Saint Mary’s University

SCHOOL OF HEALTH and Natural SCIENCES

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

Unit 6
FORMULA, NOMENCLATURE AND EQUATIONS

I. Chemical Formulas express the composition of molecules (and ionic compounds) in terms
of the symbols for the elements they contain. These are combinations of elements (symbols)
to represent a compound.

 Terms
(1) Symbol - Abbreviation for the name of an element or an atom of that ele-
ment.
(2) Ion - Electrically charged particle.

a) Cation (+) - Positively charged

b) Anion (-) - Negatively charged

(3) Radical - Group of atoms acting as a single ion.

- Examples: Ammonium (NH4+ ), carbonate (CO32-).
(4) Atom - Smallest particle of an element that can enter/participate in a chemical
reaction.
(5) Molecule - Small, uncharged individual unit of a compound formed by the
union of two or more atoms.
(6) Subscript - Small number written below the symbol of an element.
- Represents the number of atoms of a compound.
- Examples: H2O, CO2, H2SO4
(7) Coefficient – Number written before the formula of a compound.
- Represents the number of molecules of a compound.
- Examples: 2H2O, 3CO2, 4H2SO4

II. Types of Chemical Formula

A. Molecular Formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
It gives the true formula of molecules.
1. Diatomic molecules are the simplest type of molecule, which contains only
two atoms.
Examples: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, & I2
( H2 = Molecular Hydrogen)
( H = Atomic Hydrogen)
2. Polyatomic Molecules are molecules containing more than two atoms.
Examples: CH2OH, KMnO4, H2SO4

 Allotropes are two or more forms of the same element that differ sig-
nificantly in chemical and physical property.
Examples: Allotropes of:
a) Oxygen : O2 & O3 ( Ozone)
b) Carbon : Diamond & Graphite

Examples: Molecular Formula:

1. H2O2 ( Hydrogen Peroxide) ex. agua oxinada
2. C2H2 ( Acetylene)
3. N2O4 (Dinitrogen Tetroxide)

B. Empirical Formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest whole –
number ratio of their atoms, but not necessarily the actual number of atoms present in
the molecule. It gives the simplest chemical formulas subscripts in the molecular for-
mulas are converted to the smallest possibaq
 C. guale whole numbers. “Empirical” – means, “derived from experiments”. Empirical
formulas are derived experimentally.

Examples: Empirical Formulas:

1. HO
2. CH
3. NO2
3. Structural or graphical- shows the actual arrangement of atoms in a compound.

CO2 O=C=O CH4

H
H-C-H
H

III. Formula Writing

 Steps:
1. The element or radical with positive charge is written first, followed by the element
or radical with negative charged.
2. If the sum of the charged is zero, simply write the element or radical side by side.
3. If the sum of charges is not equal to zero, simply exchange the absolute valences/
charges of the element or radicals (electrical neutrality).
4. Radicals, which are taken more than one, must be enclosed in parenthesis & brackets.
5. Whenever possible, simplify the subscripts to a simpler set of subscripts. Formulas of
ionic compounds are empirical formulas.

Examples: +1 -1
1. Potassium Bromide (KBr) K Br = KBr

+3 -2
2. Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) Al O = Al2O3

+1 -2
3. Ammonium Sulfate (NH4)2SO4 NH4 SO4
(NH4)2 SO4

+2 -2
4. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) Ca CO3 = CaCO3

+2/2 -4/2
5. Calcium Ferrocyanide Ca2Fe(CN)6 Ca Fe(CN)6
Ca2 [ Fe(CN)6]

III. Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds

A. Common or Trivial names

These are nonsystematic names or trade names. The name of a substance is generally as-
sociated with one of its outstanding physical or chemical properties.
Examples:

1. C2H2 = Acetylene 14. H2O = Water

2. NH3 = Ammonia 15. CO2 = Dry Ice
3. NaCl = Table Salt 16. C12H22O11 = Table Sugar
4. N2O = Laughing Gas 17.CaCO3 = Marble,Chalk, Lime-
stone
 5. CaO = Quicklime
6. NaHCO3 = Baking Soda
Sod
7. MgSO4 • 7 H2O = Epson Salt
8. CaSO4 • 2 H2O = Gypsum
9. CaSO4 •.½ H20 = Plaster of Paris
10. NaNO3 = Salt Peter (Chile)
11. H2SO4 = Oil of Vitriol
12. C2H5OH = Grain Alcohol
13. S = Brimstone
18. Ca(OH)2 = Slaking Lime
19. Na2CO3 • 10 H2O = Washing
20. Mg(OH)2 = Milk of Magnesia
21. NaOH = Lye, Caustic Soda
22. FeS2 = Pyrite (Fool’s Gold)
23. HCl = Muriatic Acid
24. CH3OH = Wood Alcohol
25. Hg = Quicksilver

B. Systematic or IUPAC Names

(1) Classical or Old Method
Assigns the ending “-ous” to the cation with fewer positive charges and the ending “-ic” to the
cation with more positive charges.
Examples:
Fe 2+ = Ferrous ion
Fe 3+ = Ferric ion
(2) Stock Method
The number of positive charges of a cation is listed with Roman numerals in parenthesis
( ) after the name of the element.
Examples:
Mn 2+ = Manganese (II) Fe 2+ = Iron (II)
Mn 3+ = Manganese (III) Fe 3+ = Iron (III)
Mn = manganese (IV)
4+

(1) IONIC COMPOUNDS

Made up of cations and anions.
(a) Binary Compounds
Compounds formed from just two elements.

(b) Ternary Compounds

Compounds consisting of three elements.

 Guidelines:
(1) With the important exception of Ammonium ion (NH 4+), all cations are derived from
metal atoms.
Metal cations take their names from the elements.
Examples:
K = K+ (Potassium cation)
Na = Na +
(Sodium cation)
Mg = Mg 2+ (Magnesium cation)
Al = Al 3+ (Aluminum cation)
(2) For Binary compounds, the cation is written first followed by the anion. The anion is
named by taking the first part of the element name (stem) and adding the suffix “–
ide”.

The “-ide” Nomenclature of Monoatomic Anions

Symbol Element Stem Binary Name Ending

B Boron Bor Boride

C Carbon Carb Carbide
Si Silicon Silic Silicide
N Nitrogen Nitr Nitride
P Phosphorus Phosph Phosphide
O Oxygen Ox Oxide
S Sulfur Sulf Sulfide
Se Selenium Selen Selenide
Te Tellurium Tellur Telluride
 F Fluorine Fluor Fluoride
Cl Chlorine Chlor Chloride
Br Bromine Brom Bromide
I Iodine Iod Iodide

(3) For ternary compounds, the “-ide” ending is also used for anions containing two dif-
ferent elements such as Hydroxide (OH ¯ ) and Cyanide (CN ¯ ).
(4) The old system and stock system of nomenclature is applied to both binary and
ternary compounds.

Examples:
A. Binary Compounds
(1) NaCl = Sodium chloride
(2) KBr = Potassium bromide
(3) MgI2 = Magnessium iodide
(4) AlF3 = Aluminum fluroride

B. Ternary Compounds
(1) NaCN = Sodium cyanide
(2) Mg(CN)2 = Magnesium cyanide
(3) NH4 Cl = Ammonium chloride
(4) Al(OH)3 = Aluminum hydroxide

(2) MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Contain discrete molecular units and composed of nonmetallic elements.

