Determination of Air Content of Fresh Concrete (IS 1199 Part-4:2018)

(Water column method)

Fresh Concrete — Concrete which is fully mixed and still in conditions that is capable of being compacted
by chosen method

Filling the Container and Compacting the Concrete

Compacting rod, of circular cross-section. Straight, made of steel, having a diameter of 16 ± 1 mm, a length of 600 ± 5
mm and shall have rounded ends

Hand compaction with compacting rod or bar

Distribute the strokes of the compacting rod or bar in a uniform manner over the cross-section of the mould.
Ensure that the compacting rod or bar does not forcibly strike the bottom of the container when compacting
the first layer, nor significantly penetrate any previous layers. Subject the concrete to at least 25 strokes per
layer. To remove pockets of entrapped air but not the entrained air, after compaction of each layer,
tap the sides of the container smartly with the mallet until large bubbles of air cease to appear on the surface
and depressions left by the compacting rod or bar are.

Using the scoop, place the concrete in the container in such a way as to remove as much entrapped air as
possible. Place the concrete in three 3 layers, approximately equal in depth
The quantity of material used in the final layer shall be sufficient to fill the container without having to remove
excess material. A small quantity of additional concrete may be added, if necessary and further compacted in
order to fill the container.

Water-column method apparatus

Container, a flanged cylindrical vessel, of steel or other hard metal, not readily attacked by cement paste, having a
nominal capacity of at least 5 litre and a ratio of diameter to height of not less than 0.75 nor more than 1.25. The
outer rim and upper surface of the flange and the interior surfaces of the vessel shall be machined to a smooth finish. The
container shall be watertight. The container and the cover assembly shall be suitable for an operating pressure of
approximately 0.1 MPa and be sufficiently rigid to limit the pressure expansion constant, that is, to not more than
0.1 percent air content

Cover assembly, a flanged rigid conical cover, fitted with a stand pipe. The cover shall be of steel or other hard metal
not readily attacked by cement paste and shall have interior surfaces inclined at not less than 10° from the surface
of the flange. The outer rim and lower surface of the flange and the sloping interior face shall be machined to a smooth
finish. The cover shall have provision for being clamped to the container to make a pressure seal without entrapping air
at the joint between the flanges of the cover and the container

Standpipe, consisting of a graduated glass tube of uniform bore or a metal tube of uniform bore with a glass gauge
attached. The graduated scale shall indicate air content of 0 to at least 8 percent and preferably 10 percent. The scale
shall be graduated with divisions every 0.1 percent air content, the divisions being not less than 2 mm apart.

NOTE — A scale in which 25 mm represents 1 percent of air content is convenient.

Cover, the cover shall be fitted with a suitable device for venting of the air chamber, a no return air-inlet valve and a
small valve for bleeding off water

The applied pressure shall be indicated by a pressure gauge connected to the air chamber above the water column. The
gauge shall be graduated with divisions every 0.005 MPa, the divisions being not less than 2 mm apart. The gauge shall
have a full-scale reading of 0.2 MPa

Deflecting plate or spray tube, a thin no corrodible disc of not less than 100 mm diameter to minimize disturbance of
the concrete when water is added to the apparatus. Alternatively, a brass spray tube of appropriate diameter that may be
an integral part of the cover assembly or provided separately may be used. The spray tube shall be constructed so
that when water is added to the container, it is sprayed onto the walls of the cover in such a manner as to flow down the
sides causing minimum disturbance to the concrete

Air (pressure) pump, with a lead facilitating connection to the non-return air-inlet valve on the cover assembly

Scoop
Remixing tray
Shovel
Container
Mallet
Procedure; Thoroughly clean the flanges of the container and cover assembly. In the absence of the spray tube, place
the deflecting plate, centrally on the concrete and press it into contact. Clamp the cover assembly in place, and
ensure that there is good pressure seal between the cover and the container. Fill the apparatus with water and tap lightly
with the mallet to remove air adhering to the interior surfaces of the cover. Bring the level of water in the standpipe to
zero by bleeding through the small valve with the air vent open. Close the air vent and apply the operating pressure,
P, by means of the air pump. Record the reading on the gauge tube, h1, and release the pressure. Read the gauge
tube again and if the reading h2 is 0.2 percent air content or less, record the nearest 0.1 percent air by volume. If h2
is greater than 0.2 percent air content, apply the operating pressure, P, again, giving a gauge tube reading h3 and a
final reading h4 after release of the pressure. If (h4 – h2) is 0.1 percent air content or less, record the value (h3 – h4) as the
apparent air content. If (h4 – h2) is greater than 0.1 percent air content, it is possible that leakage
is occurring and the test shall be disregarded

Air Content of the Sample Tested

h1 Reading at pressure P
h2 Reading at zero pressure after the pressure has been released
h1– h2 = C1 when container holds concrete
h1– h2 = G (Aggregate correction factor) when the container holds only aggregate and water
C1– G = Cc (Air content of concrete)

Calculate the air content, Cc, of the concrete in the container from following equation:
Cc = C1– G
where
C1 = apparent air content, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent of the sample tested, and
G = aggregate correction factor, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent

CALIBRATION OF APPARATUS — WATER-COLUMN METHOD

APPARATUS
Calibration cylinder
Support
Spring
Transparent plates
Balances

C-3 CAPACITY OF THE CALIBRATION

CYLINDER
Using the 1kg balance, determine the capacity of the calibration cylinder by measuring the mass of water required to fill
it. For this purpose, fill the weighed cylinder with water at temperature of 27 ± 2°C and carefully cover it with the
previously weighed transparent plate, ensuring that no air bubbles are trapped under the plate and that surplus water is
wiped away before weighing the assembly. By repeating this procedure, make a total of three weighing of the
covered cylinder filled with water. Calculate the average mass, mw,cyl, of water contained in the full cylinder and
record it to the nearest 0.5 g.

