the operating temperature or
pressure of machinery rises above or falls below a pre-set limit, the switch closes a circuit to an
alarm light and sounds an audible alarm if necessary. A more advanced version incorporates a
flashing unit with ‘Test’ and ‘Accept’ push button facilities, so that when an alarm condition
exists, a light flashes and a klaxon sounds.

Chapter 27
The watch-keeper can then press the ‘Accept’ button, which will cancel the audible alarm
and cause the flashing light to remain constantly alight. He will then immediately investigate
and take the necessary corrective action to eliminate the alarm condition, such that the alarm
light will be extinguished when the process variable is returned to within the pre-set limits. In
this type of system, test buttons are provided to enable the lamps to be periodically checked.
Variations of the alarm indication systems are many, ranging from a simple alarm light
with a red-coloured lens, which is extinguished when in the safe condition, to a double light
system with red and green lights on the alarm annunciator facia. This may incorporate between
20 and 30 alarms per panel and several panels may be used in an installation.
A third type of alarm panel may be used, having small opalescent screens engraved or
marked with the process variable’s identification; the screens are only illuminated when the
alarms are activated. Simple, pneumatically operated alarm systems can also be provided for
areas that require flameproof equipment and, in this application, the indication will be by a
coloured flag and an air-operated whistle.

Alarm Systems
27.10 Relevant Rules
27.10.1 Relevant SOLAS Regulations

Chapter II-1 – Part C – Machinery Installations – Regulation 38 – Engineers’ Alarm
Part E – Additional Requirements for Periodically Unattended Machinery Spaces
– Regulation 47 – Fire Precautions
– Regulation 51 – Alarm System
– Regulation 53 – Special Requirements for Machinery, Boiler and Electrical Installations
Chapter II – 2 – Part A – General – Regulation 3 – Definitions
Part C – Suppression of Fire Regulation 7 Detection and Alarm
Part D – Escape – Regulation 12 – Notification of Crew and Passengers
Part E – Operational Requirements – Regulation 14 Operational Readiness and Maintenance
Chapter II – 2 – Part B – Prevention of Fire and Explosion – Regulation 4 – Probability of
Ignition and Chapter VI – Part A – General Provisions – Regulation 3 – Oxygen Analysis and
Gas Detection Equipment.
Chapter III – Life-saving Appliances and Arrangements Part B – Requirements for Ships –
Regulation 6 – Communications
27.10.2 Summary of Regulations
1) An alarm system is mandatory on board a ship and must be capable of indicating any fault
requiring attention. It must therefore:
a) Can sound an audible alarm in the main machinery control room or at the propulsion
machinery control position and indicate each separate alarm function at a suitable
position;
b) Have a connection to the engineers’ public rooms and to each of the engineers’ cabins
through a selector switch to ensure the connection to at least one of those cabins.
c) Activate an audible and visible alarm on the navigation bridge for any situation which
requires action by or the attention of the officer on watch;
d) As far as is practicable be designed on the fail-to-safety principle; and

Chapter 27
e) Activate the engineers’ alarm if an alarm function has not received attention locally
within a limited time.
2) The alarm system must be continuously powered and must have an automatic change-over
facility to a stand-by power supply in case of loss of the normal power supply.
3) Failure of the normal power supply of the alarm system must be indicated by an alarm.
4) The alarm system must be able to indicate at the same time more than one fault and the
acceptance of any alarm must not inhibit another alarm.
5) Alarms must be active until they are accepted and the visual indications of individual alarms
must remain until the fault has been corrected, when the alarm system must automatically
reset to the normal operating condition.
6) With regard to machinery, boiler and electrical installations, an alarm system must be
provided for all important pressures, temperatures and fluid levels and other essential
parameters.
7) A centralised control in which the following control and indicator functions are centralized
must be arranged with the necessary alarm panels and instrumentation indicating any alarm.
a) Fixed fire detection and fire alarm systems;
b) Automatic sprinkler, fire detection and fire alarm systems;
c) Fire door indicator panels;
d) Fire door closure;
e) Watertight door indicator panels;
f) Watertight door closures;
g) Ventilation fans;
h) General / fire alarms;
i) Communication systems including telephones; and
j) Microphones to public address systems.
8) For the protection of machinery spaces, a fixed fire detection and fire alarm system must
be installed in periodically unattended machinery spaces and machinery spaces where:

Alarm Systems
a) The installation of automatic and remote-control systems and equipment has been
approved in lieu of continuous manning of the space;
b) The main propulsion and associated machinery including the main sources of
electrical power are provided with various degrees of automatic or remote control
and are under continuous manned supervision from a control room.
9) The fixed fire detection and fire alarm system must be so designed and the detectors so
positioned that they rapidly detect the onset of a fire in any part of those spaces and under
any normal conditions of operation of the machinery and variations of ventilation as
required by the possible range of ambient temperatures.
10) Except in spaces of restricted height and where their use is especially appropriate,
detection systems using only thermal detectors must not be permitted.
11) The detection system must initiate audible and visual alarms distinct in both aspects from
the alarms of any other system not indicating fire, in sufficient places to ensure that the
alarms are heard and observed on the navigation bridge and by a responsible engineer
officer. When the navigation bridge is unmanned, the alarm must sound in a place where
a responsible member of the crew is on duty.
12) For cargo ships, a fixed fire detection and fire alarm system must be installed in such a
manner that it detects the presence of fire in all accommodation spaces and service spaces
and control stations of cargo ships, providing smoke detection in corridors, stairways and
escape routes within accommodation spaces, except spaces which afford no substantial
fire risk such as void spaces, sanitary spaces, etc.
13) The function of fixed fire detection and fire alarm systems must be periodically tested by
means of equipment producing hot air at the appropriate temperature, or smoke or aerosol
particles having the appropriate range of density or particle size, or other phenomena
associated with incipient fires to which the detector is designed to respond.
14) Internal combustion engines of 2,250 kW and above or having cylinders of more than
300 mm bore must be provided with crankcase oil mist detectors or engine bearing
temperature monitors or equivalent devices.
15) Tankers must be equipped with at least one portable instrument (and a means for its
calibration) for measuring oxygen and flammable vapour concentrations, together with a
sufficient set of spares. Suitable means must be provided for calibration of these.

Chapter 27
16) Suitable portable instruments for measuring oxygen and flammable vapour
concentrations must be provided in double hull spaces and double bottom spaces.
17) Where the atmosphere in double hull spaces cannot be reliably measured using flexible
gas sampling hoses, such spaces must be fitted with permanent gas sampling lines that
are electrically conductive and unrestrictive.
18) When transporting bulk cargo which is liable to emit a toxic or flammable gas, or cause
oxygen depletion in the cargo space, an appropriate instrument for measuring the
concentration of gas or oxygen in the air must be provided together with detailed
instructions for its use.

Chapter 28
Internal Communication Systems
28.1 Sound Powered / Intrinsically Safe Telephone System and Engineer’s Alarm
The sound powered telephone system is designed for safe and clear communication. The
aim of this system is to provide communication independent of the ship’s power supplies
thereby providing emergency communication. Stations within machinery spaces are fitted with
headsets to provide communication within the noisy environment. The headsets are selected by
operating the headset/handset toggle switch on the telephone unit.
Direct communication by means of sound power telephones and intrinsically safe systems
is provided between the Wheelhouse and the Engine Control Room, Main Engine Emergency
Manoeuvring Position, Pump Room, Captain’s cabin, Chief Engineer’s cabin, Steering Gear
flat and Emergency Generator room, to name a few.
‘A’ class telephones have the following facilities:
1. Extension to extension calling
2. Paging facility via the PA system
3. Priority
4. Trunk access
‘B’ class telephones have the following facilities:
3. Priority
‘C’ class telephones have the following facilities:
‘D’ class telephones have the following facility:

Chapter 28
Call Pilot lamp
Generator Handle
Rotary Selector Switch
Headset / Handset
Selector Switch
Figure 28.1 – A Sound-powered Telephone
28.1.1 The Engineer’s Call Alarm

The control for the engineers’ call alarm is in the Engine Control Room. The purpose of
this alarm is to call any particular engineer or all of them to the engine room in case of an
emergency. Whenever any engineer is called by this alarm, a buzzer or bell is activated in the
respective cabin. The same can also be operated from common places like the officers’ mess
room, duty mess room, officers’ smoke room and gymnasium.