 Guidelines:
(1) In a compound between two nonmetals, the element that occurs earlier in the follow-
ing sequence is written and named first: B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, CL, O, F.
(2) A Greek prefix is attached to each element to indicate the number of atoms of that el-
ement in the molecule. The second element still retains the modified binary ending “-
ide”.
(a) The prefix “mono” is generally omitted, except when needed to distinguish
between two or more compounds.
Examples:
CO = Carbon monoxide
CO2 = Carbon dioxide
(b) For oxide, the ending “A” in the prefix is sometimes omitted.
Example:
N2O4 = Dinitrogen tetroxide
(3) An exception to the use of Greek prefixes involves molecular compounds Hydrogen
(H). Traditionally, many of these compounds are called either by their common, non-
sysytematic names or by the names that do not specifically indicate the number of H
atoms present.
Examples:
B2H6 = Diborane PH3 = Phosphine
CH4 = Methane H2O = Water
SiH4 = Silane H2S = Hydrogen sulfide
NH3 = Ammonia

Greek Prefixes Used in Naming molecular Compounds

Mono =1 Hexa = 6
Di =2 Hepta = 7
Tri =3 Octa = 8
Tetra = 4 Nona = 9
Penta = 5 Deca = 10

Examples: Molecular Compounds

(1) SO2 = Sulfur dioxide
(2) PCl3 = Phosphorus trichloride
 (3) P2O5 = Diphosphorus petoxide
(4) CCl4 = Carbon tetrachloride

(3) ACIDS
Acids are substances that yield Hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
(a) Binary Acids
These are composed of hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element, which is dissolved in water.

Example:
HCl (g) = Hydrogen chloride (gas)
HCl (l) = Hydrogen chloride (pure liquid)
HCl (aq) = Hydrochloric acid

(b) Ternary Oxyacids or Oxoacids

Acids that contain H,O, and other elements (central element).

 Guidelines:

(1) To name a binary acid, place the prefix “Hydro –“ in front of, and the suffix “-ic” af-
ter, the stem of the nonmetal. Then, add the word “acid”.
Examples:
(1) HCl = Hydrochloric acid
(2) HF = Hydrofluoric acid
(3) HBr = Hyrobromic acid
(4) HI = Hydroiodic acid
(2) The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with H first, followed by the central element
and then O. The most common acid of the group, oxoanion (higher oxidation state) ends in “-
ate”. It is named by adding the suffix “-ic” to the stem and no prefix is used.
Examples:
(1) HNO3 = Nitric acid
(2) H2CO3 = Carbonic acid
(3) H2SO4 = Sulfuric acid
(4) H3PO4 = Phosphoric acid
(2) Often two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but different number of O
atoms. Starting with the oxoacids whose names end with “-ic”, we use the following
rules:
Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid, the acid is called “ Per-…… -ic “ acid.
Example:
HClO3 HClO4
(Chloric acid) (Perchloric acid)

(a) Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid, the acid is called “-ous” acid.
Examples:
(1) HClO3 HClO2
(Chloric acid) (Chlorous acid)

(2) HNO3 HNO2

(Nitric acid) (Nitrous acid)

(3) H2SO4 H2SO3

(Sulfuric acid) (Sulfurous acid)

(4) H3PO4 H3PO3

(Phosphoric acid) (Phosphorous acid)

(b) Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid, the acid is called “Hypo- ….
ous” acid.
Examples:
(1) HClO3 HClO
 (Chloric acid) (Hypochlorous acid)

(2) H3PO4 H3PO2

(Phosphoric acid) (Phosphorous acid)

(4) BASES
Bases are substances that yield hydroxide ion (OH – ) when dissolved in water.

 Guideline:
(1) Generally, a base is named by the metallic element first, followed by the hydroxide
group.
Examples:
1) NaOH = Sodium hydroxide
2) KOH = Potassium hydroxide
3) Ba(OH)2 = Barium hydroxide
4) NH4OH = Ammonium hydroxide

(5) HYDRATES
Hydrates are compounds that contain water molecules in their lattice structure.

 Guidelines:
(1) The main compound (salt) is named first, then a Greek prefix is used to indicate or
specify the number of water molecules present. The word hydrate is attached to the
name of the main compound with the Greek prefix before it.
Examples:
(1) LiCl • H2O = Lithium chloride monohydrate
(2) BaCl2 • 2 H2O = Barium chloride dihydrate
(3)Sr (NO3)2 • 4 H2O = Strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

V. Molar Mass of Compounds

One mole of a compound contains Avogadro’s number of formula units of that com-
pound. The terms molecular weight and formula weight have been used in the past to refer to the
mass of one mole of a compound. However, the term molar mass is more inclusive, since it can
be used for all types of compounds.

