Experiment Name: To study OSI reference model.

Objective: The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers so the
digital communications products and software programs they create can interoperate and to promote a
clear framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunications system that's in use.
Equipment's:
1. Physical Layer - Bits. Cables, Radio, Microwave, etc.
2. Data Link Layer - Frames. Ethernet, WiFi AP’s
3. Network Layer - Packets. Routers
4. Transport Layer - Segments. Load Balancers/Firewalls.
5. Session Layer - Data. Load Balancers/Firewalls/Computers
6. Presentation Layer - Data. Load Balancers/Firewalls/Computers
Theory: The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that describes
networking or telecommunications systems as seven layers, each with its own function.
The layers help network pros visualize what is going on within their networks and can help network
managers narrow down problems (is it a physical issue or something with the application?), as well as
computer programmers (when developing an application, which other layers does it need to work with?).
Tech vendors selling new products will often refer to the OSI model to help customers understand which
layer their products work with or whether it works “across the stack”.
Description:
The 7 layers of the OSI model
The layers are: Layer 1—Physical; Layer 2—Data Link; Layer 3—Network; Layer 4—Transport; Layer
5—Session; Layer 6—Presentation; Layer 7—Application.
It wasn’t always this way. Conceived in the 1970s when computer networking was taking off, two
separate models were merged in 1983 and published in 1984 to create the OSI model that most people are
familiar with today. Most descriptions of the OSI model go from top to bottom, with the numbers going
from Layer 7 down to Layer 1. The layers, and what they represent, are as follows:
Layer 7 - Application
The Application Layer in the OSI model is the layer that is the “closest to the end user”. It receives
information directly from users and displays incoming data to the user. Oddly enough, applications
themselves do not reside at the application layer. Instead the layer facilitates communication through
lower layers in order to establish connections with applications at the other end. Web browsers (Google
Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.) TelNet, and FTP, are examples of communications that rely on Layer 7.
Layer 6 - Presentation
The Presentation Layer represents the area that is independent of data representation at the application
layer. In general, it represents the preparation or translation of application format to network format, or
from network formatting to application format. In other words, the layer “presents” data for the
application or the network. A good example of this is encryption and decryption of data for secure
transmission; this happens at Layer 6.
Layer 5 - Session
When two computers or other networked devices need to speak with one another, a session needs to be
created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions at this layer involve setup, coordination (how
long should a system wait for a response, for example) and termination between the applications at each
end of the session.
Layer 4 – Transport
The Transport Layer deals with the coordination of the data transfer between end systems and hosts. How
much data to send, at what rate, where it goes, etc. The best known example of the Transport Layer is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP), commonly
known as TCP/IP. TCP and UDP port numbers work at Layer 4, while IP addresses work at Layer 3, the
Network Layer.
Layer 3 - Network
Here at the Network Layer is where you’ll find most of the router functionality that most networking
professionals care about and love. In its most basic sense, this layer is responsible for packet forwarding,
including routing through different routers. You might know that your Boston computer wants to connect
to a server in California, but there are millions of different paths to take. Routers at this layer help do this
efficiently.
Layer 2 – Data Link
The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly connected nodes), and
also handles error correction from the physical layer. Two sublayers exist here as well--the Media Access
Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. In the networking world, most switches
operate at Layer 2. But it’s not that simple. Some switches also operate at Layer 3 in order to support
virtual LANs that may span more than one switch subnet, which requires routing capabilities.
Layer 1 - Physical
At the bottom of our OSI model we have the Physical Layer, which represents the electrical and physical
representation of the system. This can include everything from the cable type, radio frequency link (as in
a Wi-Fi network), as well as the layout of pins, voltages, and other physical requirements. When a
networking problem occurs, many networking pros go right to the physical layer to check that all of the
cables are properly connected and that the power plug hasn’t been pulled from the router, switch or
computer, for example.
Application:
7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name
System (DNS).
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should encode,
encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any
data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.
5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is responsible for
opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing
them when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if the
session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on the
transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into
data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a
rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control, checking if data was
received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.
3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best path
across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol
addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected nodes on a
network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer is
composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error
checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to
connect devices and define permissions to transmit and receive data.
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network nodes. It
defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is
responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit
rate control.
Advantages:
The advantages of the OSI model are
• It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network model.
• It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers, provided that the interfaces
between the layers do not change drastically.
• It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is flexible in nature. Protocols
in each layer can be replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature of the network.
• It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.
Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of the OSI model are
• It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of appropriate technology.
This restricts its practical implementation.
• The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI appeared, the TCP/IP protocols
were already implemented. So, the companies were initially reluctant to use it.
• The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow and costly.
 • Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and presentation layer
have very little functionality when practically deployed.
• There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow control and
error control are offered by multiple layers.
• The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate solutions for practical
network implementation.
• After being launched, the OSI model did not meet the practical needs as well as the TCP/IP
model. So it was labeled as inferior quality.
• TCP/IP model was very much preferred by the academia. It was believed that OSI was a product
of the European communities and the US government, who were trying to force an inferior model
to researchers and programmers. Hence, there was considerable resistance in adopting it.

Conclusion: OSI(Open System Interconnection) model is the reference model that describes how
different model layers communicate over the network. ISO is an organization and OSI is the model.
Therefore, this model consists of seven different layers. OSI layers which are the backbone of OSI model.
In this article also explained how seven layers interact with each other over the network and also different
responsibilities of the layers.
In addition, OSI model is the best model to transmit data, managed session, and terminating session.