28.2 Troubleshooting the Automatic Telephone Exchange System
Check Point Symptom & Counter Measures

The Power LED glows: In case the red LED glows, check and replace the AC or DC fuse
(Main & Emergency Power) In case the black LED glows, check the AC / DC power switch or the
Normal operating: green power supply voltage
Defective Fuse: red In case the bell does not ring for all subscriber telephones or there is a
Power off: black bad connection with a heavy noise, replace the Switching Power Supply
Unit (PA-3201-1) or the Mother Board (A2MBUA)
The CPU Card LED glows: In case the LED is continuously on or off with the system malfunctioning
Normal operating: flickering or there is a bad connection, replace the Main Processing Card
(A2MPUA) or the Main Auxiliary Card (A2MAUA)
Defective CPU Card: on or
off
The hybrid card LED glows: In case the applied LED does not glow when using the subscriber
Normal operating: on telephone or a specified subscriber telephone is defective, replace the
Telephone Set or the Hybrid Card (A2HYUA)
Defective Hybrid Card: off
The SLC Card LED glows In case the applied LED does not glow when using the subscriber
Normal operating: on telephone or the voice communication is normal but the bell does not
ring for a specified subscriber telephone, there is a bad connection.
Defective SLC Card: off
Replace the Telephone Set or the applied SLC Card (A2SLUA)
The Trunk Card LED glows In case the applied LED does not glow when using the shore telephone
Normal operating: on or the satcom, with a bad connection or does not connect to the trunk
line,
Defective Trunk Card: off
Replace the Trunk Card (A2TKUA)
Paging Function In case paging does not happen:
• Replace the Main Processing Card (A2MPUA) or the Main Auxiliary
Card (A2MAUA) or
• The Multi-Function Card (TEX-720P-011) or
• Check the Public Addressor

Chapter 28
28.2.1 Initial Start-Up for Common Circuits

Function State Check Point Cause Action
1.Exchange 1. Check the power 1. +5 V 1. Press the CPU RESET key
function stops supply voltage of each output failure
section
2. External alarm 2. Check the display of 2. AC / DC 2. Insert the ROM IC IIC with socket
unit operates the alarm LED of the power again into the CPU board
power unit and / or the failure
"RUN" LED on the
CPU board.
3. The CPU 3.Replace the defective CPU board
board is
faulty
4.There is a Replace the defective PC board
short-circuit
on the CPU
bus
All extensions: Isolate each PC board
and:
1.Cannot hear the 1. Check the cables 1. The data
dial tone input is
wrong
2.Cannot answer 2.Check the package/s 2.One of the
incoming calls PC boards is
faulty
3.Cannot transfer 3. There is a
calls defective
CPU signal
circuit
28.2.2 Extensions: For a Specific Extension: No Dial Tone.

Check Point Cause Action
1. Replace the board with the relevant 1. There is a defective line Replace or remount
extension and check whether there is a fault circuit of the 8LC-F/16LC- the board
on the board or the local side. F board

28.2.3 Extensions: For a Specific Extension: Low Speech Level or One-Way Speech
Cause
2. There is a defective local cable
28.2.4 Extensions: For a Specific Extension: Noise Is Present

Cause
3. There is a defective telephone
28.2.5 Extensions: For a Specific Extension There Is Crosstalk Coupling

Cause
4.There is a defective TNT or CPU board
28.2.6 Trunk lines: Trunk Line Call Originations Is Impossible

Check Point Cause Action
1. Remove the wires 1. If the trunk line cable is good, then the exchange 1. Replace the 4BWT board
of the outside trunk equipment is defective such as the trunk line 4BWT
lines from the terminal board
block and connect the 2. If the outside trunk cable side is defective, the 2.Replace the defective
telephone directly to cable or the terminal facility may be defective extension portion of the
the trunk line cable
cable or the terminal facility
28.3 Troubleshooting the Sound Power Telephone LC 800

CAUTION!
If the failure occurs in the relay due to a bad contact, you must not clean the contact.
28.3.1 Calling is Impossible

Suspected Point Check Troubleshooting
There is a broken magnetic Check the broken line of the coil Replace it with a new one.
generator coil with a multi meter.
Check the contact with a multi- Clean the contact.
meter
There is a bad contact within the Check the voltage with a multi- Replace it with a new one.
magnetic generator meter (It should be AC 50 V or
more)
There is insufficient output from the Check the contact with a multi- Replace it if the output voltage
magnetic generator meter does not build up even after
rectification

Chapter 28

The selection switch is defective Replace it with a new one or
clean it.
There is a broken circuit Locate the broken line with the Solder it or replace it with a new
help of the schematic diagram one.
28.3.2 Bad Buzzer or LED

There is a defective buzzer Check the buzzer or the Replace it with a new one or clean the contact.
or just a defective contact contact of the buzzer with a
with the buzzer multi-meter
There is a defective LED or Check the LED or the Replace it with a new one or clean the contact.
a bad contact with the LED contact of the LED with a
multi-meter
There is a broken circuit Locate the broken line with Solder it or replace it with a new one.
the help of a schematic
diagram
28.3.3 Calling Quality is Poor

The calling unit is defective Check for a click sound with Replace it with a new one.
a multi-meter.
The connections of the Separate the end tips of Clean the contact or insert the end tip
transmitter microphone units each unit or the handset. after testing.
are bad
There is a defective handset Check the cord with a tester. Replace it with a new one.
cord
28.3.4 There is No Buzzer Sound

Check Troubleshooting
The buzzer is defective Connect the DC 24 V power supply to the buzzer, and check if
there is a sound or not. If no click sound, replace the buzzer.
There is a defective selector Check the select switch; if it is no good, replace the selector.
There is a defective hook switch Check the hook switch's on / off status; if it is no good, replace the
hook switch.
Poor connections Tighten or solder the screws, the connector and the line terminals.

28.3.5 There is a Buzzer Sound but There Is No Indication

There is a Check the lamp.
defective lamp
If it is no good, replace the 24 V pilot lamp.
28.3.6 There is a Bad Connection or it is Unable to Communicate

There is a defective Check the transmitter and the receiver with a multi tester (R1x range).
transmitter and receiver unit If there is any sound, it is ok.
If there is no sound, replace the transmitter or the receiver.
There is a defective hook Check the hook switch's on / off status. If it is not okay, replace the
switch hook switch
There is a defective Check the 'CO' and '-' point with a multi tester (AC 10 V range) while
telephone line lifting the handset and talking. If the tester scale moves just a little, the
handset is normal.
If the tester scale doesn't move at all, replace the main PCB inside the
telephone’s handset.
28.4 Troubleshooting the Intrinsically Safe Type of Common Battery Phone / Marine
Automatic Telephone
As long as each equipment is properly handled and operated, there is no difficulty or failure.
However, should any trouble or malfunction in the equipment be found, the following listed
information will be helpful for troubleshooting it and repairing the equipment.
It should be noted that disassembly of the transmitter unit, the receiver unit, and the dial will
require replacement with new ones if they do not function properly although they are re-
assembled after being repaired.

