Asce-Epri Guides 1989-Vol.3-Powerhouses and Related Topics

Civil Engineering
, Guidelines for ·
Planning and Designing
Hydroelectric Developments
• Volume 3
Powerhouses and Related Topics
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. NIAGARA POWER PROJECl

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Civil Engineering
', ) \ Guidelines for
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ydroelectric Developments
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Volume 3
Powerhouses and Related Topics
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Division 11. Design
Part G Powerhouses and Related Topics .
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Approved for publication by the Energy Division of the

American Society of Civil Engineers
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Published by the
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ABSTRACT
Civil Engineering Guidelines for Planning and Designing Hydroelectric Develop-
ments was prepared under the auspices of the Hydropower Committee of the ASCE
Energy Division. The Guidelines is divided irito five volumes. The first volume con-
cerns the planning and designing of dams and related topics, and envimnmental
issues. Volume 2 discusses the design of waterways including such elements as
intakes, tunnels and shafts, penstocks, surge tanks, and gates. Volume 3 covers the
design of powerhouses and related topics. While the first three volumes deal with
conventional hydroelectric projects, the fourth volume is concerned with the plan-
ning, designing, and construction of small-scale hydroelectric projects. The last vol-
ume provides information on the planning, designing, operation and maintenance of )
elements concerned with pumped storage. This volume ends with a discussion on
different aspects of tidal power including design and construction considerations.
Thus, the Guidelines provides comprehensive coverage and the necessary infor-
\
mation on the type and depth of studies needed for developing and designing )
hydroelectric projects.
The material presented in this publication has been.,prepared in accordance with

generally recognized engineering principles and practices and is for general infor-
mation only. This information should not be used without first securing competent
advice with respect to its suitability for any general or specific application.
The contents of this publication are not intended to be and should not be construed
to be a standard of the American Society ofCivil Engineers (ASCE) or the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) and are.not intended for use as a reference in pur-
chase specifications, contracts, regulations, statutes, or any other legal document.
No reference made in this publication to any specific method, product, process, or'
service constitutes or implies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereof
by ASCE or EPRI, sponsors of the work .
ASCE and EPRI make no representation or warr<ilnty of any kind, whether expressed
or implied, concerning the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or utility of any infor-
mation, apparatus, product, or process discussed in this publication, and assume
no liability therefor.
Anyone using this information assumes all liability arising from such use, including
but not limited to infringement of any patent or patents.
Copyright © 1989 by the American Socil~ty of Civil Engineers.

All Rights Reserved. ·
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 89-045882
Series ISBN 0-87262-725-X · I
Volume ISBN 0-87262-728-4 J
Manufactured in the United States of America.
)
FOREWORD 3
Civil Engineering Guidelines for Planning and Designing Hydroelectric Developments was prepared by
') the Hydropower Committee of the ASCE Energy Division. The committee's work on the Guidelines
received substantial financial support from the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), without which
the preparation of these Guidelines would have been impossible.
The Guidelines began in response to the formulation of the purpose of the Hydropower Committee at the
meeting in Houston, Texas, in October 1983, when the committee was reactivated. The purpose of the
committee as restated in 1983, was to "investigate and disseminate information on all phases of hydro-
electric power." At the time there was a noticeable gap between the state of the art and the literature.
There was a need for a comprehensive document that pulled together the widely recognized hydro-related
design information using appropriate text and references.
Because of the small initial membership of the Hydropower Committee, the original intent was merely a
civil engineering hydroelectric design symposium involving publication of state-of-the-art papers.
Additional papers would be added later to close apparent information gaps. However, as more members
joined the committee, the objective and scope of the Guidelines grew. Membership reached almost 40-
the largest ever for the Hydropower Committee and among the highest of all technical committees in the
Energy Division. In early 1986, the outline of the Guidelines was finalized, and the work of writing a
completely new document began in earnest.
The objective of the Guidelines is to provide material that is useful to an engineer having 5 to 10 years
) experience and basic knowledge of the design of hydroelectric developments. The Guidelines provide
comprehensive coverage and the necessary information on the type and depth of studies needed for
developing and designing a successful hydroelectric project.
The Guidelines emphasizes the planning and design of the "powertrain," which includes the intakes,
power conduits, powerhouses, and associated elements. The intent was to include the technology and
practices that have developed during the past 25 years, but also to recognize precedent designs of earlier
)
periods, especially that after World War Il.
The text is arranged so that engineers can add their own notes in the margins. QuarkXPress electronic
publishing software was used to lay out all of the pages of the Guidelines. Many of the authors' original
drafts were printed using IBM-compatible computers, and the files were converted to a Macintosh for-
mat. Equations were created using a Macintosh software program.
The Hydropower Committee intends to publish a revision to the Guidelines early in 1991. To this end, a
form is enclosed that allows readers to order this revision or to offer comments, corrections, or additions.
Recognition is due to the Hydropower Committee members, especially those who remained active con-
tributors until completion of the Guidelines and dedicated many hours of their personal time to this
,_ ) undertaking. Recognition is also due to the organizations, both public and private, that supported the par-
ticipation of the committee members, allowing them to attend meetings and providing the office assis-
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tance required for the chairmen and control members to administer related committee activities.
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James Birk and Charles Suliivan of EPRI were instrumental in the successful completion of the work by
recognizing the committee's capability to develop the Guidelines and by securing the necessary funding
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ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989
FOREWORD- Continued
Douglas Morris, EPRI Project Manager, monitored and directed the EPRI-related activities of the com-
mittee and contributed significantly in the review of the Guidelines.
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Philip M. Botch, who served as Energy Division Contact Member of the committee until his death in
1986, provided substantial contributions and support for the project. As the new contact member and
Executive Committee Chairman during 1984, Don Matchett continued to provide support for the
Hydropower Committee's work and for the Guidelines. Special recognition goes to Tom Logan, who
under contract with EPRI, spearheaded preparation of the Guidelines with great devotion. By organizing
meetings, communicating directly with the authors, and arranging for the review, editing, and typesetting
of the Guidelines, Tom contributed greatly to the successful completion of this monumental project. Joe
Carriero assisted Tom in organizing the material and provided valuable expertise in editing and format-
ting the Guidelines.
Finally, special gratitude is due to Arvids Zagars. Without his dedicated leadership, the Guidelines would
not have been written. Arvids established the initial concept and provided the direction that guided the
authors. He served as committee chairman for the entire period during which the Guidelines were written.
In addition, he authored several major chapters and provided valuable input to many other chapters on
which his name does not appear as a contributor.
Respectfully submitted, ASCE Hydropower Committee
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Edgar T. Moo re, P.E.
Hydropower Committee Chairman 1989
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ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 I

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ASCE ENERGY DIVISION EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE CONTACT MEMBERS
Donald Matchett, P.E., Stone & Webster Engineering Corp., Denver, Colorado
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' Philip M. Botch, P.E., P.M. Botch and Associates, Bellevue, Washington
ASCE CONTROL GROUP MEMBERS, 1984-1988
Arvids Zagars, P.E., Chairman, ASCE Hydropower Development Committee, Harza Engineering Co., Chicago,
Illinois
R.A. Corso, P.E., Federal Energy Regulatory Committee, Washington, D.C.
Garith Grinnell, P.E., Stone and Webster Engineering Co., Denver, Colorado
Edgar Moore, P.E., Harza Engineering Co., Chicago, Illinois
Sydney Steinbom, P.E., Steinbom Associates, Seattle, Washington
EPRI PROGRAM MANAGER
Douglas I. Morris, EPRl, Palo Alto, California
EDITOR AND TECHNICAL COORDINATOR
Thomas H. Logan, P.E., Consultant, 1310 Wadsworth Blvd., Suite 100, Lakewood, Colorado 80215
( PUBLISHING COORDINATOR
)
Joe Carriero, P.E., Consultant, 2240 Harlan Street, Denver, Colorado 80214
TYPESETTERS
John Cruise and A. Celeste Velasquez, 330 East lOth Avenue, #810, Denver, Colorado 80203
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CONVENTIONAL HYDRO POWER SUBCOMMITTEE MEMBERS
Thomas H. Logan, Chainnan, Consultant, Lakewood, Colorado

Divyendu Narayan, Vice Chainnan, New York Power Authority, White Plains, New York
Thomas Ahl, Chicago Bridge and Iron, Na-Con, Oak Brook, Illinois
Bruce Ainsworth, Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri
Robert Auerbach, Consultant, Lakewood, Colorado
George L. Buchanan, Hydro Engineering Projects, TVA, Knoxville, Tennessee
Kin Chung, Gilbert Commonwealth, Jackson, Michigan
Brian W. Cl owes, Corps of Engineers, Portland, Oregon
James Conwell, Bureau of Reclamation, Sacramento, California
Luther Davidson, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado
Jerry Dodd, Consultant, Englewood, Colorado
Shou-shan Fan, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Gaithersburg, Maryland
Nolan J. Folden, Corps of Engineers, Portland, Oregon
John Gulliver, St. Anthony Falls, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Peter Ludewig, New York Power Authority, New York, New York
Richard Mittelstadt, Corps of Engineers, Portland, Oregon
Edgar Moore, Harza Engineering Co., Chicago, Illinois
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Bruce M oyes, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado
Lucien J. Mroczkiewicz, Corps of Engineers, Portland, Oregon
Clifford A. Pugh, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado
Paul M. Ruchti, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado
Janis Straubergs, Ebasco Services, Inc., Bellevue, Washington
Richard D. Stutsman, Pacific, Gas & Electric Co., San Francisco, California
Arvids Zagars, Harza Engineering Co., Chicago, Illinois
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ORGANIZATIONS THAT PROVIDED CONTINUOUS SUPPORT FOR
COMMITTEE MEMBER PARTICIPATION IN PREPARATION OF THE GUIDELINES
\:,···· Harza Engineering Company (Support for all administrative activities of the Committee Chairman)
Chicago Bridge and Iron Company
Dames and Moore
Electric Power Research Institute
Gebhard Engineers
Mead and Hunt, Inc.
New York Power Authority
Northeast Utilities Service Company
Pacific Gas and Electric Company
Steinbom Associates
Stone and Webster Engineering
Bureau of Reclamation
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Tennessee Valley Authority
Ott Water Engineers
OTHER PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS
R.W. Beck
Black and Veatch
Duke Power Company
t Ebasco Services, Inc.
)· Gilbert Commonwealth
Richard Hunt and Associates
Southern Company Services
The SNC Group
Ray Toney and Associates
University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
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CIVIL ENGINEERING GUIDELINES FOR
PLANNING AND DESIGNING HYDROELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS
VOLUME 1. PLANNING, DESIGN OF DAMS AND VOLUME 4. SMALL-SCALE HYDRO

RELATED TOPICS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
DIVISION I. PLANNING
CONVENTIONAL HYDRO Chapter I. Small*Scale Hydropower Perspectives
DIVISION I. PLANNING Chapter 2. Development of Level and Scope of Study Plan
O!apter 1. Development of the Study Plan Chapter 3. Site Evaluation
Cliapter2. Load-Resource Analysis Chapter 4. Hydrologic Data
Chapter·3. Hydrologic and Geologic Studies Chapter 5. Estimating Plant Capacity and Power Output
Chapter 4. Estimating Power Potential Chapter 6. Power System Use and Connection Requirements
Chapter 5. Power Plant Sizing Chapter 7. Operation and Maintenance
Chapter 6. Power Plant Cost Estimates Chapter 8. Environmental Issues
Chapter 7. Economic Evaluation of Hydropower Projects Chapter 9. Institutional Issues
Otapter 8. Environmental hnpacts and Pertinent Legislation Chapter 10. Project Schedule
Chapter 9. Glossary ofHydropower Planning Tenns Chapter 11. Cost Estimates
DIVISION II. DESIGN Chapter-12. Economic Analysis
PART A. DAMS AND RELATED TOPICS DIVISION II. DESIGN
Chapter 1. Dams Chapter 1. Storage, Diversion,- and Appurtenant Structures
Chapter 2. Spillways Chapter 2. Watenvays
Chapter 3. Outlets Chapter 3. Power Plants
*Chapter 4. Diversions Chapter 4. Substation and Transmission Lines
Chapter 5. ReseiVoirs DIVISION Ill. CONSTRUCTION
Chapter 6. Geologic Investigations *Chapter 1. Construction Contracts
PARTD. ENVIRONMENTAL Chapter 2. Acceptance Tests
Chapter I. Environmental Issues and Mitigative Approaches
VOLUME 5. PUMPED STORAGE

VOLUME2. WATERWAYS AND TIDAL POWER
CONVENTIONAL HYDRO PUMPED STORAGE
DIVISION II. DESIGN DIVISION I. PLANNING
PARTB. WATERWAYS Chapter 1. General Concepts
Chapter 1. Intakes Chapter 2. Environmental Issues and Public Acceptance
Chapter 2. Power Canals and Tailraces Chapter 3. Planning
Chapter 3. Tunnels and Shafts DIVISION II. DESIGN
Chapter 4. Penstock:s PART A. RESERVOIRS
O:iapter 5. Steady Flow in Oosed Conduits Chapter I. ReseiVoirs
Chapter 6. Transients and Surge Tanks PART B. WATERWAYS
Chapter 7. Hydraulic Models Chapter I. Intakes and Outlets
Chapter 8. Gates and Valves *Chapter 2: Twmels, Shafts, and Penstocks
"'Chapter 3. Hydraulics
Chapter 4. Transients
PART C. POWERHOUSES AND RELATED TOPICS
VOLUME 3. POWERHOUSES AND Chapter 1. Powerhouses
RELATED TOPICS Chapter 2. Pump{furbines and Plant Operation
DIVISION Ill. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
CONVENTIONAL HYDRO Chapter 1. Operation and Maintenance
DIVISION II. DESIGN
PART C. POWERHOUSES AND RELATED TOPICS TIDAL POWER
Chapter 1. Powerhouses- Surface and Underground Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Hydraulic Turbines and Related Topics Chapter 2. Basics of Tidal Power
Chapter 3. Electrical Engineering Chapter3. Preliminary Design Considerations
Chapter 4. Transmission Lines and Switchyards Chapter 4. Construction Considerations
Chapter 5. Project Description
Chapter 6. Significant Tidal Ranges
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*Not included in 1989 edition.
NOTICE TO READERS OF THE GUIDELINES
The Hydropower Committee of the Energy Engineering Division of ASCE has prepared these Guidelines
in a format that allows easy revision and updating. It is the intention of the committee to provide a revi-
sion, in January 1991. The cost of this revision will be that of reproduction and mailing.
If you wish to make corrections or additions, or wish to receive the 1991 revision, please fill out the form
below and return it to:
ASCE EY-DIVISION, HYDROPOWER COMMITTEE

Attention: E.T. Moore, Jr.
Room 1700
150 South Wacker Drive
Chicago, Illinois 60606
0 I wish to receive the 1991 revision to the Guidelines.
Name --------------------------------------------
Company ------------------------------------------
Mailing Address: Street-------------------------------
City - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
State -,------,----,-------Zip ________
Tel: ---'-(------'-)_____________________
0 My comments, corrections, or additions are attached.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
\c. ac Alternating current (adj. & noun) H Head

A Ampere Hz Hertz
Ah Ampere hour hp Horsepower
et al. And others h Hour
app. Appendix Hydro Hydroelectric power
avg. Average pH Hydrogen-ion concentration
AVR Automatic voltage regulator
in Inch
bbl Barrel IDF Inflow design flood
B/C Benefit-cost ratio i.d. Inside diameter
BEP Best efficiency point
J Joule
cal Calorie
Ca Cauchy number kV Kilovolt
cm Centimeter kVA Kilovolt-ampere
eh. Chapter kW Kilowatt
ft3Jmin Cubic foot per minute (also cfin) kWh Kilowatt-hour
ft3Js Cubic foot per second (also cfs)
CH Conventional hydro L Liter
oc Degree Celsius max. Maximum

op Degree Fahrenheit M.H.W.L. Maximum high water level
de Direct current (adj. & noun) M.W.S. Maximum water surface
D.O. Dissolved oxygen MW Megawatt
DQB~- Dynamic operating benefit MWh Megawatt-hour
dyn Dyne m Meter
MgaVd Million gallons per day
ed. Edition mi Mile
EL Elevation (SI) mi/h Mile per hour (also m ph)
El. Elevation (in-lb) min. Minimum
Eu Euler number min Minute (time)
F.S. Factor of safety NPSH Net positive suction head

fig. Figure N Newton
Q Flow No. Number
ft Foot # Number (for reinforcing bar sizes)
ft-lb Foot-pound
e.g. For example n Ohm
Fr Froude number O&M Operation and maintenance
oz Ounce (avoirdupois)
gal Gallon o.d. Outside diameter
g Gram
g Gravitational constant p. Page
pp. Pages
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AS-!
ppm Parts per million ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
% Percent ASTM American Society for Testing and
PVC Polyvinal chloride Materials (
lb Pound ASME American Society of Mechanical '
lbf Pound-force Engineers

p Power AWWA American Water Works Association
PH Powerhouse ANL Argonne National Laboratories
PRY Pressure reducing value BPA Bonneville Power Authority
PMF Probable maximum flood BLM Bureau of Land Management
PMP Probable maximum precipitation BOM Bureau of Mines
PS Pumped storage USBR Bureau of Reclamation (Water and
PSP Pumped storage plant Power Resources Service)
PSPH Pumped storage powerhouse DOE Department of Energy
USDI Department of the Interior
Re Reynolds number EEl Edison Electric Institute
rpm Revolution per minute (also rev/min) EPA Environmental Protection Agency
rps Revolution per second (also rev/s) EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory
s Second (time) Commission
SSR Sequential streamflow routing HEC Hydrologic Engineering Center
sp. gr.. Specific gravity I COLD International Congress on Large Dams y
Ns Specific speed (turbine) IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic
1J System efficiency Engineers
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
i.e. That is NWS National Weather Service (
kip Thousand pounds NERC North American Electric Reliability
T.B.M. Turning bench mark Council
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
UGPH Underground powerhouse PVC Public Utility Commission (state)
PURPA Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act
vs. Versus REA Rural Electrification Association
vert. Vertical scs Soil Conservation Service
V Volt TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
VA Volt ampere COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
US COLD U .S. Congress on Large Dams
w Watt FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
We Weber number
wt Weight
a Year(SI)
yr Year (inJlb)
AS-2
MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS
ACCELERATION
Unit ftfs2 rnfs2
1 Foot per second squared (ft!s2) 1 0.3048

1 Meter per second squarelfCIIl/s~t_ 3.2808-1
- ------··-- ______ _} 1
AREA
Unit ft2 m2 ha Acre mi2
1 Square foot (ft2) 1 0.0929 9.2903xi0-6 2.2956x I0-5 3.587xi0-8

1 Square meter (m3) 10.7639 1 1xi0-4 2.4711x1o-5 3.8610x1Q·7
1 Hectare (ha) 1.0764x105 10,000 1 2.4711 3.8610x10-3
1 Acre 43,560 4046.85 0.4047 1 1.5625xlQ-3
1 Square mile (mi2) 2.7878xl07 2.5900xl06 259 640 1
ENERGY
Unit J ft-lb Btu kcal hph kWh
1 Joule (J) 1 0.7376 9.481x10-4 2.389x10-4 3.725xi0·7 2.778xi0-7

1 Foot-pound (ft-1b) 1.356 1 1.285x1o-3 3.239x10-4 5.051x1Q·7 3.766x10·7
J
1 British thermal unit (Btu) 1,055 777.9 1 0.252 3.929x10-4 2.930x1Q-4
1 Kilocalorie (kcal) 4,086 3,087 3.968 1 1.559x1Q-3 1.163xl0·3
1 Horsepower-hour (bph) 2.685x106 1.980xl06 2,545 641.4 1 0.7457
1 Kilowatt-hour (kWh) 3.6x!06 2.655x!06 3,413 860.1 1.341 1
FORCE
Unit dyn N lbf kgf kip
1 Dyne (dyn) 1 l.OxlQ-5 2.248x1Q-6 1.020x1Q·6 2.248x1Q·IO

1 Newton(N) 100,000 1 0.2248 0.1020 2.248x10-4
1 Pound (lbf) 444,800 4.448 1 0.04536 0.001
1 Kilogram (kgf) 980,700 9.807 2.205 1 2.205X!0-3
1 Kip 4.448xl09 4,448 1,000 453.5 1
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MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS- Continued
Unit in ft
LENGTH
m km mi
c
1 Inch (in) 1 0.0833 0.0254 2.540x10·5 1.5782xl0-5
1 Foot (ft) 12 I 0.3048 3.048xl0-4 1.8939xl0-4
I Meter(m) 39.3710 3.2808 I 0.001 6.2136xl0-4
I Kilometer (km) 39,370 3,280.84 1,000 1 0.6212
1 Mile (mi) 63,360 5,280 1,609.36 1.6093 1
MASS
Unit lb kg Metric slug Slug Metric ton Long ton
1 Pound Ob) I 0.4536 0.0462 0.0311 4.536xi0-4 446.4xi0-4

I Kilogram (kg) 2.205 I 0.1020 0.0685 0.001 9.842xl0-4
1 Metric slug 21.62 9.807 I 0.6721 0.0098 0.0096
I Slug 32.17 14.59 1.490 1 0.0146 0.0144
1 Metric ton 2,205 1,000 102.0 68.52 1 0.9842
1 Long ton 2,240 1,016 103.7 69.63 1.016 1
POWER (Rate of Energy Flow) (

Unit Btu/h ft-Ib/s hp kW
I Btu/hour (Btu/h) 1 0.2161 3.929xi0-4 2.920x10-4

1 Foot-pound/second (ft-lb/s)4.628 I 1.818xl0-3 1.356.10-4
I Horsepower (hp) 2,545 550 I 0.7457
1 Kilowatt (kW) 3,413 737.6 1.341 1
I Watt= I J/s.
1 kW is generated by 11.81 ft3fs of water falling I foot (at 100% efficiency) or by 0.102 m3fs falling
I meter (at 100% efficiency).
PRESSURE
Unit Pa H 20ft Hgin lb/in2 atm
1 Pascal (Pa) 1 3.3456xl0-4 2.9533xJ0-4 1.4504xi0-4 9.8692x10-6

1 Foot of water @39.4 °F (H20 ft) 2,989 I 0.88275 0.43352 0.0295
I Inch of Mercury (Hg in) 3,386 1.13282 1 0.4911 0.03342
1 Pound per square inch Obfin2) 6,894.757 2.30671 2.03625 1 0.068046
1 Atmosphere (atm) 101,325 33.89945 29.92471 14.69595 1 )
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1 Pa = 1 Nfm2 = 10 dyne/cm2.
M-2
MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS -Continued
RATEOFFLOW
\ ..
Unit gal/min ft3fs Mgal/d m3fs
1 U.S. gallon per minute (gal/min) 1 0.00223 0.00144 6.3lxJ0-5

1 Cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 448.8 1 0.6463 0.02832
1 Million U.S. gallons per day (M gal/d) 694.4 1.547 1 0.0438
1 Cubic meter per second (m3/s) 15,850 35.31 22.82 1
1 U.S. gallon per minute for 1 year= 1.614 acre-ft.

1 ft3fs = 1.98 acre-ft/d = 724 acre-ft/yr.
TEMPERATURE
Unit OF oc K OR
x degrees Fahrenheit (0 F) X (5/9)(x- 32) (Sjg)(x + 459 .67) X+ 459.67

x degrees Celsius (0 C) (9fs)x + 32 X X+ 273.15 (9!5)x + 491.67
\
.j x Kelvins (K) (9/s)x-459.67 x-273.15 X (9/s)x
x degrees Rankine (0 R) x-459.67 (5J9)(x- 491.67) C5!9)x X
*TURBINE SPECIFIC SPEED (N8 )
N 8 (U.S.) N 8 (Metric hp) N 8 (kW)
N8 (U.S. customary units) 1 0.225 0.263

N8 (Metric hp units) 4.45 1 1.16
N8 (kilowatt units) 3.81 0.86 1
1 Metric horsepower= 75 kg-m/s

. . nJ>l/2
N 8 = Turbme spec1fic speed= Jl5!
4
-~- ~-"'""'-'''~·~~-'~"''m"•'~~--•'o-~·--""'"'"'~~•~o-.,<~....-.,.,.,..,,...,-=-..,..,~
where:
n = rotationalspeed, in rpm,
r = po:w~roi.it:Put and ofrurbine,
fl ·~ hydraulic head on turbine.
,~,,~,..,-"""•""'-~'-'''"-.-~--n-o••-• -~- ,,,..,......_,..,___,"""'"'"'--,=-'"""'""""""""'"'-0""-"''''--'•
* Specific speed is a fundamental concept used in correlating turbine characteristics. It now appears in
many different forms, though current efforts are directed toward a unified system of units (dimensionless
form). In Chapter 2, "Hydraulic Turbines and Related Topics" (Conventional, Division II, Part C), the
various formulations and conversion factors are addressed.
M-3
MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS- Continued
VELOCITY
Unit ft/d km!h ft/s mi/h m/s
1 Foot per day (ft/d) 1 I.27x10-5 1.157xi0-5 7.89lx10-6 3.528xi0-6

1 Kilometer per hour (km/h) 78.740 1 0.9113 0.6214 0.2778
1 Foot per second (ft/s) 86.400 1.097 1 0.6818 0.3048
1 Mile per hour (mi/h) 126.700 1.609 1.467 1 0.447
1 Meter per second (m/s) 283,500 3.600 3.281 2.237 1
VOLUME
Unit L gal ft3 m3 acre-ft
1 Liter (L) 1 0.264 0.035 0.001 8.llxi0-7

1 U.S. gallon (gal) 3.785 1 0.134 0.00379 3.07x10-6
1 Cubic foot (ft3) 28.317 7.48 1 0.02832 2.30xi0-5
1 Cubic meter (m3) 1000 264 35.315 1 8.1lxJ04
1 Acre-ft (acre-ft) 1,233,500 325,851 43,560 1,233.48 1
1 U.S. gallon= 231 in3 = 0.83 Imperial gallons.