If the formula of a compound is known, its molar mass may be determined by adding to-
gether the molar masses of all the atoms in the formula. If more than one atom of any element s
present, its mass must be added as many times as it is used.

Example: The formula for water is H2O. What is its molar mass?
Proceed by looking up the molar masses of H (1.008) and O (15.999) and
adding together the masses of all the atoms in the formula unit. Water contains two atoms of H
and one atom of O. Thus,
2H = 2 x 1.008 g = 2.016 g
1 O = 1 x 15.999 g = 15.999 g
18.015 g = molar mass
VI. Percent Composition of Compounds

The percent composition of a compound is the mass percent of each element in the com-
pound. The molar mass represents the total mass or 100%, of the compound.
The percent composition of a compound can be determined if its formula is known or if
the masses of two or more elements that have combined with each other are known or are experi-
mentally determined. If the formula known it is essentially a two-step process to determine the
percent composition:

Step 1 Calculate the molar mass.

 Step 2 Divide the total mass of each element in the formula by the molar
mass and multiply by 100. This gives the percent composition.

Total mass of the element x 100 = percent of the element

Molar mass

VII. Calculating Empirical Formula of Compounds

In order to determine the empirical formula, we need to know

1. The elements that are combined.

2. The atomic masses.
3. The ratio by mass or percentage in which they are combined.

Steps in Calculating Empirical Formula

1. Assume a definite staring quantity (usually 100 grams) of the compound, if not given,
and expressed the mass of each element in grams.
2. Multiply the mass in grams of each element by the factor 1 mole/ 1 molar mass to convert
grams to moles. This conversion gives the number of moles of atoms of each element in
the quantity assumed. At this point, these numbers will not usually be whole numbers.
3. Divide each of the values obtained in Step 2 by the smallest of these values. If the num-
bers obtained by this procedure are whole numbers, use them as subscripts in writing the
4. Empirical formula. If the numbers obtained are not whole numbers, proceed to Step 4.
5. Multiply the values obtained in Step 3 by the smallest number that will convert them to
whole numbers. Used these whole numbers as the subscripts in the empirical formula.

Example: Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 53.33% carbon, 11.11% hy-
drogen and 35.53% oxygen. Answer: C2H5O

VIII. Calculating Molecular Formula of Compounds from the Empirical Formula

The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical formula if the molar mass, in addi-
tion to the data for calculating the empirical formula, is known. The molecular formula will be
equal to or some multiple of the empirical formula. For example, if the empirical formula of a
compound of hydrogen and fluorine is HF, the molecular formula can be expressed as (HF) n
where n is equal to 1, 2, 3, 4. This n means that the molecular formula could be HF, H 2F2, H3F3,
H4F4 and so on. To determine the molecular formula, you must evaluate n.

n = molar mass =number of empirical formula units

Mass of empirical formula

IX. Moles of a Compound

A mole of a substance represents 6.02 x 10 23 representative particle of that substance. The

experimentally determined number 6.02 x 1023 is called Avogadro’s number in honor of
Amedeo Avogadro di Quarenga. The term representative particle refers to the species present in
a substance usually atoms, molecules, or formula units or ions.

X. Chemical Equations and reactions

Chemical Reactions are events or phenomena that happen when elements and compounds react
to form complex substances. These reactions happen naturally, artificially or in the laboratory.
Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations.
Chemical Equations consist of symbols or formulas representing chemical reactions. They tell
in short hand language the substances reacting and the products formed. An arrow separates the
two sides of an equation, which means, “yield” or “produces”.