Chapter 28
28.4.1 Incapable of Calling

Probable cause Troubleshooting Steps Remedy
The rotary switch is Check the contacts of the Clean the contacts and / or replace the
defective switch visually or with a switch with a new one.
tester
The push-button switch is Check the continuity of the Solder the broken wire or replace it with
defective circuit. a new one.
There is a disconnection of Check it with a screw Tighten it with a screw driver.
circuit / screws are driver.
loosened
There is a defective lamp or Check the lamp for trial by Replace the lamp with a new one. Clean
poor contact of the replacing it with a new and the contact portion such as a connector.
connector clean connector.
With the telephone, there is Check it visually or with a Clean and adjust the contact and the
a poor contact within the tester. contact spring or change the switch.
hook switch
28.4.2 The Lamp, Buzzer and Bell Do Not Function

There is a disconnection of Check the continuity of the Solder the broken wire or replace it with
the circuit’s network circuit. a new one.
There is a poor contact of Detach the relay from the Clean the contacts or change the relay
the signal relay or the relay circuit and check the to a new one.
box or disconnection of the continuity of the coil with a
relay coil multi meter.
There is a disconnection of Detach the bell or buzzer Change the coil of the bell or the buzzer
the other components like from the circuit and check to new one. Change the parts such as
the bell or buzzer the continuity with a tester. transistor.
Screws are loosened Check them with a screw Tighten them with a screw driver.
driver.
28.4.3 Communication is poor or cannot be made

There is a defective Check it by replacing Replace the defective unit with a new
transmitter unit or receiver each with new one one.
unit
There is a poor contact of Check the contact point or Clean or reform each terminal.
the transmitter or the the pin-jack terminal.
receiver unit


There is a disconnection of Open the mouth piece of Solder the broken wire or replace it with
the handset’s cord handset, and also the a new one and / or replace the defective
housing case and check circuit network with a new one
the continuity with a tester.
Screws are loosened Check them with a screw Tighten them with a screw driver.
driver.
28.5 Troubleshooting the Public Address System MPA 2000C
28.5.1 Mutual Relation of The Speaker Output

No. Speaker Name Contents Example) Output Pin Others
1 Speaker 1 Compass Deck 2p 100W
2 Speaker 2 Remote (Wing) 2p 100W
3 Speaker 3 FORE 2p 100W
4 Speaker 4 AFT 2p 100W
5 Speaker 5 S/G Room 2p 100W
6 Speaker 6 Engine Room 2p 100W
7 Speaker 7 Engine Work Room 2p 100W
8 Speaker 8 Engine Control Room 3p 100W
9 Speaker 9 Cargo Control Room 3p 100W
10 Speaker 10 Cabin 3p 100W
11 Speaker 11 Cabin 3p 100W/200W
12 Speaker 12 Cabin, Passage 3p 100W/200W
13 Speaker 13 Cabin, Passage 3p 100W/200W
14 Speaker 14 Passage 3p 100W/200W
15 Speaker 15 Passage 3p 300W
28.5.2 Power Failure

Cause Unit Troubleshooting
Power supply is not PA-122 Check the fuse (F1 15A) of the Power Amplifier
available PWR CTRL unit.
Check the K1 and the K2 relays of the Power
Amplifier unit
Check the output (DC-24V) of the IC1 (7824).
The fuse of the power Whole Check all connectors and the cables.
amplifier unit is ruptured PA122 Check the output cable of the speaker.
PWR AMPL Check TR8 -- TR13.
Chapter 28
28.5.3 Audio Output Failure

Cause Unit Troubleshooting
All the microphones cannot PC-122 1 Check the 020/21.
be used. Main Ctrl 2. Check the IC4/8/10/14/15.
3. Check the output (DC-24V) of the IC1 (7824).
4. Check the connector and the cable of each unit.
The specified microphone Terminal Board Check the control output of the 1 01-4.
cannot be used. PC-122
Check the contact of the K1 - K13 relay.
The Microphone Pre-Amplifier Check the operations of the ICI and the TR1.
key is normal but the PC-122
VU-meter is abnormal.
The VU-meter is normal but Main Ctrl PA- Check the contact of the K1 relay.
the audio output is 122
Check the operations of the TR1 and the TR2.
abnormal. Pwr Ctrl
Check the contact of the K3 relay.
PA-122
Check the connection state of the J1.
Pwr Ctrl
28.5.4 Remote Microphone Failure

Cause Troubleshooting
Bad wiring of the microphone Check to see if the wiring of the microphone is defective.
Bad contact of the case Check to see if the case connector or the terminal is broken.
connector Check to see if the microphone line is broken or changed.
Bad contact or a broken 1,2 - Mic Input, 3 - Earth, 4,5 - Key Input
line of the remote microphone Check to see if the power line is broken.
For more information, see the standard drawing.
Check the wiring of the power supply circuit and the remote.
For more information, see the standard drawing.
Check the wiring, the speaker and the remote for the speaker
system e.g., the compass speaker, the wing speaker (Port and
Stbd)
28.5.5 Remote(A) Power Failure

Cause
Bad contact or power connection of the remote line.

28.5.6 Remote(B) Power Failure

Cause
Bad connection of the remote power line.
28.5.7 Remote(A) Speaker Failure

Cause
Bad contact of the speaker and the remote.
28.5.8 Microphone Failure

Bad wiring for the microphone Check the line inside the microphone.
Bad contact of the terminal board Check the terminal board.
1, 2 - Mic Input, 3 - Earth, 4,5 - Key Input
1. MIC 1
2. MIC 2
3. GROUND
4. KEY 1
5. KEY 2
The equipment’s life depends greatly on proper maintenance and management. To prevent
any damage, check it periodically. To avoid an electric shock or a short circuit, make sure you
turn off the main source switch of the main unit before checking it.
1. Cleaning: With a soft cloth, wipe the equipment’s accessible parts and remove oil or dirt.
2. Inspection of Components: Inspect the components and look for rust on the load wires, the
condition of the soldering, corrosion of the copper foil in the printed circuit boards, etc.
3. Voltage: Always check the voltage of the circuit.

Chapter 28
28.5.9 Power Failure

There is a broken power line Check the power line.
Check the contact of the terminal.
Bad contact of the terminal or a Check the fuse holder.
ruptured fuse
Rectifier Failure Check the input and the output of the rectifier.
Power voltage failure Check the input and the output of the IC 7812 and
the IC 7805.
28.5.10 Voltage Check Points

Unit Check Point Pin No. Voltage
Main IC20(7812) Input 1(In) – 2 (GND) DC +24V
Control Output 3 (Out) - 2 (GND) DC +12V
(P22048D)
Pwr Amp. IC21(7805) Input 1 (ln) - 2 (GND) DC +21V
(P22040C) Output 3 (Out) - 2 (GND) DC + 5V
Pwr Amp. IC1(7824) Input 1 (ln) - 2 (GND) DC +32V
(P22037) Output 3 (Out) - 2 (GND) DC +24V
TR7(D2060) Emitter E(Out) – (GND) DC +24V
DD1(ZUS15) Output1 + V(Out) – (GND) DC +22V
Output 2 Output 2– (GND) DC +12V
TR1{D600) Collector C(OC)- 2(GND) DC OV
Base B(In) - 2 (GND) DC +24V
D1(3A) Cathode C(Out) GND DC + 5V
Radio IC1(7805) Input 1 (In) - 2 (GND) DC +24V
Tape Output
3 (In) - 2 (GND) DC +12V
(P22093E)
IC2(7812) Input 1 (In) - 2 (GND) DC + 5V
Output
3 (In) - 2 (GND) DC +24V
Remote TR2(D600) Emitter 1 (In) - 2 (GND) DC +12V

Control 3 (In) -(GND) DC +2V
(P22043D)
(P22043E)

Status Cause Unit Troubleshooting

Audio 1. The voice level of VU- Terminal Board Adjust the voice level
Distortion meter is very high (Counterclockwise).
Failure 2. The voice level of VU- Adjust the voice level
meter is very low. (clockwise).
Check the bridge diode BD1.
Check the related
microphone.
Check the IC7, 13 and 18
Speaker 1. Main selector PA-122 Pwr Ctrl 1. Check the speaker
Selector failure selector PCB.
Failure 2. Remote selector All Microphones. 1 Check the 7812 IC.
failure PC-122 Main Ctrl 2. Check the connector J1.
1. Check the K17/18 relay.
Radio Radio and tape failure. PC-122 Sel PCB Check the voltage of the IC1
Tape PR-122 R/T Crl and the IC2.
Unit Terminal Board
Failure Remote Main Crl
Remote 1. All functions Remote Main Crl 1 Check the operation of the
Ctrl failure RL1.
Unit 2. Check the wiring of the
Failure microphone.
2. Microphone key failure Remote Main Crl 1 Check the operation of the
RL1.
2. Check the volume of the
VR1.
3. Check the speaker.
3. Failure of the monitor 1 Check the lC1, the IC3 and
speaker sound. the IC6.
Call 1 Main function PC-122 Main Ctrl 1. Check the contact of the
Alarm failure alarm switch.
Failure 2. Check the operation of the
connector.
2. Remote failure PC-122 Sel PCB 1. Check the K11 and the
VR11.
Paging 1 Auto-Exchanger is Terminal Board 1 Check the connection of
Failure normal but its the cable.
function is 2. Check the operation of the
abnormal PC1.
Emergency 1 The external Terminal Board 1 Check the IC1, the IC3 and
room A emergency alarm is normal PC-122 Main Ctrl the IC6.
Alarm l but its function is abnormal
Failure

Chapter 28
28.6 Troubleshooting the Public Address System
28.6.1 Whole System

Symptom Check Point and Countermeasure
Total power failure; the MAIN Check to see if the main / emergency switch is on.
& the EM’CY LEDs do not
Check the main / emergency power supply voltage.
glow
28.6.2 Power Detector Unit

The MAIN and the EM'CY LEDs glow and the Check if the main and the emergency switch
buzzer sounds are on.
Check the main/emergency power supply
voltage.
28.6.3 Microphone
The microphone is noisy Check the Microphone Cable No.3: Earth
28.6.4 Control Unit

Power failure Separate the main control unit from the rack
Check the fuses F1 to F4 in the control unit.
Check the voltage in the No.5 / No.6 terminals of the
connector J5.
If there is no power supply (AC 24V), replace the transformer.
All speaker groups select button Check the dimmer; if it is defective, replace it
LED goes off
Main microphone does not operate Check to see if the “BUSY” LED is ON; Check the
microphone priority
Check to see if the microphone connector is inserted upright.
Adjust the volume.
Check to see of the speaker group select button is on.
Check the cable of the inner microphone.