1 L = 1,000 cm3 = 1.05 quarts = 1,000 grams of water.
1 Barrel= 42 U.S. gallons. (
1 ft3 of water= 62.4 lb.
SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS
Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 1Q18 ex a E
1 ,000,000,000,000,000 = J015 peta p
' .. -····,
1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 T
1,000,000,000 = 1Q9 ~~~:! G
1,000,000 = 1Q6 /mega-\: M
1,000 = 103 (kilo . r k
100 = 1Q2 'hecto h
10 = 101 deka da
0.1 = I0-1 deci d
0.01 = 10-2 centi c
0.001 = 10-3 milli m
0.000,001
0.000,000,001
= lQ-6
= 10-9
Cffiic_f~J
nano
f!
n
0.000,000,000,001 = 10-12 pico p
0.000,000,000,000,001
0.000,000,000000,000,001
= 10-15 femto
= 10-18 \-"-at:fc>'l
~--·
f
a
c
M--4
10
CONVENTIONAL HYDRO GUIDELINES

VOLUME 3. POWERHOUSES AND RELATED TOPICS
CONTENTS
DIVISION 11. DESIGN
PART C. POWERHOUSES AND RELATED TOPICS
Chapter 1. Powerhouses -Surface and Underground

A. Introduction
B. Powerhouse types
C. Powerhouse (turbine) setting
D. Powerhouse monolith sizing
E. Surface powerhouse substructure
F. Superstructure
G. Interior space requirements
H. Underground powerbouses
I. References
Chapter 2. Hydraulic Turbines and Related Thpics
Chapter 3. Electrical Engineering
A. General
B. Planning
C. Design
D. Construction
E. Electrical fundamentals
F. .Electric machines
G. Bibliography
Chapter 4. Transmission Lines and Switchyards
A. Transmission lines
B. Switchyards and substations
C. References
" .-.- -. ,.t .-. -

(
(
11
CHAPTER 1. POWERHOUSES- SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND
CONTENTS
\.
Section Page
A Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1-1

1. Conceptual studies .................................................................................................................................. 1-1
B. Powerhouse types ...................................................................................................................................... 1-2
1. Powerhouse type descriptions ................................................................................................................. 1-2
a. Type A, subtype 1: integral intake, indoor powerhouses .................................................................. .1-2
b. Type A, subtype 2: integral intake, semi-indoor powerhouses ........................................................... 1-9
c. Type A, subtype 3: pier powerhouses ............................................................................................... 1-10
~Type A, subtype 4: horizontal unit powerhouses .............................................................................. l-13
e. Type A, subtype 5: surface powerhouses at dams ............................................................................ 1-17
f. Type A, subtype 6: detached surface powerhouses .......................................................................... .1-26
g. Type B, subtype 1: underground pit powerhouses ............................................................................ l-33
h. Type B, subtype 2: underground cavern powerhouses ..................................................................... 1-35
2. Powerhouse type selection ................................................................................................................... 1-41
a. Powerhouse type related to conduit length, head developed, and proximity to the dam .................. l-41
b. Powerhouse type affected by topographic constraints ..................................................................... 1-41
c. Geologic constraints ......................................................................................................................... 1-42
d. Constraints dictated by high tailwaters ............................................................................................. l-42
e. Selection of underground concepts .................................................................................................. 1-42
f. Selection of pit type concepts ........................................................................................................... 1-43
g. Climatic constraints ......................................................................................................................... 1-44
h. Other constraints ............................................................................................................................... 1-44
C. Powerhouse (turbine) setting .................................................................................................................... 1-45
1. Vertical axis units .................................................................................................................................. 1-45
2. Horizontal (bulb) axis units ................................................................................................................... 1-47
3. Underground powerhouse units ........................................................................................................... 1-47
D. Powerhouse monolith sizing ..................................................................................................................... l-49
1. Powerhouse unit monolith, sub-bays- definitions ............................................................................. 1-49
2. Powerhouse sub-bay functions .............................................................................................................. l-50
a. Intake (integral with powerhouse) .................................................................................................... 1-50
b. Upstream service bay ........................................................................................................................ l-50
c. Generating bay and erection bay ....................................................................................................... 1-51
d. Downstream service bay ................................................................................................................... 1-51
e. Draft tube piers, draft tube deck ........................................................................................................ l-51
3. Powerhouse unit monolith size ............................................................................................................. 1-52
a. Unit monolith width- genera1 ........................................................................................................ 1-52
b. Unit monolith width detennination .................................................................................................. 1-53
c. Unit monolith length ......................................................................................................................... 1-56
d. Generating bay width detennination ................................................................................................. 1-56
e. Generating bay height detennination ................................................................................................ l-59
4. Erection bay size ................................................................................................................................... 1-60
C a. Unloading area .................................................................................................................................. 1-60
b. Temporary erection sheds, unloading areas .................................................................................... .1-62
.·.I
CONTENTS- Continued
Section Page
5. Integral intake geometry (low-head plants) .......................................................................................... 1-62

a. Permissible velocities ....................................................................................................................... 1-62
b. Inlet geometry .................................................................................................................................. 1-62
E. Surface powerhouse substructure .............................................................................................................. l-64
1. Powerhouses on soft foundations .......................................................................................................... l-65
a. General .............................................................................................................................................. 1-65
b. Intake and draft tube foundation slab .............................................................................................. .1-65
2. Powerhouses on competent rock foundations ....................................................................................... 1-65
a. Intake foundation slabs ..................................................................................................................... 1-65
b. Draft tube elbow encasement... ......................................................................................................... l-65
c. Unwatering pipe embedment ............................................................................................................ 1-66
d. Draft tube foundation slab ................................................................................................................ 1-66
3. Foundation slab outlines ...................................................................................................................... 1-67
a. Grouting and drainage galleries ........................................................................................................ 1-68
4. Walls and piers of integral intakes and draft tubes ................................................................................ l-68
a. Integral intake walls and piers .......................................................................................................... 1-69
b. Intermediate pier downstream nose location ................................................................................... 1-69
c. Draft tube outline- walls and piers ................................................................................................ 1-78
5. Semi-spirai case .................................................................................................................................... 1-78
a. Semi-spiral case roof......................................................................................................................... l-79
6. Steel spiral case ..................................................................................................................................... l-80 (
a. Concrete cover over the spiral case .................................................................................................. .l-81
7. Draft tube roof ....................................................................................................................................... l-81
8. Downstream headwall ........................................................................................................................... l-82
9. Draft tube deck ..................................................................................................................................... 1-84
a. Function ............................................................................................................................................ 1-84
b. Thickness .......................................................................................................................................... 1-84
F. Superstructure ............................................................................................................................................ l-86
1. General .................................................................................................................................................. l-86
2. Generator barrel ................................................................................................................................... 1-86
a. Generator barrel outlines ................................................................................................................... l-86
b. Access provisions in generator barrel ............................................................................................... 1-86
3. Generator floor ...................................................................................................................................... 1-88
4. Other interior floors ............................................................................................................................... 1-89
5. Generating bay walls ............................................................................................................................. 1-89
a. Upstream wall of generating bay ...................................................................................................... 1-89
b. Downstream wall of generating bay ................................................................................................. 1-91
c. End walls ........................................................................................................................................... 1-92
d. Wall type construction ...................................................................................................................... 1-92
6. Superstructure roofs ......... :.................................................................................................................. 1-101
a. General ............................................................................................................................................ 1-101
b. Roofs for indoor powerhouses ........................................................................................................ 1-101
G. Interior space requirements .................................................................................................................... 1-104 C. ..
1. General ................................................................................................................................................ l-104
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 ii

12.
CONTENTS - Continued
Section Page
2. Unit.service equipment and provisions ............................................................................................... l-105

3. Station service equipment and provisions ......................................................................................... .1-106
4. Sizes of individual equipment rooms .................................................................................................. 1-107
H. Underground powerhouses ...................................................................................................................... l-109
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... l-109
2. Ge.nerallocation .................................................................................................................................. l-109
a. Upstream (Swedish concept) ................................................. ,........................................................ 1-109
b. Intennediate location ...................................................................................................................... 1-109
c. Downstream location ...................................................................................................................... 1-109
3. UGPH advantages ............................................................................................................................... 1-111
4. UGPH disadvantages .......................................................................................................................... 1-112
5. Types ofUGPHs ................................................................................................................................. 1-113
6. Pit powerhouses .................................................................................................................................. 1-113
a. General discussion .......................................................................................................................... 1-113
b. Applicable head ranges, location, connection to water conduits .................................................... 1-114
c. Pit geometry considerations ............................................................................................................ 1-116
d. Turbine setting ................................................................................................................................ 1-117
e. Unitbaysizing ................................................................................................................................ 1-117
f. Substructure outline ......................................................................................................................... 1-118
g. Superstructure arrangement ............................................................................................................ 1-119
h. Pit powerhouse erection bay ........................................................................................................... 1-122
i. Other underground aspects .............................................................................................................. 1-124
7. Cavern powerhouses ........................................................................................................................... 1-124
a. General ............................................................................................................................................ 1-124
b. Primary considerations for location and orientation ....................................................................... 1-125
c. Underground features ...................................................................................................................... l-125
d. Appurtenant underground features ................................................................................................. 1-126
e. Caverns for powerhouses ................................................................................................................ 1-155
I. References ............................................................................................................................................... 1-207
TABLES
Table
1-1 Crane clearance data ............................................................................................................................. 1-94

1-2 Minimum wall thicknesses for major plants ....................................................................................... l-101
1-3 Room sizes for three power plants ...................................................................................................... l-107
1-4 Underground powerhouses with caverns 21 meters or wider ............................................................. 1-158
1-5 Comparison of stresses for various projects ....................................................................................... 1-188
1-6 Modulus of deformation for rock types .............................................................................................. 1-190
1-7 Comparison of modulus of defonnation for selected projects ............................................................ 1-192
iii ASCE/EPRl Guides 1989

FIGURES
Figure Page
1-1 LG 1, La Grande, James Bay, Canada ..................................................................................................... 1-3

1-2 Jochenstein, Danube, Austria .................................................................................................................. 1-4
1-3 Wanapum, Columbia R. Washington ...................................................................................................... l-4
1-4 Sam Rayburn, Angelina, Texas ............................................................................................................... l-5
1-5 Iron Gate, Danube, Rumania/Yugoslavia ............................................................................................... 1-5
1-6 John Day Dam, Columbia, Washington/Oregon ..................................................................................... l-6
1-7 Gezhouba, Changjiang, P.R. China ......................................................................................................... l-6
1-8 Dnestr, Dnestr River, U.S.S.R. ................................................................................................................ l-7
1-9 Volga 22nd CPSU Congress, Volga, U.S.S.R. ........................................................................................ 1-7
1-10 Plavinas, Daugara, Latvia ....................................................................................................................... 1-8
1-11 Box Canyon, Pend Oreille, Washington ................................................................................................. l-8
1-12 Simbach-Braunau, hm, W. Gennany ..................................................................................................... 1-9
1-13 Baygorria, Rio Negro, Uruguay .............................................................................................................. l-9
1-14 Sounders-Moses, St. Lawrence, United States/Canada ....................................................................... 1-10
1-15 Lavamiind, Drau, Austria ...................................................................................................................... l-11
1-16 Wells, Columbia, Washington ............................................................................................................... l-12
1-17 Rock Island, Columbia, Washington .................................................................................................... 1-13
1-18 Maio Canal, South Columbia Basin Irrigation District, Washington ................................................... 1-14
1-19 Sauveierre/Avignon, Rhone, France ..................................................................................................... 1-14 (
1-20 Paldang, Han, S. Korea ......................................................................................................................... l-15
1-21 Kiev, U.S.S.R. ....................................................................................................................................... l-15
1-22 LaRance Tidal Power Plant, France ...................................................................................................... l-16
1-23 Comparison of civil features for Francis, Kaplan, and straight-flow units .......................................... .l-16
1-24 Guri, Caroni, Venezuela ........................................................................................................................ l-17
1-25 Ilha-Solteira, Parana, Brazil ................................................................................................................. l-18
1-26 Itaipu, Parana, Brazil ............................................................................................................................ l-19
1-27 Norris Dam, Clioch, Tennessee ............................................................................................................ 1-19
1-28 Libby Dam, Kootenai, Montana ........................................................................................................... l-20
1-29 Agua Vennelha, Grande, Brazil ............................................................................................................ l-20
1-30 Dworshak, Oearwater, Idaho ............................................................................................................... 1-21
1-31 Funil, Paraiba du Sol, Brazil ................................................................................................................. l-22
1-32 Xingo, Sao Francisco, Brazil ................................................................................................................ 1-23
1-33 Monteynard, Drac, France .................................................................................................................... 1-24
1-34 Hartwell, Savannah, Georgia ................................................................................................................ 1-24
1-35 Chirkey, Sulak, U.S.S.R ........................................................................................................................ l-25
1-36 Grand Coulee HI, Columbia, Washington ............................................................................................ 1-26
1-37 Robert Moses, Niagara, New York ....................................................................................................... l-26
1-38 Hoover Dam, Colorado R., Arizona/Nevada ................... :.................................................................... l-27
1-39 Chief Joseph, Columbia, Washington ................................................................................................... 1-28
1-40 Mossyrock, Cowlitz, Washington ......................................................................................................... l-28
1-41 Karun, Karun R., Iran ........................................................................................................................... 1-29 (. ·
1-42 Krasnoyarsk, Yenisey, U.S.S.R ............................................................................................................. 1-30
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 iv

13
Figure Page
1-43 High Aswan Dam powerhouse, Nile, Egypt... ...................................................................................... 1-30

1-44 LG3, LaGrande, James Bay, Canada .................................................................................................... 1-31
1-45 Rio Lindo, Lindo, Honduras ................................................................................................................. 1-31
1-46 Marimbondo, Rio Grande, Brazil ......................................................................................................... 1-32
1-47 Uribante-San Agaton, Agaton, Venezuela ........................................................................................... 1-32
1-48 Swedish pit powerhouse ....................................................................................................................... 1-33
1-49 U.S.S.R. study ....................................................................................................................................... 1-34
1-50 Partial pit powerhouse .......................................................................................................................... 1-34
1-51 Boundary, Pend Oreille, Washington .................................................................................................... l-35
1-52 Stomorrfors, Ume, Sweden .................................................................................................................. 1-36
1-53 Churchill Falls, Churchill, Canada ....................................................................................................... 1-36
1-54 Nathpa Jhakri, Sutlej, India ................................................................................................................... l-37
1-55 Rogun, Vakhsh, U.S.S.R. ...................................................................................................................... 1-37
1-56 Ambuklao, Agno, Philippines ............................................................................................................... l-38
1-57 Bersimis No. 1, Bersimis, Quebec, Canada .......................................................................................... l-38
1-58 Tamut II, Tumut, Australia ................................................................................................................... 1-39
1-59 Montpezat, Loire/Rhone, France .......................................................................................................... 1-39
1-60 Cabora Bassa, Zambezi, Mozambique ................................................................................................. 1-40
1-61 Recommended total draft liead ............................................................................................................. 1-46
1-62 Horizontal turbine runner setting .......................................................................................................... 1-48
1-63 Powerhouse monolith sub-bays ............................................................................................................ 1-49
1-64 Draft tube intermediate pier thickness .................................................................................................. 1-52
1-65 Spiral case embediment ........................................................................................................................ 1-53
1-66 Water passage and generator outlines superimposed to determine monolith width ............................. 1-54
1-67 Semi-spiral case and draft tube setting in monolith ............................ ;................................................. l-55
1-68 Undesirable monolith outline ................................................................................................................ l-55
1-69 Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in substructure layout ........................................................................................ 1-58
1-70 Steps 5, 6, and 7 in substructure layout ................................................................................................ 1-59
1-71 Minimum unloading and erection space ............................................................................................... l-61
1-72 Intake pier noses ................................................................................................................................... 1-63
1-73 Staning, Enns, Austria ................................. , ........................................................................................ 1-64
1-74 Pierre-Benite, Rhone, France ............................................................................................................... l-64
1-75 Grouting and drainage gallery location ................................................................................................ 1-68
1-76 Kaplan unit spiral cases ........................................................................................................................ 1-70
1-77 Kaplan unit wheel dimensions .............................................................................................................. l-72
1-78 Kaplan unit draft tube dimensions ...................................................................................................... ,.l-72
1-79 Francis units runner and spiral case outlines ........................................................................................ 1-73
1-80 Francis units draft tube dimensions ...................................................................................................... 1-74
1-81 Draft tube dhnensions ........................................................................................................................... l-76
1-82 Pelton unit casing dimensions ................................................................................................................ 1-77
1-83 Pelton unit spiral case dimensions ........................................................................................................ 1-77
\ 1-84 Semi-spiral case roof support ............................................................................................................... 1-80
1.__.: 1-85 Generating and downstream service bays ............................................................................................. 1-82
1-86 Downstream service bay wall ............................................................................................................... 1-83
V ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

Figure Page
1-87 Draft tube deck framing .................................................................................................................... l-84

1-88 Generator barrel arrangement ........................................................................................................... l-88
1-89 Headwall support .............................................................................................................................. l-90
1-90 Headwall-semi -spiral case and roof joint ........................................................................................ 1-91
1-91 Hrauneyafoss powerhouse, Iceland .................................................................................................. 1-93
1-92 Grand Coulee Third Powerhouse ..................................................................................................... 1-95
1-93 Angat, Philippines, auxiliary powerhouse ........................................................................................ l-96
1-94 Finchaa powerhouse, Ethiopia.......................................................................................................... l-98
1-95 Mossyrock, Cowlitz, Washington ......................................................... c••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• l-99
1-96 Kinzua pumped storage powerhouse (conventional unit), Allegheny, Pennsylvania .................... 1-100
1-97 Roof design with prestressed concrete guiders and cast-in-place slab, Bath County .................... 1-104
1-98 Roof guider wall seat detail ............................................................................................................ l-104
1-99 Underground powerhouse locations ............................................................................................... 1-111
1-100 Pit powerhouse with tailrace tunnel bypassing rapids .................................................................... l-115
1-101 Pit powerhouse with tailrace tunnel short-cutting a loop in the stream .......................................... l-115
1-102 Pit excavation geometry ................................................................................................................. 1-116
1-103 Showing minimum excavation outline for substructure ................................................................. l-119
1-104 Principal elements in pit powerhouse exterior rock walls .............................................................. l-120
1-105 Pit walls lined with concrete ...............................................................: ........................................... l-121
1-106 Pit wall stability requirements ........................................................................................................ l-122
1-107 Angat (Philippines) original design ................................................................................................ 1-123 (
1-108 V!lyui, Vilyui River, U.S.S.R. ........................................................................................................ 1-123
1-109 Pit powerhouse erection and unloading bays ................................................................................. 1-124
1-110 Cabora Bassa Powerplant, Zambezi River, Mozambique .............................................................. 1-126
1-111 Mica underground powerhouse, Columbia, Canada ...................................................................... 1-127
1-112 LG2 underground power plant arrangement, James Bay, Canada ................................................. 1-128
1-113 James Bay LG2 underground powerhouse complex ...................................................................... 1-129
1-114 Cabora Bassa underground powerhouse, Zambezi, Mozambique ................................................. 1-129
1-115 Churchill Falls powerhouse, Churchill, Quebec, Canada ............................................................... l-131
1-116 Katue powerhouse, Katile River, Zambia ....................................................................................... l-132
1-117 Mica powerhouse, Columbia River, British Columbia, Canada .................................................... 1-133
1-118 Guatape powerhouse, Columbia ..................................................................................................... l-134
1-119 Alternative transformer locations ................................................................................................... 1-135
1-120 TUnnel 2, Australia, underground powerhouse arrangement... ....................................................... l-136
1-121 Cross sections of a bus-bar gallery ................................................................................................. 1-136
1~122 Agus IV, Agus, Philippines ............................................................................................................ 1-138
1-123 Revin pumped storage powerhouse, France ................................................................................... 1-138
1-124 Access tunnel cross section, Bear Swamp pumped storage plant ................................................. .1-140 ' I
1-125 Elevator arrangement and size ........................................................................................................ l-141
1-126 High-voltage cable shaft ............................................................................................................ :.... l-142
1-127 High-voltage cable shaft combined with elevator shaft ................................................................ .1-142
1-128 Low-voltage bus shafts ................................................................................................................... l-143 )
1-129 Borisoglebsk Project, Paz River, U.S.S.R. ..................................................................................... 1-145
1-130 Pmjus Project (480 MW), Lule, Sweden........................................................................................ 1-146
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 vi

14
Figure Page
\.
1-131 Kiambere powerhouse (140 MW), Tana, Kenya ........................................................................... .l-147
1-132 Kotmule powerhouse (201 MW), Sri Lanka .................................................................................. l-147
1-133 Montezic pumped storage powerhouse, France ............................................................................. 1-148
1-134 Shintoyone pumped storage powerhouse, Japan ............................................................................ l-149
1-135 Draft tube gate pier concept ........................................................................................................... 1-149
1-136 Bersimis Lac Casse draft tube and tailrace tunnel, Bersimis, Quebec ........................................... 1-150
1-137 Concept of modified tailrace tunnel ............................................................................................... 1-154
1-138 Minimum rock cover for caverns ................................................................................................... 1-156
1-139 Strength-stress ratios for different shapes of cavern walls ............................................................ .1-159
1-140 Influence of cavern shape and applied stresses upon maximum boundary stresses ....................... l-160
1-141 Joints between small unit bays ....................................................................................................... 1-162
1-142 James Bay L62 powerhouse cavern with rock ledges for support ................................................. 1-163
1-143 El Cajon, Hunuya, Honduras, 4-91.25 MVA units ........................................................................ l-165
1-144 Kemano, Kernano River, British Columbia, Canada ...................................................................... 1-166
1-145 Northfield Mountain Cavern, New Hampshire, with transformer niches ...................................... 1-167
1-146 Draft tube shape for underground powerhouse draft tubes ............................................................ 1-168
1-147 Churchill Falls cavern excavation .................................................................................................. 1-168
1-148 Auxiliary crane in a pumped storage powerhouse cavern ............................................................. .1-172
1-149 Churchill Falls powerhouse, Quebec -longitudinal section ........................................................ 1-173
1-150 Alternative access tunnel connections to erection bay ................................................................... 1-174
1-151 Kerckhoffpowerhouse, San Joaquin, California ............................................................................ l-175
1-152 Kisenyama powerhouse, Japan ....................................................................................................... 1-178
1-153 Saussaz powerhouse, Arc River, France ........................................................................................ 1-178
1-154 Internal support pressures for caverns ............................................................................................ 1-181
1-155 Waldeck II powerhouse, Germany ................................................................................................. 1-182
1-156 Bolt lengths for caverns .................................................................................................................. 1-183
1-157 Cirata powerhouse cavern, Citarum River, Java, Indonesia ........................................................... 1-184
1-158 Northfield Mountain pumped storage powerhouse cavern, Massachusetts ................................... 1-185
1-159 Vanderkloof powerhouse cavern, South Africa .............................................................................. 1-186
1-160 Churchill Falls underground powerhouse complex ........................................................................ 1-186
1-161 Turlough Hill pumped storage powerhouse cavern, Ireland .......................................................... 1-187
1-162 Modulus reduction ratio correlated withRQD ............................................................................... 1-190
1-163 Relationship between radial deformations, radial stresses, and reduction
in support requirements ............................................................................................................. 1-199
1-164 Rock support zone with confining support system ......................................................................... l-200
1-165 Mohr's circle for determination of shear steps in rock support wne ............................................. 1-201
CREDITS
The "Powerhouses- Surface and Underground" chapter was written by:
Arvids Zagars, P.E.

Vice President and Chief Staff Engineer, Harza Engineering Company
150 S. Wacker Drive
l. Chicago, lllinois 60606-4175
Chairman, ASCE Hydropower Committee
vii ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

(
17
CHAPTER 1. POWERHOUSES- SURFACE

AND UNDERGROUND
A. INTRODUCTION Introduction
The purpose of this part of the Guidelines is to first introduce the reader to the various Purpose
types of powerhouses that have found application in hydroelectric developments.
With this, the intent is to illustrate, for the benefit of an inexperienced designer or the pos- Intent
sibly uninformed owner of a future hydroelectric plant, what kind of powerhouse design
could be well suited for potential hydroelectric sites under consideration. Thus, the intent is
to first present something like a powerhouse type catalogue to expedite the powerhouse
type selection process.
To expedite is the key phrase that describes the purpose of these Guidelines, which have Expedite
been prepared primarily to assist the hydroelectric designers during conceptual studies engineering
when the project design is defmed. efforts
Existing designs represent invaluable experience of the entire profession, which cannot be Experience
gained by a single design organization. By using the overall experience of the profession, of profession/
there is assurance that the designs developed for a new project will be safe and economical Safe and
and will greatly reduce duplicating efforts in the development of a hydroelectric concept. econonomical
designs
Even for the experienced designer the powerhouse type catalogue is expected to enhance
their experience by the illustrated experience of others.
After discussion of the powerhouse types, the presentation deals with the turbine setting, Further
which may influence the selection of the powerhou·se type, such as surface versus under- discussions
ground. Sizing of the powerhouse monoliths for the generating units and erection bay,
which aspect is similar for the most prevalent powerhouse types, follows presentations of
the preceding aspect.
Subsequently, the various components of the surface and underground powerhouses are
discussed in some detail. These presentations are intended to assist the designer to obtain
safe and economical powerhouse design concepts which is the primary purpose of these
design guidelines.
1. Conceptual Studies
To incorporate the powerhouse into an overall project concept, the following powerhouse
information must be developed:
• Number and capacity of generating units

• Monolith size including erection bay
• Powerhouse (turbine) setting with respect to tail water
• Types of powerhouse suitable for the site
l.
)
1-1 ASCE!EPRI Guides 1989
)
For many preliminary studies, such information can be quickly determined on the basis of
similar existing projects. Such information is sufficiently accurate when transferred to the
small-scale topographic maps used for conceptual studies. c.·
Furtber steps of the studies are the following:
• Zero-in on the powerhouse type

• Firm up setting with respect to tailwater
• Develop powerhouse outline
• Incorporate the above into overall project concept studies
Selection of powerhouse type is governed by the following copsiderations:
• Water conduit length

• ~J! develoged at the project
• Powerhouse proximity to the dam
• Topo grapl:!!£ and acce~.Q!.lli!rainl]_
• Geologic constraints
• Exposure to e]§ments
•-
. .--~- -
• Other project-specific constraints
The following sections present guidelines in the areas outlined above.
Powerhouse B. POWERHOUSE TYPES

types (
Powerhouses for hydroelectric projects can be of the following types:
Type A - Conventional surface: indoor, outdoor, semi-indoor, pier type, with vertical
or horizontal (or inclined) axis units
Type B -Underground pits and caverns: upstream, intermediate, downstream location
Type C- Silos or shafts (in the chapter on pumped storage powerhouses in volume 5)
The surface-type powerhouses may be divided into several subtypes depending on their
location with respect to the reservoir, stream (in-stream, off-stream), and the dam, which
will be discussed in the subsequent sections.
Representative examples of the above types are illustrated by figures 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, et al.
1. Powerhouse Type Descriptions
Powerhouse a. Type A, Subtype 1: Integral Intake, Indoor Powerhouses,- This powerhouse subtype
type descrip- . is usgd.fo±±lill.of.li:l'~lil!JJ;§;.Jhe.intake forms a part of the dam and is constructed inte-
tions grally with the generating bay to make up the powerhouse.
This powerhouse snhtype, mostly designed with reinforced concrete semi-spiral cases, was
considered (in the period up to 1960s, and by some designers even later) gtitable for maxi-
!!!!'m heads ofamJ>imately JOOJeet (30 !!!),. However, the illustrated examples (figs. 1-5, (,
1-7, 1-8, and 1-10) indicate substantial move above that maximum limit.
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1-2

The Plavinas powerhouse (fig. 1-10) operates under a maximum head of 40 meters (131.2
ft). It is understood that the soffit of the spiral case roof is clad with a steel plate.
Information on the design of the spiral case for the Dnestr (fig. 1-8) powerhouse with a
head of 53 meters (173.8 ft) is unknown.
The substantial increase in the design heads on concrete semi-spiral cases can be attributed
to improved concrete technology (control of cement content by use of pozzolans or fly ash,
precooling of aggregate) and availability oflarge-size reinforcing bars (#14 and #18).
For indoor type powerhouse, equipment access is at the draft tube deck level and an indoor
bridge crane serves for equipment unloading and installation.
In general, the powerhouses aie founded on competent rock. However, there are a number
powerhouses in operation that are founded on dense sand foundations. Figure 1-4, 1-21
and many on moraine interbeds with other materials (sand, gravel, clay) in the U.S.S.R.
j (fig. 1-10).
tUJ.IIII
.1. -- .......... ..
·~ ' ~
Figure 1-1.- LG1, LaGrande, James Bay, Canada. Units: 10@ 114 MW;
H = 28.20 m (92.5 ft). [Ludewig and Olive, 1980].
1-3 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

Figure 1-2.- Jochenstein, Danube, Austria. [Mosonyi, 1957).
(
Intake rroor El.
0 50
1 ! t I !I
Scale in feet
Figure 1-3.- Wanapum, Columbia R., Washington. Units: 10@ 78.9 MW; H =77ft (23.5 m).
[Willey, 1960).