SYMBOLS USED IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Symbol Meaning
∆ Heat
↑ Gas is evolved
↓ Precipitate formed
(g ﴿ Gas
(s ﴿ Solid
(l﴿ Liquid
(o ﴿ Crystalline solid
( aq ﴿aqueous Presence of water
( sol ﴿ Solution other than aqueous

AIDS IN BALANCING EQUATIONS

1. On the left side of the arrow, express by means of a symbol or a formula each substance
taking part in the reaction. These are called reactants.
2. On the right side of the arrow, express in a similar way each product/s formed.
3. Balance the equation by writing coefficients before the symbol or formulas if necessary,
in order to give the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow.

RULES IN BALANCING EQUATIONS

1. Most gaseous elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine and iodine
exist in the free state or uncombined state as diatomic molecule, so they are written as H 2,
O2, N2, Cl2, Br2, I2, F2
2. In general, a radical is not changed, so it is carried over from the left to the right of the
equation without alteration.
3. It is advisable to start balancing with the most complex substance or formula in the equa-
tion and work back to the simpler formulas.
4. Never change the subscript of any of the formulas because that would mean an alteration
of the composition of the substances and would make the equation chemically untrue.
5. Check carefully to make sure that every element is represented by the same number of
atoms on both sides of the equation. To facilitate the operation, put a check mark above
each symbols upon arriving at a balance.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. DIRECT COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS is the chemical union of two or more ele-

ments to form more complex substances.

GENERAL EQUATION
A + B → AB

General types:

a. Metal + Non-metal – binary compound, salt, such as oxides, sulfides of halides.

4Al + 3 O2 → 2Al2O3

b. Nonmetal + Oxygen- nonmetal oxide

C + O2 → CO2

c. Metal + oxygen- metal oxide

2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

d. Metal oxide + water- metal hydroxide (base﴿- the metal hydroxide is sometimes
called basic oxide or basic anhydride
CaO + H2O → Ca (OH) 2

e. Non-metal oxide + water- oxyacid

SO2 + H2O → H2SO3

f. Metal oxide + Non metal oxide- salt

CaO + SO2 → CaSO3

2. DECOMPOSITION REACTION/ ANALYSIS is a reaction in which one compound is

decomposed in two or more substances, the products formed can be either an element or
compound. In decomposing compounds, heat or energy is required.

GENERAL EQUATION
AB → A + B

General Types

a. Hydrates- when decomposed yield water and anhydrous salt

CuSO4● 5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O

b. Metal Chlorates- when heated, decompose to form metal chloride and oxygen gas
2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

c. Metal oxide- when heated, decomposed to form free metal and oxygen gas.
2HgO → 2Hg + O2

d. Metal carbonates- decomposed to form metal oxides and carbon dioxide

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

e. Hydrogen carbonates (Bicarbonates)- decomposed to form metal oxide, water and

carbon dioxide
Ca (HCO3) 2 → CaO + 2CO2 + H2O

 Hydrogen carbonates/ Bicarbonates of the group IA metals are heated, they form a carbonate,
water and carbon dioxide

2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

f. Water can be broken down into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas by a direct electric
current.
2H2O → 2H2 + O2

g. Metal nitrates- decomposed to form metal nitrite and oxygen gas

2KNO3 → 2KNO2 + O2

h. Binary compounds- decomposed to form free metal and free nonmetal

2NaCl → 2Na + Cl2

3. SIMPLE REPLACEMENT / SUBSTITUTION is a reaction in which a metal replaces

another metal ion in a compound. In order to do this, the metal should be more active
than the metal that is in solution. The metal can be arranged in a series called activity se-
ries or electromotive series. In this series, any metal on the list will displace another
metal that is lower. Any metal above hydrogen will displace hydrogen gas from an acid.
 GENERAL EQUATION
For metals For non metals
AB + C → CB + A AB + C → AC + B

Activity Series for Cations and Non metals / Halogens

Li F2
K Cl2
Ba Br2
Ca I2 a. 2Li + K2CO3 → Li2CO3 + 2K
Na
Mg
Al b. AlPO4 + Fe3+ → No Rxn
Zn
Fe
Cd c. 2KCl + F2 → 2KF + Cl2
Ni d. KBr + I2 → No Rxn
Sn
Pb
(H)
Cu
Hg
Ag
Au

4. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION/ METATHESIS

This is a reaction wherein two compounds react to form a new compound. The positive ions ex-
change partners with the negative ions to form the two new compounds. In many of these reac-
tions, an insoluble substance is formed. To predict the products formed, you must be familiar
with some common solubility rules.