The “BUSY” LED always glows; Check the external microphone and telephone terminals No.4
Power is off and No.5 in the terminal board. If it is shorted, check the
external cable and the equipment.
The Radio / Cassette deck / CD Check to see if the radio / cassette tape / CD player are On.
player does not operate Check to see if the “PTT” (push to talk) button is on.
Check to see if the required speaker group select button is
on.
G.E.A switch box does not operate Test the operation of the G.E.A main unit.
If the condition is okay, check the GEA switch box cable.
If it is in a defective condition, replace the GEA switch box.
G.E.A main unit does not operate Power off the G.E.A main unit.
Check to see if the override switch is on.
28.6.5 Monitor Unit

Symptom Check Point and
Countermeasure
There is no sound for the monitor speaker in spite of the P/A being Adjust the monitor’s volume.
on
28.6.6 Power Amplifier Unit

There is a power Check if the power switch is on.
supply failure Check the fuse in the power amp unit.
The Signal LED Check to see if the speaker group select button is on.
Glows and there is Check the cable for the output of the amplifier and the external speaker
no output power terminal in terminal board.
If the speaker’s cable is short circuited, there will be no output or a weak
sound.
28.6.7 Remote Control Unit

There is a power Check to see if the P/A main unit is normally operating.
supply failure
Check to see if the remote unit’s power switch is On.
Check the fuse F1 in the remote control unit.

Chapter 28

Check the terminal voltage, the No.5 (GND: Mic. Cable) for the microphone
cable and the No.3 (+24V) for the remote-1/2 (TB-4) in the terminal board.
The microphone Check to see if the microphone connector is inserted upright.

does not operate Adjust the volume.
Check to see if the speaker group select switch is On.
Test it with another normal microphone.
There is no sound Adjust the volume.
from the monitor The monitor speaker is off when using the remote microphone
speaker
The speaker’s Check the speaker cables No.1 to 3
output is abnormal And the connection to the Cabin / Pass speaker

Chapter 29
Voyage Data Recorder
29.1 Introduction
The IMO, to avert future losses both to insurance companies and to the shipowners has made
it mandatory for all ships to install a system that records and stores all information necessary
for an insurance claim. This information should be easily retrievable.
The IMO thus developed the Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) and introduced it as a mandatory
system. It is similar to the ‘Black Box’ that is used in aircrafts. A VDR records data and events
encountered aboard ships. It stores recorded data in its memory for a minimum of 12 hours.
This data, when retrieved, helps investigators to locate the causes of marine incidents. There
are two types:
1. Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)
2. Simplified Voyage Data Recorder (S-VDR)
There is no major difference between a VDR and an S-VDR. The only difference is the
amount of information that is required to be recorded. The VDR can record more data than the
S-VDR because it has a larger memory capacity.
29.2 Regulations
29.2.1 Voyage Data Recorders

Passenger ships and ships other than passenger ships of 3000 gross tonnage and upwards
constructed on or after 1 July 2002 must carry voyage data recorders (VDRs) to assist in
accident investigations, under regulations adopted in 2000, which entered into force on 1 July
2002.
The mandatory regulations are contained in Chapter V on Safety of Navigation of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974.
Like the black boxes carried on an aircraft, VDRs enable accident investigators to review
procedures and instructions in the moments before an incident and help to identify the cause of
any accident.

Chapter 29
Under Regulation 20 of SOLAS Chapter V on Voyage data recorders (VDR), the following
ships are required to carry VDRs:
• Passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;
• Ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than the first survey on or
after 1 July 2002;
• Passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later
than 1 January 2004; and
• Ships, other than passenger ships, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or
after 1 July 2002.
VDRs are required to meet performance standards “not inferior to those adopted by the
Organization”.
Performance standards for VDRs were adopted in 1997 and give details on data to be
recorded and VDR specifications. They state that the VDR should continuously maintain
sequential records of preselected data items relating to the status and output of the ship’s
equipment and command and control of the ship. The VDR should be installed in a protective
capsule that is brightly coloured and fitted with an appropriate device to aid location. It should
be entirely automatic during a normal operation.
Administrations may exempt ships, other than ro-ro passenger ships, constructed before 1
July 2002, from being fitted with a VDR where it can be demonstrated that interfacing a VDR
with the existing equipment on the ship is unreasonable and impracticable.
Regulation 18 of SOLAS chapter V on Approval, surveys and performance standards of
navigational systems and equipment and voyage data recorder states that:
The voyage data recorder (VDR) system, including all sensors, shall be subjected to an
annual performance test. The test shall be conducted by an approved testing or servicing facility
to verify the accuracy, duration and recoverability of the recorded data. In addition, tests and
inspections shall be conducted to determine the serviceability of all protective enclosures and
devices fitted to aid location. A copy of the certificate of compliance issued by the testing
facility, stating the date of compliance and the applicable performance standards, shall be
retained on board the ship.

29.2.2 Simplified VDRs

The Maritime Safety Committee, at its 79th session in December 2004 adopted amendments
to Regulation 20 of SOLAS Chapter V (Safety of Navigation) on a phased-in carriage
requirement for a shipborne simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR). The amendment entered
into force on 1 July 2006.
The S-VDR is not required to store the same level of detailed data as a standard VDR, but
nonetheless should maintain in a secure and retrievable form, information concerning the
position, movement, physical status, command and control of a vessel over the period leading
up to and following an incident. To assist in casualty investigations, cargo ships, when engaged
on international voyages, shall be fitted with a VDR which may be a simplified voyage data
recorder (S VDR) as follows:
• In the case of cargo ships of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1
July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July 2006 but not later than 1 July
2009;
• In the case of cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000
gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after
1 July 2007 but not later than 1 July 2010; and
• Administrations may exempt cargo ships from the application of the requirements
when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified above.
The VDR system has been designed and manufactured to satisfy functional and
environmental requirements set by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as
follows:
• IEC 61996-2(E)
Maritime navigation and radio communication equipment and systems
– Shipborne voyage data recorder (VDR)
– Performance requirements
– Methods of testing and required test results as applicable to the S-VDR
• IEC 60945:2002
Maritime navigation and radio communication equipment and systems
Chapter 29
– General requirements
– Methods of testing and required test results
29.3 Block Diagram
Data Recording
Unit
DRU
Waterproof Mic Remote

Outside the Alarm Panel
Bridge
Bridge GPS
Mic Data Collecting Speed Log
Unit (DCU) Echo Sounder
Autopilot
VHF
Engine
Audio
Telegraph
Steering Gear
Radar Anemometer
Power Supply Fire Detection
(AC/DC) Others
Alarm
Monitoring
System 24 V DC
110/220 V AC
Figure 29.1 – Block Diagram of the VDR System

The Voyage Data Recorder should continuously record events of the selected interface of
the ship’s equipment and this record can be played back at the time of investigations. The
Voyage Data Recorder as a complete system consists of the following:
• Data collecting unit
• Data recording unit
• Input signals
• Remote alarm panel