\.
Figure 1-'-4. - Sam Rayburn, Angelina, Texas. Units: 2@ 26 MW; H = 83 ft (25.3 m).
(Courtesy of Harza Engineering Co.).
)
0'----------.::SOm
921
!zs
Grout i: \
currainj .~ \
\
Longitudinal section of the power· house and Kaplan turbine: set at the Iron Gate,
Danube, Rumania, Yugoslavia (owner 6 sets Rumaoiao slate power board. 6 sets Yugoslavian state
power board) H = 21,6 to 35,46m; n'= 7l.S rpm; P,. ~ 178 MW; 12 sets designed by Leningrad
metal wcrks (LMZ). 3 sets manufactured by Rcsira Works, Rumania (Drawing courte3Y Resita
Works, Rumania).
Figure 1-5.-Iron Gate, Danube, Rumania/Yugoslovia. Units: 12@ 178 MW; H = 35.46 m (116.3 ft);
9.5·m·diameter turbine runners. [Raabe, 1985].

1 NORMAl WL 265
RASk SlUICE
MflPil~w\fOS·l
..
DESIGN flOOD
Z.250.000cuuo
ISTANOA.RD
,TWL ~u:=IT=~ll F@$~~~ff[!17
"' flO:j'O
I.060.000t1Mt$\
,~MlN TWL ISS
.,·.
Figure 1~.- John Day Darn, Columbia, Washington/Oregon. Units: 17@ 135 MW;
H = 33.5 m (110ft). [Mackintosh, 1964].
ysp.6J ¥ooo qq!s
·<
·'
54.60
·Figure 1-7.- Gezhouba, Changjiang, P.R. China. Units: 2@ 176 MW, 9@ 125 MW; Hmax = 24 m
(78.7 ft); 11.3-rn-diarneter turbine runners. [YVPO].
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1~

i8
Figure 1-8.- Dnestr, Dnestr River, U.S.S.R. Units: 6@ 117 MW; H =53 m (173.8 ft).
1 Figure 1-9.- Volga 22nd CPSU Congress, Volga, U.S.S.R. Units: 20@ 126.5 MW; H max = 26.3 m
(86.3 ft); 93-m-diameter turbine runner. [Mikhailov, 1967].
) 1-7 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

Figure 1-10.- Plavinas, Daugara, Latvia. Units: 10@ 82.5 MW; H max =40 m
(131.2 ft). [Mikhailov, 1967).
Figure 1-11.- Box Canyon, Pend Oreille, Washington. Units: 4@ 15,000 MW;
H max = 46 m (150.9 ft).

19
b. JYpe A, Subtyj!e 2: Integral Intak~, Semi-Indoor Powerhouses. - This powerhouse

type is used when the tailwater is high dictating a commensurately high indoor type power-
house. Semi-indoor type surface powerhouses are similar to subtype I powerhouses except
that the powerhouse crane is located on the powerhouse roof. The access is at the rooflevel
and a gantry crane is provided to unload the equipment and install it through removable
hatches or removable roof sections, for each unit As evident from figure 1-13, some of
these powerhouses are also provided with indoor craries to enable worlc on the equipment
with the roof hatches closed.
Figure 1-12.- Simbach-Braunau, Inn, W. Germany. Units: 4@ 24 MW; H nun:=

12.2 m (40ft). [Mosonyi, 1957].
" "'"
Figure 1-13.- Baygorria, Rio Negro, Uruguay. Units: 3@ 34 MW; Hmax = 15.7 m
(51.5 ft).

-··· ~·
I • •.
-~-'.-
~~1-:
-&.A- ......
. ·~ .
•.a. :_•_: _:-· --:-: : :_
:·.} .. .....
Figure 1-14.- Sounders-Moses, St. Lawrence, United States/Canada.

Units: 32@ 57 MW; H = 87 ft (26.5 mm). (Courtesy of Corps of Engineers).
An integral-intake outdoor type powerhouse would be just an extension of the semi-indoor (_

subtype with the superstructure enclosure removed. There are relatively few of that type of
powerhouses in existence. The reason for this may be that most owners prefer the units
housed indoors to obtain protection against weather during installation and maintenance.
c. Type A, Subtype 3,: £iCL.l!owerhaures This subtype is basically an integral-intake

design except that the units are housed in individual piers rather than in adjacent power-
house monoliths.
The piers serve also as an integral part of a spillway (weir) and are wider than conventional
spillway piers to house the generating units. Only a few of these installations are in exis-
tence.
Lavamiind (fig. 1-15) was constructed during World War II. A similar plant, Maribor, on
the same river in Yugoslavia, was constructed during the same period. Subsequently, three
other pier-type plants have been constructed on the Drau River. The Wells (fig. 1-16) pier
type powerhouse (referred to also as a "hydro combine'') incmporates a superstructure over
the piers and spillway.
)
'20
-
DRAU
+Jil/,50
-''
o.__....:;;50~-:.;,'oom
a. General plan.
'.1
b. Sections.
' )
~--·· Figure 1-15.- Lavamiind, Drau, Austria. Units: 3@ 7.67 MW; H = 9.00 m (29.5 ft).

(
230 KV Swi•c:O)M ....._
Normal Mu. Rea. EL 179
Normal r.w. a 110
Nam.ol To<l........., El 710
Figure 1-16.- Wells, Columbia, Washington. Units: 10@ 77.4 MW; H = 71 ft (21.6 m).
[Patrick, 1971).
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1-12 .

\
d. _Type A, Subtypg 4;_H!JJiwJl!!!l Unit Powerhous!!_. -.Powerhouses ~th horizontal' Horizontal
units have _!?eepll}~asing i~~t d~f!!.!J.~s. for thelq~~r.,~q,!ll,!!g,es gf !)JP-O[-riyer 1)(00 unit
projects. Currently, the maximum size of horizontal units in operation are 53 MW (Rock powerhouse
Island). A 65-MW bulb unit is scheduled for operation in August 1989 at the Tadami
Project in Japan. When comparW-willLthe civil works requirements for vertical units,. the
horizontal units .!1;~_!:..§L!;XCava,tion-;~j~rete:because~reJs'';'o"ct~;;g:§eaij'ijg
elbow draft tube. Also, the monolith width may be narrower than for vertical units. Also, in
plan, the horizontal units require narrow monoliths, but somewhat longer in the flow direc-
tion (fig. 1-23). Mechanically, the bulb units require a smaller runner diameter (15%),
im{>roved efficiency, and reduced cavitation allowing-higher-setting than vertical units with
s&x;e5i;;;i[-cotillon, 1977].
--------·
Figures 1-17 through 1-23 illu.Stfate some projects in existence.
tp' '
SCALE' · FT.
f
Figure 1-17.- Rock Island, Columbia, Washington. Units: 8@ 53 MW; H = 40.9 ft

(12.5 m). [Stone and Webster, 1982].
)
~.. '
-<. ··-· --- ..,-...~

~--
..-r ..... ......
CU.Tl COMTilOI. ICU-INT ~ ,I
.ro:rrrt~l"~·-7tr;±rr:h1r~AU-l
....J::::!'-· T•• R 1toQ..IO
•f T,W 11 tsn'..D!
~1'ICICIC,IJ
.......
{~I"
-~rt--'LIJ, MalO
·~
•
Figure 1-18.- Main Canal, South Columbia Basin Irrigation District, Washington. Units: 1@ 26 MW;
H max = 52.5 ft (16.0 m). [Moore et al. 1985].
,.,
(b)
Figure 1-19.- Sauveierre/Aviguon, Rhone, France. Units: 2@ 30 MW; H max = 9.4 m (30.8 ft). (

Normal downstream i!l
level _ _ ~ 11:
· .· D~~~~ea~ ~~
stopfogs "i;
J.----------'----195.7 ------1
Figure 1-20.- Paldang, Han, S. Korea. Units: 4@ 21.2 MW; H = 39 ft (11.9 m).
(Engineering News-Record, June 1970).
,, J
'----ma ----1"
)
t. Figure 1-21.- Kiev, U.S.S.R. Units: 1@ 128 MW, 21@ 115 MW; H max = 11.5 m (37.7 ft).
[Mikhailov, 1967; ENR, 1962].

\
.-.-·:-.··,_.:,,; ..
. ,,.,. " ~ ~ -~
pl
(
'
T SEA
POOL F=
F-
""' '
"'-'
2""-
_..,
.,.,Q
lJ.,
'FI-
r''!:?' -··!'
f5 .. - ··;{~-·
r·-----\£/V · y;J
---------
Figure 1-22.- LaRance Tidal Power Plant, France. Units: 24@ 10 MW; H max = 11.0 m
(6.0 m as pump). [Cotillon, 1977].
Dimensional compari«m o(thrH turbines,.showing~ ()i,Franc/s, whenn.-3t(w1Urout weir};(b), Kaplan, wh~ ns-700
(without w~ir); and (c), straight flow, where n•-770 (with wei().
Figure 1-23.- Comparison of civil features for Francis, Kaplan, and straight-flow units.
[WaterPower, 1977].
.I
'I
e. Type A, SubtvPe 5: Surface Powerhouses at Dams. This subtype of powerhouse is Surface
-'!sed when the head become!! tQQJ.lig!l...[Qr intMial-intake powerhouses; i.e~for megiu.!llJ!!lll powerhouses
pigh-bead proje'<!§ and wl)s:n~.!i.xetJ;hi!nQ~l i~.QYg,]J~at~gth at dams
of the powgh~
Subtype 5 powerhouses, constructed at the toe of the dam, or within the dam proper, result
in short water conduits (with high hydraulic efficiency) and thus savings in overall con-
struction. For these reasons there are numerous powerhouses of this type in existence. This
type of powerhouse can be either indoor, semi-indoor, or outdoor.
However, suitable powerhouse foundation in a deep river gorge, when located at the toe of
the dam, may offset the savings in conduit length, and other powerllouse locations may be
more economical.
~bi.,!.,~"""····,~'""·~
:1 ~ ~:~.:'''.. A~-
~J .. - ~,~fA!
~:-.~ IUu
' . ..•..
;,
,, il 9
-·· ·,;
,... .
.. I .. ..
-i . •
' ~
"'
. . .P . '
•· : ~ .. I ~ ~.
'(~!
r·,. r·,"'~ . · - -
-·.--'
.
. '
."· . t ~.
- '
:. P-
•.. I
. I •
,
I
I __
'·
,j I.•· ~, __
I-
I,.
o-
b
·. •.
_,._. ___ _ . :.
·-
---·"-
)
\... Figure 1-24.- Guri, Caroni, Venezuela. Units: 3@ 218.4 MW, 3@ 270 MW, 1@ 340
MW, 3@ 400 MW, 10@ 730 MW; H = 146 m (478.9 fl). (Courtesy ofHarza).
J 1-17 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

CROSS- SECTION A-A
' I
t UIUT
A
L __ . .I
HORIZONTAL SECTION B-B
Figure 1-25.- llha-Solteira, Parana, Brazil. Units: 20@ 160 MW; H = 46 m (150.9 ft).
[Budweg, 1974].
)
Figure 1-26.- Itaipu, Parana, Brazil, Units: 18@ 700 MW; Havg =120 m (393.6 ft).
[Raabe, 1985].
Figure 1-27.- Norris Dam, Clinch, Tennessee. Units: 2@ 50.4 MW, H max = 215.5 ft (65.7 m).
[TVA].
\_ ..
)

:JPIUWAY ST.11RS &
£L~YATO.R TOWER (
I EL. 214/J.O
Figure 1-28.- Libby Dam, Kootenai, Montana. Units: 8@ 105 MW; H =335ft (102.1 m).
[Samuelson].
r,_
I .-Sur~
I '""' ..,...,...,.,......
~ D'MUtl E CASt /JI RJIIf!A
.............
IWr.U:E AMCI MWVIHOUSIC
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I -.u.m;eo
I
I • n :ypm
I
I
Figure 1-29.- Agua Vermelha, Grande, Brazil. Units: 6@ 250 MW; H =57 m (187ft).
[BCLD, 1982].

Figure 1-30.- Dworshak, Clearwater, Idaho. Units: 1@ 200 MW, 2@ 90 MW;
H =485ft (147.9 m). (Courtesy of Corps of Engineers) •
I•

t' I
I )
Figure 1-31.- Funil, Paraiba du Sol, Brazil. Units: 3@ 72 MW; H = 62 m (203.4 ft). [BCLD, 1982].

Crusher and
-
concrete mixer
a 50m
II
I
Section through unit no. 3, where; 1 = f1BIIery for
handling stop Jogs and trashrack rake, 2 = afr mrake and
inspection shaft, 3 = radial gate, 4 = access to gate bearing, 5
=groove for stoplogs, 6 =air duct, 7 =transmission line, 8 =
air intake and duct, 9 = prefabricated elements, 10 =
proposed plant for the manufacture of hydrogen, 11 =
cable-duct and communication galleries, 12 = skijump
spillway, 13 = overhead cranes, 14 = 5+ 6 substation, 15 =
exhaust and aeration to je{stream, 16 = rails for moving
platforms and stoplogs for intakes 1 and 2, 17 = electrical
equipment and cable-floor, 18 = granite, 19 = mechanical
equipment and valve-house, 20 = transformer-gallery, 21 =
electromechanical equipment and control, 22 =powerhouse,
23 = 400 MW generator, 24 = turbine, 25 = grouting and
inspection gallery, 26 = stoplogs for river closing, 27 =
concrete plug, 28 = sluice gate, 29 = dumped rockfill, 30 =
drainage gallery, 31 = intake gallery for unit 1, 32 = intake
gallery for unit 2, 33 = sheet pile cut-off, 34 =grouted zone, 35
= R.C. piles, 36 = sandy deposits.
Figure 1-32.- Xingo, Sao Francisco, Brazil. Units: 10@ 400 MW; H max = 105 m (344.4 ft).
[Soos, 1982].

( .
\; .
0 25 50
--. Salltiamt ---~--
-~~
c.·-.,
,._ ..·.-.. ·~-.,
Figure 1-33.- Monteynard, Drac, France. (Engineering News-Record, October 25, 1962).
Figure 1-34.- Hartwell, Savannah, Georgia. Units: 4@ 65 MW; H = 170ft (51.8).

(Courtesy of Harza).

Fig. 1. Plan of hydroelectric scheme: 1) arch part of dam; 2) abutment; J) power-
house; 4) vater intakes of power station; 5) penstocks; 6) cable shaft; 7) sani-
tary outlets; 8) diversion tunnel; 9) service spillway; 10) anchor support.
Fig. 3. Transverse section through dam and powerhouse: 1) channel plug; 2) arch
part; 3) longitudinal cavity; 4) grout curtain; 5) foundation drainage; 6) inspec-
tion galleries; 7) drains; 8) turbine intake; 9) penstock; 10) powerhouse.
~· · Figure 1-35.- Chirkey, Sulak, U.S.S.R. [Mitrushkin and Shnyrov, 1974].
,·-.---_, ..
f. type A, Subtype 6: Detached Surface Powerhouses.- It is not always technically fea-
sible, as discussed in more detail in Section B.2, "Powerhouse Type Selection," that the
powerhouse can form a part of the reseiVoir retaining structure (integral-intake powerhous- (
es) or be located at the toe of the dam, or in the dam itself, to reduce water conduit length.
In that case, the surface powerhouses are detached from the main dam and located either
in-stream or on river banks downstream of the dam. Free-standing steel penstocks or
steeVconcrete lined underground conduits provide for connection between the intakes and
the detached type powerhouses. Hoover Dam has two such powerhouses (fig. 1-37), one
on each bank of the river. Figures 1-36 through 1-47 show detached powerhouses.
' Roadway £1.1311
1900 TON ROTOR

GANTRY
LP. El.
Figure 1-36.- Grand Coulee ID, Columbia, Washington. Units: 3@ 600 MW,
3@ 700 MW; H"""' = 355 tl (108.2m). [USBR, 1977).
Gantry crane
30 ton
( Normal TW El. 249.0'
Lake Erie surface El. 564

Lake Ontario surface El. 238
Figure 1-37.- Robert Moses, Niagara, New York. Units: 13@ 150 MW; H = 305 tl
(92.9 m). [Water Power, 1961).

----------------------'-------------·--·---·--------------
'·: /~;
'·' c-
·-;-
<i
/
·ARIZONA SPILLWAY
plug
ARXZONA
...
-~...- ·~,('ff '<Q>'.-,.,.

~<v~~.... L~&~~;:i{'~Zq-##~771'?.~?::"~~
~G.,,-.,.,. ... ~,, ,
~~·~~~~~
"'"'YGY-<:1'./ .. ·
--·... ~:'~-Y.;>n Tunnel plugs...... ,
50' DIVERSION TUNNELs5"·· ~?"?.-,..- ·,,, /3d Steel peostocks
NEYAOA SPILLWAY------ .; -~::-~ -,i~~'Y-=z.zz::_:~~::J NEVADA

Temporary outlets- 4 poir 6'~t7'-6" Slide /' PLAN
9 .~?'. I 10?0
Scale of feet
I
Cl
"'~
Figure 1-38.- Hoover Dam, Colorado R., Arizona/Nevada. Units: 15@ 825 MW, 2@ 40 MW,
2@ 3 MW; H = 590 tl (179.9 m).
"'
~
\0
Cc
"'
00
"'
Figure 1-39.- Chief Joseph, Columbia, Washington. Units: 16@ 64 MW; H =186ft (56.7 m).
[Stinchtield, 1958].
........ !OQtoMAL El_ 185.1)

,.._s £1.11oo
(
.·•
Figure 1-40.- Mossyrock, Cowlitz, Washington. Units: 2@ 150 MW, Hmax =340ft (103.7 m).

~!
--
;. . ' a .
Figure 1-41.- Karun, Karun R., Iran. Units: 4@ 250 MW; H max = 165 m (541.2 ft).
(Courtesy ofHarza).

I 1 i i gate
power unit centr~line
.70·5
Figure 1-42.- Krasnoyarsk, Yenisey, U.S.S.R. Units: 12@ 508 MW; H max = 100.5 m (329.6 ft).
[Garnous et al., 1975].
Figure 1-43.- High Aswan Darn powerhouse, Nile, Egypt. Units: 12@ 180 MW;
H max = 77 m (252.6 ft). [Water Power, 1965]. )

':>.
(;:::>: ~
Figure 1-44.- LGJ, LaGrande, James Bay, Cana<b~ Units: 12@ 192 MW; H =260ft (79.3 m).
[Ludwig and Olive, 1980].
GENERATOR HALL
I.
Oischargtl pit ga,.
) Figure 1-45.- Rio Lindo, Lindo, Honduras. Units: 4@ 20 MW; H TIUlX =410 m (1,344.8 ft).
{Courtesy ofHarza).
) 1-31 ASCE/EPRJ Guides 1989
. -~·- . ..
,· ~ -~ ~. .. -
. .... .. '" ... -.· ... . ... .·..- . . .. . ' .. .
• · • ·~·~ ····· · r .-..r~ ~• •· . ·-··· • · ···••·••••·~ ...-, ,,, , ,., . ' · · · · - ·· -·· · - ........... . .... . . . .. ~ ....... . "¥."'• .. - .. - - · · · · . - · · · - - · - · · · -···· · · · · · · · '
Figure 1-46.- Marimbondo, Rio Grande, Brazil. Units: 8@ 180 MW, H = 61.9 m (203ft).
(Courtesy ofUSCOLD) .
.'f'l1f;TJ~:-,~,1-::::::tk GENERATOR HALL
c=
,.
~r····
"~~ •:_·
_::F9l, -.. __ ·'.iD
·~. -' --&:aJ.
::;;;re:.;.,,~~-- _· 1>1: ._.!... 11'' ~·~ .
2.50 lO.
.. ·'1" .. ; !'
--~-:
'·
. . .
.. .
El709.0
-.- ..
)
Figure 1-47.- Uribante-San Agaton, Agaton, Venezuela. Units: 2@ 153 MW; H = 350 m (1,148 ft). 1.

g.c Type B, Subtype I: Underground Pit Powerhouses. ~ Pit type powerhouses are shal-
low underground type powerhouses. They result when the rock cover above them is either
of insufficient thickness or of inadequate quality to fonn an underground cavern.
This type of powerhouse is selected when an in-stream type of powerhouse, either across
the stream or along its banks, is not feasible because of physical limitations of the site or
because the general project layout dictates a powerhouse location away from the river
banks.
The pit shape can be either rectangular to house several units, or square, or cylindrical
shafts to house single or a pair of unitS.
Square and cylindrical shaft shapes have found wide application for pumped storage pow-
erhouses because thefr shapes are structurally advantageous for deep submergence and the
correspondingly higher hydrostatic pressures. Consequently, the shaft type powerhouses
will be treated in the Pumped Storage Guidelines.
Figure 1-48 illustrates a pure pit type powerhouse design in Sweden. The design shown on
figure 1-49 shows a pit powerllouse directly under the spillway chute, whereas figure 1-50
illustrates a partial pit/surface powerhouse design.
17
I
I
12
&;·
0 ttJm
'---~ 11
..• • I
P?wer st~tion with totally embedded machine hall. Notations: 1 - drainage

tl!nne~, 2 -Jntake sill and waJls, 3 - trash rack, 4 - crane,· S - hydraulic winch, 6 -
pun:pmg shaft, _7- floor, _a- shaft for draft tube gate, 9 - winch for draft tube gate,
10 - surge basm, 11 - tadrace tunnel, 12 - entrance tunnel, 13 - passenger lift shaft,
14- rooms for generator switchgear, 15- transformer, 16- shaft for 200 kV cables
17 - 200 k V switchyard. '
l
)
Figure 1-48.- Swedish pit powerhouse. [Mosonyi, 1960].

Longitudinal section through structures of the hydrostation: 1) intake-
spillway; 2) chute; 3) headrace tunnel; 4) pOW'erhouse; 5) tailrace tunnel; 6) con-
solidation grouting; 7) grout curtain.
Figure 1-49.- U.S.S.R. study. [Sitnin, 1983].
\
IQ i 11
Power station with partly embedded machine hall. Notations: 1 - drainage

tUDnel, 2 - sill and walli of the intake, 3 - trash rack, 4 - crane, 5 - hydraulic winch
for intake gate, 6 - pumping shaft, 7 - unloading floor on one side of the machine hall,
8 - .shaft for draft tube gate. 9 - hoist, 10- inlet to surge basin, 11- tailrace tunnel.
12 - control :room, etc., 13 - generator switehgear below the unloading floor, 14 -
transformer. (After K. ]. P. Wiuroch and K. G. G. Pira)
Figure 1-50.- Partial pit powerhouse, Sweden. [Mosonyi, 1960].

f!. type B, Subtype 2: Underground Cavern Powerhouses.- Underground cavern type
powerhouses offer flexibility in project layout because they can be located almost any-
where within the proximity of the dam or with respecHo the reservoir.
However, one important condition must be satisfied the geological conditions must be suit-
,able for underground construction.
Also, other techrtical and economic considerations must justify the selection of this type of
powerhouse in preference to other types. These considerations are discussed in the follow-
ing subsection.
In this volume of the Guidelines, only underground powerhouses of conventional hydro-

electric developments, i.e., excluding the underground powerhouses of pumped storage
developments, will be discussed. ' · . ·
The following illustrations give examples of some existing cavern type powerhouses. For
other illustrations of underground powerhouses, see Section H, "Underground
Powerhouses,"
- T o switchyard
\
I
Maximum water surface El. 1990
.,
~Intake gate gallefY
Maxtmum
tatl water
El 1773
I Figure 1-51.- Boundary, Pend Oreille, Washington. Units: 6@ 137.8 MW;

.. '
H = 250 ft (76.2 m). [Strandberg, 1966].
\..
)
INT KE
DRAFT·TU8E GATE GALLERY
Figure 1-52.- Stornorrfors, Ume, Sweden. Units: 3@ 125 MW; H ~ 77 m (252.6 ft)•
.J.1471.Sit
·-- Intake
el. 1410ft
acces~ ~haft
el.481ft
Figure 1-53.- Churchill Falls, Churchill, Canada. Units: 11@ 475 MW; H = 1,025 ft (312.5 m).
[Willett, 1977].

34000 li!'SCO 34SOO
I I I
1
1000
1 10000 I 11000 1COOO
"'""
El 10:36.00
E!!Oll lO
Maz.T W!.101't.OO
Tl4.........,
Tail rcct h••,rw!

DETAIL-X
(DimtMicnt in mm, EicMXion' ift m.)
Figure 1-54.- Nathpa Jhakri, Sutlej, India. Units: 6@ 250 MW; H = 425 m (1,394 ft); (under design).
[Goyal, 1987].
l111d~:rground poverboWie for Rogun hydroelectric plant. l) Machine gal-

lery; 2) transforaar ro011; 3) protective ceU~; 4) ge11erator; .5) turbine; 6)
traneformer; 1) steel/rduforced.-c.oncrete spl:r.l. chl.lllber; 8} draft tubes; 9)
supply tUllil.eb; 10} air conditio11er; 11) monorail cert:; 13) exhaust shaf:; 14)
aandetone•.
Figure 1-55.- Rogun, Vakhsh, U.S.S.R. Units: 6@ 600 MW; H = 310 m (1,0168 ft).
[Osadchii et al., 1980].

,,. ...... a -
(
,n::::iHL~-,
'
'''
'
I
I
''
I
I
I
1 I I
I I I
' I
1~ ".o.m....-t r-trl
1-11
'I
II II
II III
I , I
I II
I ·I
lI I, II
' I
POWER STATION
Tr•,..r•n• · -
"---"'--'" -·
Figure 1-56.- Ambuklao, Agno, Philippines. Units: 3@ 25 MW; H =380ft (115.9 m).
[Eberhardt, 1958].
'""'
ll.!J-----_;..- ttJJ---
'
, :_ C.rn~~ ~tr-tion tbrough the Benimii-L(Jc Caul pow~r 5t:nion. Eight Frand!
unau. Data ui th<' de\'elopment: H"" 267 m. Q = 375 eu.m,n·e, .V= 8SOQOO k'\\.
{After 0. P•rryman: Water Power 1957)
Figure 1-57.- Bersimis No. 1, Bersimis, Quebec, Canada. Units: 8@ 125 MW; H =267 m (875.8 ft).

Figure 1-58.- Tumut II, Tumut, Australia. Units: 4@ 70 MW; H =945ft (288.1 m).
[Pinkerton and Gibson, 1964].
Figure 1-59.- Montpezat, Loire/Rhone, France. Units: 2@ 60 MW; H = 625 m {2,050 ft).
[Mosonyi, 1960].

(
21M
!
•
221-1
\
'
Figure 1-60.- Cabora Bassa, Zambezi, Mozambique. Units: 5@ 415 MW; H = 103.5 m (339.5 ft). (
[Lemperierre and Vigny, 1975).

