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I. Machining Processes Used to Produce Round Shapes:
Turning and Hole Making

Lathe Cutting
Operations

Miscellaneous cutting operations

that can be performed on a lathe.
Note that all parts are circular – a
property known as axisymmetry.
The tools used, their shape, and the
processing parameters are
described throughout this chapter.

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Characteristics of Machining Processes and Typical
Dimensional Tolerances

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 Lathe

General view of a typical lathe, showing various components. Source: Courtesy of

Heidenreich & Harbeck.
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 Turning Operation

Schematic illustration of the basic turning operation, showing depth-of-cut, d; feed, f;

and spindle rotational speed, N in rev/min. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the
workpiece at the tool tip.
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 Designations for a Right-Hand Cutting Tool

Designations for a right-hand cutting tool. Right-hand means the tool travels form right to left,
as shown in Fig. 23.3.

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General Recommendations for Tool Angles in
Turning

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Summary of
Turning
Parameters
and
Formulas

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 Forces Acting on a Cutting Tool in Turning

Forces acting on a cuttin tool in turning, Fc is the cutting force, Ft is the

thrust of feed force (in the direction of feed), and Fr is the radial force that
tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined.
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Range of Applicable Cutting Speeds and Feeds for Tool
Materials

The range of applicable cutting

speeds and feeds for a variety
of tool materials.

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General Recommendations for Turning Operations

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General Recommendations for Turning Operations, con’t.

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General Recommendations for Turning Operations, con’t

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General Recommendations for Cutting Fluids for Machining

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Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions
for Machine Tools

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 Collets

(a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The workpiece is placed
in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inwards by pulling
it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d) Workholding of a
workpiece on a face plate.
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 Mandrels to Hold Workpieces for Turning

Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels usually are
mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a), both the cylindrical and the end
faces of the workpiece can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c), only the cylindrical
surfaces can be machined.

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 Turret Lathe

Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two turrets: square
and hexagonal (main).

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 Numerical Control Lathe and Turret

(a) A computer numerical-control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine.
These machines have higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in order
to take advantage of new cutting tools with enhanced properties. (b) A typical
turret equipped with ten tools, some of which are powered.
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Parts Made on CNC Lathes

Typical parts made on CNC lathes.

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Example 23.3: Machining of Complex Shapes

Examples of more complex shapes that can be

produced on a CNC lathe.

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 Typical
Production
Rates for
Various
Machining
Operations

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 Range of Surface
Roughnesses in
Machining
Processes
The range of surface
roughnesses obtained in various
machining processes. Note the
wide range within each group,
especially in turning and boring.

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 Range of
Dimensional
Tolerances in
Machining as a
Function of
Workpiece Size

Range of dimensional
tolerances obtained in various
machining processes as a
function of workpiece size. Note
that there is an order os
magnitude difference between
small and large workpieces.

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Troubleshooting Guide for Turning

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 Cutting
Screw
Threads

(a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads with a
single-point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show
the direction of the feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses.
Note that in radial cutting, the tool is fed directly into the workpiece. In flank cutting, the tool is fed inot the
piece along the right face of the thread. In incremental cutting, the tool is first fed directly into the piece at
the center of the thread, then at its sides, and finally into the root. (c) A typical coated-carbide insert in the
process of cutting screw threads on a round shaft. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide insert.
Source: (c): Courtesy of Iscar Metals Inc.
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 Chasers and Die for Thread Cutting

(a) Straight chasers for cutting threads on a lathe. (b) Circular chasers. (c) A solid
threading die.

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Boring and Boring Mill
(a) Schematic illustration of a
steel boring bar with a carbide
insert. Note the passageway in
the bar for cutting fluid
application. (b) Schematic
illustration of a boring bar with
tungsten-alloy “inertia disks”
sealed in the bar to counteract
vibration and chatter during
boring. This system is effective
for boring bar length-to-diameter
ratios of up to 6.

Schematic illustration of a vertical boring mill.

Such a machine can accommodate workpiece
sizes as large as 2.5m (98 in.) in diameter.

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Chisel-Point
Drill and
Crankshaft
Drill

Two common types of drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a
bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece. Drills with four
margins (double-margin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker
features also are available. (b) Crankshaft drills. These drills have good centering ability, and because
chips tend to break up easily, these drills are suitable for producing deep holes.
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General Capabilities of Drilling

Various types of drills and drilling and

reaming operations.

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 Types of Drills

Various types of drills.

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 Gun Drill

(a) A gun drill showing various features. (b) Schematic illustration of the
gun-drilling operation.
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 Trepanning

(a) Trepanning tool. (b) Trepanning with a drill-mounted single cutter.

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General Recommendations for Speeds and Feeds
in Drilling

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Troubleshooting Guide for Drilling

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 Vertical Drill Press and Radial Drilling Machine

(a) Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical drill press.

(b) A radial drilling machine. Source: (b) Courtesy of Willis Machinery and Tools.
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Three-Axis Computer Numerical-Control Drilling
Machine

A three-axis computer numerical-control

drilling machine. The turret holds as many
as eight different tools, such as drills, taps,
and reamers.

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Helical Reamer and Inserted-Blade Adjustable Reamer

(a) Terminology for a helical reamer.