29.3.1 Data Collecting Unit

The Data Collecting Unit (DCU) installed inside the bridge contains the data processing
unit, interface module, playback module (HDD) and an additional backup battery. The
navigational or other critical equipment are connected with the DCU respective channel. The
equipment communicates serial with the DCU based on the NMEA and RS-422 protocols. The
DCU collects data from the connected equipment as required by the IMO and IEC standards.
The equipment can be connected with the help of the interface module and the sequence of
collected data is processed with the help of the processing module and then sent to the Data
Recording Unit.
The additional battery backup gives power to the system in case all other power sources are
turned off.
The system could then record data for at least 6 hours without any interruption. There is also
a record button provided in the bridge connected to the DCU unit to be used at the time of any
incident (like collision, grounding etc.). When it is used, the recorder will start recording a new
set of information from that moment on.
Playback of the data from the HDD can be useful during investigations. In emergencies the
HDD is just removed from the DCE
Figure 29.2 – The Data Collecting Unit (DCU)

Chapter 29
29.3.2 Data Recording Unit

A Data Recording unit (DRU) is fitted on the monkey island and stores all the data that is
recorded via the watertight DCU on the bridge. The flash memory or Hard Disk Drive in the
DRU stores the data for up to 48 hours preceding it and it is continuously refreshed as the
voyage progresses (the minimum time of 12 hours is mandatory).
The DRU components are installed in the protective capsule and are fitted with a humming
device to help locate the capsule after a mishap. The humming device is triggered when the
DRU is immersed in water and produces ultrasonic pulses that can be detected by an airborne
or shipborne unit. The underwater acoustic beacon (pinger) with the capsule automatically
transmits 10 ms pulses at 37.5 kHz for at least 30 days when it is submerged in water. The
expected life of the beacon is 6 years.
The DRU is connected to the Data Collecting Unit (DCU) with a non-halogen FireWire
cable (IEEE1394). The Data Recording Unit is housed in a highly visible protective capsule
which can withstand a fire of 1100°C for 1 hour and deep-sea pressure of 6000 m. The capsule
ensures survival and recovery of the recorded data after an incident.
Figure 29.3 – The Data Recording Unit (Installed Above the Bridge)

Data to be Recorded VDR S-VDR

Bridge audio and one VHF radio Yes Yes
communications
Date, time, position (GPS) Yes Yes
Ship’s heading (Gyro) Yes Yes
Speed (Log) Yes Yes
Radar picture Yes Record radar if off-the-shelf RGB interface
is available, otherwise, record AIS data
AIS Not demanded AIS not demanded if radar is recorded
Depth (Echo sounder) Yes If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Engine demand and response Yes If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Main alarms, fire alarms etc Yes If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Watertight and fire door status Yes If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Rudder order and response Yes If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Wind speed and direction Yes If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Hull stresses and acceleration If it is available If IEC 61162, NMEA 0183, data exists
Table 29.1 – Data that is Recorded by the VDR and S-VDR
The recording interval of data and audio is as follows:

• Radar video signal every 15 seconds (it is optional and is not connected to every VDR)
• Bridge and VHF audio in real time
• IEC sentences whenever received
• Analog and digital data every second
29.3.3 Input Signals
The VDR has various input signals. The DCU collects data from various sensors or
equipment based on the IMO’s and IEC’s standard requirements. The following equipment data
is recorded:
29.3.3.1 Date and Time
Date and time are obtained from an external GPS navigator referenced to UTC. Time
information is recorded at intervals of 1 second. Without date and time data, no data except
audio signals are recorded.

Chapter 29
29.3.3.2 Ship’s Position and Datum Used

Latitude, longitude and datum are obtained from a GPS navigator, Loran-C receiver or other
EPFS or INS available on standard digital interface. The source of data is identifiable on
playback.
29.3.3.3 Speed (in water and / or over ground)
Speed through the water (STW) or speed over the ground (SOG) is recorded at intervals of
1 second. The resolution is 0.1 kt. Transverse speed is also indicated when available on board.
29.3.3.4 Heading (True, Magnetic)
The heading is recorded at intervals of 1 second to a resolution of 0.1°. The data is labelled
G (gyrocompass), GPS, GLONASS, MAG.
29.3.3.5 AIS-VHF Data-link Message, AIS-VHF Data-link Own-vessel’s Messages
Where there is no commercial off-the-shelf interface available to obtain radar data then the
AIS target data shall be recorded as a source of information regarding other ships, otherwise
AIS information may be recorded additionally as a beneficial secondary source of information
on both the other and own ship.
29.3.3.6 Depth Below Keel a k a Under Keel Clearance (from the Echo Sounder)
Depth below the keel up to a resolution of 0.1 m as available on the ship, is recorded.
29.3.3.7 Alarms
The status of all IMO mandatory alarms is recorded individually with their ID number and
time stamp. Audible alarms from the alarm units are stored simultaneously by the bridge audio
microphones.
29. 3.3.8 Rudder Order / Response
The rudder’s order and response angles are recorded up to a resolution of 1° as available on
the ship. If more than one rudder is provided, the circuitry can be duplicated.
29. 3.3.9 Engine Order / Response
The DCU obtains the engine order and response from the engine telegraph or direct engine
control. The signal level is normally 0-10 V. The engine parameters with shaft revolution and
ahead / astern indicators are recorded to a resolution of 1 rpm.

29.3.3.10 Hull Openings, Watertight Doors

Digital inputs or RS-422 serial data can be connected individually. The data is received at
intervals of 1 s and stored with their time stamps.
29. 3.3.11 Acceleration and Hull Stresses
The DCU obtains signals from appropriate hull stress and response monitoring devices. The
inputs are recorded individually and stored with their time stamps.
29.3.3.12 Wind Speed and Direction
The DCU obtains the signal from the appropriate wind speed and direction sensor
(anemometer). The inputs are recorded individually and stored with their time stamps.
29.3.3.13 Radar Data
The radar images including the range rings, EBLs, VRMs, plotting symbols, radar maps, parts
of SENC, voyage plan and other essential navigational indications, are recorded in the DRU
via the interface in the DCU, which is connected to the buffered video output of the radar
display unit. One complete picture frame is captured at intervals of 15 seconds.
29.3.3.14 Bridge Audio
Microphones are supplied as standard items to record any conversation at the conning
station, radar display and chart table. If possible, the microphones should be positioned to
capture the audio from the intercom, public address system and audible alarms on the bridge.
The microphones are labelled Mic1, Mic2, etc. the microphones capture any conversation in
the bridge, audio signals from equipment and sound from the machinery.
29.3.4 Remote Alarm Panel
The Remote alarm panel is connected to the DCU unit. When interruptions occur in the
equipment’s communication, the ERROR LED (red) on the Remote Alarm Panel comes on and
an error code is displayed on the display unit. Identify the error by checking the error code
number in the error code tables provided by the makers. As per the IMO, no ERROR code
should be present on the alarm panel display. When an ERROR occurs, then a visual and an
audible alarm must be generated and this is acknowledged by pressing the Acknowledge button.

Chapter 29
Figure 29.4 – Remote Alarm Panel

The VDR receives its power from the ship’s supply of 100 / 220 V AC and converts it into
24 V DC, with the help of an ac to dc converter module. It also uses the ship’s reserve power
source, which is the 24 V DC battery supply. The VDR DCE has in it two 12 V DC batteries
(totally 24 V DC) for use, if the ship’s supply and the ship’s reserve power supply sources fail.
These two batteries can support the VDR DCE recording for at least another 6 hours without
interruption.
29.4 The Raytheon MER®-VDR
This information is an excerpt from www.raytheon-marine.de (Raytheon Marine GmbH,

Germany). The MER®-VDR is a newly developed universal electronic process recorder for
vessels to support casualty investigations in the case of averages and ship losses. The system is
designed and type approved according to SOLAS, Chapter V, IMO A.861(20).
All interfaces developed for the MER®-VDR can be installed on demand. With the standard
interface 36 digital and 4 analogue channels can be digitalized and recorded. Another eight-
channel interface is used as an NMEA interface. For easy installation the system is also
prepared for read out the data via a bus structure. A separate external interface is provided for
the steering interface.
These interfaces are integrated with many electronic devices for data transfer between ships
navigation and control systems.
With the use of these two interfaces of the MER®-VDR and without additional devices an
economic solution is possible. Due to this type of implementation the system is also interesting
for smaller ships up to powerful sailing and motor yachts.
29.4.1 MER®-VDR Administrator Access Rights