2. Powerhouse Type Selectio.!,!_ Powerhouse
type selection
I
Which type of powerhouse to select for a project concept depends on site-specific condi-
\ tions with economy always being the primary concern. The following discussions, along
with examination of the actual site conditions, the geologic and hydrologic infonnation
available for conceptual studies of the project, shall serve as a guide for selection of suit-
able powerhouse type.
One cardinal rule shall govern all powerhouse type selection studies: the water passages
conitectlng the reservoir to the powerhouse should be as short as possible.
a. Powerhouse Type Related to Conduit Length, Head Developed, and Proximity to the Water conduit
Dam. - Power water conduit length between the reservoir and the powerhouse (for sur- length
face type) or the tailrace (for underground type) constitutes one of the primary economic
considerations in conceptual studies of power plants.
The water conduit length depends greatly on the head developed at the project, the type of
dam selected and on the powerhouse type itself.
.A:§r low-head, run-of-river plants, the shof!eA\ con.QQjJ:.JI!ngth is JJhtaiol:!.l bJl providing W!
integral_ intake wLt!_l_~~li-il&.J!l~-·UPSl!:~1!lll.Plltt..Q.(JUQ.nvmtiQnal..§.J![fa~.!UY!L<:.
powerhouse. Such a powerhouse constitutes a part of the dam to retain the reservoir.
For intennediate heads(> 40 m or about 130 ft),integral intake designs prove to be struc- Maximum
t_urally difficul!_an<!.tl1ejnta!<& is_ii}£QJ'QQ[:J!.~<!l!'._tll~-<1~JP_,_ or provided as a separate struc-
~----~
head for
ture nearby, with the powerhouse becoming a separate structure located as close to the dam integral intake
as is feasible to obtain the shortest conduit length possible:-·---· powerhouses
The powerhouse may also be located within the dam if the dam is of the gravity or hollow
gravity type.
The powerhouse may be located at the surface for practically all head ranges, or under-
ground (as cavern, pit, or shaft types) for higher intermediate and high-head ranges Powerhouse
depending on the prevailing topography and economic considerations, with related con- type selection
straints for water conduit arrangement and connection to the powerhouse.
b. Powerhouse Type Affected by Topographic Constraints.- Preferably, the powerhouse Topographic

should be set nonnal to and in the stream utilized for power development to obtain best constraints
flow conditions.
Narrow valleys, with high and steep banks may dictate other setting arrangements or differ-
ent powerhouse types than in streambed. Large surface powerhouses, with several units,
may have to be located along the river banks dictating longer conduits. The Hoover Dam
powerplants (one on each bank) represent such an arrangement (fig. 1-37).
There are numerous plants with powerhouses located along the river banks. High, steep
banks may result in expensive excavations, with high cut slopes which may present stabili-
ty problems with commensurate increase in construction and maintenance costs.
.. , _t.
It is questionable whether the Hoover Dam powerhouses today would be designed as sur-
face type powerhouses. With present-day advances in underground design, it is quite con-
ceivable that they could be located undergmnpd which has been a preferred solution for
numerous powerhouses.
Geologic c. Geologic Constraints. - It is generally accepted practice to found powerhouses on

constraints rock or at least soft rock types. All powerhouses of the Tennessee Valley Authority have
been built on rock foundations .
However, there are some exceptions in that a number of powerhouses have been built on
sand or other types of soft foundations. The Sam Rayburn Power Plant (fig.l-4) on the
Angelina River in Texas has been built on dense sand foundation. There are a few more.
One of the earliest was the Swirsk powerplant in western Russia. The Plavinas (fig-1-10)
with maximum head of 40 meters ( 131 ft), is constructed on moraine loam and sandy loam.
Many other powerhouses in the U.S.S.R. are constructed on similar foundations.
Good rock conditions are of greater concern for underground or pit type construction The
rock should be of such quality (with support provisions if required) that underground cav-
erns, or the walls for pit powerhouses, can be safely excavated and maintained for the life
of the project.
Any kind of powerhouse should clear geologic faults by a safe margin established on
appropriate investigations.
High tailwater d. Constraints Dictated by High Tailwaters. High tailwater conditions may mle OJit
constraints indoor surfac!UYue. powerhou~bms.e..J.he....acecess.JQ.sllJ;;lLPQ.l!leXbouses..N.lould..be..at...a_
comme~~~-~~11\<F.li:.Y\<! .. !J:I.!!~E~S\l.!~!llL'l hjgl1~I.2YS.riJ!tpp~.!:I.QWi¥.~J.mc1ur.e.
The semi-indoor type powerhouses, with access at the roof level and the superstructure
designed to retain the higher tailwater levels, will 'result in a more economical design than
the indoor types.
Underground powerhouses are set at substantial depth below· the tail water (!heir beneficial
attributes for pumped storage installations) w.\!!J.9JlUffec1.ing the overall height of the~
erhouse.
Undergronnd e. Selection of Underground Concepts. -The geological conditions must be suitable for
concepts provision of underground water conveyance conduits, and underground spaces to house all
electrical and hydromechanical equipment. Watertightness and structural competency of
the surrounding rock are basic prerequisites for safe and economical underground installa-
tions.
Under the assumption tbat the prevailing geological conditions are suitable for under-
ground installations, the designer usually has greater freedom in selection of the location
for an underground powerhouse than for a surface powerhouse and this aspect is one of the
advantages of the type B powerhouses.
(

With type B powerhouses located at the dams (reservoirs), the first decision that usually
has to be made is to determine in which abutment it should be 'located, While economical
considerations regarding conduit length should, of course, be one of the primary concerns,
nevertheless, quite frequently geologic conditions may become the obvious governing fac-
tors,
Likewise, location and arrangement of diversion tunnels around the dam site shall be con-
sidered in selection of the type B powerhouse locati~n. because the downstream portions of
the- diversion tunnels are quite frequen(ly utilized as tail tunnels for discharges from the
underground powerhouses,
!!J'dro deyolopments. where the head is not deyrloped.Jmmediatebl,.dg;wnstream QLlue

dam but r.i!!!:l!;,LYil!JQ,ulLf_\lllilllit~J!Ul!ke advantage of available steee gradien! of ~.natuJ<ll_
~stc:;re;:::a:::m;._:::b;:;etc:w'"'e"'e"'n'-'tl}E_I!:~rvoir an(! th~,ooiD! of tailrace 4ischarge, are most suitable condi-
tioris for underground powerhous~ applic3:t~::~2-
The underground powerhouses can be located either at the upstream end of the conduits -
short power tunnels (penstocks) with long tailrace tunnels, or at some intermediate or
downstream location- with increased power tunnel-penstock length and decreasing tail
tunnel length,
The costs of the water conduit system can vary greatly with the powerhouse location,
Normally, the power tunnel-penstock design is more costly than tail tunnel design which
may be unlined or only partially lined, Should, however, the tailrace tunnel require rein-
forced concrete lining, the economic advantages may swing into favor of the smaller-size
(higher velocities) power tunnels-penstocks and, thus intermediate locations for the under-
ground powerhouses, '
I f. Selection of Pit Type Concepts. -
I Pit powerhouses, excavated in rock from the surface,
may find application for intermediate head developments w):!ere the setting of the units is at'
Pit type
concepts
shallow depth below the ground surface, yet deep enough to require !<!ilrace_tunnels for
unit discharges.
As for the cavern powerhouses, pit powerhouses can be located near the intake (reservoir)
or at an intermediate or even downstream location depending on the prevailing geology
and topography, Arrangements with shortest possible penstocks, in general, are expected to
offer the most economical and hydraulically efficient solutions, Convenient and economi-
cal access provisions may play a role in selection of the pit powerhouse location,
To obtain free surface drainage and for ease in construction, the roof of pit powerhouses
may preferably be at or somewhat above the natural ground leveL
The geologic conditions shall be such that they are suitable for tunneling for the penstocks
and tailrace tunnel and result in stable walls for the powerhouse pie Access is usually from
the roof level via stairs and elevator, Equipment access is provided through appropriate
shafts,

Climate g. Climatic Constraints. - Surface type powerhouses and their equipment, if well con-
constraints structed, are not markedly sensitive to exposure to harsh seasonal climate changes..
The surface-type powerhouses of the James Bay Complex in Canada, along the St.
c
Lawrence Seaway, and others in Canada and the northern regions of the United States, as
well in Europe, have withstood frigid winter climate regimes remarkably well.
However, special provisions must be considered to ensure good work quality during winter
construction, if such is needed because of tight schedules. Ori the other hand, underground
construction can proceed uninterrupted and with practically no provisions against cold
weather effects.
Although underground installations would appear preferable where deep snow is expected,
the numerous existing surface type powerhouses exposed to severe snow conditions dispell
such justification in favor of underground powerhouses. It is clearly the owner's choice and
preference based on economic considerations- the possibly substatially lower investment
versus the increased maintenance costs for the surface powerhouse types.
Other h. Other Constraints. - Other possible constraints in the selection of powerhouse type
constraints may be, but not necessarily limited to, the following:
• Difficult and expensive surface access in narrow canyons with steep walls
• Encroachment on railroad or highway right-of-way
• Archaeologic aspects
• Environmental aspects
I • Socio-demographic and possible other aspects.
I The last three constraints in the above list would most likely be treated in the overall pro-
ject siting studies and, therefore, may not affect the selection of the powerhouse type.
I
, ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1-44 )

\
C. POWERHOUSE (TURBINE) SETTING Turbine setting
1. Vertical Axis Units Vertical axis

units
Simultaneously with the studies for powerhouse location and selection of its type, the set-
~se, actually tile setting of the~~EP.!E~Lwitl!.I.<;.S]JJ:CUQ.J1!~-lllinimum
tail water elevation must be determined.
;:-..:·-- - ··- -- --
-:~-~~--7··-~-~~'"::::::c~----
For initial studies, however, the centerline of the distributor can be set at the minimum tail-
water elevation. This setting will allow preparation of reasonably realistic study sketches to
determine preliminary excavation outlines and to asses~ foundation requirements.
In general, the turbine setting shall be the responsibility of the hydraulic machinery design-
er of the design organization with input from the turbine manufacturer. Bureau of
Reclamation Engineering Monograph No. 20, Selecting Hydraulic Reaction Turbines,
[USBR, 1976] contains useful data for turbine setting, which is illustrated on figure 1-61
(see also fig. 1-81).
According to figure 1-61, the recommended draft head is:
where:
)
( Hs = static draft head, and

\
I b = vertical distance from distributor to the location of the minimum runner
diameter (meters or feet).
Also:
Hs=Hb-aHcr
and
Hb=Ha-Hv
where:
Hb = atmospheric pressure minus vapor pressure (meters or feet),

a = cavitation factor, and
Her= maximum head (meters or feet) at which turbines can operate at full gate.
The above relationships are illustrated on figure 1-61 [USBR, 1976: fig. 17].
1--45 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

...
.000
0~ 0
»O0
0
'
-::,- I".
' PRESSURE
' •:.. ~
...
0.60 0
0
I
I
~ '
''
I- l- 0
.. ' " . 'i'fi'!

n,'·"' u.s. n,•·•• . .
5032.7 W.troc
•
0
' §
''
~·
f- f- .= o.zo 0
0
CGvitotion unlil"ly :
' b
;I (a"plol\t >
17 turbinl) !j
I- ' O.IS 0
I- I
@. 1r 0.10 0
~
~ 0.01 0
t:: ' ~ 0.01 0

~ 0.01' 0
' 3 0.01 0
t:: '' ~ 0.05 0
;
' ' ;! 0.04 0
~ ucenivl
~ 1/ Cavitation may
<
......'
{O'plorlt 0' turbine)
U O.Ol 0
ifo•Atmospbrric prnsurr for altitude. ft lm).
Hy• Vopor prtssure of wate-r, use hiqhest expected temperature, ft Jm). 1/

... '
0
Hb"'H0 -H..,. Atm05phtrlc prnsure minus YUPor pressure, ft fm)
... "0
15 20 25 SO 40 !Q to 101010100 ISO U.S. i'ICII.ftt11
(
H·~·il;oltli,;' ''o!.i''li<"""'lii!""~ !!li~~L,.,._,

SPECIFIC SP!ED-Ot
I"RANCIS
0
I PROPEt.L.ER
' I 1..-
I ].....- .......
~ k- ].....-
b
v
J....- l.--
J....-
·- lJ
"
0
10
,b.
20
"'
SO ~0
,bo·,;.,·2&o·i~·:;k,·Jo·
SO to 70 •o 10 10'0 110 120 ISO IeO ISO
..&· .. ~ws·.sa·Jo Jo Jo't&s rio ...~ ........,.

110 170 U.S. hill ..,.,,.
her .. Critical htod. ft lml.
Hs - Oistonct from o2 to minimum loilwotl!l' (one
SPECl F IC SPEED- n, unit operotinq ot full qott), ft (m).
Hs '"'Hb-<rhcr or <r•{Hb~Hsl/her·ft(mt
D.z at shrwditHJ • Least diamrter throuqll Shroud, ft [m).
o, • Oischorqe diameter of runner, ft {m) .. ~Distributor to minimum toilwoter-Hs + b
b- Oistanct from 02 to ~ of distributor. ft (m~ (Total draft heod). ft {m~
(ntimotrd from curn t. 01 vs n, ),
ns•SI)telfic speed of turb1ne. Note: Ploc.- ~ of distribufor ot nnt lowest full
foot elt'f'otion. {0.30 m\
Figure 1-61.- Recommended total draft bead. [USBR, 1976].

(

v{Horizontal (.llnlb) Axis Units Horizontal
axis units
This discussion is limited to installations with bulb units which type is in predominant use
for conventional hydro developments that are not classified as small hydro.
The setting of the horizontal axis units is based on the same governing parameters as given
for the vertical urtits (fig. 1-61). For horizontal units, the static draft head, Hs, is measured
to the centerline of the runner as indicated on figure 1-62. According to Khanna and
Bansal [1979], the setting is calculated by taking the upper tip of the blade as reference for
cavitation calculation purposes.
Based on studies of various plant~. the depth of the lowest bulb turbine draft tube point
below minimum tailwater can be set at:
Hvs = (0.6D to ID)+ Hs
where:
H DB = depth of draft tube invert below tail water for bulb turbine,
D = runner diameter, and
Hs = static draft head.
The required static draft head, Hs, can be determined from the equation Hs = Hb- aHcr by
using the appropriate sigma coefficient, a, which will be lower than for the 'l~r!i<;~l J(aplan
r units. The lower a will result in smaller submergence requirements. --
~-
In most cases, however, it may suffice to ensure that the top of the draft tube is submerged
below the minimum tailwater.
By comparison, the lower point of the draft tube for vertical Kaplan unit is (see reference
above):
HvK= (1.8D to 2.5D) + Hs
Consequently, the setting of the vertical KaplaUJ!nit.is..at..le.ast O.~L/..tR..L2!2 deeper than for
-
the b.lJlb-tmj t.
3. Underground Powerhouse Units

--~·-····-·-·
Units in
· underground
As discussed in Section H, "Underground Powerhouses," one of the advantages of these powerhouses
units is that they can be set deeper with ,respect to. the te.Uwal~LtJ:l~ll§.\!!fac.ep 0.J¥erllouses
without an increase in excavation depth and, thus, an increase in the overall height of the
powerhouse structure.
The greater submergence below taihvater permits.higher-operational speeds pf the_ tl!rbines

and, th~~' the PDY§.i<;<!l_si.~e..ofurbines and.generators. Moreover, the cavern size can be
reduced correspondingly which should always be attempted because of the high excavation
costs.

.l
For large units, in the range of 200 MW and up, !he speed will seldom exceed 375 rpm,
however, it may go up to 500 rpm and more for smaller units.
The 382.5-MW Raccoon Mountain reversible pump/turbines would have required 225 rpm
with a submergence of 75 feet for a design with a conventional surface powerhouse. A sub-
mergence of 127 feet and unit speed of 300 rpm was possible with the adopted under-
ground powerhouse design.
The large 475-MW Churchill Falls units operate with 200 rpm in the underground power-
house and have a rather shallow submergence of about 40 feet
11ilwatBf ._,
11
Ill
I I
J
Figure 1-62.- Horizontal turbine runner setting. [Kanna and Bansal, 1979]. (
ASCE!EPRI Guides 1989 1-48

D. POWERHOUSE MONOLITH SIZING
1. Powerhouse Unit Monolith, Sub-Bays- Definitions

\
r et_ Units
Flow
j
Figure 1-63.- Powerhouse monolith sub-bays.
The text that follows uses what is thought to be a widely accepted terminology for designa-
tion of the various components or principal parameters of a powerhouse structure.
Nevertheless, for clarity, the designations used are defined below.
(
Powerhouse Sub-Bays
) INT Intake, if built integrally with powerhouse

USB Upstream service bay
GB Generating bay, houses generating units adjoins longitudinally to erection bay
DSB Downstream service bay '
L Unit monolith (bay) length
W Unit monolith (bay) width
Walls and Piers
A Intake End Pier, structural member forming upstream pan of the dam, separates
adjoining intakes, supports gate loads and hydrostatic pressures on transverse
walls.
B Intake intermediate pier provided for large inlet openings, fanning the
upstream part of the dam, supports gate loads and hydrostatic pressures on
transverse walls.
c Intake curtain wall, fonns the upstream face of the intake above the inlet
openings. Some designs (figs. 1-1,1-3, 1-4,1-5,1-9, 1-11, 1-17, 1-18, etc.)
omit such wall. Retains trash and ice.

I
-.--.··.-.-.-.--.~,
D Bulkhead wall, serves as a fixed bulkhead or headwall when bulkheads are
provided upstream of service gates.
E Intake headwall retains the hydrostatic pressure for integral intake powerhouses.
F Generating bay upstream wall when upstream service bay is provided.

Supports slabs, roof, and powerhouse crane. May also become water-bearing
headwall if built integrally with intake.
G Generating bay downstream wall. Supports walls, roof, and powerhouse

crane. May become powerhouse downstream wall (possibly water bearing) if
downstream service bay is not needed.
H Powerhouse downstream wall. May be a water bearing wall (downstream head-

wall) for high tail waters, constructed integrally with draft tube piers.
J Draft tube end pier. Separates draft tubes of individual units. Supports '
downstream wall, draft tube roof and deck. Also acts integrally with the wall to
support hydrostatic pressure from tailwater. Supports gate loads. Along with
intennediate pier, carries substructure load to foundation (pier portion below
the draft tube roof).
K Draft tube intennediate pier. Provided for wide draft tubes principally to
reduce gate (stoplog) spans, to support draft tube roof, downstream wall and
deck loads. Along with end piers, carries sub-structure to foundation. Supports (
gate loads.
2. Powerhouse Sub-Bay Functions
a. Intake (Integral with Powerhouse)
• Serves as upstream inlet to the water passages and fonns, integrally with the power-
house sub-structure, the dam to retain the reservoir.
• Service gates are provided to close the water passages. In most cases bulkheads are
provided upstream of the service gates to (1) enable maintenance of the latter and (2)
to enable closure of the water passages in case the service gates are inoperable.
• The inlet to water passages is provided with trashracks to keep trash out of the water
passages and to prevent damage to the hydraulic equipment.
Upstream b. Upstream Service Bay

service bay
• Provided and located over the water passages, if they are long.
• Provided for large installations to house electrical and/or mechanical station service
equipment. If the transfonners are located on the deck of the upstream service bay,
most of the electrical equipment is located in the upstream service bay, at the higher
levels. The lower levels may be occupied by mechanical station service equipment.
• Control room, battery room, spaces for operating and maintenance personnel may be C
located in the upstream service bay.

4-0
• All levels should be served by at least two stairs and elevator (two or more for multi-
unit installations).
• Width of this bay is approximately 30 feet or slightly more for simplicity in structural
framing as discussed under Subsection d, "Downstream Service Bay" below.
c. Generating Bay and Erection Bay Generating

and erection
• Principal function of the generating bay is to house the generating units (turbine and bay
generators) with the connecting water passages (semi-spiral or spiral cases, draft tube
inlet cone and elbow) and the surrounding sub-structure concrete.
• Erection bay is aligned with the generating bay, in most cases located at one end of
the latter or, sometimes, in the center portion of the generating bay, or at both ends.
• Powerhouses crane(s) spans between the upstream and downstream walls to serve for
equipment unloading and assembly in erection bay, and installation and maintenance
. of the individual units.
• For large installations, cranes at two levels are recommended. The heavy, slow-speed
crane needed for turbine runner and rotor-shaft installation is set at higher level
because of the greater clearance requirements.
• One or two small-capacity, high-speed cranes are set below the large crane and are
used for handling of most of the equipment installed, except for the heavy turbine
runners and rotors.
d. Downstream Service Bay Downstream

service bay
• This bay is developed above downstream part of the draft tube to house either electri-
cal (upper levels) and/or mechanical (lower levels) equipment. It may not be provided
for small installations.
• If the transformers are located in this bay (instead of upstream service bay), they are
) usually located on the draft tube deck which is set above maximum powerhouse
design flood level (not necessarily the probable maximum flood).
• Spiral case access is provided from this bay or from a level slightly above the spiral
case floor level.
• Depending on the draft tube length, the width of this bay may reach approximately 30
feet or somewhat more. Spans in this range enable floor design without beams to sim-
plify design, provide more usable headroom and simplify construction. Larger spaces
may also be susceptible to vibrations.
e. Draft Tube Piers, Draft Tube Deck Draft tube

piers and deck
• Draft tube piers are extended to the draft tube deck level to receive the draft tube
gates.
• These piers serve as an integral strucural support of the downstream wall and the draft
tube deck which supports the draft tube gantry crane (if such is provided) and may
}' also support the transformers. In that case, the deck width is expanded to suit.
• Gate slots are provided in the draft tube deck between the piers to receive the gates.
• The size of the gate slots is governed by the gate size and operating clearance require-
(
\.. ments. Average gate slot size is in the range of approximately 36 inches wide and 20
j
inches deep overall including blackouts for embedded welding pads), which suffices
for preliminary layouts.
• Intermediate piers receive two gate slots each. Minimum distance between the slots
should be governed principally by construction clearance requirements. With reinforce-
ment in place, the clear distance between reinforcement should be about 2 feet.
20" for gate slots and

embedment concrete
Alternative pier outline
Figure 1~4.- Draft tube intermediate pier thickness.
Total pier thickness:
Gate slots: 2 x 20 in = 40 in
Reinforcement cover: 2 x 2 in = 4 in
2 x layers (vert. & horiz.)
(
reinforcing
2 x 2 in each (min.) = 4 in
Clearance bet reinf. in
each face for erection = 24in
72 in = 6 feet (minimum)
Generally, draft tube intermediate piers are about 6.5 feet thick, or somewhat more.
• End piers receive ou!y one gate slot and can be approximately 4 feet- 8 inches mini-
mum, which may be structurally too thin for large powerhouses. Overall unit bay
width, governed either by spiral case or draft tube dimensions, may dictate thicker end
piers.
Monolith size 3. Powerhouse Unit Monolith Size
Width, a. Unit Monolith Width- General.- Unit monolith width is governed by:
general
• Geometry (size) of the hydraulic passages
• Minimum clearances for concrete embedment around the passages and generator size
• Minimum clearances around the generators for ease of access and equipment handling.
Basically, either the first two or the last requirement governs the width of the unit monolith
in the direction normal to the flow. For low-head, low-speed units, the semispiral case or
the draft tube width will most likely determine the width of the monolith, but the generator
size and the required clearances could also be the controlling parameters.

4-1
In high-head plants, with higher speed units and steel spiral cases, the unit monolith width
is usually governed by the overall width of the spiral case (subsection E.5) and the mini-
\ mum thickness for concrete embedment.
-
.c
-o
'j;
-"
.;;
'j;"
0-"
.c
0
£
0
"
0
::;: ::;:
Shear wall,typ. Width saved, typ.
a. With shear walls. b. Without shear walls.
Figure 1-65.- Spiral case embedment.
Shear wails are required for powerhouse structUres on soft foundations to maintain during Shear walls
construction reasonably uniform dead load distribution on the foundation in the
upstream/downstream direction. Experience shows that shear walls generally are not
/"
\
I
required for powerlmuses on rock foundations and substantial savings in the overall unit
block width (and thus concrete) can be achieved, especially when there are several units.
As a rule, shear walls are not needed in underground powerlmuses because such are con-
structed only in competent rock.
Minimum thickness of the shear walls should be governed by shear requirements on any Shear wall
plane normal to the flow and by slenderness limitations under consideration of flexural com- thickness
pression. The minimum thickness of shear walls should be in the range of 18 to 24 inches to
avoid congestion of reinforcement and allow for ease of concrete placement. Larger power-
house structures will require thicker shear walls, up to 3 to 5 feet, possibly more.
b. Unit Monolith Width Determination Width

determination
) The following considerations should be made to determine the width of the unit monolith.
For economical reasons, especially for multi-unit installations, it is important that this
width is kept to a minimum.
To determine the width, first the geometry of the spiral (or semi-spiral) case (subsections
E.5 and E.6), the draft tube (subsection E.4.c.7) and the generator must be determined and
drawn as outlined under paragraphs d and e in this subsection.
C. Next, for powerhouses with concrete sernispiral cases, the thickness of the side walls at the
centerline of the units and must be determined.
)
Internal hydrostatic pressures against the walls and roof, and the corresponding reactions
must be considered. The latter may be tensile forces acting in addition to the flexural ten-
sion.
(
Preliminary shear and moment calculations (assuming partial fixity) should be prepared to
ascertain adequate yet economical wall thickness. 'Thickness requiring shear reinforcement
and more than two layers of flexural reinforcement would indicate that the walls are under-
designed.
On the other hand, very light reinforcement requirements would indicate over-designed
condition leading to uneconomical concepts for multi-unit plans.
For concepts with steel-lined spiral cases, the unit bay width is obtained from the overall
width of the spiral case plus the necessary concrete embedment thickness and, if required,
the shear wall thickness as discussed under the preceding paragraph.
The overall monolith width thus determined should be compared graphically with the gen-
erator housing dimensions - by drawing the generator outline on the plan for the spiral
case and the draft tube (fig. 1-65).
For single-unit installations, the clear distance between monolith bay end walls (running
parallel to the flow) and the generator housing should be about 10 feet minimum to allow
free passage and installation of auxiliary equipment
J B+0.5A
E ' D
3.80 min.
see Fig. 1-81
See Figures 1-76 through 1-80 and related
expressions for dimensions A, B, C, D, E and others.
Figure 1-06.- Water passage and generator outlines superimposed to determine

monolith width.
On figure 1-66 the draft tube or the generator appears to govern the width.
The center!ine of the draft tube should always coincide with the center!ine of the unit (.
monolith, as should the centerline of the integral intake.