C-4 CAPACITY OF THE CONTAINER

Using the 20 kg balance, determine the capacity of the container by measuring the mass of water required to fill
it. For this purpose, smear a thin film of grease on the flange of the container, and, after weighing together with
the transparent plate, fill with water at temperature of 27 ± 2°C, and make a watertight joint by sliding the
transparent plate over the top of the container, ensuring that no air bubbles are trapped under the plate and that
surplus water is wiped away before weighing the assembly. By repeating this procedure, make a total of
three weighing of the covered container filled with water. Calculate the average mass, mw,con, of water contained in
the full container and record it to the neared

C-5 PRESSURE EXPANSION CONSTANT

The pressure expansion constant, e, is determined by filling the apparatus with water, making sure that all
entrapped air has been removed and that the water level is exactly on the zero mark and applying an air pressure of
100 kPa. The reading of water column (in percent air content) will be the pressure expansion constant, e,for the
apparatus.

Strictly speaking, the air pressure applied during this procedure should be the required operating pressure, P, determined
as in C-7. However, as the value of e is needed to determine P by way of the calibration constant K, a logically closed
cycle of operations exists. In practice, the change in e due to a change in P is small enough to be ignored. As P is
commonly about 100 kPa, this value is prescribed to overcome the problem. Its use will lead to a value of e that is
sufficiently accurate for the test
C-6 CALIBRATION CONSTANT
The calibration constant, K, is the reading needed on the air content scale during the routine calibration procedure to
obtain the gauge pressure required to make the graduations on the air content scale correspond directly to the percentage
of air introduced into the container by the calibration cylinder when the container is full of water. The constant, K, is
generally calculated in accordance with equation given below:
K = 0.98 × R + e
e = pressure expansion constant (see C-5); and
R = capacity of the calibration cylinder expressed relative to the capacity of the container and is calculated as follows
(see C-3 and C-4):

R= mw,cy /, mw,con *100

NOTE — The factor 0.98 is used to correct for the reduction in the volume of air in the calibration vessel when it is compressed by a depth of water
equal to the depth of the container. This factor is approximately 0.98 for a 200 mm deep container at sea level. Its value decreases to approximately
0.975 at 1 500 m above sea level and 0.970 at 4 000 m above sea level. The value of the constant will decrease by about 0.01 for each 100 mm
increase in bowl depth. Hence the term 0.98 × R represents the effective volume of the calibration vessel, expressed as a
percentage of the container under normal operating conditions.

The calibration tests described in C-3, C-4, C-5 and C-6 shall be made at the time of the initial calibration of the
apparatus and at any time when it is necessary to check whether the capacity of the calibration cylinder or container may
have changed. The calibration test described in C-7 and C-8 shall be made as frequently as necessary to check the
pressure gauge in order to ensure that the proper gauge pressure, P, is being used. Recalibration of the apparatus shall
also be required when the location at which it is to be used varies in elevation by more than 200 m from that
at which it was last calibrated

C-7 REQUIRED OPERATING PRESSURE

Place the calibration cylinder support centrally on the bottom of the clean container and place the cylinder on
the support with its open end downward. Place the coil spring on the cylinder and clamp the cover assembly
carefully in place.

Fill the apparatus with water at ambient temperature to a level above the zero mark on the air content scale.
Close the air vent and pump air into the apparatus approximately to the operating pressure (about
100 kPa). Lightly tap the sides and cover with the mallet to remove as much entrapped air as possible adhering
to the interior surfaces of the apparatus and gradually reduce the pressure by opening the vent. Bring the water
level exactly to the zero mark by bleeding water through the small valve in the conical cover and close the air
vent. Apply pressure by means of the pump until the reading of the water level equals the calibration
constant, K (see C-6). Record the pressure, P, indicated on the pressure gauge. Gradually release the pressure
by opening the vent until zero pressure is indicated. If the water level returns to a reading less than 0.05 percent
air content, take the pressure, P, as the operating. pressure. If the water level fails to return to a reading
below 0.05 percent air content, check the apparatus for leakage and repeat the procedure.

AGGREGATE CORRECTION FACTOR FOR WATER COLUMN METHOD

The aggregate correction factor will vary with different aggregates and, although it will remain reasonably constant for a
particular aggregate, an occasional check shall be carried out. The aggregate correction factor can be determined only
by a test, as it is not directly related to the water absorption of the particles.

E-2 AGGREGATE SAMPLE SIZE

Determine the aggregate correction factor by applying the operating pressure on a combined sample of the coarse and
fine aggregates in the approximate amounts, proportions and moisture conditions that exist in the concrete sample.
Obtain the sample of aggregate either by washing the cement through a 150 m sieve from the concrete
sample tested or by using a combined sample of fine and coarse aggregate similar to that used in the concrete. In the
latter case calculate the masses, mf and mc, of fine and coarse aggregate, respectively,
to be used from equations given below:

mf = Vo fr ff
mc = Vo fr fc
ff and fc = proportions, of the fine and the coarse aggregate, respectively in fractions by mass of the total
concrete mix
(aggregates, cement and water);
Vo = capacity, of the container determined as specified in B-3, in m3, and
fr = density of concrete to be tested, determined in accordance with IS 1199 (Part 3) or calculated from the
known proportions and densities of the materials and the nominal air content, in kg/m3
Partially fill the container of the apparatus with water, then introduce the combined sample of aggregate in small
scoopfuls. This shall be done in such a manner as to entrap as little air as possible. If necessary, add additional water to
inundate all of the aggregate. After the addition of each scoopful, remove any foam promptly, then stir the aggregate
with the compacting bar and tap the container with the mallet to release any entrapped air

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE
CORRECTION FACTOR When all the aggregate has been placed in the container and inundated for at least 5 min,
wipe clean the flanges on the container and clamp the cover in position. Fill the apparatus with water and tap lightly with
the mallet to remove air adhering to the interior surfaces of the apparatus. Bring the level of the water in the standpipe
to zero but bleeding through the small valve with the air vent open. Close the air vent and apply the operating
pressure, P, by means of the air pump.

Record the reading of the gauge tube as h1, release the pressure and take a further reading, h2. Repeat the entire
procedure once, obtaining a second pair of readings, h3 and h4. Take the average value of (h1 – h2) and
(h3 – h4) as the aggregate correction factor, G, unless the two value of (h1 – h2) and (h3 – h4) differ by more
than 0.1 percent air content, in which case carry out further determinations until consistent results are obtained.