GENERAL EQUATION
AB + CD → AD + CB

Solubility Rules

1. Soluble- compounds of IA metal, NH4+ salts, NO3, acetates and most chlorides ex-
cept AgCl, PbCl2, HgCl2 and most sulfates except Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, SO42-

2. Insoluble- oxides, hydroxides, carbonates and phosphates except for those of the
IA metals and NH4+ and sulfides except those of the IA and IIA elements and
NH4+

AgNO3(aq) + HCl → AgCl (s)↓ + HNO3(aq)

X. Stoichiometry Based on Chemical Equation

A mole ratio is a ratio between the number of moles of any two species involved in a chemical
reaction.

Steps in Calculating Mole Ratio

1. Convert the quantity of the starting substance to moles ( if it is not given in moles).
2. Convert to moles of the starting substance to moles of desired substance
3. Convert to moles of desired substance to the units specified in the problem
Steps in Stoichiometric Calculations

1. Use a balanced equation. Write a balanced equation for the chemical reaction in question
or check to see that the equation given is balanced.
2. Determine the number of moles of starting substance. Identify the starting substance from
the data given in the statement of the problem. When the starting substance is given in
moles, use it in that form. If it is not in moles, convert the quantity of the starting sub-
stance to moles. For example, if grams of a starting substance are given,

Moles of starting substance= grams of starting substance x 1 mole of starting substance

Molar mass of starting substance

3. Determine the mole ratio of the desired substance to the starting substance. The number
of moles of each substance in the balanced equation is indicated by the coefficient in
front of each substance. Use these coefficients to set up the mole ratio:

Mole ratio= moles of the desired substance in the equation

Moles of the starting substance in the equation
4. Calculate the number of moles of the desired substance. Multiply the number of moles of
starting substance from step 2 by the mole ratio from step 3 to obtain the number of
moles of desired substance.
5. Calculate the desired substance in the units specified in the problem. If the answer is to
be in moles, the problem is finished in step 4. If units other than moles are wanted multi-
ply the moles of the desired substance from step 4 by the appropriate factor to convert
moles to the units required.

A. Mole-Mole Calculations
Example: How many moles of CO2 will be produced by the complete oxidation of 2.0 mol of
glucose [C6H12O6] according to the following reaction?

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6 CO2 + 6H2O

Answer: 12 mol CO2

B. Mole to Mass Calculation

Example: How many grams of silver nitrate are required to produce 0.25 mol of silver sulfide ac-
cording to the following reaction?
2AgNO3 + H2S  Ag2S + 2 HNO3

Answer: 85 grams AgNO3

C. Mass-Mass Calculations
Example: What mass of water is produced by the complete combustion of 225.0 grams of butane
according to the following reaction?
2C4H10 + 13 O2  8 CO2 + 10 H2O

Answer: 349.1 grams H2O

REFERENCES:

Bodner, George & Harry Pardue. Chemistry: An Experimental Science. John Wiley & Sons.
New
York. 1995.

Brown, T., LeMay, H. Jr., & Bursten, B. Chemistry: The Central Science Eight Edition.. Prentice
Hall. New Jersey. 2000.

Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. Fifth Edition.. Mc Graw – Hill, Inc.. New York. 1994.
Clugston, Michael & Rosalind Flemming. Advanced Chemistry. Oxford University Press.
Oxford. 2000.

Hein, Morris. Foundation of College Chemistry 4th Ed. . Brookes/Cole Publishing Co.:Califor-
nia.1993

Wilbraham, Staley and Matta. Chemistry 4th Ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company: New
York. 1994.