Only with a special key-code, authorized clients can communicate with the MER®-VDR.
Every key-code is valid for one MER®-VDR.
The replay-system is one MER®-client. The replay system is designed to have a powerful
tool to recover and investigate the recorded data.
There are tools for statistics of analogue values and a lot of digital information. It is possible
to replay the ships track at the ECDIS screen or without ECDIS. The replay system is a very
interesting part of the MER®-VDR to display and to use the recorded data during the normal
ship’s operation.
With the integrated ECDIS, the own course and the course of the tracked targets can be
played back within the electronic chart. During the replay with electronic chart the specific
ECDIS-functions and settings can be used.
Recorded radar images and recorded sound data can be used simultaneously.
Nautical data, weather data and engine data which was recorded periodically, can be
displayed as graphic functions. With this function it is possible to make statistical evaluations
and problems can be detected.
The graphs can be zoomed and the displayed radar images can be enlarged.
If the replay-system is installed on board, data recorded by the MER®-VDR can be
downloaded via Ethernet.
If it is not installed on board, for example at the ship owner’s office, all data can be accessed
via router and telephone link or data radio broadcasting (if available).
These download possibilities are secured with different protection methods. During the
download data groups and time intervals can be selected to save transmission time and memory
space.
The downloaded data can be archived locally or swapped out to other storage media.
In the replay system a multi-level access protection system is integrated.
The administrator can allocate different rights to the users. These rights are the start of the
replay-system, download of data groups or data swapping.

Chapter 29
With the usage of a micro controller in the MER®-VDR the universal interfaces, the
expandability, the adaptability and the implementation of exclusive not movable parts are made
possible. The MER®-VDR is a newly developed universal electronic process recorder for
vessels to support casualty investigations in the case of averages and ship losses. The system is
designed and type approved according to SOLAS, Chapter V, IMO A.861(20). The MER®-
VDR - data management unit comprises of the following:
• 19” cPCI Computer system with long time back-up medium, Flash memory 64 MB for
operating system and 256 MB RAM with following interfaces:
8 x RS 422 inputs
36 x digital inputs
Audio board with four separate audio channels for 8 microphones, 4 VHF audio inputs
4 x different analogue inputs
1 x frame grabber for RGB video signal of the main radar
Ethernet-switch 10/100 MBit/s
4 inside and 2 outside microphones with self-test

1 VDR common alarm output, dry contact or 24 V/DC or the RS422 NMEA Standard,
LCD Display mounted inside for alarm status
Emergency back-up module
Flash disk as removable recording medium,
• UPS System according to IEC 61996
• Power supply 24V DC/10A or 120V/AC, 4.4 A or 230 – 550 V/AC, 2.4-1.1A 50/60 Hz
29.4.2 Final Recording Medium 6260 (Capsule / Black Box)
• 12 hours’ storage capacity
• Underwater locator Beacon
• 2 GB solid state memory
• Long life / low operating power (15 W, max. 24 V DC)

29.4.2.1 Data that is Recorded

• Date and time
• Ship’s position
• Speed of the ship
• Heading, as indicated by ship’s compass
• Conversation on the bridge and communication between the ship and any other station
• Radar data
• Echo sounder data
• Main alarms
• Rudder order and response
• Engine order and response
• Hull openings status
• Watertight and fire door status
• Accelerations and hull stress
• Wind speed and direction
29.4.2.2 Additional Options
• Additional radar inputs (max. 4)
• Additional audio channel microphones (indoor)
• Additional audio channel for VHF, bridge telephone, public address etc.
• Additional modules for analogue inputs
• Additional modules for digital inputs
• Additional modules for digital outputs
• External PLC-units (Programmable Logic Computer) incl. CPU with 2 analogue inputs, 16
digital inputs

Chapter 29
• Extended memory for data storage more than 12 hours

• VDR replay-system in hardware or software
• Online investigation module for replay-system
• Statistics module for the replay-system
• Print module for the replay-system
• Data transfer module for sending data on shore
29.5 The Sperry Marine VDR and S-VDR
29.5.1 The Basic VDR Package
Figure 29.5 – System Configuration of The VoyageMaster II VDR

29.5.1.1 Data Acquisition Unit (DAU)

• 3 VHF Inputs
• 2 Radar Inputs
• Removable Hard Drive
• UPS (2 Hour)
• Lockable, wall mounted
29.5.1.2 6 Microphones
29.5.1.3 Protected Data Capsule (12 Hours)
29.5.1.4 Mount for Capsule with 50m cable
29.5.1.5 Bridge Alarm Unit
29.5.1.6 Sensor Interface Unit
• 16 Serial (NMEA)
• 16 Analogue
• 64 Digital
29.5.1.7 Playback Software
29.5.1.8 Manuals
29.5.1.9 Optional
• Remote Video Unit (2 additional channels)
• Bridge and water-tight microphones
• Backup Removable HD
• Sensor Interface Unit (for additional
inputs)
29.5.1.10 Mandatory Signal List
• Data and Time
• Latitude and Longitude

Chapter 29
• Speed
• Heading
• Bridge and VHF Audio
• Radars
• Depth beneath the keel
• All IMO mandatory alarms
• Rudder order and response
• Engine order and response
• Hull opening status
• Watertight and fire doors
• Wind speed and direction
• Hull stress monitor
The basic S-VDR system consists of the following:
29.5.2 The VoyageMaster II S-VDR
29.5.2.1 Data Acquisition Unit (DAU)
• 1 VHF Input
• 2 Radar Inputs
• 8 Serial Inputs (NMEA)
• Removable Hard Drive
• UPS (2 Hours)
• Lockable, wall mounted
29.5.2.2 4 Microphone Units
29.5.2.3 Protected Data Capsule (12 Hour)
29.5.2.4 Mount for Capsule with 50m cable
29.5.2.5 Bridge Alarm Unit

29.5.2.6 Playback Software

29.5.2.7 Manual
29.5.2.8 Optional
• 24 Hour Protected Data Capsule
• Remote Video Unit (2 additional channels)
• Bridge and water-tight microphones
• Audio PCB (4 Add. Mics, 10 max)
• Serial Modules (4 or 8 inputs)
• Backup Removable HD
Figure 29.6 – The VoyageMaster II S-VDR

Images Courtesy: www.sperrymarine.northropgrumman.com

Chapter 29
29.6 Maintenance in General
Periodic checks and maintenance are important for proper operation of any electronic
system. The maintenance instructions are to be followed to obtain optimum performance and
the longest possible life of the equipment.
29.6.1 Annual Re-certification
The VDR must undergo an annual performance test to re-certify its suitability. This test is
conducted by a test engineer who is certified by a relevant Ship Classification Society. The
content and procedure of the test must be in accordance with the regulations of that society.
29.6.2 Cleaning
Dirt or dust may be removed from units with a soft cloth. A Fresh water-moistened cloth
may be used to remove stubborn dirt. Do not use commercial cleaning agents to clean any unit.
29.6.3 Software Maintenance
Check the software version and its upgradation. Its communication is compatible with a
portable laptop.
29.6.4 Replacing Batteries
Every four years, the back-up batteries (2 pcs.) in the DCU and every three years, the back-
up batteries (1pcs.) in the DRU must be replaced with new ones by a qualified ETO or
Navigation Officer.
Causes Remedy
AC and / or DC LED is not lit 1. Check the breaker switches on the ship’s mains
switchboard.
2. Check if the Cable is Faulty
3. Check if a fuse is blown
The battery backup LED is not lit 1. Check if the battery is supplied with power
2. Check the battery cable
An error code is displayed 1. Check the error code table and troubleshoot the
problem

Chapter 30
List of SOLAS Regulations
Note: This chapter is meant to only serve as a guideline for reference. The current
SOLAS Regulations and the amendments in force must be referred to, for official
purposes.
Chapter I
General Provisions
Part A – Application, definitions, etc.
1 Application
2 Definitions
3 Exceptions
4 Exemptions
5 Equivalents
Part B – Surveys and certificates
6 Inspection and survey
7 Surveys of passenger ships
8 Surveys of life-saving appliances and other equipment of cargo ships
9 Surveys of radio installations of cargo ships
10 Surveys of structure, machinery and equipment of cargo ships
11 Maintenance of conditions after survey
12 Issue or endorsement of certificates
13 Issue or endorsement of certificates
14 Duration and validity of certificates
15 Forms of certificates and records of equipment
16 Availability of certificates
17 Acceptance of certificates
18 Qualification of certificates
19 Control
20 Privileges