METHOD OF TEST FOR BLEEDING OF CONCRETE

 (IS 9103:1999 Reaffirmed 2018) (ANNEX D)

 A cylindrical container of approximately 0.01 m3 capacity, having an inside diameter of 250 mm and
inside height of 280 mm. The container shall be made of metal of minimum thickness of 4 mm and shall
be externally reinforced around the top with metal band 38 mm wide and 4 mm thick

 The tamping bar shall be a round-ended steel bar of 16 mm diameter and 600 mm length

 A pipette for drawing off free water from the surface of the test specimens.

 A graduated jar of 100 cm3 capacity

 The sample of freshly mixed concrete shall be obtained

 The container shall be filled with concrete as soon as practicable after mixing to a height of 250 ± 3 mm.
The concrete shall be filled into the measure in layers approximately 50 mm deep and each layer
shall be compacted by hand.

 Tamp by tamping bar minimum 60 strokes per layer.

 The test specimen shall be kept at a temperature of 27 ± 2°C

 Water accumulated at the top shall be drawn off by means of a pipette, at 10 min intervals during the
first 40 min and at 30 min intervals subsequently till bleeding ceases .

 To facilitate collection of bleeding water, the specimen may be tilted by placing a 50-mm block under one
side of the measure during collection of water. The water shall be transferred to graduated jar and
accumulated quantity of water shall be recorded after each transfer .

 Accumulated bleeding water expressed as a percentage of the net mixing water shall be calculated as
follows:

Bleeding water percentage = Vw *1000

w*s
W

Vw = Total mass of the bleeding water, kg

w = Net mass of water in the batch, kg
W = Total mass of the batch, kg
s = The mass of sample, kg
 IS 4925: Clause 6.1.1 IS 4925:2003

For individual hatcher, the following tolerances shall apply, based on the required weight of material
being weighed:

Type of Material Tolerance in Percentage

Cement and other cementitious materials ±1

Water ±1

Sand aggregates ±2

Admixture ±3

For cumulative hatcher, interlocked sequential controls shall be provided and the above tolerances
shall apply to the required cumulative weight of material as batched.

Transportation of Ready Mixed Concrete: The Ready Mixed Concrete shall be transported in
concrete transit agitators conforming to IS: 5892
(Specification for concrete transit mixers
and agitators). Agitating speed of the
agitators during transit shall not be less than

2 revolutions per minute not more than 6 revolutions per minute.

 ANNEX E (Clauses 9.1.2 and9.1.3) IS 4926:2003
CALIBRATION AND WEIGHING EQUIPMENT ACCURACY

The accuracy, sensitivity and arrangement of the weighing devices shall be such as to enable the
materials to be batched within the following tolerances:

1) Cement & Mineral Admixture Within ± 2% of

quantity of constituent being measured

2) Aggregate; Chemical Admixture, and Water

Within ± 3 %of quantity of constituent being measured

 Analogue scales shall have scale increments not exceeding 5 kg for cement and mineral
admixtures, 25 kg for aggregate and 2 kg for water

 Preset controls shall be calibrated in increments not exceeding 5 kg for cement and mineral
admixtures, 10 kg for aggregate and 2 kg for water.

 For continuous mixer plants calibration shall be in increments not exceeding 10kg/m3for cement
and mineral admixtures, 25kg/mJ for aggregates and 10 I/m’ for water.

 Digital readouts shall have a scale increment not exceeding 2 kg for cement and mineral
admixtures, 10kg for aggregate and 11for water
 INSTALLATION OF RAINGAUGE (IS 4986:2002)
(NON-RECORDING TYPE) AND MEASUREMENT OF
RAIN — CODE OF PRACTICE

1) The gauge shall be placed on level ground not upon a slope or terrace and never on a wall or roof.

2) The distance between the rain gauge and the nearest object should generally be four times the height
of the object, but never shall be less than twice the height of the object.

3) The rain gauge shall be fixed on a masonry or concrete foundation 600 mm x 600 mm x 600 mm
sunk into the ground. It may also be fixed using steel structure .

4) Into this foundation, the base of the gauge shall be cemented so that the rim of the gauge is
horizontal and exactly 300 mm above ground level. This height is necessary to prevent more than a
negligible amount of water splashing into the gauge. If the height exceeds 300 mm the amount of rain
collected decreases owing to wind eddies setup by the gauge.

5) the rainfall should be estimated to the nearest 0.1 mm.

6) The rainwater in the gauge shall be measured every day at 08.30 h Indian Standard Time (1ST)

STACKING AND STORAGE OF

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND
(IS 4082:1992 Reaffirmed 2003)

Cement =
1) Cement shall be stored at the work site in a building or a shed which is dry, leak-proof
and as moisture-proof as possible. The building or shed for storage should have minimum
number of windows and close-fitting doors and these should be kept closed as far as possible.

2) Cement bags shall be stacked off the floor on wooden planks in such a way as to keep about
150 mm to 200 mm clear above the floor. The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or
two layers of dry bricks laid on well consolidated earth. A space of 600 mm minimum shall be
left around between the exterior walls and the stacks.

3) In the stacks the cement bags shall be kept close together to reduce circulation of air as
much as possible. Owing to pressure on the bottom layer of bags sometimes ‘warehouse pack’
is developed in these bags. This can be removed easily by rolling the bags when the cement
is taken out for use. Lambed bags, if any should be removed and dis posed off
4.2.2.3 The height of stack shall not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility of lumping
up under pressure.

4) The width of the stack shall be not more than four bags length or 3 metres. In stacks more
than 8 bags high, the cement bags shall be arranged alternately length-wise and cross-wise so
as to tie the stacks together and minimize the danger of toppling over. Cement bags shall be
stacked in a manner to facilitate their removal and use in the order in which they are received;
a label showing date of receipt of cement shall be put on each stack to know the age of cement

5) For extra safety during the monsoon, or when it is expected to store for an unusually long
period, the stack shall be completely enclosed by a waterproofing membrane such as
polyethylene, which shall close on the top of the stack. Care shall be taken to see that the
waterproofing membrane is not damaged any time during use

Aggregates
1) Aggregates shall be stored at site on a hard dry and level patch of ground. If such a surface
is not available, a platform of planks or old corrugated iron sheets, or a floor of bricks, or a thin
layer of lean concrete shall be made to prevent contamination with clay, dust, vegetable and
other foreign matter.