+2..
The centerline of the unit (parallel to the flow) housed in a semi-spiral case will be offset
with respect to intake and draft tube centerlines. In that case the outline of the draft tube
elbow in plan becomes unsymmetrical at the end of the elbow and its centerline is skewed
and not parallel to the flow (fig. 1-67):
--f>f-.<..j__ lk. Drat t tu be and

Monolith
Maintain straight line, adjust intake and

draft tube end piers accordingly.
Figure 1~7.- Semi-spiral case and draft tube setting in monolith.
The centerlines· of units housed in steel spiral cases may, depending on their size, also be
offset from the centerline of the draft tube or they may coincide.
For simplicity in construction, it is preferable to maintain straight, unbroken outlines for

the unit monolith side walls as shown above. Zigzag geometry of the contraction joints
between the unit bays result if the centerline of draft tube is not offset and if minimum
embedment clearance for the spiral case is maintained.
~ Draft tube and Unit
Figure 1~.- Undesirable monolith outline.
The offset resulting from the arrangement indicated on fig. 1-68 complicates fonning, rein-
forcement arrangement (with projecting, intersecting reinforcement), all contributing to
l_, complications during construction and, therfore, should be avoided.
)

Monolith c. Unit Monolith Length. -The unit bay length may be comprised of the following sub-
length bays (fig. 1-63):
/-Integral Intake- for low-head plants only (head< 130 feet (40 meters))
~pstream SeJVice Bay- for low-head plants with somewhat longer water passages
(fig. 1-4) or for powerhouses (surface type and underground) separated from intakes
• Generating Bay- all types of powerhouses
• Downstream SeJVice Bay - mostly for surface installations, although numerous
underground plants have such a bay in the cavern
• Draft Tube Piers and Deck - integral with generating bay for surface powerhouses,
separated from powerhouse for underground installations
The width of each sub-bay is determined separately by starting out with the generating bay
and then working in upstream and downstream direction to determine:
• The length of water passages:

o Conduit to the turbine (spiral case, semi-spiral case with inlet)
o Intake (for low-head plants)
o Draft tube
o Tail tunnels (for underground powerhouses only)
• The usable space above the water passages and framing of the seJVice bays
For economic reasons, water passages are made as short as possible (with suppliers' input)
and the space for seJVice bays should be arranged to suit the geometry of the water pas-
sages and not the other way around.
Qenemting d. Generating Bay Width Determination.- Generatil}g.~llY._width is determined by suc-

bay wigth- cessive layout steps in the following sequencr:---- ·--·--·--·'"~---------··-··-----
__
.---.---~- ..---------~----~-·----~-o-·--o.-.. -• ··-···~···- •-•• ·~- "'-"· • ·----•·-·•-- •• "" -
Step 1:
• Determine semi-spiral or spiral case geometry or from turbine manufacturers informa-
tion. Draw plan and transverse (parallel to flow) section
Step 2:.
• Prepare the same information for the draft tube and combine both in one sketch.
Step 3:
• Draw substructure concrete around draft tube and spiral case. Determine needs for
lower galleries to connect with draft tube accesses for turbine runner inspection and
maintenance.
• Study turbine guard valve needs. For small installations, guard valves may be located
in the generating bay; large installations will require separate valve galleries (with
separate crane).
• Guard valves located in the generating bay must clear the generator barrel (generator
housing) and should be sufficiently downstream of the upstream wall to enable lift by
the powerhouse crane.
(

43
Step 4:
• Determine generator outline and setting by providing adequate access clearances to the
turbine pit and adequate structural concrete thickness for embedment and support of
thrust bearing and stator sole plates and their anchorages.
• Establish generator barrel (pedestal) outline and clearances with upstream and down-
stream walls. A minimum of I 0 feet is required for passage of personnel and installa-
tion of piping, etc., 12 to 15 feei- at least on one side of the barrel, is required for larger
·installations- all subject to appropriate clearance studies by electrical and mechanical
engineering. Depending on the layout, passages can be eliminated on one side of the
barrel, which then adjoins one of the walls.
Step 5:
• Establish location of inside faces of upstream and downstream walls with respect to the
guard valve (if used), lower galleries, and generator barrel.
Step 6:
• Determine crane capacity and governing lift height (turbine runner with shaft and rotor
with shaft).
• Draw crane geometry in required location above the unit and determine clearances
required between the walls and equipment. The wall location may have to be readjusted
to provide the clearances needed.
The above steps will lead to the preliminary width of the generating bay (in flow direction).
. .--;~-.- -·. ·c ---·-· .~.- :·:·:·.··· .-. ~----. •;-_ ---- ··-_· -~,· - -
a. Steps 1 and 2.
Erection clearance
2 1 0 11 to 3 1 on
Steel elbow liner

Craft tube piers (if required)
b. Step 3.
II
'
c. Steps 4 and 5.
Figure 1-69.- Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in substructure layout. [Wolf, 1961].

e. Generating Bay Height Determination. -The generating bay height is determined in Generating
the following steps - in extension of the sizing of the generating bay width described in bay height
steps 1 through 6 in the preceding subsection.
enerotor voltage bus

Generator- protective equipment
a. Step 5 -continued.
(
)
b. Steps 6 and 7.
Figure 1-70.- Steps 5, 6, and 7 in substructure layout.

Step 7: (continued from subsection d above)
• Detennine elevation of centerline of distributor (horizontal centerline of unit in aver-
tical section) based on turbine setting with respect to minimum tail water. (
Step 8:
• Provide a minimum of 4 feet, up to 10 feet for large units, of concrete above a steel
spiral case to provide mass as a measure to control vibrations.
For concrete semi-spiral cases the roof thickness is governed by structural considerations
to control bursting from internal pressures and the 4 feet minimum thickness may be insuf-
ficient except for small semi-spiral cases.
Step 9:
• Provide 6.5- to 7-foot-high access clearance to the turbine pit and about 4- to 5-foot
thickness above the access opening for lower generator bearing bracket anchor bolts.
Step 10:
• Draw a diagram of the rotor with shaft (simple outlines) and place it above and off the
center of the generator, in the widest space available, on the cross section as devel-
oped above, with ample clearances (12 in) with equipment. Check clearances with the
closest wall (or set the wall line to suit).
Step 11:
• Locate the bottom of the crane girder about 2 feet above the rotor shaft on the above
diagram to allow for hoisting connections. Draw crane outline based on published (
manufacturer's infonnation and provide at least 6 inches of clearance between the
trolleys and roof framing. Repeat the same with the turbine runner and shaft to deter-
I mine the governing condition for crane setting.
I Step 12:
I • Size superstructure framing and enclosure to complete the cross section.
Erection 4. Erection Bay Size

bay size
The erection bay size is governed by its intended functions, i.e., to provide the following:
• Unloading area for plant equipment received

• Erection area, principally for the turbine runner and the generator rotor- for stacking
of the poles; the stator may be erected in the machine pit (latest approach is that the
stator is also completely assembled in the erection bay)
• Erection and laydown space for periodic equipment overhaul
a. Unloading Area.- The unloading area should be wide enough to receive low-bed vehi-
cles with heavy equipment parts such as turbine runners, guard valves, transfonners, rotor
spider parts, generator bearing bracket, etc.
At least 25 feet of width should be provided, preferably at the outer end or one side of the (
erection bay, depending on the access door location.

47
\
Generator and
~-Erection Bay width I
25ft. wide unloading area

Transf. rails
l'"tl'---+-- Establish crane hook travel
limits to check equipment coverage
Lf-1\---+---j--JLLJ _1-.
r-- Turbine
Lay down and erection area
runner
5 ft. min_, clearance all around
Figure 1-71.- Minimum unloading and erection space.
On some plants, transfoimer rails may extend into the unloading area for initial assembly
and for maintenance after commissioning of the plant
• Where high tail waters prevail, access to the erection bay unloading area may be at a
higher level than the erection and laydown area.
(
• For semi-outdoor type installations, with access at the powerhouse roof level and
)
gantry cranes on the roof, the unloading area in most cases will be located in an area
immediately next to and in extension of the erection bay (outside the erection bay
structure) with gantry crane rails extended accordingly.
Based on recommendations by the generator manufacturers, stators that cannot be shipped

shop-assembled are shipped in segments and completely assembled on the erection floor
with overlapping laminations at joints between the individual segments. 1bis procedure
requires an additional space in the erection bay.
For multi-unit installations, space for simultaneous as~embly of a pair of stators and rotors
may have to be provided (depending on the installation schedule). In addition, there should
be enough space for the assembly of at least one turbine runner or rotor spider. The avail-
able space between the gcneraors of the first units may be used for runner assembly.
The 3--1500 MW and 3-700 MW unit Grand Coulee III Power Plant has two erection bays
- one at each end of the structure. One serves for the assembly of the turbine parts and the
other for the generators. In addition, the large Churchill Falls and Itaipu plants have sepa-
rate erection bays at each end of the structure.
Noimally, an erection bay length of about 1.5 times the unit monolith width sufficies.

b. Temporary Erection Sheds, Unloading Areas. - On some multi-unit projects tempo-
rary erection sheds have been utilized to expedite rotor and runner assembly in an area in
extension of the erection bay, either at the erection bay floor level, or at the roof level, pro-
vided there is sufficient free space for that purpose. For indoor plants, the end wall of the
superstructure must have provisions for crane girded extension and passage of the crane.
5. Integral Intake Geometry (Low-Head Plants)
For integral intake plants, once the powerhouse setting is determined, the integral intake
setting below the minimum poo-l level and its connection to the generating bay can be
developed. The inside geometry of the integral intake is based on hydraulic considerations
to obtain uniform accelerated flow conditions with minimum losses.
Permissible a. Permissible Velocities. - The following maximum velocities have been usad to deter-
velocities mine integral intake geometry:
m!s
Gross velocity through trashracks: 0.9-1.2 3.0-4.0
Maximum velocity at gate slots

(h =head at center of cross section): 0. 12-JZih 0.12-JZih
0. 14-JZih 0.14~
Minimum velocity at downstream end of
intake (inlet of semi-spiral case), but (
at least [USBR, 1976]: 1.5 5.0
Maximum velocity at the downstream end of

intake (to prevent air-entraining vortices): <3.0 <10.0
I
I
'
The velocity curve through the above control sections should have a shape free of abrupt
changes. See the information on figure 1-76.
Whenever the overall geometry of the intake inlet isgovelned by the permissible velocities at
the inlet, the width is dictated by the width of the semi-spiral case (fig. 1-76 and related data).
b. Inlet Geometry. - Because of the low velocities in the low-head integral intakes, the
inlet shape can be of much simpler geometry than for intakes with deep submergence pro-
vided for high-head plants (see Chapter 1, "Intakes").
Intake roof (1) Roof Profile. -The roof soffit intersection with the curtain wall face at the inlet is
shape either a wide-angle intersection between two flat planes (figs. 1-3, 1-4, 1-7, 1-14, and
1-18), or the soffit may be curved to various degrees (figs. 1-1, 1-2, 1-5, 1-6, 1-8, 1-11,
1-12, and 1-17). The need for curvature is dictated by the length of the intake. Longer
intake roof soffits can be formed with straight line segments with only small roundings at
the inlet (R = 12 to 24 in). For curved soffits, a transition radius is needed to connect with
the face of the curtain wall. In general, curved fanning should be kept to a minimum
because of the high cost.

(2) Pier Shape.- Unlike for spillway and outlet works intake with well-cmved (rounded) Pier shape
upstream pier noses, the sha~ of the power intake noses is incised by the trashrack slots
(fig. 1-72). To overcome the disruption in the pier shape by the trashracks, the trashrack
bars that lie within the pier limits are located and slanted such that they are continuous with
the pier face through the trashracks.
Pier nose ma_y be

extended upstream
and shaped to suit
a. Detail A.
--rT (Bulkhead slot

1 ' r;_ Gate si ot
Detail A
<fr/J&~P~
(
Trashrack
-'-===---,.!
-I±= c~lntake
r.
£"'<.Unit
_ · Flow _
.;...,...._--
-~$$//~
I : .
-4L
b. Plan.
Figure 1-72.- Intake pier noses.
To obtain the desired flow distribution to the stay ring, the downstream noses of the intake
piers are asymmetrical (fig. 1-72). The noses themselves are cylindrical with a minimum
radius of 12 inches (30 cm) for structural reasons to avoid stress concentrations.
On the side of the main spiral entrance (either left or right) the 12-inch radius in most cases
is tangent to a straight pier face. The other side of the pier curves towards the pier nose to
guide the flow into the spiral.

E. SURFACEPOWERHOUSESUBSTRUCTURE
Substructure The substructure of surface (type A) powerhouses (all six subtypes illustrated in siJbsection
B.l), basically comprises the part of the structure that lies below the turbine floor an<{,the
lowest floors of the sub-bays, i.e., the structure below the top of the water conduit roofike.
For powerhouses with vertical axis units, the substructure houses the draft tube elbow, the
draft tube structure and. the semi-spiral or spiral case, which ever is used.
(
Figure 1-73.- Staning, Enns, Austria. Units: 3@ 11 MW; H11111X= 14 m (45.9 ft).
I (Ennskraftwerke, 1946)•
.Aor
·,
horizontal axis units, part of the inlet and the draft tube are housed in the substructure.
Flood
Flood
Normal Max. Pool
Figure 1-74.- Pierre-Benite, Rhone, France. Units: 4@ 20 MW; H = 7.95 m (26.1 ft).
(Campagnie Nationale Du Rhone, 1963).

47
Integral intakes. for vertical axis units and intakes for horizontal axis units fonn, with the
substructure~ethe structure that retains the reservoir. The hydrostatic, plus seismic loads if
applicable, are transmitted through intake walls and piers, and draft tube walls and piers,
into the continuous intake and draft tube foundation slab and, through it, into the foundation.
Thus the intake and draft tube walls and piers are the principal buttresses that resist the late
era! and vertical loads and carry them into the foundation.
1. Powerhouses on Soft Foundations Powerhouses

on soft
a. General. -The substructures on soft foundations •. such as sand, gravel, various moraine foundations
deposits, or soft rock, must be designed for low allowable foundatiorrpressures to control
differential settlements (figs. 1-4, 1-10, and 1-21). Consequently, the foundation slabs
should be thick enough to provide the necessary stiffness for acceptable load distribution.
The structure should be proportioned to obtain foundation pressures as unifonn as possible.
b. Intake and Draft Tube Foundation Slab.- The intake and draft tube foundation slabs
for the Sam Raybum plant (fig. 1-4) were for instance, 13 and 9 feet (5.8 and 2.7 m) thick,
respectively, and heavily reinforced. During conceptual studies, the above aspects should
be recognized to preclude substantial changes in excavation and concrete quantities when
final design is made.
(I) Preliminary Slab Foundation Thicknesses. - Preliminary slab thicknesses can be

quickly detennined based on rough stability calculations. Approximate shear and moment
depth requirements should be assessed for the foundation slabs at the wall and pier faces
(based on conservative shear strength or design stress assumptions).
(2)Reinforcement Layers. - For moment requirements it is not considered advisable, in Reinforcement

interest of acceptable concrete placement, to use more than three layers of reinforcement. layers
For the same reasons, bar spacing should not be less than 8 inches (20 cm) o.c. To avoid
surprises, these requirements should be assessed during conceptual studies.
2. Powerhouses on Competent Rock Foundations
When powerhouses are founded on competent rock, as most powerhouses are, the loads are Powerhouses
transmitted to the foundations through the rigid walls and piers of the intake, where such on competent
are integral with the powerhouse, and the draft tube piers. rock
foundations
a. Intake Foundation,Slabs.- The intake foundation slabs must be thick enough to resist
uplift pressures that vary between the reservoir and tailwa:er?~sures, with appropriate
\ j
reductions when drains are provided as discussed elsewhere?e Guidelines.
· Depending on the head, the intake foundation slab thickness can vary from 4 to 20 feet (1.2
to 6 m), or even more. Therefore, the thickness requirements should be quickly checked as
briefly outlined for slabs on soft foundations.
Draft
b. Draft Tube Elbow Encasement. - The draft tube elbow encasement should be of cone tube elbow
servative concrete thicknesses to receive the thrust acting through the stay ring. encasement

At least 3 feet (0.9 m), better, perhaps 4 feet (1.2 m) clearance is needed around the draft
tube steel liner for erection of same. The surrounding space is backfilled after erection of
the liner as second-stage concrete.
The first stage concrete should not be less than 3 feet thick at the narrowest section to pro-
vide sufficient space for reinforcement and ease in concrete placement.
Thus, the total minimum elbow concrete thickness adds to about 5 feet (1.5 m) for struc-
tures of medium size founded on competent rock.
The draft tube elbow foundation thickness is greatly affected by the configuration and
thickness of the intake foundation slab (figs. 1-4 and 1-8).
Unwatering c. Unwatering Pipe Embedment. - At the downstream end of the draft tube elbow, the
pipe embed- foundation slab is usually thickened to provide for embedment' of the draft tube unwatering
ment pipes. These connect to each draft tube and run under the draft tubes either to the unwater-
ing sump located, generally, in the erection bay, or also between units in multi-unit power-
houses.
The size of the unwatering pipes, depending on the draft tube volume, may vary between
12 to 18 inches. With a clearance of at least one pipe size diameter provided at the top and
bottom for embedment, the minimum slab thickness may vary between 3 feet, for smaller
powerhouses, to 6 feet or more, for medium and larger powerhouses.
Structural requirements to resist uplift loads may require thicknesses larger than indicated {
' .
above, in the order of 10 to 12 feet (3.0 to 3.6 m).
The powerhouses of the La Grande complex of J ames Bay, Quebec, do not have embedded
drains for complete unwatering of the draft tubes. Instead, a drain header below the draft
tube access gallery dewaters the draft tubes below the access opening. Portable pumps are
used for complete unwatering [Ludwig and Olive, 1980].
d. Draft Tube Foundation Slabs.- In the draft tube area, where the draft tube walls, and
intermediate piers for larger draft tubes, transfer the load to the foundation, the draft tube
floors can be rather thin and need to resist only uplift pressures from tailwater.
Design for full uplift pressures is required only when the rock is very jointed and highly
permeable and cannot be improved with consolidation grouting.
Draft tube slabs· on rock foundations that are reasonably watertight (no open joints visible
on the excavation surface or with joints that can be sealed) can be provided with weep
holes to relieve pressures.
Weep holes The weepholes are spaced approximately 8 to 10 feet on centers, and are drilled 2 to 5 feet
(0.6 to 1.5 m) or more into rock. Assuming that 50 percent of the weepholes eventually
clog, the draft tube foundation slabs can be designed for, say, 50 percent of the actual uplift
pressures.

On soft rocks with higher compressibility, it is assumed that foundation pressures act also
against the draft tube floor and the floor is designed accordingly.
For conceptual studies, it is recommended to check draft tube slab thicknesses for the latter
approach which will assure conservative excavation and concrete quantities. Design refine-
ments, that reduce quantities, can be attempted during the final design stage if contractual
provisions allow for such changes without price increase.
For initial layouts, draft tube slab thickness can be assumed about 4 to 6 feet thick and then
quickly checked for shear and moment requirements.
~ment requirement check for a moment Clfll..<~ill suffice for such purposes.
Heavier foundation slabs may be required if a powerhouse, especially a semi-indoor type, is
designed for high-flood tailwater levels. It should, however, be kept in mind that deeper
foundation slabs require deeper excavations and also result in higher uplift pressures along
the foundation contact area.
Heavier thicknesses may also be required if the draft tubes extend appreciably downstream
beyond the draft tube piers .and resist foundation pressures as cantilevers. Cantilever type
designs should be avoided. Instead, draft tube piers should be extended to brace the draft
tube extensions.
3. Foundation Slab Outlines Foundation

/ slab outlines
It is recommended that the foundation slab contact area with the foundation be developeq as
simple and with as few break points in foundation planes as possible. The more complicated
the excavation is, the more it costs. Also, reinforcement becomes more complicated requir-
ing additional lap lengths at each break point.
Any deepened "cutoff' keys (figs. 1-2, 1-9, 1-10, 1-13, and 1-15) at the upstream ends of
integral intakes foundations and draft tube outlets should, preferably, be avoided. The fol-
lowing disadvantages result with provision of such keys:
• Disturbance of good rock by blasting resulting in a more effective seepage path, i.e. the
opposite effect is achieved
• Complication of excavation at premium cost
• Complication of reinforcement resulting in higher cost
If seepage "cutoffs" are needed at the upstream and downstream ends of the structure, other,
more effective means can be utilized depending on the type of foundation material:
• Steel sheet piles where they can be applied

• Consolidation grouting
• Concrete aprons with sealed joints at the structure
• Impermeable clay blankets
\
;
1-67 ASCE/EPRI Guides I 989
I
~
~outing and Drainage Galleries. -

I Grouting and
drainage
If cut-off grouting and drain curtains are needed
~oran integral intake powerhouse, then the upstream end of the intake foundation slab may
galleries have to be deepened to include a grouting/drainage gallery (fig. 1-36). The grouting (
gallery size and location with respect to the upstream face of the foundation slab should be
as indicated below:
INTAKE FLOOR
... ' ...

FLOW .0
IT·.
"'
t b
"'"
a
_j ·.
" "0
/\
Figure 1-75.- Grouting and drainage gallery location.
b = Gallery width, should at least 5 feet which has proved to be adequate for
numerous foundation grouting galleries in concrete dams.
h = Gallery height, 8 feet minimum.

(
t = Gallery clearance with respect to surfaces exposed to reservoir. USBR
recommends that the distance be not less than 0.05H,where His the reservoir
head at the gallery level, or not be less than 5 feet. These minimum require-
ments should he confinned by check for shear requirements at the
gallery roof and floor.
d = 1bickness of gallery floor slab when in contact with foundation. Tills thickness
can be somewhat less than the clearance, t, because there is no direct exposure
to the reservoir in case of cracking. A minimum thickness of 3 feet is
recommended, however, the actual requirements to resist actual uplift and
grouting pressures shall be detennined,
Walls and 4. Walls and Piers oflntegral Intakes and Draft Thbes
piers
Intennediate piers are provided for structural reasons when the intake and draft tube widths
become too wide to:
• Be closed off by a single gate

• Support the concrete gravity weights at and above the. intake and draft tube roof level
• Resist the reservoir and tailwater loads and to deliver them to the foundation
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 l-D8

49
a. Integral Intake ·walls and Piers. -Except for horizontal axis unit intakes and integral Intake walls
intakes for small power plants, usually integral intakes are designed with at least two gate and piers
openings and one central intennediate pier. This provision is made for two reasons:
• To provide needed buttress effect against the reservoir pressures

• To keep the service gate widths, and thus the water loads acting on the gates and their
hoists to a minimum so that a fast gate closure is ensured
The integral intake acts as the dam. It resists full reservoir pressures when the gates are
closed. The intake walls and intennediate piers must be designed accordingly to resist all
the imposed loads from the reservoir.
Because the main purpose for the intake is to convey water from the reservoir to the tur-
bines, the hydraulic requirements dictate the width of the water passages. The thicknesses
I of the intake walls and piers are governed by structural requirements imposed by the need
to contain the flow and the resulting hydrostatic effects within the water passages.
By necessity, the design of the intake walls and piers shall be conservative to limit defor-
mations and cracking. However, overly conservative designs will result in excessive widths
of the unit monoliths, with the resulting cost increases, especially for multi-unit power-
houses.
,l
For free-standing walls (not placed against concrete and anchored thereto) the thicknesses
may range between 4 feet and more than 10 feet depending on the head. For most cases a
thickness in the range between 5 and 8 feet will suffice.
The thickness of the intennediate piers will be somewhat less than that for the walls,
except when minimum,pier thickness provisions, as discussed for draft tubes in subsection
D.2.e, govern to satisfy· the depths requirements for gate slots and minimum concrete thick-
ness required between them.
Thus, minimum thickness for intennediate piers will be about 6 feet 8 inches (see fig.
1-64) unless the depth of the gate slots can be less than 20 inches as assumed in the refer-
enced figure.
b. Intermediate Pier Downstream Nose Location.- The length of the intake intennediate Intermediate
piers is dictated both by structural and hydraulic requirements. pier
Structurally, it is desirable to carry the intennediate pier downstream as far as possible to

provide all available support for the intake roof and the walls above. With reference to fig-
ures 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-7, and 1-14, the downstream nose preferably should extend far
enough downstream to support the headwall of the powerhouse that is exposed to the reser-
voir.
It is true that for supporting the gravity loads such walls can easily span between the intake
walls as deep beams, but it is also very desirable to obtain for the entire structure as much
rigidity as possible against the reservoir pressures.

The above structural considerations are, however, preceded somewhat by hydraulic consid-
erations in that the intermediate pier must be terminated at some distance upstream from
the stay ring.
The location of the downstream nose of the piers (if more than one) shall be selected in
such a way that the intermediate piers do not interfere with uniform distribution of the flow
around the stay ring. Moreover, the downstream noses of the piers shall be arranged and
shaped so that they serve as guides for uniform flow distribution around the stay ring.
Because of the foregoing requirements, if two intermediate piers are provided, their noses
may be slightly differently shaped and may not be at the same location from unit center
line. There are exceptions to this simple arrangement in that some plants have very intri-
cate intermediate pier arrangements to obtain the desired flow distribution, e.g. Bonneville,
Columbia River [Mosonyi, 1957).
Since, generally, the turbine designers (manufacturers) are responsible for determination of
the spiral case inlet geometry, they will also determine the pier nose location. For prelimi-
nary layouts, however, it can be assumed that the pier noses are located as indicated on fig-
ure 1-76 based on the expressions for the dimensions given.
For the pmpose of preliminary powerhouse layouts, the following information is given
from publications by de Siervo and de Leva [1976 and 1977) for the outlines of spiral cases ' !
and draft tubes of Kaplan and Francis units, and by de Siervo and Lugaresi [1978) for the
casings and spiral cases of Pelton units. In addition to the expressions given here, the refer-
enced publications provide experience curves plotted on the basis of statistical information
obtained from a great number of plants investigated. !
Kaplan units (1} Kaplan Units I
1 If) ~14EE+
1 I
_ __,_,~
a. Concrete semi-spiral case. b. Steel spiral case.
Figure 1-76.- Kaplan unit spiral cases. [de Siervo and de Leva, 1977/1978).

Runner size: Runner size
DM = 84.5 ku (H,J0.5Jn ku = 0.79 + 1.61 x 1Q-3ns
Semi-spiral case dimensions: Semi-spiral

case
Inlet velocity: V2 = 2.44- 1.19 x 1Q-3ns
Dimensions (DM):
B2 = 1!(0.76 + 8.92 x 1Q-5nsl C2 = 1/(0.55 + 1.48 x 1Q-5ns)
Dz = 1.58-9.05 x 1Q-5ns Ez = 1.48-2.11 x 1Q-5ns
Fz = 1.62-3.18 X 10·5ns Gz = 1.36 + 7.79/ns
Hz = 1.19 + 4.69/ns lz = 0.44- 21.47ns
Lz = 1.44 + 105.29/ns Mz = 1.03 + 136.28/ns
Steel spiral case dimensions: Steel spiral

case
Inlet velocity: V 1 = 3.17 + 759.21/ns
Dimensions (DM): /
B1 = 1.26 + 3.79 X 104 ns
Cl= 1.46 + 3.24 X 10-4ns D1 = 1.59 + 5.74 X 10-4ns
£1 = 1.21 + 2.71 X l0-4ns F1 = 1.45 +72.17/ns
G1 = 1.29 + 4.63/ns H1 = 1.13 + 31.86/ns
!1 = 0.45- 31.80/ns L1 = 0.74 + 8.7 X 10-4ns

)
•
M1 = 1/(2.06 -1.20 X l0-5ns)
Based on the above, concrete semi-spiral case width= 3.04 DM, and steel spiral case width Spiral case
=2.76DM. width
To enable design of concrete spiral cases for heads between 30 and 40 meters (100 and 130
ft), their width should be reduced below the above value. This is possible without sacrific-
ing turbine efficiency.

/
<- ·-: -~-.,~:--:···~-:-;" -.-:-. ---:·: ; •• .. -.· · . · . - -·.· • •- . • ••• ~: .-r:
~
/ ·.-·-.--.-.-·.-.-.--•
( .. ·.
1-·
t"··-~r~~
"·
H,
.._j -lr
Figure 1-77.- Kaplan unit wheel dimensions. [de Siervo and de Leva, 1977/1978].
------------_ ...-- . •- u
........____________
1.--~
(
Figure 1-78.- Kaplan unit draft tube dimensions. [de Siervo and de Leva, 1977/1978].
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1-72 '

71
Draft tube dimensions:
Inlet velocity: V3 = 8.42+250.25/ns
Dimensions (DM):
H1 =0.24 + 7.82 x 1Q·5n3 N = 2.00-2.14 X 10·6n 3
0 = 1.40- 1.65 X I0·5n 3 P = 1.26- 16.35/n 3
Q =0.66- 18.40/ns R = 1.25-7.98 x 1Q-5n3
S = 4.26 + 201.51/n3 T= 1.20+ 5.12 X 104 n3
Z = 2.58 + 102.66/ns
(2) Francis Units
---'----~-.
Figure 1-79.- Francis units runner and spiral case outlines.