(b) Inserted-blade adjustable reamer.
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 Tapping

(a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.

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II. Machining Processes Used to Produce Various
Shapes: Milling, Broaching, Sawing, and Filing; Gear
Manufacturing

Typical parts and shapes that can be produced with the 40

machining processes described in this chapter.
 Milling Cutters and Milling Operations

Some basic types of milling cutters and milling operations. (a) Peripheral milling. (b)
Face milling. (c) End milling. (d) Ball-end mill with indexable coated-carbide inserts
machining a cavity in a die block. (e) Milling a sculptured surface with an end mill, using a
five-axis numerical control machine. Source: (d) Courtesy of Iscar. (e) Courtesy of The
Ingersoll Milling Machine Co. 41
 Milling Operations

(a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling.

(b) lab-milling operation showing depth-of-cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth-of-cut, tc;
and workpiece speed, v.
(c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth-of-cut.
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 Face-Milling Operation

Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb
milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling. The width of cut,
w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.
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Summary of Peripheral Milling Parameters and
Formulas

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Face-Milling Cutter with Indexable Inserts

A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts.

Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
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 Effect of Insert
Shape on Feed
Marks on a Face-
Milled Surface

Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface:
(a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of small radius
followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. (d) Feed marks due to
various insert shapes. 46
 Face-Milling Cutter

Terminology for a face-milling cutter.

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 Effect of Lead Angle on Undeformed Chip
Thickness in Face Milling

The effect of the lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note
that as the lead angle increases, the chip thickness decreases, but the length of
contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The edges of the insert must be sufficiently
large to accommodate the contact length increase.
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 Position of Cutter and Insert in Face Milling

(a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as it first engages the workpiece in face
milling. (b) Insert positions towards the end of cut. (c) Examples of exit angles of
insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle)
positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page and rotates
clockwise.
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Ball Nose End Mills

Ball nose end mills. These cutters

are able to produce elaborate
contours and are often used in the
machining of dies and molds.
Source: Courtesy of Dijet, Inc.

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 Cutters

Cutters for (a) straddle milling, (b) form milling, (c) slotting, and (d) slitting
with a milling cutter.
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 T-Slot Cutting and Shell Mill

(a) T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.

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General Recommendations for Milling Operations

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Troubleshooting Guide for Milling Operations

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 Machined Surface Features in Face Milling

Machined surface features in face milling. See also Fig. 24.6.

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 Edge Defects in Face Milling

Edge defects in face milling: (a) burr formation along workpiece edge, (b)
breakout along workpiece edge, and (c) how it can be avoided by
increasing the lead angle.

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 Column-and-Knee Type Milling Machines

Schematic illustration of (a) a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee type milling

machine and (b) vertical-spindle column-and-knee type milling machine.
Source: After G. Boothroyd.

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 CNC Vertical-Spindle Milling Machine

A computer numerical-control (CNC) vertical-spindle milling machine.

This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. The original
vertical-spindle milling machine iused in job shops is still referred to as a
“Bridgeport”, after its manufacturer in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Source:
Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines Dibision, Textron Inc.
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 Five-Axis Profile Milling Machine

Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three
principal linear and two angular movements of machine components.

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 Parts Made on a Planer

Typical parts that can be made on a planer.

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 Broaching

(a) Typical parts made by internal broaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching.
Heavy lines indicate broached surfaces. (c) Vertical broaching machine. Source: (a)
and (b) Courtesy of General Broach and Engineering Company. (c) Courtesy of Ty
Miles, Inc.
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 Broach Geometry

(a) Cutting action of a broach showing various features. (b)

Terminology for a broach.

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 Chipbreaker Features on Broaches

Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach.

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 Pull-Types Internal Broach

Terminology for a pull-type internal broach used for enlarging long holes.

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Part with Internal Splines Made by Broaching

Example of a part with internal splines produced by broaching.

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 Sawing Operations

Examples of various sawing operations.

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 Saw Teeth

(a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth sets on saw teeth staggered to
provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.

(a) High-speed-steel teeth

welded on a steel blade.
(b) Carbide inserts brazed
to blade teeth.

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 Types of Burs

Types of burs used in burring operations.

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 Involute Spur Gear

Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.

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 Gear Generating
with Various Cutters

(a) Producing gear teeth on a

blank by form cutting. (b)
Schematic illustration of gear
generating with a pinion-shaped
gear cutter. (c) and (d) Gear
generating on a gear shaper
using a pinion-shaped cutter.
Note that the cutter reciprocates
vertically. (e) Gear generating
with rack-shaped cutter. Source:
(d) Schafer Gear Works, Inc.

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 Hobbing

(a) Schematic illustration of gear cutting with a hob. (b) Production of worm gear
through hobbing. Source: Courtesy of Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
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 Bevel Gears

(a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutter. (b) Cutting a helical
bevel gear. Source: Courtesy of Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
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 Finishing Gears
by Grinding

Finishing gears by
grinding: (a) form
grinding with shaped
grinding wheels; (b)
grinding by generating
with two wheels.

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Gear Manufacturing Cost as a Function of Gear Quantity

Gear manufacturing cost as a function of gear quality. The numbers

along the vertical lines indicate tolerances.
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