2) Stacks of fine and coarse aggregates shall be kept in separate stockpiles sufficiently
Removed from each other to prevent the material at the edges of the piles from getting
intermixed. On a large job it is desirable to construct dividing walls to give each type of
aggregates its own compartment. Fine aggregates shall be stacked in a place where loss due
to the effect of wind is minimum.

STEEL
1) Steel reinforcement shall ordinarily be stored in such a way as to avoid distortion and to
prevent deterioration and corrosion. It is desirable to coat reinforcement with cement wash
before stacking to prevent scaling and rusting.

2) Bars of different classification, sizes and lengths shall be stored separately to facilitate issues
in such sizes and lengths so as to minimize wastage in cutting from standard lengths.

3) In case of long storage, reinforcement bars shall be stacked above ground level by at least
150 mm. Also in coastal areas or in case of long storage a coat of cement wash shall be given
to prevent scaling and rusting.

4) Structural steel of different classification, sizes and lengths shall be stored separately. It
shall be stored above ground level by at least 150 mm upon platforms, skids or any other
suitable supports to avoid distortion of sections. In coastal
areas or in case of long storage suitable protective coating of primer paint shall be given to
prevent scaling and rusting

MDD TEST
1. Break the clods of soil sample as received from the field and remove the organic matter like
tree roots, pieces of bark etc. from the sample.
2. Dry the sample in the air. In wet weather, use drying oven but the temperature
of the sample should not exceed 600 C.
3. Take a representative portion of air-dried soil material and large enough to provide about 6
kg of material passing a 19-mm IS sieve (for soils not susceptible to crushing during
compaction, or about 15 kg of material passing a 19-mm IS sieve (for soils susceptible to
crushing during compaction)
4. Sieve above material through 19 mm & 4.75 mm IS sieve.
5. Sieve above material through 19-mm IS sieve and if soil retained on this sieve is more than
5%, use mould of 2250 cm3 and reject soil retained on 19-mm sieve after its proportion of
the total sample has been recorded.
6. If percentage retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve is greater than 20, then use mould of 2250
cm3 otherwise use small mould of 1000 cm3.
7. Determine the ratio of fraction retained and that passing 4.75 mm IS sieve to to access the
density of the soil.

8. Mix the soil sample retained on 4.75 mm sieve and that passing 4.75 mm sieve for further
testing.
9. Mix the sample thoroughly with a suitable amount of water depending on the soil type.:-
(a) Sandy and gravely soil: 3 to 5%
(b) Cohesive soil: 12 to 16% approx.
10. Store the soil sample in a sealed container for a minimum period of 16 hours.

Chlorides in concrete
Whenever there is chloride in concrete there is an increased risk of corrosion of embedded
steel. The higher the chloride content, or if subsequently exposed to warm moist conditions,
the greater the risk of corrosion. All constituents may contain chlorides and concrete maybe
contaminated by chlorides from the external environment. To minimize the chances of
deterioration of concrete from harmful chemical salts, the levels of such harmful salts in
concrete coming from concrete materials, that is, cement, aggregates, water and
admixtures, as well as by diffusion from the environment should be limited. The total
amount of acid soluble chloride content (as Cl) in the concrete at the time of
placing shall be not more than 0.4 kg/m3 of concrete. The total acid soluble chloride
content should be calculated from the mix proportions and the measured chloride contents
of each of the constituents. Wherever possible, the total chloride content of the concrete
should be determined.

Sulphates in concrete
Sulphates are present in most cements and in some
aggregates; excessive amounts of water-solublesulphate from these or other mix
constituents can cause expansion and disruption of concrete . To prevent this,
the total water-soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix, expressed as SO3 should not
exceed 4 percent by mass of the cement in the mix. The sulphate content
should be calculated as the total from the various constituents of the mix

CLEAR COVER OPEN FOUNDATION = 75 mm

PIER = 75 mm
PIER CAP = 50 MM
GIRDER & DIAPHRAGMS = 50mm
BEARING PEDESTAL = 50 mm
DECK SLAB = 35mm

ALL RCC SURFACES COMING CONTACT WITH SOIL

SHALL BE PAINTED WITH BITUMEN OR COAL TAR OF
APPROVED QUAILTY AT 1.464 KG/M²

MINIMUM LAP LENGTH SHALL BE AS PER CLAUSE

15.9.6.6 OF IRS : CONCRETE BRIDGE CODE THE
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 41 TIMES THE DIA OF BAR.

Splice – Connection of one reinforcing bar to another by overlapping, welding, mechanical

end connectors, or other means.

Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 32 mm. When bars are lapped, the length
of the lap shall at least equal the anchorage length (derived from 15.9.6.2) required to
develop the stress in the smaller of the two bars lapped.

The length of the lap provided; however, shall neither be less than 25 times the smaller bar
size plus 150 mm in tension reinforcement nor be less than 20 times the smaller bar size
plus 150 mm in compression reinforcement.
 TABLE 10: DESIGN CRACK WIDTHS [Cl. 10.2.1 (a)] IRS CBC 2014

Exposure Conditions Design crack width in

mm
Moderate 0.20
Severe 0.10
Extreme 0.10

Creep
Creep can be defined as the elastic and long-term deformation of concrete
under a continuous load. Generally, a long term pressure changes the shape of
concrete structure and the deformation occurs along the direction of the applied load .
When the continuous load is removed, the strain is decreased immediately. The amount of the
decreased strain is equal to the elastic strain at the given age. This quick recovery is then
followed by a continuous decrease in strain, known as creep recovery that is a part of total creep
strain suffered by the concrete.

Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically

as long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation
usually occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting
more compressed, or a beam bending.

Creep is defined as the phenomenon of time dependent of total strain

that is expressed as thita and its value is play a important role in design
of structures which is consist the creep coefficient value is different for
according to days of construction of structures

Creep= creep strain at time t/ instantaneous strain

According to IS code creep value as follows-:

1. Creep coefficient for Design is 2.2 for 7 days

2. Creep coefficient for Design is 1.6 for 28 days

3. Creep coefficient for Design is 1.1 for 1 year

The ratio of the ultimate creep strain to the elastic strain at the age of loading is termed
as creep coefficient.
Creep in concrete shall be taken as 43x10-6 mm2 per N/of stress at the centroid

of Prestressing steel in case of prestressed concrete structures

 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the change in volume over time in a way it decreases the
dimensions of the concrete. The volume of concrete changes during the
hardening process due to the effect of hydration of cement and concrete
drying process with the loss of water in the paste.