Chapter 30
Part C – Casualties
21 Casualties
Chapter II-1
Construction, subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical installations
1 Application
2 Definitions
3 Definitions relating to parts C, D and E
3-1 Structural, mechanical and electrical requirements for ships
3-2 Protective coatings of dedicated seawater ballast tanks in all types of ships
and double-side skin spaces of bulk carriers
3-3 Safe access to tanker bows
3-4 Emergency towing arrangements on tankers
3-5 New installation of material containing asbestos
3-6 Access to and within spaces in and forward of the cargo area of oil tankers
and bulk carriers
3-7 Construction drawings maintained onboard and ashore
3-8 Towing and mooring equipment
3-9 Means of embarkation on and disembarkation from ships
3-10 Goal-based ship construction standards for bulk carriers and oil tankers
3-11 Corrosion protection of cargo oil tanks of crude oil carriers
3-12 Protection against noise
Part B – Subdivision and stability
4 General
Part B-1 – Stability
5 Intact stability information
6 Required subdivision index R

7 Attained subdivision index A

7-1 Calculation of factor pi
7-2 Calculation of factor Si
8 Special requirements concerning passenger ship stability
8-1 System capabilities and operational information after a flooding casualty on
passenger ships
Part B-2 – Subdivision, watertight and weather tight integrity
9 Double bottoms in passenger ships and cargo ships other than tankers
10 Construction of watertight bulkheads
11 Initial testing of watertight bulkheads, etc.
12 Peak and machinery space bulkheads, shaft tunnels, etc.
13 Openings in watertight bulkheads below the bulkhead deck in passenger
ships
13-1 Openings in watertight bulkheads and internal decks in cargo ships
14 Passenger ships carrying goods, vehicles and accompanying personnel
15 Opening in the shell plating below the bulkhead deck of passenger ships and
the freeboard deck of cargo ships
16 Construction of initial tests of watertight doors, side scuttles, etc.
16-1 Construction of initial tests of watertight decks, trunks, etc.
17 Internal watertight integrity of passenger ships above the bulkhead deck
17-1 Integrity of the hull and superstructure, damage prevention and control on
ro-ro passenger ships
Part B-3 – Subdivision load line assignment for passenger ships
18 Assigning, marking and recording of subdivision load lines for passenger
ships
Part B-4 – Stability management
19 Damage control information
20 Loading of passenger ships
21 Periodical operation and inspection of watertight doors, etc., in passenger
ships
22 Prevention and control of water ingress, etc.

Chapter 30
22-1 Flooding detection systems for passenger ships carrying 36 or more persons
constructed on or after 1 July 2010
23 Special requirements for ro-ro passenger ships
24 Prevention and control of water ingress, etc., in cargo ships
25 Water level detectors on single hold cargo ships other than bulk carriers
Part C – Machinery installations
26 General
27 Machinery
28 Means of going astern
29 Steering gear
30 Additional requirements for electric and electro hydraulic steering gear
31 Machinery controls
32 Steam boilers and boiler feed systems
33 Steam pipe systems
34 Air pressure systems
35 Ventilating systems in machinery spaces
35-1 Bilge pumping arrangements
36 Protection against noise
37 Communication between navigation bridge and machinery space
38 Engineers’ alarm
39 Location of emergency installations in passenger ships
Part D – Electrical installations
40 General
41 Main source of electrical power and lighting systems
42 Emergency source of electrical power in passenger ships
42-1 Supplementary emergency lighting for ro-ro passenger ships
43 Emergency source of electrical power in cargo ships
44 Starting arrangements for emergency generating sets
45 Precautions against shock, fire and other hazards of electrical origin

Part E – Additional requirements for periodically unattended machinery spaces

46 General
47 Fire precautions
48 Protection against flooding
49 Control of propulsion machinery from the navigating bridge
50 Communication system
51 Alarm system
52 Safety systems
53 Special requirements for machinery, boiler and electrical installations
54 Special consideration in respect of passenger ships
Part F – Alternative design and arrangements
55 Alternative design and arrangements
Part G – Ships using low flashpoint fuels
56 Application
57 Requirements for ships using low flashpoint fuels
Chapter II – 2
Construction – Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction
Part A – General
1 Application
2 Fire safety objectives and functional requirements
3 Definitions
Part B – Prevention of fire and explosion
4 Probability of ignition
5 Fire growth potential
6 Smoke generation potential and toxicity
Part C – Suppression of fire
7 Detection and alarm
8 Control and smoke spread
9 Containment of fire
Chapter 30
10 Fire fighting
11 Structural integrity
Part D - Escape
12 Notification of crew and passengers
13 Means of escape
Part E – Operational requirements
14 Operational readiness and maintenance
15 Instructions, on-board training and drills
16 Operations
Part F – Alternative design and arrangements
Special requirements
18 Helicopter facilities
19 Carriage of dangerous goods
20 Protection of vehicle, special category of ro-ro spaces
20-1 Requirements for vehicle carriers carrying motor vehicles with compressed
hydrogen or natural gas in their tanks for their own propulsion as cargo
21 Casualty threshold, safe return to port and safe seas
22 Design criteria for systems to remain operational after a fire casualty
23 Safety centre on passenger ships
Chapter III
Life-saving appliances and arrangements
Part A - General
1 Applications
2 Exemptions
3 Definitions
4 Evaluation, testing and approval of life-saving appliances and arrangements
5 Production tests

Part B – Requirements for ships and life-saving appliances

Section I – Passenger ships and cargo ships
6 Communications
7 Personal life-saving appliances
8 Muster list and emergency instructions
9 Operating instructions
10 Manning of survival craft and supervision
11 Survival craft muster and embarkation arrangements
12 Launching stations
13 Stowage of survival craft
14 Stowage of rescue boats
15 Stowage of marine evacuation systems
16 Survival craft launching and recovery arrangements
17 Rescue boat embarkation, launching and recovery arrangements
18 Line-throwing appliances
19 Emergency training and drills
20 Operational readiness, maintenance and inspection
Section II – Passenger ships (additional requirements)
21 Survival craft and rescue boats
23 Survival craft and rescue boat embarkation arrangements
24 Stowage of survival craft
25 Muster stations
26 Additional requirements for ro-ro passenger ships
27 Information on passengers
28 Helicopter landing and pick-up areas
29 Decision support system for masters of passenger ships
30 Drills
Section III – Cargo ships (additional requirements)
31 Survival craft and rescue boats
33 Survival craft embarkation and launching arrangements

Chapter 30
Section IV – Life-saving appliances and arrangements requirements

34 Untitled
Section V - Miscellaneous
35 Training manual and on-board training aids
36 Instructions for on-board maintenance
37 Muster list and emergency instructions
Part C - Alternative design and arrangements
Chapter IV
Radio Communications
Part A – General
1 Application
2 Terms and definitions
3 Exemptions
4 Functions requirements
4-1 GMDSS satellite providers
Part B – Undertakings by Contracting Governments
5 Provision of radio communication services
5-1 Global maritime distress and safety identities
Part C – Ship requirements
6 Radio installations
7 Radio equipment: General
8 Radio equipment: Sea area A1
9 Radio equipment: Sea areas A1 and A2
10 Radio equipment: Sea areas A1, A2 and A3
11 Radio equipment: Sea areas A1, A2, A3 and A4
12 Watches
13 Sources of energy
14 Performance standards
15 Maintenance requirements
16 Radio personnel
17 Radio records
18 Position-updating
Chapter V
Safety of Navigation
1 Application
2 Definitions
3 Exemptions and equivalents
4 Navigational warnings
5 Metrological services and warnings
6 Ice Patrol service
7 Search and rescue services
8 Life-saving signals
9 Hydrographic services
10 Ships’ routeing
11 Ship reporting systems
12 Vessel traffic services
13 Establishment and operation of aids to navigation
14 Ships’ manning
15 Principles relating to bridge design, design and arrangement of navigational
systems and equipment and bridge procedures
16 Maintenance of equipment
17 Electromagnetic compatibility
18 Approval, surveys and performance standards of navigational systems and
equipment and voyage data recorder
19 Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational systems and equipment
19-1 Long-range identification and tracking of ships
20 Voyage data recorders
21 International code of signals and IAMSAR manual
22 Navigation bridge visibility
23 Pilot transfer arrangements
Chapter 30
24 Use of heading and / or track control systems