[de Siervo and de Leva, 1976].
Runner size:
ku = 0.31 + 2.5 X 10·3n3
c·.· DyD3 = 1/(0.96 + 0.00038n3 )
1-73 ASCE!EPRl Guides 1989

H 1!D3 = 0.94 + 0.()()()()25n, H')/D 3 =0.05 + 42/n, for 50 <n, <110
H')/D3 = 1/{3.16- 0.0013n,) for 110 <ns <350 (
Spiral case dimensions:
Inlet velocity: V1 = 844 n;0.44
Dimensions (D3):
A= 1.2- 19.56/n, B = 1.1 + 54.8/n,
C = 1.32 + 49.25/n, D = 1.50 + 48.8/n,
E =0.98 + 63.60/n, F = 1.0 + 131.4/n,

G = 0.89 + 96.5/n, H= 0.79 + 81.75/n,
I= 0.1 + 0.00065n, L =0.88 + 0.00049n,

M= 0.60 + 0.()()()()15n,
Draft tube dimensions:
-~---------f~·-.
I
V
I
z~·=========~J4
~
-------t-------t,.--.,.._1
t==
~---T------5--------~
Figure 1-80.- Francis units draft tube dimensions. [de Siervo and de Leva, 1976].

72
Inlet velocity: Vz,; 874 + 248/ns
Dimensions (D3):
N = 1.54 + 203.5/ns 0 = 0.83 + 140.7/ns
P = 1.37- 0.00()~6ns 1 "·· Q - 0.58+22.6/ns
R = 1.6- 0.0013/ns S = ns/(-9.28 + 0.25ns)
T = 1.50 + 0.00019/ns U = 0.51 - 0.0007ns
V= 1.10 + 53.7/ns Z = 2.63 + 33.8/ns
(3) Pelton Units:
Casing dimensions:
L = 0.78 + 2.06D3 G = 0.196 + 0.376D3
F = 1.09 + 0.71L H = 0.62 + 0.513L
I= 1.28 + 0.37L
Spiral case dimensions:
Inlet velocity: V= 0.82 + 0.358 Hn
B = 0.595 + 0.694L C = 0.362 + 0.68L
D = 0.219 + 070L E = 0.43 + 0.70L

~------l..r
~-;u~~
\ :i
Slruct~.n~l
F---------1"'"-'l...._..Lgt rft!UII'I!I'IInh
::; "'1'11Qydl1r ---------lJ-
---lL \lys~~
~f!p;er wktth
---._];~~:::..~
...__ __,c~~~·.:•
~
-----....{__,-_ll
I
I--L35 \ ~-----~... : ',
PROJECTED PLAN ' PROJECTED PL.AN \
-~~JtriMor
T. .1 Turbont rllll'el" di~e.
DOUBLE PIER SINGLE PIER

DRAFT TUBE DRAFT TUBE
D, • 1 fT(l..I)IIIOR IIIORE DJ•~ T07n
11.12 TCI !:.llM)
(
CONICAL TUBE PROPORTIONS
Preftrred: R,•D 3 :L•4.5D,
ID, Vel.• 30ft.~(9M) 11., 'o'!l. •7.5ftt5!Z.Jmll}
• L Cl!1d R. mor wry os required by Dlly
sptcific instglllltion .
. '
I
I
I Toilwoter
or.tunitfulf·~
All1ns.odt corners ol concrett

ftl lvit tilll'h lit Cl.$ o, rodilll.
on tt.1 surloet will opprooc~

stot" leN 0111 atnmphtn.
CONE AND ELBOW

DRAFT TUSE
0,•tT04FT.!0.61 T01.1!2M) I06~D-211
(
~.,,,_.,_-~~•oo• [USBR.l976' fig, 18].
f7
_, ·-+-
/
1-Pi-. I ;)--·- J
Figure 1-82.- Pelton unit casing dimensions. [de Siervo and Lugaresi, 1978).
) .,_
1---e----1i--c,--
Figure 1-83.- Pelton unit spiral case dimensions. [de Siervo and Lugaresi, 1978).

Draft tube c. Draft Tube Outline - Walls and Piers. - Preliminary draft tube outlines can be deter-
walls and mined from the information given on figures 1-78 and 1-80 for Kaplan and Francis units,
piers respectively. The information presented is helpful to establish the overall draft tube dimen-
sions, which is all that is needed for conceptual studies. c
(~·:
Detailed dimensions that can be used for final designs for the draft tube geometry are sup-
plied by the turbine manufacturer.
The draft tube floor can be sloped upward as much as 4 horizontal to 1 vertical for econo-
my in excavation.
The draft tube walls and piers perform somewhat similar functions to their intake counter-
parts except to a lesser degree as far as hydrostatic thrust is concerned.
The draft tube walls and piers can be envisioned as extensions of the intake walls and piers
and, as such, they are involved to carry the reservoir pressure overturning (lateral) effects
into the foundation. They resist higher bearing pressure intensities rt;an the intake walls
and piers because of the higher foundation pressures under the draft tube.
Also, the draft tube piers and walls act as counterforts to resist lateral tail water pressures
against the downstream wall and the uplift effects. The upstream areas of the draft tube
walls and piers receive substantial gravity loads from the substructure and the superstruc-
ture above.
The need for intermediate piers will he governed by the overall width requirements for the
draft tubes, which is discussed under section D. Large, slow-speed units require wider draft
tubes with at least one or, in many cases, two intermediate piers.
The number of intermediate .piers is governed mostly by structural requirements discussed

above and less for reasons to limit the gate width as is the case for intakes. The draft tubes
are not closed under operating conditions and their gates serve only as closure bulkheads
for inspection and maintenance.
For structural reasons, it is preferable to locate the upstream noses of the piers as far
upstream as possible, preferably, reaching under the downstream wall of the generating
bay. However, turbine design dictates that, for best flow conditions, the pier noses be locat-
ed approximately 1.35D (D =turbine discharge opening diameter) downstream of the unit
centerline, as indicated on figure 1-81. This should be checked against the information on
figure 1-78.
Semi-spiral 5. Semi-Spiral Case

case
The term "semi-spiral" denotes an incomplete spiral when compared with a steel spiral cas-
ing with a nose angle of approximately 320° to 340°. The angle for the nose or baffle vane
(the last stay vane in the semi-spiral) of the semi-spiral is approximately+ 180° depending
on the design by the turbine manufacturer (fig. 1-76).

The semi-spiral case is formed in concrete with varying cross-sections. around the stay ring
(fig 1-76a). Preliminary information can be quickly obtained from [de Siervo and de Leva,
1977/1978].
The walls of the semi-spiral cases are stressed in hoop tension in a horizontal plane and as
vertical wall sections spanning between the floor and roof. They must be sufficiently rigid
to control deformations and related cracking and must be designed to be watertight. Low
water content in the concrete mix and precooled aggregate for concrete placement lead to
good results. Reinforcement requirements should be checked for acceptable crack widths
which, preferably, should not exceed 0.008 inch (0.2 mm).
Designs with concrete semi-spiral cases are feasible for heads up to about 130 feet (40 m).
It is advisable to make the semi-spiral cases as narrow as feasible hydraulically to reduce

not only the overall length of the powerhouse but also, especially for the upper head
ranges, to reduce the hydrostatic pressures on the roof and the corresponding reactions act-
ing as tension forces on the walls. For this latter reason, the upper and lower cones, which
support the stay ring, should be made as wide as hydraulically feasible at their contact with
the roof.
According to Mosonyi [1957], the semi-spiral case width varies between 2.7 and 3.5D
where D is turbine discharge opening. This variation in width is related to the specific
speed of the turbine as given by the preceding expressions by de Siervo and de Leva. The
lower values of the above coefficients should be used for the higher head ranges for rea-
sons explained above. An ongoing study for a plant with 180-MW units to be operated
under a 36-meter (118-ft) head and a semi-spiral case width of 2,750 feet has been con-
firmed by manufacturers.
According to the USBR, spiral case inlet area should be checked so that the inlet velocities
do not exceed 0.14(2gh)0.5. More recent information is given in the preceding expressions
of de Siervo and de Leva.
a. Semi-Spiral Case Roof.- The roof of the semi-spiral case spans between the stay ring
cones and the outside walls. On the upstream side, at the inlet, the roof gains support also
from the upstream head wall or upstream wall of the generating bay (fig. 1-84).
The semi-spiral case roof protects the interior of the powerhouse against the water in the
spiral case acting on the underside of the roof under reservoir pressures.
The top of the roof forms the turbine floor, which may contain blocked-out channels for
mechanical piping, electrical cables and conduits. There are also large blackouts for the
servo motors.
· The blackouts reduce the effective structural depth of the otherwise massive roof slab and,
therefore, when the slab thickness is estimated to determine the turbine floor level, an addi-
tional thickness of at least 12 inches should be added to the structural slab depth that other-
wise would be considered adequate.
'-.-.' ·.' .- .-.~

HEAD WALL
A" , GENERATOR
BARREL
... • 0 " •• b,
..
. . • A
SPIRAL CASE ROOF

A
;
STAY RING CONE
Figure 1--M.- Semi-spiral case roof support.
Minimum semi-spiral case roof thicknesses are in the range of about 5 feet or even some-
what less.
Steel 6. Steel Spiral Case

spiral case
For heads over about 130 feet (40 m), when integral intakes and semi-spiral cases become (
structurally infeasible, steel spiral cases are used.
Steel spiral cases may be connected to reinforced concrete conduits (fig. 1-25) in the lower
head ranges, or to steel penstocks when concrete conduits can not be designed economical-
ly for the reservoir pressures resulting from higher heads (fig. 1-24). For preliminary lay-
outs, steel spiral case dimensions can be obtained from figure 1-76.
To control cracking of the concrete contact surface with the steel spiral case under operat-
ing pressures, spiral cases should preferably be embedded under hydrostatically pressur-
ized conditions. The pressures maintained during embedment shall be equivalent to normal
operating pressures. Spiral case embedment follows hydrostatic pressure testing usually
performed under pressures equivalent to 150 percent of the static head. For plants with
high heads, spiral case embedment under pressure, from a civil engineering point of view,
is the preferred procedure because less load is transferred to the concrete. Reduced internal
pressures against the embedment concrete greatly reduces the possibility for cracking and,
thus; the potential for seepage from tail water.
Lately, some manufacturers have recommended that, even for high-head plants, spiral case
pressurizing is not required during embedment. In that case, appropriate structural investi-
gations should be performed to determine how the surrounding concrete would be affected.
Because steel spiral cases are designed to resist full operating pressures, including any
(
dynamic effects, the encasement concrete resists only a part of the latter.
\
a. Concrete Cover over the Spiral Case. -The concrete cover over the steel spiral case is Concrete
required to fonn the turbine floor and the foundation for the generator barrel. cover of
spiral case
All the embedment concrete also provides a part of the weight needed for powerhouse sta-
bility and the necessary mass to control vibrations. The larger the units capacity-wise, the
more important the presence of the mass is.
Minimum concrete cover over the spiral case can be less than Jhe thickness of the roofs for
reinforced concrete semi -spiral cases. However. the thickness should be sufficient for
embedment of the generator barrel reinforcement. Based on the above:
• Minimum spiral case cover should not be less than about 3 feet
• The thickness of the cover will, for most cases, exceed 3 feet and be in the range of 5 to 8
feet, and, quite often, more than that depending also on convenient floor level selection.
7. Draft Tube Roof Draft tube

roof
The draft tube roof can be divided in two parts:
• The downstream part of the draft tube inlet cone and elbow embedment
• The part that fonns the draft tube downstream of the elbow extending beyond the gen-
erating bay (figs. 1-1 through 1-7 and others)
Because of the draft tube elbow geometry, the upstream part of the draft tube roof (fig.
) 1-85) is a very deep massive feature that receives a substantial part of the gravity loads of
the structure, the weight of the turbines and generators, and the hydraulic thrust. Its weight
contributes to overcome the uplift forces.
The massive outline of the elbow roof offers a convenient mass for provision of a service
gallery along the downstream side of the units. Access ways to the individual draft tube
inlet cones for inspection and maintenance of the turbine runners are provided as stubs
from the service gallery (fig. l-85a and b). Some plants, for ease of installation of mainte-
nance platforms through the draft tube cone, also have an upstream service gallery.
The downstream part of the roof usually tapers in downstream direction or the downstream
end of it can be of uniform thickness, depending on provisions made above the draft tube.
If a downstream service bay is provided above the draft tube, the top of the draft tube roof
forms the lowest floor in that bay. Consequently, the draft tube roof must be designed for
the applicable uplift pressures. For major plants a minimum draft tube roof thickness of 4
feet or O.lOH (H = depth of submergence), whichever governs, is provided at the inside
face of the downstream wall to ensure adequate watertightness and reinforcement tie-in
with the downstream service bay wall, which acts as a headwall against the tailwater (figs.
) 1-85 and 1-86).
The minimum roof thickness should be checked against actual shear requirements at the
wall and pier faces assuming that only concrete, without any shear reinforcement, resists
the unbalanced shears.
\. 1-81 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

/
Downstream 8. Downstream Headwall
head waD
If a downstream service bay is provided, its enclosure against the tailwater is provided by
the draft tube roof and the downstream headwaU (fig. 1-86).
The headwaU, sometimes also caUed the bulkhead waD, spans vertically between the draft
tube roof and the draft tube deck. It may also be supported horizontally by the draft tube
piers. Interior floor slabs provide intermediate supports. For this reason, such slabs shaD be
sufficiently thick to control slenderness. The minimum thickness recommended is 18 to 24
inches, or even more, depending on the waD submergence and the resulting hydrostatic
pressures.
r-·----iii!P.*
;
'!........
~ ·-
·-
"'i
_,,.1!/Jip Ui·"•'... '
~ ., .
f•>"•D'"
Figure 1-85.- Generating and downstream service bays, Sam Rayburn, Angelina, (
Texas. (Courtesy of Harza).

The d!'llft tube piers, depending on how much they are extended downstream of the head
wall, may effectively act with the wall section as T-beam webs. The wall itself then also
spans horizontally between the piers.
For deep tailwater submergence, the length of the pier protrusion downstream of the head
wall should he determined to suit the structural design requirements. On the other hand, if
the piers suppon a transformer deck, they will probably provide more width than required
for the wall design.
During conceptual studies, it is advisable to be on the conservative side and to assume that
the wall is supported vertically in one-way action spanning between the slabs without the
assistance of the piers. The wall thickness, as before for other principal structural compo-
nents, shall be quickly assessed on basis of simplified shear and moment calculations.
As in the case of the dl'llft tube floor, for major plants the minimum thickness provisions at
the draft tube roof level should be 4 feet or O.!OH. This thickness will be substantially
more for deeper submergences and can be reduced g!'lldually, by tapering the outside face
of the wall, for higher elevations. The thickness can also be reduced in steps at the interme-
diate floor levels thus gaining more space, if needed, for the upper floor levels. With this
latter arl'llttgement, the inside face vertical wall reinforcement becomes offset and, thus,
more complicated where the offsets occur (fig. l-86b).
0
,.;
q
M
.___ __:_37:..:·::::am:.:..__ _ -JJ ~

a. Plan.
·ir
•.'
1
1{:... ·.... : o: .. ..c:_.J
~ •
REINFORCEMENT WITH AND WITHOUT WALL OFF-SETS

•
A-A
b. Section.
Figure 1-86.- Downstream service bay wall.

Draft tube 9. Draft Thbe Deck
deck
a. Function. - The draft tube deck functions primarily as access to the draft tube gate
slots for handling of the draft tube gates. For indoor powerhouses (figs. 1-3 through 1-7,
Function 1-9, and 1-10), an appropriate traveling gantry crane is located on the draft tube deck to
handle the gates. The main powerhouse gantry crane for semi-indoor (figs. 1-11, and
1-13), or outdoor powerhouses (fig. 1-34) generally reaches over the draft tube gate slots
negating the need for a special draft tube gantry crane.
When the draft tube deck is also used as transfonner deck, the deck width increases appre-
ciably. The additional width required is for the transfonner bank itself, with adequate pas-
sage clearances with other transfonners during installation and possible removal for their
maintenance.
illtimately, the draft tube deck functions also as the roof over the space of the Downstream
Service Bay. As such, it must be reinforced for crack control to make the deck watertight
Thickness b. Thickness. - If the deck does not carry any transfonners, it can, depending on the
spans, be a relatively light slab, yet still about 8 to 16 inches thick, spanning between the
generating bay wall and the downstream headwall, if the latter exists. Otherwise, a span-
drel for the gantry crane rail or some wall framing below (figs. 1-1, 1-7, and 1-14) would
provide the support. If there are no rooms below, the piers provide supports in the longitu-
dinal direction.
't.GATESLOT~.!
FLOW
b . ~DRAFT TUBE DECK l
#. ~ •• ~ .a . ... : A •· : . . ... A •• • .0. •
,:•r--rl----------~:·: I
6
L OIL SUMP UNDER
TRANSFORMER
:: _;
I
I
DOWNSTREAM SERVICE BAY

'
Figure 1-87.- Draft tube deck framing.
With transfonners located on the deck, the framing requirements increase substantially,
depending on the size of the transfonners and, because of the pressure of the oil overflow
sumps below the transfonners.

I
I Two choices are available for the deck design:
I
II \, • Slab and beam construction
• One-way flat slab construction with local beam reinforcement or beams as needed
I under the transformers only
I
The first choice, with the beams running in the upstream and downstream directions and
framing into a spandrel along the gate slots, or supported on a wall is a conventional
approach; however, it results in a rather complicated framing (fig. 1-87) of the deck slab,
beams, spandrel, and the oil sumps under the transformers.
Wherever possible, it may be advantageous to eliminate the beams supporting the deck and
make the latter thicker, say 24 to 36 inches, as needed to support the loads. More concrete
will be required but the construction will be simplified. The flat soffit of the deck is also
preferable for any exposed conduit or piping runs hung from the deck if the headroom is
limited.
('

Superstructure F. SUPERSTRUCTURE
1. General
Under "superstructure" it is understood that the part of the powerhouse that lies above the
turbine floor (figs. 1-73 and 1-74) and the draft tube roof, when a service bay is provided,
may comprise, depending on the concept of the powerhouse, the following components:
• Generator barrel (or pedestal) with or without generator floor, again depending on the
layout
• All interior framing and walls above the turbine floor in the generating bay
• Crane support columns and girders if such are provided
• Exterior walls
• Roof
• All interior framing. walls and roof of any adjoining service bays
Generator 2. Generator Barrel

barrel
The generator barrel supports:
• The weight of the turbines and generators

• The hydraulic thrust from turbine operation
• Dead and live loads from the generator fioor if such is provided
• Short-circuit torque effects from the generator
• Hydrostatic pressures against downstream bulkhead wall or downstream wall of the
generating bay if such loads are transmitted into the generator floor
• Similarly, the barrel may also support headwater pressures against the head walls (or
upstream generating bay wall) if generator fioor is provided, or the barrel itself may
be in contact with the wall
Generator a. Generator Barrel Outlines.~ The generator barrel outlines are mostly dictated by the:
barrel
outlines • Outlines of the equipment it supports,
• Erection and maintenance clearances and access provisions,
• Structural requirements to obtain a rigid foundation for the equipment, concrete dead
loads and live loads supported,
• And last, but not least, the designer's preference.
The inside outline is an extension of the cylindrical turbine pit outline which, by a provi-
sion of a circular corbel, necks down to a circular opening, slightly larger than the turbine
head cover. The corbel serves as the bearing bracket support (fig. 1-88). Also the opening
above the bearing bracket corbel is cylindrical.
The exterior outline of the barrel can be square, rectangular, octagonal, or round. The shape
used is mostly the designers prerogative, based on considerations for obtaining adequate
space for other equipment on the turbine floor and for passage for personnel and for equip-
ment during installation and maintenance. (

I
I
I
I
Square and rectangular shapes are the simplest to form, but some valuable turbine floor
space may be sacrificed. The reinforcement is of simple configuration, but more concrete is
,--:.-.
required.
If floor beams support the generator floor, the flat wall faces in both directions offer simple
framing for the beam supports.
Octagonal shapes are still simple to form, however, reinforcement becomes somewhat
more complicated, but concrete volume is decreased and more floor space is gained. The
forming costs are, of course, increased. The generator floor girders, if provided, may, how-
ever, have to be framed in barrel faces skewed under 45°, i.e. the bearing length on the bar-
rel varies along the two sides of the girder. This usually affects only the reinforcement.
Cylindrical generator outlines are quite common, they occupy the least space on the turbine
floor and, when exposed to the view without the presence of the generator floor, have a
pleasing appearance by matching the generator housing outline (mostly cylindrical, too).
The forming of the cylindrical barrel is more expensive than for the other types; also all
horizontal reinforcement consists of curved bars, which are more. expensive than straight
bars.
If the generator floor is supported with beams, their framing into cylindrical generator bar-
rels presents some complications for the beam-barrel tie-in area. For that reason, some-
times rectangular support pilasters are incorporated into the barrel to offer a less complicat-
I ed beam framing into the barrel (fig. 1-88).
The generator barrel (pedestal) wall thickness may vary between 1.5 feet for small units
and, perhaps, 8 feet or more for large units. In most cases, a thickness of 4 to 6 feet will
suffice.
b. Access Provisions in Generator Barrel.- Blackouts are provided in the barrel walls to Access
gain access to the turbine pit, located below the turbine floor level, and for access to the provisions
thrust bearings above. Blackouts are needed for the passage of the low-voltage leads.
The turbine pit access should be at least 4 feet wide and with a headroom of at least 6.5
feet. This clearance requirement dictates where the top of the bearing bracket support can
be set. Assuming the bearing bracket sole plate anchor bolts to be 3 feet long and a cover
of 6 inches over the access opening, the bearing bracket is set approximately 8 to 10 feet
above the turbine floor. This assumes that the roof of the turbine pit access slopes. The 10
feet would apply if the roof would be horizontal.
Other openings are needed for access, to the air coolers between the stator and the genera-
·tor pit wall, or housing. Their location and sizes will be determined by the generator manu-
facturer.
)

SECTION
(
Figure 1-88.- Generator barrel arrangement.
Generator 3. Generator Floor

floor
The generator floor, if provided, frames into the top of the generator barrel and the
upstream and downstream walls of the generating bay.
For most designs, the generator floor does not suppon any permanent equipment loads but
may be used extensively during equipment installation as laydown area or, quite frequently,
as a temporary erection floor in extension of the erection bay floor or where space is avail·
able between the generators.
If the generator housing protrudes above the generator floor level, access to the top of the
generator housing and the exiters is provided from the generator floor.
Framing It is preferable to design generator floor slabs without columns and beams. The columns
without are undesirable because they take up space on the turbine floor and may interfere with the
columns or equipment.
beams
The beams take up valuable headroom below and may interfere with the routing of con-
duits, cable trays, and piping.

It is recommended to span the generator floor slab between the barrel and walls in direction
parallel to the flow, and to cantilever them from the barrel in the direction perpendicular to
the flow. With this arrangement, the slabs of the adjoining units should be keyed along the
contraction joints to control, and prevent differential vertical off-sets and also, possibly, to
control vibrations of the cantilevers.
If, because of wide unit spacing and, therefore, long slab cantilevers, beams are needed to
support the slab along the contraction joints, columns will be needed along the contraction
joints.
Without beams, the minimum slab thickuess should be about 12 to 24 inches depending on Slab thickness
the spans. With beams, the thickuess should not be less than 12 inches to provide mass
around the generator barrel. To control vibrations of the larger units (say, 100 MW or
more) in major plants, a 24-inch slab thickuess is appropriate.
If generator floor slabs are used as lay-down or erection area for heavy equipment, the slab
thickuess may have to be increased above the minimum recommended.
4. Other Interior Floors Other floors
The floors of the service bays usually can be of slab construction if the bay width is limited
to approximately 30 feet. Beams may be needed for heavy equipment loads, or when the
bay width is increased much beyond 30 feet.
(- The minimum slab thickuess should be 12 inches. Appreciably greater thickuess will be
needed if the slabs are used as struts against hydrostatic pressures. In that case, slab thick-
ness of 24 to 36 inches are not unusual.
)
The above minimum thickuesses may be excessive to support the floor loads, but it is pru-
-: dent to provide more rigidity in the framing system and also mass to control vibrations.
5. Generating Bay Walls Generating

bay walls
The generating bay walls perform several functions:
• Enclose the generating bay along its sides and support its roof.
• Provide support for the generator floor, if such is provided (figs. 1-3, 1--4, 1-7, 1-1 I,
1-26, 1-34, 1--41, and 1--47).
• Support the powerhouse crane (same figs. as above and others).
• The upstream wall may act as a headwall to retain the reservoir if the powerhouse is
integral with the intake (figs. 1-3, 1-5, 1-7, 1-9, 1-10, 1-11, 1-14, and others).
• The downstream wall may also act as head wall to retain tailwater if there is no down-
stream service bay head wall (figs. 1-11, 1-13, 1-27, 1-31, and 1--41).
a. Upstream Wall of Generating Bay. - ( 1) Upstream Wall Integral With Intake.- If the Upstream wall
powerhouse is built integral with the intake, the upstream wall of the powerhouse is
exposed to the reservoir and resists the applicable hydrostatic pressures applied against it.

The headwall is tied-in with the intake piers and walls and spans between them. This wall,
in conjunction with the intake forms the dam and, when the water passages are not closed,
the head wall represents the watertight barrier between the reservoir and the interior of the (
powerhouse, i.e. it functions as a fixed bulkhead.
Consequently, the thickness of the headwall must be determined on the basis of conserva-
tive shear resistance values and considerations illustrated on figure 1-89.
~I
HEADWALL ANCHOR
BARS. TYP.
MONOLITH (
Figure 1--89.- Headwall support.
As for the downstream bulkhead wall, discussed in section E.8, the minimum thickness for
major plants again should be 4 feet or O.IOH determined at the base of the wall.This crite-
ria is considered as a minimum requirement to control seepage (watertightness), but usual-
ly structural requirements govern. For most major plants, the actual thickness will be
appreciably more (fig. 1-5). For minor plants a lesser wall thickness in the range of 2 to 3
feet will suffice.
With respect to the reservoir pressures (fig. 1-89), the wall "hangs" from the intake walls
and piers. Consequently, a potential crack could develop as indicated on figure 1-89 and
the head wall could loose support.
Upstream Thus, adequate thickness to resist shear, induced by the reservoir pressures, is not the only
wall support design provision that is needed. The wall should be tied back into the intake walls and piers
by adequate reinforcement assuming that water pressure acts also over the full width of the
potential cracks.
1n the vertical plane, the headwall spans between the intake end walls with additional sup- (
ports on the intermediate piers (if such are provided) of the intake.