Shrinkage is a property of concrete that is associated with the shrinks of

concrete means it’s hardened state of concrete due to loss of moisture
by evaporation.this properties of concrete is consist the dry shrinkage
and differentials shrinkage.
Behavioral properties of dry shrinkage in concrete is a state of reduction of volume of concrete
having similar property of creeps which is develop the tensile stress and a important cause of lead
to cracking.

Behavioral properties of differential shrinkage in concrete is a state of due to moisture or thermal

gradient placed reinforced steel in beam which is associated with the induced internal stresses,
curvature and deflection.

Concrete structures surface dries due to water evaporates from the void between the particles as a
result this water dissipates, the movement of particles close together, then cracking is developed in
concrete structures such as slabs, residential foundation walls that is called as shrinkage of
concrete. Shrinkage of concrete during the fresh concrete surface is known as plastic shrinkage
and consequence of chemical bonding is known as chemical shrinkage.

Behavior of shrinkage of properties of concrete is important which is affect the long term strength
and durability, minimize the shrinkage by keep the total water content of the concrete mix as low in
practicable for the requirements of application and addition of high range water reducing
admixtures.

Stabilizing Material IS 2911 (Part 1/Sec 2) : 2010

REQUIREMENTS OF DRILLING MUD (BENTONITE)
Bentonite/Polymer like CNC (Eco drill 100)

1-Specific gravity (1.00 to 1.04 gm/cc)

2-Marsh funnel viscosity (65 to 140 second)
3-Ph (11 to 12)
4- Sand Content (0%)

Concrete operation shall not Proceed if contaminant stabilizing material at the bottom of the
pile bore passes a density more than 1250 kg/mᴣ Sample shall be collected at the Bottom of the
pile bore.

LOW STRAIN NON-DESTRUCTIVE INTEGRITY TESTING OF PILES —

GUIDELINES

Pile Integrity Testing

( IS 14893 : 2021),ASTM 5882-96
Integrity Testing- A method of qualitative evaluation of the physical dimensions (cross-sectional variation),
soundness or defects of pile̕ s concrete with respect to its continuity

Ultrasonic- Sound waves with a frequency above the upper limit of human hearing (typically above 20 kHz).
(Human hearing frequency 20Hz to 20000Hz)

Necking-Decrease in local cross-sectional area of pile.

Bulging- Increase in local cross-sectional area of pile.

A small plastic /nylon/ polycarbonate/ tip hammer is used to produce a tap on the top of the pile. The
stress wave travelling down the length of the pile is reflected from the toe of the pile and recorded
through a suitable transducer/accelerometer (also held on top of the pile, close to the point of impact)
in the data logger for subsequent analysis.

The primary stress wave which travels down the length of the pile shaft is reflected from the toe by
the change in material properties between the concrete and sub-strata. However, if the pile has any
imperfections or discontinuities within its length these will set up secondary reflections which will be
added to the return signal (see Fig. 2). The typical data sets for

1-Uniform pile,
2-Defective pile,
3-Pile with minor defect and
4- Bulge pile of pile length shown in figure.

The stress wave velocity and approximate pile lengths are provided as input for the integrity testing.
The stress wave velocity is dependent on the young’s modulus and mass density of pile concrete.
This value generally lies between 3300 m/sec to 4200 m/sec depending on reinforcement, age of
concrete, grade of concrete used.

Depending on the length of the pile, the weight of hammer should preferably be between 0.4 kg
to 5 kg. The hammer in general should be capable of generating an impact so that a clear response
from pile bottom is visible the correct hammer weight can also be arrived by a trial-and-error method
by carrying multiple hammers for testing, and using the one such that the peak amplitude of the input
signal may be at least 0.1 cm/sec

The distance between the point of impact and transducer/accelerometer should not be more than 300
mm.
Number of test locations on a given pile will depend on the pile diameter. For small diameter (up to
600 mm) piles, at least one test location shall be selected, which is generally near the center of the
pile. Additional locations shall be considered for large diameter (greater than 600 mm) piles; in such
cases, the test shall be conducted at 3 to 6 locations depending on the diameter of pile, to cover the
entire section

Test at each location on the pile should be continued until similar signals are obtained. Averaging of
minimum three similar signals/records shall be done for each test location of the pile. The necessary
processing parameters shall be applied on each averaged signal/record

The number of tests at any project shall be as per the requirements of the Engineer-in-charge of the project.
NOTE ― The numbers of tests can even be extended to 100 percent of the piles, if no sonic logging
tests are planned at the project

The assessment of structural integrity is based on the following aspects :

a) Quality of signals,
b) Accurate analysis and interpretation of signal, and
c) Proper use of data processing parameters

The final report should include signals of each integrity test and comment on the structural condition of piles. The
report for integrity testing shall include the following details:

a) Acceptable piles that show clear toe response.

b) Piles that show clear defects and are liable to be rejected.
c) Piles that show clear toe response with minor defects; and
d) Inconclusive piles that show large bulges

Piles with minor defects but with toe response clear can be accepted based on casting records of the
pile and based on additional information obtained as per

LIMITATIONS OF LOW STRAIN INTEGRITY NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Low strain integrity non-destructive testing of piles does not provide the load carrying capacity of piles.
It does not provide information regarding verticality or displacement in position of piles.
In a few cases where piles are too long, or skin friction is high, low strain method does not provide
sufficient information particularly the toe reflection

The present experience of low strain non-destructive integrity testing of piles is up to a diameter
of 1 500 mm

COMPLEMENTARY TESTS

a) Ultrasonic pulse velocity test

b) Penetration test
c) Density testing of cast cubes
Density, in kg/m3 = Wa/(Wa-Ww)*1000

Wa= Weight in air, in kg; and

Ww =Weight in water, in kg

Dynamic Testing of Piles (ASTM D 4945)

Dynamic load test on piles is a method that can be used to evaluate pile load-carrying capacity by applying a
dynamic load

The method is valid, reliable, and helps evaluate pile capacity quickly compared to static load tests

Dynamic load test for piles is conducted using Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) to determine pile load capacity by
collecting and analyzing force and velocity data under drop-weight impacts. The field data are further analyzed
using Pile Wave Analysis to refine the soil parameter and assumptions . 