25 Operation of steering gear
26 Steering gear: testing and drills
27 Nautical charts and nautical publications
28 Records of navigational activities and daily reporting
29 Life-saving signals to be used by ships, aircraft or persons in distress
30 Operational limitations
31 Danger messages
32 Information required in danger messages
33 Distress situations; obligations and procedures
34 Safe navigation and avoidance of dangerous situations
34-1 Master’s discretion
35 Misuse of distress signals
Appendix: Rules for the management, operation and financing of the North Atlantic
Ice Patrol
Chapter VI
Carriage of cargoes and oil fuels
Part A – General provisions
1 Application
1-1 Definitions
1-2 Requirements for the carriage of solid bulk cargoes other than grain
2 Cargo Information
3 Oxygen analysis and gas detection equipment
4 The use of pesticides in ships
5 Stowage and securing
5-1 Material safety data sheets
5-2 Prohibition of the blending of bulk liquid cargoes and production processes
during sea voyages

Part B – Special provisions for bulk cargoes other than grain

6 Acceptance for shipment
7 Loading, unloading and stowage of bulk cargoes
Part C – Carriage of grain
8 Definitions
9 Requirements for cargo ships carrying grain
Chapter VII
Carriage of dangerous goods
Part A – Carriage of dangerous goods in package form
1 Definitions
2 Application
3 Requirements for the carriage of dangerous goods
4 Documents
5 Cargo securing manual
6 Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods
7 Definitions
7-1 Application
7-2 Documents
7-3 Stowage and segregation requirements
7-4 Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods
7-5 Requirements for the carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk
Part B – Construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in
bulk
8 Definitions
9 Application to chemical tankers
10 Requirements for chemical tankers

Chapter 30
Part C – Construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk

11 Definitions
12 Application to gas carriers
13 Requirements for gas carriers
Part D – Special requirements for the carriage of packaged irradiated nuclear fuel,
plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes onboard ships
14 Definitions
15 Application to ships carrying INF cargo
16 Requirements for ships carrying INF cargo
Chapter VIII
Nuclear ships
1 Application
2 Application of other chapters
3 Exemptions
4 Approval of reaction installation
5 Suitability of reaction installation for service onboard ship
6 Radiation safety
7 Safety assessment
8 Operating manual
9 Surveys
10 Certificates
11 Special control
12 Casualties
Chapter IX
Management for the safe operation of ships
1 Definitions
2 Application
3 Safety management requirements
4 Certification
5 Maintenance of conditions
6 Verification and control
Chapter X
Safety management for high-speed craft
1 Definitions
2 Applications
3 Requirements for high-speed craft
Chapter XI-1
Safety measures to enhance maritime safety
1 Authorization of recognized organizations
2 Enhanced surveys
3 Ship identification number
3-1 Company and registered owner identification number
4 Port state control on operational requirements
5 Continuation synopsis record
6 Additional requirements for the investigation of marine casualties and
incidents
7 Atmosphere testing instruments and enclosed spaces
Chapter XI -2
Special measures to enhance maritime security
1 Definitions
2 Applications
3 Obligations of contracting governments with respect to security
4 Requirements for companies and ships
5 Specific responsibility of companies
6 Ship security alert system
7 Threat to ships
8 Master’s discretion for ship safety and security
9 Control and compliance measure
10 Requirements for port facilities
11 Alternative security agreements
12 Equivalent security agreements
13 Communication of information

Chapter 30
Chapter XII
Additional safety measures for bulk carriers
1 Definitions
2 Applications
3 Implementation schedule
4 Damage stability requirements applicable to bulk carriers
5 Structural strength of bulk carriers
6 Structural and other requirements of bulk carriers
7 Survey and maintenance of bulk carriers
8 Information on compliance with requirements for bulk carriers
9 Requirements for bulk carriers not being capable of complying with
regulation 4.3 due to the design configuration of their cargo holds
10 Solid bulk cargo density declaration
11 Loading instrument
12 Hold, ballast and dry space water ingress alarms
13 Availability of pumping systems
14 Restrictions from sailing with any hold empty
Chapter XIII
Verification of compliance
1 Definitions
2 Applications
3 Verification of compliance
Chapter XIV
Safety measures for ships operating in polar waters
1 Definitions
2 Applications
3 Requirements for ships to which this chapter applies
4 Alternative design and arrangement

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About the Book
This book, written in 30 Chapters, focuses on standard equipment that is installed on the
bridge of a Commercial Ship. It is intended to help both a Cadet and a Qualified Officer
onboard, to further understand the technology, operating principles and easy-to-follow steps
in troubleshooting Navigational and Control Equipment. Deck Officers, Electro Technical
Officers and Marine Engineers alike, will find useful. The chapters within are as follows:
1 Electrical Safety 16 Very High Frequency Communication

2 Steering and Stabiliser Systems System
3 Rudder Angle and Rate of Turn Indica- 17 Medium and High Frequency Radio
tors Equipment
4 Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder 18 Navigational Telex
5 Magnetic Compasses 19 Automatic Identification System
6 Ship’s Speed Logs 20 Long-range Identification and Tracking
7 Echo Sounder 21 Closed Circuit Television
8 Radars 22 Television and Radio Antennae
9 Electronic Chart Display Information 23 Bridge Navigation Watch Alarm System
System 24 Ship’s Security Alert System
10 Global Positioning System 25 Global Maritime Distress Signalling
11 Differential Global Positioning System System
12 Anemometer 26 Marine Electric Clock
13 Weather Facsimile 27 Alarm Systems
14 Navigation and Signal Lights 28 Internal Communication Systems
15 Air Horn (The Ship’s Whistle) 29 Voyage Data Recorder
30 List of SOLAS Regulations
ISBN : 978-93-8588-996-7
SHROFF PUBLISHERS &

DISTRIBUTORS PVT. LTD. First Edition/2021/Paperback/English

Bridge Equipment For Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

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BRIDGE EQUIPMENT FOR

NAVIGATION AND CONTROL

Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar

A total of 8 years of learning, hands-on and teaching experience in this field

A total of 42 years of learning, hands-on and teaching experience in this field

Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar

By Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar, Elstan A. Fernandez

Copyright © 2021 Dr.* Prosanjeet J. Sarkar, Elstan A. Fernandez

First Edition: April 2021

Print ISBN: 978-93-8588-996-7

Published by Shroff Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd. B-103, Railway

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships vii

viii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter No. Title Page No.

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships ix

Chapter 1 – Electrical Safety

x Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 1 – Electrical Safety

Chapter 2 – Steering and Stabiliser Systems

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xi

Chapter 2 – Steering and Stabiliser Systems

xii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 2 – Steering and Stabiliser Systems

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xiii

Chapter 2 – Steering and Stabiliser Systems

xiv Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 3 – Rudder Angle and Rate of Turn Indicators

Chapter 4 – Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xv

Chapter 4 – Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder

xvi Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 4 – Gyro Compasses and Course Recorder

Chapter 5 – Magnetic Compasses

Chapter 6 – Ship’s Speed Logs

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xvii

Chapter 6 – Ship’s Speed Logs

xviii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 6 – Ship’s Speed Logs

Chapter 7 – Echo Sounder

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xix

xx Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxi

Chapter 9 – Electronic Chart Display & Information System

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxiii

Chapter 9 – Electronic Chart Display & Information System

xxiv Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 9 – Electronic Chart Display & Information System

Chapter 10 – Global Positioning System

Chapter 10 – Global Positioning System

Chapter 11 – Differential Global Positioning System

xxvi Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 11 – Differential Global Positioning System

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxvii

Chapter 13 – Weather Facsimile

xxviii Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 13 – Weather Facsimile

Chapter 14 – Navigation and Signal Lights

Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships xxix

Chapter 14 – Navigation and Signal Lights

Chapter 15 – Air Horn (The Ship’s Whistle)

Chapter 16 – Very High Frequency Communication System

xxx Bridge Equipment for Navigation and Control of Commercial Ships

Chapter 16 – Very High Frequency Communication System