The headwall itself ~upports the spiral case roof with equipment loads acting downward,
and uplift pressures against the spiral case roof. Unless cast integrally with the spiral case
roof, keys should he provided if construction joint is introduced at the downstream face of
the wall (fig. 1-90).
U/S GENERATOR BAY WALL
SUB DRAINED FLOOR
• • •
' •
..
• ' .
•
• •
•
SPIRAL CASE ROOF
• PROVIDE KEYS IF CONSTR, JOINT

IS PROVIDED AT WALL FACE
' )
Figure 1-90.- Headwall-semi-spiral case roof joint.
(2) Upstream Wall Separated from the Intake or for Detached Powerhouses.- If the gen-
!
) erating bay is separated from the intake by a service bay (figs. 1--4, 1--U, 1-8, and 1-13), or
if the powerllouse is located at the toe of the dam or for detached powerhouses (figs. 1-36
through 1--47g), the upstream wall of the generating bay is, in most cases, a free-standing
wall. The wall is supported on the substructure and has lateral support by the generator
floor (if provided) and by the roof.
-·'
The upstream wall may have to support:
• Live and dead loads from floors, decks and roofs framing into the wall, including the
equipment loads they carry.
• High-voltage line pull-off loads (fig. 1-24, 1-35, 1--41, and 1--45).
• Vertical and lateral crane loads (fig. 1-2, 1-3, 1--4, 1-5, 1-7, 1-11, 1-12, etc.).
• Tailwater pressures transmitted from downstream wall through floor slabs, decks or
roof (figs. 1-11, 1-13, 1-30, and 1--41).
Conservative wall thickness should be provided (see subsection d(3) in this section) to con-
trol deformations from combination of all load effects.
b. Downstream Wall of Generating Bay. - The downstream wall of the generating bay is Downstream
similar to the upstream wall of !he type described in paragraph (2) above and supports sim- wall of
ilar loads. generating bay
( For high tail waters, the downstream wall may be exposed to hydrostatic pressures in addi-
tion to the other load effects.
.-.c.,..·-·.o··.--,- . '-. ,---.--:··--.•.. --.·,· • . ·:o-.·.-.' ·.-.·.-.• .

The downstream wall usually contains the equipment and personnel access doors. In case
of high flood levels, they may have to be bulk-headed unless all access is from the roof
level (semi-indoor type powerhouses). (
It is recommended that the access level for indoor type powerhouses is set above maximum
powerhouse design flood level, say with 200-year return frequency. If the PMF level is not
substantially higher, the access .level should be set at or slightly above the PMF level.
For substantially higher PMF levels semi-indoor powerhouses with walls designed for the
high water levels should be selected.
End walls c. End Walls. - The endwalls close off both ends of the generating bay - at the erection
bay and at the last unit. They may be extended to serve as end walls also for the service
bays, if any provided. Endwalls, depending on their construction type, may have to support
the following loads:
• Loads transmitted by longitudinal walls connected to them, normal and parallel to the
end wall plane
• Loads from interior floor slabs
• Longitudinal crane thrust
• Roofloads
• Exterior fill loads
• Tailwater or ground water pressures
The end walls receive and transmit any exterior fill and hydrostatic loads to the interior
slabs and the longitudinal walls framing into them. If they retain fills or water loads, their
outside faces are usually battered to account for the varying pressures. The thickness of the
wall at the top should be 24 inches minimum to allow for concrete placement.
Type of d. Wall Type Construction. - The construction type of the superstructure walls can be
construction dictated by:
• The type of the powerhouse, indoor or semi-indoor

• By considerations of economic aspects, availability of material
• Preferential treatment by owner
Walls for (1) Walls for Indoor Powerhouses. - Superstructures of indoor powerhouses can be
indoor houses designed for a great variety of construction types and materials:
• Solid cast-in-place reinforced concrete walls

• Cast-in-place reinforced concrete columns with brick, concrete block or precast con-
crete panel infills between the columns
• Structural steel framing faced with material as for concrete framing plus various types
of insulated metal wall panels
Reinforced Figures 1-l, l-2, 1-3, l-4, etc. illustrate typical integral-intake powerhouses and figures
concrete walls 1-24, l-30, l-39, l-41, etc. illustrate powerhouse designs with cast-in-place concrete wall (
construction. The arrangement may vary somewhat from project to project depending on
ASCE!EPRI Guides 1989 l-92

unit setting, generator size and interior floor arrangement. The upstream wall is thicker
than the downstream wall because the fonner resists hydrostatic pressures or higher pres-
sures than the latter.
Minimum thickness requirements for the walls are discussed in subsections 5.a, 5.b, and
5.c.(3). If the concrete walls are not exposed to water or fill pressures, their minimum
thickness will still be in the range of 2 to 3 feet, perhaps, even more depending on the
crane size they support and structural support provided.
The wall thickness is reduced above the crane rail corbels. Titis thickness, however still
must be approximately 18 inches thick to provide at least 12 inches for the roof girder
bearing and approximately 6 inches minimum, better 8 inches, at the girder blockouts.
The crane corbels protrude the inside face of the walls to provide for the required crane Crane
support. The crane rail should be set to provide minimum clearances between the crane and clearances
the wall. For conceptual studies, the infonnation in table 1-1 can be used, subject to confir-
mation by crane designers.
Cast-in-place pilaster-type superstructure walls for a detached powerhouse are illustrated

on figure 1-91. The walls appear recessed at the pilasters for architectural treatment to
break up an undesirably plain, bunker type of effect of the wall type discussed above.
A very pronounced architectural treatment was obtained for the Grand Coulee Titird Power
Plant with a cast-in-place, folded-wall design, as shown on figure 1-92.
I,
Figure 1-91.- Hrauneyafoss powerhouse, Iceland. (Courtesy of Harza).

Table 1-1.- Crane clearance data.
Span (ft) A B c D (in) c

200TCrane
60,70,80 13-6 12-4 8-{) 13
90 13-9 12-6 8-6 13
300 T Crane
70 16-6 15--{J 8-6 15
80 16-9 15-3 8-6 15
90 17-3 15-6 9--{J 15
400T Crane
70 17-3 16-9 11-6 17
80 17-6 17--{J 11-6 17
90 18--{J 17--{J 11-6 17
500TCrane
70 18-9 18--{J 19-3 20
80 19--{J 18--{J 19-6 20
90 19--3 18-6 19-6 20
600TCrane
70 20--{J 19-3 20-6 23 (
80 20-3 19-6 20-9 23
90 20-6 19-6 21--{J 23
700T Crane
70 21-6 20-6 20-6 26
80 21-9 20-9 20-6 26
90 21-9 21--{J 21--{J 26
800 T Crane
70 22--0 21--{J 21--{J 27
80 22-3 21--{J 21-6 27
90 22-6 21-6 22--{J 27
J"MIN.
..!!.. SI'..
~f-
nc 'r1 ~I Z"'lolll
..
~
~
m
l I
l~
~I
i t
•
I~ k· MIN.

\c· . .
TRANSW'£1tS£ S£Cn~ ( UNIT
Figure 1-92.- Grand Coulee Third Powerhouse. (Courtesy ofUSBR).
Another attractive example of superstructure wall and roof treatment is shown on figures
l-93a and l-93b, the auxiliary powemouse of the Angat Plant in the Philippines. A folded
plate roof is supported on tapered columns. The crane girder, cast integrally with the wall,
spans over doubly tapered columns that are also cast with the wall.
-.. c-.,-.--·.-.-.·;.·,· ·.·:-'--"--·:.· -_-

( '
-·.. ·
(l
5<<11~0 ·-
~
a. Transverse section.
b. Outside elevation.
Figure 1-93.- Angat, Philippines, auxiliary powerhouse. (Courtesy of Harza).

Figure 1-94 shows a design with reinforced concrete framing, a thin cast-in-place upstream
wall and glazing for the downstream wall, the cast-in-place reinforced concrete crane gird-
ers tie the columns (pilasters) and provide support for the walls above.
Superstructures with structural steel framing offer the distinct advantage that they can be Structural
erected faster than cast-in-place concrete structures, but they have to be painted and main- steel framing
tained during the plant's life.
Steel framing also saves one column at each contraction joint, i.e., no double column
arrangement, as for concrete structures, is required because any movements resulting from
temperature differential are taken up by sliding in the bolt holes.
Similar to the concrete design, also for structural steel designs appropriate corbels or
brackets are needed for the crane girder support. Simple rolled column shapes, with weld-
ed-on brackets offer the simplest, most economical solution (fig. 1-96). However, a more
pleasing effect can be achieved with tapered columns, as shown on figure 1-95. Such a
design costs slightly more, but so does the concrete design shown on figures 1-92 and
1-93. Considering the Jifespan of the power plants of at least 50 years and more, a small
investment for a more pleasing appearance would appear justified.
Such decisions, however, ultimately may be made by the owner who may prefer to the sim-
plest, most economical solution, unless convinced by the designer otherwise. For, it should
be remembered that powerplants are not only energy producing facilities but also places of
work for the operating and maintenance personnel and facilities frequently exposed to visi-
tors and the surrounding communities.
Figure 1-95 illustrates a powerhouse superstructure consisting of steel bents, faced with
12-inch-thick cast-in-place reinforced concrete walls for the lower half, and porcelain alu-
minum panels for the upper half. A row of glass block panels is also included in the upper
~~--j wall portion to expose the interior of the powerhouse to daylight, and also as part of the
exterior architectural treatment.
Figure 1-96 illustrates application of precast panel wall along the transformer bank, and
insulated metal wall panels for the other wall, both types supported on structural steel
framing.
(2) Walls for Semi-Indoor Powerhouses. -Semi-indoor type powerhouses are normally Walls for
used under conditions when there is insufficient headroom for access at the erection floor semi-indoor
level. This usually is the case for low-head installations when the units are set relatively powerhouses
high with respect to tailwater and when the maximum flood tailwater may be close to the
roof level. Figure 1-12 illustrates an ex_ample of the former case. In the given example the
maximum tailwater is below the service walkway allowing fenestration in the downstream
wall. Because of the relatively heavy gantry crane and the loads it carries, the wall design
is in cast-in-place reinforced concrete, braced by the roof deck which controls the lateral
load effects.
:.·.:-·:.· ·.·.·;.·:-.-:-··_-_. .. "-------- ':;::-;::<>>.-.::-~=-----'; ···- . ---- .•- ...-.-.-.. -..

..•
( ·-----·
(,___ .
Figure 1-94.- Finchaa powerhouse, Ethiopia. (Courtesy ofHarza). .!
._._,._, .. -.-
,u~u, .. 9-l""r
.:r~ ro~•l !JJ~Jroul
-'!
TUII~NC R30M
.~'"--1
/'*""""lfiiK"'"Y
~thih}TWf/4)()0
- ......._"'!::""--=--:::·-
( r/tsiNl"<JfrY
--+L<£1-Ifl.O
Figure 1-95.- Mossyrock, Cowlitz, Washington. (Courtesy ofHarza).

Tup of putap..l
£1 I.IOZ.60
(
Figure 1-96.- Kinzua pumped storage powerhouse (conventional unit), Allegheny,
Pennsylvania. Unit: 25 MW; H =873ft (266.2 m). (Courtesy of Harza).
With higher tail waters, the downstream wall must be in solid concrete as illustrated on fig-
ure 1-11. In this case, the roof was not constructed integrally with the walls and, therefore,
the downstream wall had to be designed accordingly.
Superstructure (3) Superstructure Wall Thicknesses.- During conceptual studies ofpowethouse layouts,
wall realistic wall thicknesses must be indicated to preclude surprises during final design.
thicknesses Undersizing of walls initially may require changes in the overall superstructure width later,
causing a chain reaction of changes in other areas.
Smaller wall thicknesses will be required with units of smaller physical size because of the
smaller span for the cranes, indoor or outdoor. The headwall thickness will be affected by
the width of the intake openings and the hydrostatic head on the wall. Tail water pressure
may control the thickness of the downstream wall and the end walls. ·
Minimum wall thicknesses as given below in table 1-2 may be considered for initial lay-
outs which, however, should be con firmed by rough calculations (M =0.1 WL; V =0.5W at
support; W = total load) for the uniformly distributed loads, such as hydrostatic pressures,
or for lateral crane loads, tension due to floor slab or roof restraint, backiill pressures with (
surcharges and, possibly, others.

Table 1-2. Minimum wall thicknesses for major plants.
Type of wall Minimum wall thickness,

t, inches
Headwall at integral intake or downstream 48 orO.l H

bulkhead wall resisting water pressure (H = head on wall)
Cast-in-place walls without columns, supporting cranes 24
Cast-in-place walls not supporting cranes 12
Cast-in-place walls between columns (pilasters) 12
Insulated precast wall panels supported on framing 5
Brick or concrete block 8 (maximum unbraced

length or height 18t)
Concrete columns supporting main powerhouse crane 30 deep
Steel columns supporting main powerhouse crane 24 deep
The information in table 1-2 should be checked against similar existing designs, if avail-
able, and the latter information, if different from information given above, should be used
for preliminary layouts. If information of existing projects is not available, the above mini-
mum dimensions can be checked against the principal governing loads.
)
6. Superstructure Roofs Superstructure
roofs
a. General.- The superstructure roof is provided for indoor and semi-indoor type power-
houses and the roof design may, by necessity, be substantially different for each type of
powerhouse.
For outdoor powerhouses, the roof is similar to that of semi-indoor powerhouses, except it
is penetrated by the generator housing (fig. 1-34).
The primary function of the roof is to protect the interior of the powerhouses against
weather. However, it may also be used to support switchyard structures (figs. 1-1, 1-35;
1-44, and 1-96) and as laydown space for light equipment during equipment installation
for semi-indoor type powerhouses.
b. Roofs for Indoor Powerhouses. - For indoor type powerhouses (figs. 1-91 through
1-95), the roof structure can be of relatively light design, supporting only snow loads (in
climates where such are applicable) and loads expected during construction and mainte-
nance of the roof. Such roofs are preferably framed, for expediency in construction, either
(, .· with structural steel or prestressed concrete girders. The type of framing may depend on

what material is available within an economical hauling distance to the plant and on the
type of framing used for the crane support.
Cast-in-place concrete beams or girders are not recommended because of the high cost of
shoring and forming.
Structural (1) Roofs with Structural Steel Framing. - Structural steel girders can be used with cast-
steel roofs in-place concrete walls or, of course, as part of a structural steel frame.
The girders can be seated in blocked-out pockets in the wall, or on corbels protruding from
the wall which reduces the span length. On the other hand, wall pockets complicate the
wall reinforcement and may be less accessible than corbels for maintenance.
Adequate number of transverse beams shall be provided as lateral bracing in addition of

the deck.
The decks may be of following construction:
a. Steel roof deck with built-up roofing

b. Cast-in-place concrete, 4 to 6 inches thick, placed in steel deck used as forms, 0.75
percent reinforcement for water tightness; 0.5 percent reinforcement if nonshrink
cement used (preferable in cold climates)
c. Cast-in-place concrete deck formed conventionally, forms supported from girders and
beams, otherwise same as item b
d. Precast, post-tensioned concrete flat panels, or channel-shaped elements, fastened to (
the girders and topped with reinforced 2-inch-thick cast-in-place surfacing (this
design is used mostly with precast concrete girders)
Figure 1-96, shows a cast-in-place, reinforced concrete deck slab with concrete pads to
support switchyard structures.
In all designs, adequate number at transverse beams shall be provided to obtain economic
spans for the deck type used and also to brace the girders.
Prestressed (2) Roofs with Prestressed Concrete Girder Framing.- Prestressed concrete girders, com-
concrete pared with structural steel girders, cost less to maintain because no corrosion-preventive
girder painting is needed. This aspect should especially be evaluated in humid areas.
framing
The prestressed concrete girders can be supported in the same manner as the steel girders,
except that seating of girder ends on individual corbels may not be advisable for safety rea-·
sons- a continuous ledge, with shear pockets, is recommended instead. Usually, a row of
two or three cast-in-place cross-beams (diaphragms), doweled into the webs of the girders,
are needed.
The deck types that can be used with prestressed, precast girders are the same as described
under items b, c, and d for the steel girders.
(
'
··.··.·.·-···
Figures 1-97 and 1~98 show prestressed concrete and cast-in-place slab construction (Bath
County Powerhouse) with steel deck as fonns - details at a contraction joint and a girder
~~
seat at the wall. The slab was designed for 500 lbfft2 load to allow for equipment laydown
li:••······ and vehicle traffic. The slab contained 0.75 percent reinforcement for watertightness. This
amount could have been reduced to, say, 0.5 percent because it was decided shortly before
construction to use shrinkage reducing cement. The approximately 65-foot-wide slab con-
tains no construction joints without any signs of cracking.
Similar other alternatives, most likely, have been used in other designs. Either structural
steel or precast-prestressed concrete girder construction has given satisfactory service.
Which type to use should be detennined on the basis of availability of the prefabricated
material and appropriate cost comparison studies.

Interior space G. INTERIOR SPACE REQUIREMENTS
requirements
1. General
In most cases, once the unit bay width is detennined for the water passage requirements as
outlined in section D, the resulting overall length of the powerhouse usually suffices to
obtain the necessary space for station and unit services.
With minimum provisions for station services, such as offices, personnel and public service
rooms and areas, it is possible to locate all station and unit service equipment within the
generating/erection bay area as has been done in numerous plants even with fairly large
units.
Figure 1-97.- Roof design with prestressed concrete girders and cast-in-place slab,
Bath County. (Courtesy of Harza).
With expanded station service requirements, combined with transfonner location either on
the draft tube deck or upstream of the generating bay, the need for a downstream or
upstream service bay, respectively, or both, arises.
The service bay length, in most cases, matches the length of the generating bay, including
the erection bay. Such an arrangement simplifies the design (no re-entrant jogs in the struc-
ture), construction (simplified fonning with continuous end walls), and also simplifies
access at both ends of the service bay.
A service bay width of about 30 feet enables simple, one-way slab construction without
any beams. Such a design simplifies cable, conduit, and piping routing and may save in
~~- (

FLOW
35'-6" TO {UNITS
GENERATING
CONTRACTION JOINT
l 20 go. BONDED TO END FACE OF
GIRDER WiTH EPOXY ADHESIVE
VENTILATION
OPENING
1"xt'-5"x2'-t"
NEOPRENE PAD !TYP.l
WALL L8x8x1
Figure 1-98.- Roof girder waD seat detail.
The available space may also depend on the powerllouse location with respect to the dam.
Powerllouses located at the toe of dams (figs. 1-24, 1-30, and 1-37) or immediately down-
stream of an integral intake with long water passages (fig. 1--4) may afford provision of rel-
atively inexpensive additional space for setvice bays because the foundation (substructure)
is already there.
/
For detached powerllouses (fig. 1--41) the substructure of the generating bay is extended
under the setvice bay and, therefore, requires additional excavation and concrete, which
J may be combined with penstock encasement concrete (figs. 1--42 aod 1--46).
2. Unit Service Equipment and Provisions Unit service

1 The unit setvice provisions include the mechanical and electrical portions for the control of
equipment
I each unit installed aod access to the equipment for installation aod maintenaoce.
I' Unit setvice equipment shall be placed adjacent to the unit and consists of:
I
I a. Mechanical equipment
• Servo motors to control wicket gates
• Raw water piping with valves, pumps, strainers, etc
• Oil, air, aod cooling water systems
• Fire protection system
b. Electrical provisions/equipment
• Common leads and gallery
• Low-voltage switches, breakers
• Instrument traosformers
• Lightning arresters, reactors
• Station setvice connections
. J

c. Access and erection provisions:
• Passages to equipment, turbine pit
• Stairs between different levels ( :.
• Access to generator housing and exciter.
There should be a convenient, free passage between the upstream and downstream sides at
the turbine and generator floor (where such is provided) levels.
Station 3. Station Service Equipment and Provisions

service
equipment Station Service equipment and provisions are those features that serve the entire plant and
may consist of:
a. Equipment access, unloading and erection bay, usually located at one end of the pow-
erhouse in a separate monolith, next to the first unit monolith, or other arrangements
b. Maintenance shops with machine and electrical shop and testing equipment
c. Material storage spaces
d. Draft tube and station unwatering sumps
e. Powerhouse and draft tube cranes
f. Control room, cable spreading room
g. Auxiliary mechanical equipment
• Lubricating and insulating oil pumps, purifiers, storage tanks
• Raw water pumps and strainers
• Air compressors and receiving tanks
• Water treatment equipment (
• Sanitary facilities, septic tank
• Fire protection for oil system
• Tailwater gauge well
• Emergency diesel generator usually provided outside the powerhouse
• Heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment
h. Auxiliary Electrical Equipment:
• Main auxiliary power switchboards
• Station service transformers
• Battery room
• Motor generator sets
• Station service switchboards for lighting, heating
• Communications room
i. Personnel and Public Service Facilities
• Offices
• Wash rooms, lockers
• First aid room, laboratory, dark room
• Visitors reception and display room, rest rooms
• Elevators, stairs, corridors
The provision of the various facilities will vary from project to project depending on the
plant owner's needs.
. - --.-,--------·.- ~------------ _,- ,_-.-.,-..-:·

4. Sizes oflndividual Equipment Rooms
There is no standard for sizing of the individual space provisions. The room size will
depend on the size and number of equipment installed and the space needed for the neces·
sary erection and maintenance clearances.
The space requirements will be governed by the plant size and owner's preference. It also
depends whether a plant is built by public or private sector. The private sector generally
invests less for provisions other than the generating plant equipment that is necessary to
make the plant operable.
The public sector, on the other hand, will generally make provisions to receive the public,
and other space provisions will tend to be more generous.
Table 1-3 gives approximate space provisions for three plants, the 52-MW (2 units) Sam
Raybum plant in Texas, 200-MW Angat (4-unit pit-type powerhouse) in the Philippines,
and the 1000-MW Karun (4 units) plant in Iran.
Table 1-3.- Room sizes for three power plants. Width/length in meters.
Room or space SamRayburn An gat Karun
1. Air compressors, receivers 8.2/33.5 7/10

2. Air conditioning, ventil. 4.6/29.6 5.5/55 11/14
5.5/31/5
3. Battery 4/6.1 0
4. Carrier current 3.8n 5.5/14 11/11
5. Cable gallery 8.9/16.8 5.5/62
6. Control 9.2/18.3 5.5/30 11/19
7. Diesel generator 4fi outside 7/23
8. Electrical shop 3.7/9.8 4.5/9 5.5/18
9. Erection bay 12.8/14.6 15/16 19.5/25
10. First aid, toilet 4/4.6 5.5/8 6.5/8.5
11. Machine shop, tools 9.2/12.2 9.9 11/19
12. Mech. station eqpt. turb. floor 5/47 11/53
13. MO room 4/5.5 in open in open
14. Offices 4/15.2 5.5/53 8/20
'
.I
15. Oil storage 5.5/30.5 10.15 11/19
16. Sewage treatment 3.7/6.4 5/5.7 6n
17. Storage 6.1/13.1 6/9 5/17
6/50
18. Switchgear, electrical eqpt. 8.2/30.5 5.5/49 11/82
3.5/9
19. Toilets, janitor 6.1/10.7 5.5/10 11/15
20. Unloading bay 10/16 7/19.5
7/12
21. Unwatering pumps 3.1/4.6 4.3fi 6.5/10
22. Visitors facilities 9.2/10.1
23. Water treatroent 6.1/10.7 8/10.5
.......-.....-..-.----.-.-.,-.·;_....·.· .. ' -
The vertical distance between individual floor levels below the access (draft tube deck)
level will be dictated first by the level of the turbine floor and, second, by the level of the
lowest floor provided (usually in the downstream service bay).
The generator barrel height may range between 15 and 20 feet which represents the floor
height between turbine and generator floors.
The number of floors provided below the entrance level draft tube deck for indoor power-
houses, and the roof for semi-indoor powerhouses, will generally depend on the available
distance between the access levels and the lowest floor level selected.
For rooms housing station or unit service equipment, the floor height should not be less
than, say, approximately 15 feet to allow sufficient clearance for cable trays, ventilating
ducts and piping runs. Recommended height is in the range of 17 to 20 feet.
Floors supporting office and general non-equipment spaces may be limited to a height
between 13 to 15 feet. The clear height to the suspended ceilings should be about 9 to 10
feet.
The clear structural height for all floors will be the above recommended heights less the
structural floor thickness -to the bottom of beams, or slabs of floors without beams.

H. UNDERGROUNDPOWERHOUSES
1. Introduction
The purpose of these guidelines is to present discussions on underground powerhouse

design approaches incorporated in existing hydroelectric plants. Naturally, it is possible to
describe only a number of selected, representative underground powerhouses to illustrate
the various powerhouse arrangements and design approaches used world-wide. It is hoped
that these presentations will provide the designer or the owner of future plants with an
overview of state-of-the-art designs and enable them to gain additional knowledge from the
experience of others.
It is impossible, and was not intended for these guidelines, to cover civil engineering
design aspects of underground powerhouses in great detail. Howe.ver, some usable infor-
mation dealing with the requirements for rock support provisions is presented because that
information is needed to assess project cost comparisons during conceptual studies.
For additional information, the reader is referred to the excellent publication, Water Power
Development, volume 2, by Professor Emil Mosonyi [1960]. It contains a wealth of infor-
mation on the design of underground powerhouses. Reference is also made to part C of the
Pumped Storage volume of these Guidelines for additional illustrations of underground
powerhouses.
The intent of these guidelines is also to close the more than 25-year gap since Professor
Mosonyi's excellent illustrations on underground powerhouse concepts and sizes. New
information is especially needed in the area of the structural support for the excavated
faces of the caverns. Whereas the designs of three decades ago relied heavily on stiff con-
crete roof arches and linings for caverns that seldom exceeded 20 meters (65 ft) in width,
the present-day designs for much wider caverns resort to much lighter and more flexible
-, support systems. These are discussed herein.
'
Underground powerhouses (UGPH) are understood to be powerhouses located in pits or Underground
caverns below ground level. Unless distinguished separately in the following text with ref- powerhouses
erence to "pit powerhouses" or "cavern powerhouses," the discussions in the following (UGPH)
subsections apply to both types of UGPH.
2. General Location
Underground powerhouse types are illustrated in subsection B.l. A brief discussion of the
reasons for their selection on their application is given in subsection B.2. According to
UGPH location, the following classification has been established [Mosonyi, 1960].
a. Upstream (Swedish Concept).- The UGPH is located near the reservoir and connected Upstream
upstream with a short pressure conduit to the intake (fig. l-99a). This arrangement is used location
in relatively flat-dipping valleys which would require relatively long underground pen-
stocks (expensive pressure conduits) if the head would be utilized with the units located
near the tailrace.

Usually, the surface topography does not accommodate economical installation of surface
penstocks, although the Rio Undo project in Honduras may be an exception. That plant has
two approximately 5.2-km-long main surface penstocks with diameters varying between (
1.95 and 2.4 meters, for a head of approximately 400 meters.
Unless the tailrace tunnel is in very poor rock, requiring substantial support and must be
concrete lined, the cost for the tailrace tunnels, as a general rule, is substantially less than
for the pressure conduits.
The access to the upstream UGPH is generally via an access tunnel from a topographically
suitable portal in the valley or via a shaft next to the powerhouse.
Intermediate b. Intermediate Location.- Sometimes the UGPH can be located at an intermediate point
location between the reservoir and the tailrace. An advantageously low topographic depression,
such as a valley, may offer economically short access to the powerhouse and provide for
suitable surge chamber location (fig. l-99b).
In this arrangement, a lengthy low pressure tunnel (with higher allowable velocities) may
be more economical than a free-flowing tailrace tunnel used for the upstream location.
Downstream c. Downstream Location. - The downstream location is advantageous in Alpine type

location locations where the ground rises substantially above the reservoir levels and the grade to
the tailrace is steep (fig. 1-99c).
With the downstream development, long low-pressure power tunnels conduct the water to (
\.
steeply dropping pressure shafts bifurcating into penstocks at the powerhouse level.
Sometimes it is economically preferable to locate the bifurcation (or trifurcation) at the
power tunnel level and provide two or three individual surface penstocks down to the pow-
erhouse. These may again bifurcate surface for powerhouses with several units.
For the downstream concept, the tailrace tunnel is very short as is the access tunnel unless
a convenient portal location near the powerhouse is not available.
The downstream UGPH locations allow the development of the maximum head available.
The length of the power tunnels can be several kilometers long. In fact, some European
designs have multi-reservoir and tunnel systems supplying a single plant.
All above discussions assume that the underground powerhouses are located in a rock for-
mation suitable for construction of an UGPH. Other aspects are discussed in subsections 5
and 6.
:.; -
""''""--~::-c""'~'''--"-----
:-~ ;-; ~-:·: . .. -- . -. . . .
70
a. Upstream Location
. P1sd1atp~ hlnMI
Unrferpi'IV!Id madlin~ /Jts/1
b. Intermediate Location
------- - ------------ -!'!'!~ -------
c. Downstream Location
Figure 1-99.- Underground powerhouse locations.
3. UGPH Advantages UGPH

advantages
UGPHs offer the following advantages over surface powerhouses:
• Suitable foundation level for the underground substructure is at the selected location
and elevation of the UGPH and not under layers of alluvium in the river bed, or collu-
vium on the valley banks, as is frequently the case for the surface powerhouses.