Objective: Dynamic Load Test on Piles

 Static pile capacity at the time of load testing.
 Simulated static load test curve
 Bearing capacity and skin friction
 Distribution pattern of skin friction along the pile shaft
 developed compressive stresses during testing
 Displacement of the test pile
 Pile integrity

Pile and Test Preparation:
 Dynamic load test on piles is carried out by fixing strain sensors and accelerometers to the sides of
the test pile below 1.5 times of pile diameter or higher from the pile head top and then
connecting them with PDA.
 Test pile should be extended to 1.6 times pile diameter after chipping top loose concrete.
 In the case of the liner pile, two openings (300mm x 300mm) shall be left below 1.5 times of pile diameter
from the top of the pile head for sensor fixing
 Sometimes a pile top cushion consisting of sheets of plywood with a total thickness between 25mm to
50mm or as directed by the Test Engineer shall be placed on the top of the pile head before testing

Pile Monitoring and Analysis

 After 15 days of pile installation, a dynamic load test on piles may be carried out, providing the
cube compressive strength of pile concrete and built-up portion concrete has achieved the required
strength. 
 High Strain dynamic load test for piles is conducted by fixing strain transducers and
accelerometers to the sides of the pile shaft. The sensors, as mentioned above, are connected to the
PDA through the main cable. 
 First of all, sensors record strain and acceleration measurements and convert them from analogue
to digital form and display them on PDA screen
 Dynamic load test for piles is started by impacting the pile head with a hammer blow, starting with a
smaller drop height (typically 0.5m). This is to ensure the correctness of the data and the setup
arrangements.
 Each hammer blow, the strain transducers measure strains, whereas accelerations are measured by
accelerometers connected on the other sides of the test pile.
 By integration, these signals are converted to digital form by the equipment and then converted to force and
velocity.
 PDA displays immediate field results in the form of the mobilized capacity, pile top compression, integrity,
stresses etc., are shown after each hammer blow.
 Dynamic load test on piles is continued by increasing the hammer height by around 0.5m increments until
either the pile set, or the pile capacity reaches the required or limiting values.
 The limiting value for the pile capacity would be the test load at which settlement would be 3-4mm
per blow. In other words, a test can be terminated when settlement is more than 3-4mm per blow.
 Generally, the pile capacity shall be considered fully mobilized if the energy levels due to hammer impact
are enough to cause a measurable net displacement of at least 3-4mm per blow for a minimum of three
successive impact

 Suppose the pile settlement is less than 3-4mm per blow and the pile achieves the required capacity. In that
case, it implies that not all the static pile resistance has been mobilized and that the pile still has some
capacity that could not be measured or was not required to be measured at the time of testing.
Output Parameters for Dynamic Load Test on Piles:
 The maximum force applied(FMX)
 The maximum energy imparted to the pile (EMX)
  The maximum displacement of the pile head (DMX)
 The pile capacity estimate(RMX, RSU)
 Force velocity proportionality(FVP)
 The maximum compressive stress in a pile (CSX)
 The maximum tensile stress in a pile (TSX)
 Estimated finalnile set(DEN)


Pile
7= VERTICAL LOAD TEST (COMPRESSION)- IS 2911 (Part 4): 2013
load each increment being of about 20 percent of safe load on the pile
The safe vertical load on single pile for the initial test should be least of the
following

1-For piles more than 600 mm diameter:

Two-thirds of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 18 mm
or maximum of 2 percent pile diameter whichever is less unless
otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of structure in which
case, the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total displacement
permissible; and

2-50 percent of the final load at which the total displacement equal to 10 percent of the
pile diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5 percent of bulb
diameter in case of under-reamed piles

Groups of piles for initial

a) Final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 25 mm unless otherwise
required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of structure; and

b) Two-thirds of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 40 mm

Groups of piles for Routine

However, routine test on group of piles shall be carried for a test load of at least equal to the working
load: the maximum settlement of the test loading in position being not exceeding 25 mm

7.2 Maintained Load Method

This is applicable for both initial and routine test. In this method, each stage of loading shall be
maintained till the rate of movement of the pile top is not more than 0.2 mm/h or until 2 h have
elapsed, whichever is earlier subject to a minimum of 1 h. The maximum test load shall be
maintained for 24 h.

7.2.1 Duration of Vertical Loading

7.2.1.1
Vertical loading on single pile shall be continued till one of the following takes place:
a)In case of initial load test:

1) Applied load reaches 2.5 times the safe estimated load; or

2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 10 percent of pile diameter in

case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5 percent of bulb diameter in case of
under-reamed piles.

Routine=

1) Applied load reaches 1.5 times the working load; or

2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 12 mm for piles diameter up to and
including 600 mm, and 18 mm or maximum of 2 percent of pile diameter whichever is less
for piles of diameter more than 600 mm

Vertical loading on group of piles shall be continued till one of the following takes place

a) In case of initial load test:

1) Applied load reaches 2.5 times the safe estimated load; or

2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 40 mm.

b) In case of routine load test:

1) Applied load reaches the working load;

2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a

value of 25 mm

8=LATERAL LOAD TEST ON PILES

1) the loading should be applied in increments of about 20 percent of the estimated
safe lateral load

2) The next increment should be applied after the rate of displacement is less than or
equal to 0.1 mm per 30 min subject to minimum of 30 min.

3) The load will be given by hydraulic jack and reaction will be taken from Pile at
distance of 2.4 m (varies as per site conditions) from edge of pile.

4) In case of unapproachable cut-off levels, displacements shall be read by using at least

two dial gauges or LVDTs of 0.01 mm sensitivity spaced at 30 cm and kept horizontally
one above the other on the test pile and the displacement shall be interpolated at cut-off
level from similar triangles

5) However, for approachable cut-off levels, one dial gauge or LVDT placed
diametrically opposite to the jack shall directly measure the displacement. Where, it is
not possible to locate one of the dial gauges in the line of the jack axes, there two dial
gauges may be kept at a distance of 30 cm at a suitable height and the displacement
interpolated at load point from similar triangles

6) One of the methods for keeping dial gauge on pile surface is to chip off uneven
concrete on the side of the pile and to fix a glass piece of 20 to 30 mm square.
The dial gauges’ tips shall rest on the central portion of the glass plate

7) In case the hydraulic jack is placed in between test pile and reaction pile, one dial
gauge or LVDT shall be suitably placed on reaction pile to measure the displacement of
reaction pile

8) The safe lateral load on the pile for initial test, for both free head and
fixed head shall be taken as the least of the following:

(a) Fifty percent of the final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm
 (b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm
(c) Load corresponding to any other specified displacement as per performance or design
Requirements

Routine= lateral load test shall be carried out for a test load equal to the working load; the maximum
deflection of test loading in position shall not exceed 5 mm.

PULL-OUT TEST ON PILES

Uplift force may preferably be applied by means of hydraulic jack(s) with gauge using a
suitable pull-out
set up. Pile top shall preferably be at cut-off level. Displacement measurement shall be
made at pile top
with at least two dial gauges placed at diametric opposite ends of pile.

The pull-out load increments and consequent displacement readings shall be read as in
the case of
vertical load test.

The safe uplift load shall be taken as the least of the following
For piles up to and including 600 mm
diameter:

1) Two-thirds of the load at which the total displacement is 12 mm or the load

corresponding to a specified permissible uplift; and

2) Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break
(downward trend

For piles more than 600 mm diameter:

1-Two-thirds of the load at which the total displacement is 18 mm or maximum of 2

percent of pile diameter whichever is less or the load corresponding to a specified
permissible uplift; and

2-Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break (downward
trend).

The initial test shall be carried out up to 2.5 times the estimated safe uplift load or
until the load displacement curve shows a clear break (downward trend).

Routine test shall be carried out to 1.5 times the working load or 12 mm total
displacement for piles
diameter up to and including 600 mm and 18 mm or maximum of 2 percent of pile
diameter, whichever is
less for piles of diameter more than 600 mm, whichever is earlier
 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE
IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 4) : 2020
Rebound Hammer Method

The rebound hammer method provides a convenient and rapid indication of the compressive strength
of concrete by establishing a suitable correlation between the rebound index and strength of concrete

In general, the rebound number increases as the strength increases but it is also affected by a number of other
parameters like age, moisture content, texture, form material, aggregate type, type of cement and extent of
carbonation on concrete surface. The probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure by this
method is usually within 25%.

Schmidt’s Hammer
The hammer should be held at right angles to the surface of the structure. The test can be conducted horizontally on
vertical surfaces or vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces. It is necessary that test hammer is
frequently calibrated and checked against the test anvil to ensure reliable results

Correlation between Compressive Strength of Concrete and Rebound Number

(Using Cube Compressive Strength)

The general correlation can be derived from concrete cubes used in smaller projects in
a region with similar materials including cement type and the same shall be repeated
every year. For bigger projects at least three cubes each for three different concrete
grades shall be cast and tested for establishing the correlation. Cube specimens should
be wet cured for 27 days and they should be removed from wet storage and kept in the
laboratory atmosphere for about 24 h before testing.

The concrete cube specimens are held in a compression testing machine under a fixed
load, measurements of rebound number taken using the particular hammer/hammers
for which conditions are to be established and then the compressive strength
determined as per IS 516 (Part 1/Sec 1). The fixed load required is of the order of 7 N/mm2
when the impact energy of the hammer is about 2.25 Nm. The load should be increased for
calibrating rebound hammers of greater impact energy and decreased for calibrating
rebound hammers of lesser impact energy.

The test specimens should be as large a mass as possible in order to minimize the size
effect on the test result of a full scale structure. 150 mm cube specimens are preferred for of
lower impact energy (2.25 Nm), whereas for rebound hammers of higher impact energy, for
example 30 Nm, the test cubes should not be smaller than 300 mm.
Only the vertical faces of the cube as cast should be tested. At least nine readings should be
taken on each of the two vertical faces accessible in the compression testing machine when
using the rebound hammers.
The points of impact on the specimen must not be nearer an edge than 25 mm and should
be not less than 25 mm from each other. The same points must not be impacted more than
once.

Correlation between Equivalent Cube Compressive Strength of Concrete Cores and

Rebound Number (Using Core Compressive Strength)

To establish correlation between rebound number and strength for a particular concrete and
particular apparatus, rebound numbers measured on the structure can be correlated with
the few core strengths measured on the structure on corresponding members. At least two
replicate cores shall be taken from at least six locations with different rebound numbers.
The test conditions and surface conditions of the locations where strengths are to be
estimated using developed correlation shall be similar to the locations used for
development of correlation.
 For smaller projects the number of cores may be limited to six. The locations where these
tests are conducted and cores are taken should have ultrasonic pulse value greater or equal
to 3.50 km/s for grades < M25, and 3.75 km/s for grades above M25, by direct method of
probing, when tested as per IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1).

Because of the various limitations in rebound hammer test, the combined use of ultrasonic pulse
velocity (UPV) test [IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1)] and rebound hammer test is a must for proper
interpretation. If the quality of concrete assessed by ultrasonic pulse velocity method is 3.50 km/s
for grades < M25, and 3.75 km/s for above M25 or above, only then the in-situ compressive strength
assessed from the rebound hammer test is valid. This shall be taken as indicative of strength of
concrete in the entire cross-section of the concrete member represented by the both tests

In cases the quality of concrete assessed by UPV is doubtful, no assessment of concrete strength
shall be made from rebound hammer test.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity TEST

IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1) : 2018

This method is based on the principal that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any
material depends upon its density, modulus of elasticity and Poisson ratio.

In this method, an ultrasonic pulse of longitudinal vibrations is produced by an electro acoustical transducer
which is held in contact with one surface of the concrete member under test. After trans versing a known length
in the concrete, the vibration pulse is converted in to an electrical signal by a second electro acoustical transducer
held in contact with the other surface of concrete member and an electronic timing circuit enables the transit time
of the pulse to be measured from which pulse velocity can be calculated

The method can be used to determine the homogeneity of the concrete, the presence of
cracks. Voids and other imperfections, changes in the structure of concrete which occur
with time, the quality of the concrete in relation to requirements, relative variation in
quality, or to determine the elastic modulus value of the concrete

The higher velocities are obtained when the quality of concrete, in terms of density,
homogeneity and uniformity is good. If there is a crack, void of flaw inside the concrete
which comes in the way of transmission of the pulse, the pulse strength is attenuated
and it passes around the discontinuity, thereby making the path length longer.
Consequently, the lower velocities are obtained and strength of the signal also
becomes weaker.

TABLE F-1: VELOCITY CRITERION FOR CONCRETE QUALITY GRADING

S.No. Pulse Velocity in km/sec Condition of concrete
1. Below 3.0 Doubtful
2. 3.0 to 3.5 Medium
3. 3.5 to 4.5 Good
4. Above 4.5 Excellent

The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro acoustical transducer. When the pulse is induced into the
concrete from a transducer, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases
within the concrete.

A complex system of stress waves is developed which includes longitudinal (compressional),

shear (transverse) and surface (Raleigh) waves. The receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal
waves, which is the fastest. Because the velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry of the
material through which they pass and depends only on its elastic properties, pulse velocity method is a
convenient technique for investigating in-situ concrete
The actual pulse velocity obtained depends primarily upon the materials and mix proportions
of concrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of aggregate also significantly affect the pulse velocity

Ultrasonic Measurements
Place the two transducers on opposite faces (direct transmission), or
on adjacent faces (semi-direct transmission), or
on the same face (indirect or surface transmission)

Sampling, Preparing and Testing of Concrete Cores

(IS 516 (Part 4) 2018
As a general guideline, for grades of concrete up to M25, the concrete shall be at least 14 days old
before the core taken

Cores shall preferably be taken at points not near or at the edges of the concrete joints and
reinforcement shall be avoided as far as possible.

The ratio of diameter to the nominal maximum size of aggregate shall be greater than 3. The
core diameter
shall generally be 100 mm to 150 mm (± 10 mm), with the preferred diameter being 100 mm
for nominal maximum aggregate size up to 20 mm.

Measurements and Calculations of Drilled Core Specimens

The preferred l/d ratio shall be 2, however, l/d values from 1 to 2 may also be permitted (the length
includes
the capping material also).

Core diameter
Core length
Mass
Density

PREPARATION OF CORES
Table 1 Suitable Methods of Preparation of Load
Bearing Surfaces of Specimens
Sl
No.

Anticipated Strength of
Concrete
Preparation Method
i) For any value of strength Grinding
ii) Up to 50 MPa Capping with calcium aluminate cement
mortar1) Capping with sulphur mixture

iii) Up to 100 MPa Capping with high strength

sulphur mixture’
Prepare the core specimen Tolerance
Flatness (see Fig. 1A) — The tolerance on flatness of the prepared end surfaces shall be ± 0.05 mm

Perpendicular (see Fig. 1B) — The tolerance on perpendicular of the prepared end, with respect to the axis of the
specimen as datum, shall be ± 0.03 mm
Parallelism (see Fig. 1C) — The tolerance on parallelism of the prepared top surface, with respect to the bottom surface
of the specimen as datum, shall be ± 0.6 mm

Straightness — The tolerance on straightness of any surface parallel to the centre line of the core shall be ± 3 percent of
the average core diameter (dm).
The above tolerances values are for 100 mm diameter core.

COMPRESSION TEST
Cores may be tested generally in saturated condition except if specifically required to be tested in air
dry condition. For the saturated condition, soak in water at 27 ± 3°C for a minimum of 40 h and
maximum up to 48h before testing.
Core shall be removed from the water and tested while it is still wet but remove all excess surface grit
and water by wiping off. If it is required to test the core specimen in air-dry conditions, store in
laboratory air for a minimum of 40 h and maximum up to 48 h prior to testing, record the storage time,
ambient temperature and relative humidity of the storage conditions during air-dry storage of the
specimens

The load shall be applied without shock and increased continuously at a rate of approximately 14 N/mm2/min
Calculation
Calculation
The measured compressive strength of the core specimen shall be calculated by dividing the maximum load
applied to the specimen during the test by the cross-sectional area, calculated from the mean dimensions of the
section and shall be expressed to the nearest N/mm2

The product of correction factor for core diameter (cores having diameter less than 100 mm) as given below, and the
measured compressive strength shall beknown as the corrected compressive strength
Diameter of Core
(No. of Cores 3)
mm
Correction Factor
75 ± 5 1.03
< 70 1.06

correction factor
F = 0.11N +0.78
F = correction factor, and
N = length /diameter ratio.

The product of this correction factor and the measured compressive strength or the corrected compressive
strength for diameter as per 8.4.1, shall be known as the corrected cylinder strength, this being the
equivalent strength of a cylinder having a height/diameter ratio of two.
The equivalent cube strength of the concrete shall be determined by multiplying the corrected cylinder
strength by 5/4.

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA OF CORE TEST RESULTS

If average of equivalent cube strength of minimum three cores is more than 0.85 times the specified
cube strength (characteristic strength, fck) and no individual core has equivalent cube strength less than
0.75 times specified cube strength (fck), the core test results are considered satisfactory.

The present procedure of IS 456 as mentioned before at B-2.5.1 is simple and can be used for assessing
strength of a particular member by taking three cores or in a case where one set of cube samples
(set of 4 consecutive sample) has failed. The specified strength will be considered as characteristic
strength.

For overall assessment requirement or where large number of cube sets ( each set consisting of 4
consecutive samples) have failed say 2consecutive sets or 3 scattered sets have failed (for the same
grade/class of concrete) within a batch to be assessed, minimum 10 cores willbe tested and the
acceptance in such case will be as under:
 f (avg) 0.85 (fck + 3)
f (i) 0.75 (fck)
where f(avg) is average equivalent cube
strength of all cores (minimum nine cores -
after excluding outliers if any).
f (i) is equivalent cube strength of individual
core
TO
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