Superstructure • The excavated opening forms the interior space eliminating the need for an exterior
eliminated shell (superstructure).
• The rock itself is engaged to act as the structural shell around the interior space.
Reduction • Forming, concrete volume, reinforcement requirements, joint treatment with water-
in concrete stops, draft tube pier-and-deck structures are greatly reduced.
volume • Better protection against elements, especially where freeze-thaw cycles prevail. Also,
there is better protection in case of war.
• Turbine setting can be lower, allowing for higher speed units with smaller physical
size thus resulting in a somewhat narrower and shorter structure.
• Substructure concrete can be placed between rock walls eliminating the need for
forms.
Uplift • Uplift pressures, if any, are resisted by rock. Less concrete needed to control uplift.
pressures • Powerhouse access level can be set below maximum tailwater, unless it is too close to
reduced the tailrace. However, the access tunnel portal must have adequate free board with the
tail water.
• The costly components of a superstructure are eliminated -no wall and roof fram-
ing, but other provisions are needed.
Shorter • Power plants with underground powerhouses may result in shorter power conduits.
conduits • Underground conduits result in savings of steel liner because rock resists part of the
internal pressures.
• Shorter conduits result in smaller hydraulic losses, less pressure rise problems, and
simpler governing conditions.
Longer life • Because of less concrete and/or structural steel, and less exposure to elements, the
useful life of the structure can be expected to be longer.
Lower • Overall maintenance costs smaller than for surface powerhouses. {--
maintenance • Construction not affected by weather conditions and this may result in shorter con- '
costs struction period unless other underground work governs the construction time.
UGPH 4. UGPH Disadvantages

disadvantages
Economic evaluation of the above advantageous aspects of UGPH must be weighed
against the following disadvantages or cost-contributing factors:
Higher • Underground excavation costs are substantially higher than costs for open excavation
excavation (approximately 4 to 5 times higher) because of limited accessibility, controlled exca-
costs vation procedures to preserve the surrounding rock, ventilation requirements, and
delays caused by installation of provisions for rock support (where needed) and
instrumentation.
Rock support • The surrounding rock may need substantial provisions for support, such as:
o Rock bolts
o Multi-layfr shotcrete with wire mesh

o Post-tensmned tendons
Instrumentation • Substantial instrumentation may be required to monitor rock deformations.

Less space • Because of excavation costs are at a premium, so is the cost for the space needed.
Therefore, there is a greater tendency to limit the space to a minimum resulting in a
smaller interior space than for surface powerhouses.
Consolidation • The surrounding rock may need to be consolidated and drained to control seepage
and drainage/ from groundwater, nearby reservoir, or tailwater.

71
• A greater volume of air must be moved to effect ventilation and air conditioning Ventilation,
adequately. air condi-
• Design can be finalized only after extensive in situ underground testing, which is pre- tioning/in situ
ceded by exploration with exploratory drill holes and construction of an access adit. testing
• An access tunnel, cable, ventilating shafts, and elevator shafts are needed. All of these Access tunnel,
add costs. shafts/
• Higher pumping costs to discharge seepage water because of greater groundwater Higher
inflow. pumping costs
• UGPH with long tailrace tunnels need downstream surge chambers with substantial
volume of underground excavation at high cost.
• If transformers are kept underground, additional space is needed either within the pow-
erhouse cavern or in a separate cavern, including underground connections for access.
• The related provisions for cooling and ventilation are substantial with commensurate
additional costs.
• If transformers are located on the surface, the length of the low-voltage leads may
increase appreciably at a cost which is also appreciable.
• Station service bays, for powerhouses with large units, cannot be economically
arranged along the generating bay (either upstream or downstream) because of limita-
tions for acceptable spans for underground caverns and high excavation cost.
Consequently, station services are arranged generally at the erection bay end of the
cavern with resulting increases in the lengths of cables, conduits and piping. At many
plants the service bay has been located at the other end of the cavern.
Types of
5. Types ofUGPHs UGPH
(
l' Representative UGPH types are presented in subsection B.I.g. They basically fall into two
categories:
)
• Pit powerhouses
• Cavern powerhouses
Individual cylindrical pits, called shafts, are a subtype of pit type powerhouses and offer
structural advantages where deep submergence is required. For this reason they find appli-
cation mostly for pumped storage developments and are, therefore, treated in the pumped
storage volume of these design guides.
There are certain arrangement and structural features that are different for pit and cavern
powerhouses; therefore, the two types are discussed separately in the following sections.
Pit
6. Pit Powerhouses powerhouses
. I
a. General Discussion. -Pit powerhouses, as the name implies, are located in a pit exca-
vated from the surface. Usually, the roof is at ground surface or somewhat above it to:
• Simplify construction
• Obtain convenient access to the roof level which may be used as part of the
switchyard
l. • Ensure positive drmnage runoff where climatic conditions would so dictate
)

With the roof at or near the ground surface, the pit powerhouses represent a transition step
between the surface and cavern type powerhouse. Figures 1-38, l-38a, 1-39, and 1-106
are representative of such arrangements. c<
The switchyard can be located on the roof which aspect represehts an economic advantage
over layouts with switchyards separated from the powerhouse.
In some cases, it is advantageous to raise part of the structure above the ground level as
shown on figure 1-41.
Personnel The access for personnel and equipment generally is from the ground level similar to sur-
access face semi-outdoor type powerhouses. Indoor cranes are provided if roof hatches for equip-
ment access to individual units are not provided.
Indoor crane An indoor crane should be considered if the depth of the pit, as governed by the unit set-
ting, is of suffiCient height. The structure can be raised above the ground level to gain the
height needed for an indoor crane if hatches for equipment access with an outdoor gantry
crane are undesirable. This may be the case when the switchyard, or a part of it, is located
on the roof.
Cut-and-cover Pit powerhouses are basically a cut-and-cover construction design. Part of the excavation is
construction performed from the surface. The lower part of the pit, however, will, most likely, be exca-
vated through a construction tunnel that would also serve for excavation of the connecting
water conduits. If the portal of the construction tunnel is set high enough above the tailwa-
/
ter, it can also be used as a surge/vent tunnel. (
Costs The top part of the excavation and rockbolting may be comparable in cost with or slightly
more expensive than for a conventional surface powerhouse. The costs for excavation of
the lower part may approach those for pure underground excavation.
All concrete cost, however, may be comparable to that with surface powerhouses, or may
be even less, because all concrete is lowered into the pit.
The above discussions and the advantages and disadvantages presented in subsections H.2
and H.3, as applicable to pit powerhouses, may or may not govern decisions in favor of a
pit powerhouse. Appropriate economic studies should be performed to enable evaluation of
all alternatives considered.
There are relatively few pit powerhouses in existence. One reason may be that the rock
quality at the ground surface is not well suited for the excavation of the steep slopes
required.
Head ranges, b. Applicable Head Ranges, Location, Connection to Water Conduits.- Pit powerhouses
location can be provided for low, intermediate and high head installations. figures 1-40 and 1-41
show the fanner case, whereas figures l-39a and figure 1-107 may be representative of
designs for intennediate and high head.
(
\
'
72.
The location of a pit powerhouse relative to the reseJVoir is quite flexible as evident from
the figures referenced.
Pit powerhouses are, by necessity, connected to underground power conduits - the pen-
stocks on the upstream side and the tailrace tunnels, with or without surge chambers, on the
downstream side.
The length of the tailrace tunnels can vary greatly depending at which point of the stream
the head is developed. Sudden drops or loops in the stream may offer the opportunity to
develop a higher head than would be possible immediately downstream of the dam (figs.
1-100 and 1-101).
WATERFALL
------r ::-
- L_
I ."//"' TAILRACE TUNNEL
----""\...
\
/[~:~CONSTRUCTION
== =="--~~ ACCESS TUNNEL
Figure 1-100.- Pit powerhouse with tailrace tunnel bypassing rapids.
- -~
Figure 1-101. -Pit powerhouse with tailrace tunnel short-cutting a loop

in the stream.
l)
)

It iS assumed that the arrangement shown on figure 1-100 is more economical with a pit
powemouse and tail umnel than with a surface type powerhouse and longer pressure con-
duits which, in general, cost more than a tailrace umnel. Further, it is also assumed that the
dam cannot be moved further downstream to shorten the pressure conduits. The foregoing
and other considerations may have to be made to justify (1) the selection of the pit power-
house and (2) the arrangement made.
Construction To economically excavate the bottom of the pit, a construction access umnel may be need-
access-surge ed. If such is provided, it can also serve as a downstream surge chamber if connected with
tunnel the tailrace umnel. The portal of such a umnel must be set above the maximum tailwater
level to maintain free release to the atmosphere.
Pit geometry c. Pit Geometry Considerations. -The foregoing discussions imply that pit powemouses
would be feasible only where the geological conditions are such that they are suitable for
excavation of a steep-walled pit and underground conduits, i.e., reasonably competent rock
at or near the ground surface.
't. UNITS
PREFERRED VERTICAL WALLS
MAXIMUM
'"
PRE-SPLIT HEIGHT---.--
MINIMUM OFFSET FOR
L--
,
AVERAGE SLOPE OF
SHALLOWER PR E-SP LIT LIFTS
NEXT DRILLING LIFT
'\...--~~DRAFT TUBE TUNNEL
Figure 1-102.- Pit excavation geometry.
Pit powemouses are economical if the in-place rock can be utilized to function as the exte-
rior walls of the powerhouse. The steeper the excavated face, the more economical the con-
struction will be. Rock formations with horizontal or nearly horizontal bedding planes and
vertical joint systems will allow excavations with vertical or nearly vertical faces
(10V:1H).
Pit wall For excavation purposes, the maximum presplit blast,hole depth is governed by the ability
excavation to control the alignment of the bottom of the hole, i.e., that does not wander too far from
other holes and thus reduce the presplit effects. See also figure 1-102. Consequently, the
maximum presplit height is limited to approximately 50 feet
Flatter slopes will increase the width of the pit at the ground level with added cost for the \
I
roof and its supports. For that reason, slopes flatter than 4V:1H should be avoided unless (
the added space can be utilized.
\
I
... _,. ---------- ,------ -·.···-~
__ ··-··-··-·····-··" .... -.-. --~---------· .
73
d. Turbine Setting.- Turbine setting infonnation given for the surface type powerhouses Turbine
in section C applies also for the pit type powerhouses with respect to the water level at the setting
draft tube outlets in the tailrace tunnel.
Some consideration may be given for deeper setting with resulting higher turbine speeds
and smaller physical size of machines, as mentioned in section H.2. The pit excavation,
however, will become deeper and construction costs, unlike for the caverns, will go up
because there will be more underground excavation than open excavation.
e. Unit Bay Sizing.- The procedures established for monolith sizing of surface type pow- Unit bay
erhouses in section D apply also for pit type powerhouses. However, the draft tube widths sizing
should be kept as narrow as possible to gain maximum possible thickness for the rock pil-
lars separating the individual draft tube tunnels which connect to the tailrace tunnel. These
rock pillars, after excavation of the draft tube tunnels, will be the highest stressed features Narrow
of the underground excavation because the general rule for clear spacings between tunnels draft tubes
(e.g., 2 diameters) cannot be applied to draft tubes for economic reasons; thicker pillars
would result in wider unit bays and a longer powerhouse pit.
Depending on the number of openings (draft tubes), the stress concentration in the pillars
between the draft tube tunnels can vary between 3 to 5 times the stress from the rock load
above [Coates, 1970].
)
It is recommended that intennediate draft tube piers for pit powerhouses (and also for cav- Avoid
erns) be avoided, if at all possible, to obtain the narrowest draft tubes. The turbine specifi- intermediate
( cations should establish the maximum draft tube width desired. D.T. piers
)
Because stability of the powerhouse structure is not a problem for underground powerhous-
es because there are no exterior loads causing overturning effects, the substructure founda-
tion, i.e., the pit bottom should be made only as wide as needed for the functional arrange-
ment of the unit bay.
Providing service bays along the generating bay (machine hall) is reasonably feasible from
an economical point of view. The added cost is for the additional excavation resulting from
the wider pit. This extra expense is compensated to some extent by the fact that the exterior
walls will be somewhat less expensive than for surface powerhouses because the excavated
pit faces fonn the walls. The cost for any support provisions for the excavated rock faces,
including any instrumentation should be included in any cost comparisons.
In sizing of the unit bay width (nonnai to the flow direction) there is no need for the provi-
sion of shear walls discussed in subsection D.3.a. The reason for this are:
• Pit powerhouses are constructed in rock and practically no lateral forces act on the
structure; consequently, there are no problems with load distribution along the sub-
structure foundation,
) • There are no high, massive superstructure walls whose weight and possible construc- No need for
tion loads must be distributed before the substructure concrete, with unit embedment, shear walls
is completed.
l-117 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

This· aspect has also been discussed for surface powerhouses founded on rock where identi-
cal recommendations as above .have been made.
The omission of shear walls, where that is possible, result in narrower unit bays and shorter
powerhouses.
Substructure f. Substructure Outline. - There are basically two different approaches for shaping the
outline foundation excavation of the substructure:
1. Unifonn profile throughout the length of the powerhouse for all units, i.e., no pits for
draft tubes
2. Minimum excavation around draft tubes and spiral cases
Each of these approaches has advantages and disadvantages, which are discussed below.
Uniform (1) Uniform Profile Excavation. - The unifonn profile excavation (fig. 1-102) approach
profile results in lower unit price of rock excavated because the proflle to be excavated represents
excavation the simplest outline requiring no "sculpturing" of the rock around the draft tubes and spiral
cases. On the other hand, the volume excavated will be substantially greater than for mini-
mum excavation of approach 2. Moreover, the excess excavation must be replaced by
expensive concrete whose cost will offset the gains of lower unit price for the simpler
excavation.
The unifonn profile excavation may indicate construction scheduling advantages if excava-
tion alone is considered. This is offset somewhat because of increased work volume for (
concrete placement.
Otherwise, approach 1 offers the following two visible advantages:
• Because of continuous substructure concrete, continuous galleries can be provided

(without special tunneling) conveniently at the draft tube cone level for easy access to
the draft tubes and other needs.
• Arrangement and installation of draft tube unwatering pipes, usually located at the
lowest point of the foundation, follows the conventional arrangement used for surface
powerhouses for the same reason as above (continuous foundation concrete).
Minimum (2) Minimum Excavation. - Just as for surface powerhouses, some designers prefer the
excavation approach of minimum excavation around the draft tubes and spiral cases (fig. 1-103).
advantages
Based on what is discussed for approach (1) above, approach (2) offers only the following
advantages:
• Less excavation and concrete volumes,

• Because of the lesser volumes, perhaps, shorter construction time results; however,
the time required for sculpturing the rock around each draft tube and spiral case
should be compared with that required for the straightforward excavation of approach
oo(l~ (

74
f!>
\,Li
EMBEDMENT CONCRETE
EXCAVATION OUTLINE
• A-A
Figure 1-103. - Showing minimum excavation outline for substructure.
Another advantage of approach (2) is that all rock left in place serves as lateral support for ·
)
the pit walls. This is especially desirable if the pit walls are high and the stratigraphy of the
surrounding rock is such that it could lead to stability problems. In this connection, it
should be noted that for most rock formations the near-ground surface rock (which is the
case for pit powerhouses) is more fractured and jointed than that at greater depths.
('
)
The advantages indicated for approach (1) would appear to represent obvious disadvan-
tages for approach (2).
)
(3) Recommendations.- Each approach, (1) or (2), should be considered on its own mer-
its, depending on the size and the number of units. It would appear that for one- or two-unit
powerhouses the extra work involved with the complicated excavation outline of approach
(2) will not be too excessive when compared with approach (1). For several units, however,
case 1 approach may reduce the excavation time considerably and thus allow earlier start
of unit installation.
In general, the simpler the design approach is, the simpler also the construction is.
Therefore, approach 1 with a uniform excavation profile would appear to be the preferred
one, even though the resulting excess excavation must be replaced by rather expensive
excess concrete volume.
J
g. Superstructure Arrangement
(1) General. - The superstructure arrangement for pit powerhouses is basically the same Superstructure
as for the surface powerhouses presented in section 5. The only exception for pit power- arrangement
houses is that the exterior walls are formed by the excavated pit faces.
--.-..-·-·::·.
(2)' Exterior WalLY. -The rock faces of the pit may be lined with shotcrete or concrete or
may be exposed. In either case, adequate provisions to control groundwater seepage
through the walls should be made. (
If considered necessary, adequate consolidation grouting shall be implemented around the

pit before its excavation. Weep holes shall be provided as needed, along with installation of
required rock bolts, as the pit excavation progresses downward (fig. 1-104).
ROOF
ROCK ANCHORS
I I U . . - - - PRECAST CONCRETE WALl PANELS
ffif'-
FOR ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENT
~~
IF DESIRED
CONSOLIDATION
SHOTCRETE OR CONCRETE LINING
GROUTING
IF NEEDED
I
ROCK BOLTS
I I
I ~"''litj::::::=LI
THIS COULD ALSO BE
A CONTINUOUS WALL
I I SUBSTRUCTURE
1-i
FOUNDATION DRAINS TO SUMP
Figure 1-104.- Principal elements in pit powerhouse exterior rock walls.
Geotechnical Figure 1-104 indicates the principal elements that must be considered in the geotechnical
provisions design of the excavated pit walls which form a part of the superstructure. Although each
case should be considered depending on the surrounding rock conditions, the following
minimum requirements are offered for consideration:
• Consolidation grouting. Not needed in dense, monolithic rock formations. At least a

single line approximately 10 feet outside the pit perimeter in moderately jointed
blocky rock. Hole spacing about 10 to 15 feet on centers. The effectiveness of grout-
ing shall be confirmed during the grouting process and modified to suit
• Rock bolts. Provide in rock formations whose joint and bedding plane systems indi~
cate the need for reinforcep1ent of the pit walls to make them self-supporting.
• Post-tensioned #8 rock bolts, 20 feet deep, and 10 to 15 feet on centers each way may
be more than adequate for many cases encountered. The bolts should be fully encap-
sulated to protect them against corrosion. See also the discussion under rock support
for cavern powerhouses.
(
'· .

7?
• Weep holes (drains). To prevent clogging, should not be less than 3 inches. The length
may vary between 10 to 30 feet and spacing 10 to 15 feet on centers. To avoid spray
~
and splashing, they may be connected with pipes that empty into gutters at the floor
~··· level.
• Shotcrete. Provide only if excavated rock surface may disintegrate because it is frac-
tured or when exposed to air. A thickness of 3 inches with light wire mesh will suffice
for most cases. Shallow (2-ft-deep) weep holes should be provided through the
shotcrete to prevent external pressure buildup. See also the section on cavern power-
houses for additional discussion on shotcrete provisions.
(a) Concrete walls (rock lining). - I f greater watertightness or more substantial support Rock lining
for the excavated pit rock face is required, the rock may be lined with cast-in-place con-
crete which is anchored to the rock for composite action (fig. 1-105).
- POSSIBLE
GAOUNDWATEA
ROCK BOLTS/ PRESSURE DIAGRAM
CAVITY WALL
ANCHORS
)
- GUTTER
a b
Figure 1-105.- Pit walls lined with concrete.
Figures 1-105a and 1-105b illusttate possible concepts for lining of excavated rock faces
with concrete for watertightoess and structural stability. The walls should be reinforced for
crack-control (approximately 0.5% of cross-sectional area) and anchored to rock such that
the anchors provided can resist the full ground water pressures acting against the walls.
The rock anchor (which serves also as rock bolt) depth shall be such that sufficient sub- Rock anchors
merged rock weight is engaged to make the system stable as indicated on figure 1-106.
Figure 1-105a illustrates a very wmkable concept with cavity walls. Possible leakage is Cavity walls
not exposed to the interior of the powemouse. The interior face of the brick, concrete block
or precast concrete panel cavity wall will always be dry and can be painted if desired.
\ 1-121 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

/
Figure 1-105b represents a design without a cavity wall which can be used where the
groundwater is low. If the groundwater is high, seepage may penetrate to the interior face
which will "sweat" and be moist, water may run down its face and painting will not be fea- (''
sib1e. Such designs are not recommended.
'1< STABILITY CONDITIONS/FT. WALL
ROCK'
1 .I Gl 8/2 I >W I H/3 I + Ul 28/3 I
G V
2.1 I G U I I + BI11C .,
j j;
2
w
(;; I • ROCK FRICTION FACTOR
(:: C • COHESION
p
8 ·I
',:J u
Figure 1-106.- Pit wall stability requirements.

(
Downstream (b) Dawnstream walls exposed to tailwater. - The exterior face of the downstream walls
walls may be exposed against tailwater as indicated on figure 1-107.
The wall is intended to span between the concrete piers (draft tube gate piers) which are
tied into rock as described under item (a) above. The surge tunnel is an extension of the tail
tunnel and daylights at ground surface. Initially, it served as construction access tunnel (fig.
1-101).
Roofs (3) Roofs~ The roofs of the pit powerhouses can be of the same design types as described
under subsection F.6 for surface powerhouses. With the roof basically at ground level, it is
very convenient to utilize it for accommodation of switchyards. The close proximity of the
switchyard to the plant is an advantage of the pit power powerhouses that should not be
overlooked during conceptual studies. In the design shown on figure 1-40, the roof con-
sists of a concrete arch that is covered by fill. On figure 1-108, providing the pit power-
house results in substantial shortening of the water conduits. These would be longer if a
surface powerhouse at the river bank had been used instead.
Erection bay h. Pit Powerhouse Erection Bay. - The powerhouse pit extends sufficiently to provide
space for unloading and erection of the equipment. The space requirements are the same as
for surface powerhouses. For equipment access, the most convenient arrangement appears
to be an access at the rooflevel as for semi-indoor type powerhouses.
(
I
.,- ~--- ... -.--. ·.·o. ---
)
It is preferable to receive the equipment under a bridge crane that services an equipment
hatch in the roof and is housed in a building erected over the hatch and the equipment
receiving area (fig. 1-109).
t_ Aux illar,y ()n/1 ri Unifs

pe(1sloc* &
diJfribufor El. .98. 00
I/ Pow~rsfafion
Mla. r.w Cl. 68L

(.!vn-;! o"Per.;lt"n9}
)
Tailrac~ lunn~l
83.00
Figure 1-107.- Angat (Philippines) original design.
I
1) lllUk$; 2) grouting gallery; 3) prem1re concilb; 4) ge~tetator room: 6) dralnage g1Uery; 6) chaft 111be;
7) tal.lrlce: 8) 22o- kV lDS. •
Figure 1-108.- Vilyui, Vilyui River, U.S.S.R. [Gluskin and Demidov, 1970].

I
( .>,I
\
I
EQUIPMENT UNLOADING CRANE--I'~
MAIN CRANE---.
)
ERECTION UNLOADING ;'

BAY BAY
l
'• ._- ... -r • .: "·'·· ~-\ ;,. ~· . •.,' .. - -'-
l
Figure 1-109.- Pit powerhouse erection and unloading bays.

\
Unloading bay The area under the equipment unloading crane can be designated as the unloading bay. I
This space can also be used as a temporary erection space when no equipment is unloaded.
The equipment access can also be attempted via an access twmel from the ground surface.
In that case, provisions should be made to keep out surface runoff and to have the portal set
above maximum tailwater.
i. Other Underground Aspects. - Subsection H.6, "Cavern Powerhouses," covers addi-

tional items common to pit and cavern powerhouses not discussed in this subsection on pit
powerhouses.
Cavern 7. Cavern Powerhouses

powerhouses
a. General. - Cavern powerhouses are true underground powerhouses. Precedent con·
cepts are presented in subsection B.l.h. The reasons for selection of this type of power·
houses are presented in subsection B.2.e. The general location of underground powerhous-
es is discussed in subsection H.2, and subsection H.3 discusses underground powerhouse
advantages and disadvantages.
A cavern is a fully enclosed rock chamber. The surrounding rock is utilized as a sttuctural
shell to enclose the interior of the cavern. Rock reinforcement of varying amounts, depend-
ing on the quality and the physical and elastic properties of the rock, is needed to utilize the )
surrounding rock effectively. .
(
. --.-, -·· .. -.-,. ,,-. • • .- ,-. • .·,-.·c,-.-,-

77
Basically, with the rock providing the cavern enclosure, there is no need for exterior struc-
rural walls as for surface powerhouses. Thus, th~el\teriPr.Sbe:Uis reasonably inexpensive,
but the costs for forming the cavern void by underground excavation can be quite costly.
However, when weighted against the advantages enumerated in subsection H.2, the latter
may outweigh the high excavation costs.
b. Primary Considerations for Location and Orientation. -A powerhouse is primarily a Primary

component of the power generating system and as such should be located, oriented, and considerations
arranged such that these aspects lead to optimum overall efficiency of the project. .
However, also economic aspects, as always, must be considered. To that end, under the
assumption that the project site is in an area where rock suitable for cavern construction is
available, the powerhouse cavern should be:
• Located and oriented to result in shortest and simplest water conduit arrangement pos- Location and
sible, operation
• Located to enable easy access via a runnel from an access road - the runnel should
· not be excessively long, the shorter the better, grade not over 10 percent,
• Oriented to eliminate unstable rock wedges along the longirudinal cavern walls, be
oriented to avoid sharp-angle intersections with a principal joint system; if there are
two or more dominant joint sets the cavern axis should, preferably, bisect the systems,
• Oriented, if possible, to avoid maximum in situ principal stress acting on the long
walls of the cavern,
• Not located too close to the outer surface of sound rock; minimum rock roof thickness
should be no less than the width of the cavern (see also fig. 1-132), and
• Not located in rock formations that have high permeability and cannot be easily treat-
ed (grouted, drained) to appreciably lower the penneability.
) Underground
c. Underground Features.- The underground fearures of cavern powerhouses may vary
from project to project depending on the concept adopted. The concept is based principally features
on hydraulic, geotechnical, equipment arrangement, constructability, and overall economic
considerations. Moreover, plant operation and maintenance aspects are of equal impor-
tance.
The principal underground fearures of cavern powerhouse designs are:
• The powerhouse cavern, including erection bay area, containing the generating units,
governors and most of the auxiliary station service and unit service equipment.
)
• Appurtenant underground fearures (caverns, galleries) whose need and arrangement
are dictated greatly by how much of some of the equipment (guard valves, transfonn-
ers, switchgear, etc.) are located within the main cavern or assigned to other locations.
• Other underground fearures, such as tunnels and shafts, required for access to the
main cavern, transformer and gate galleries; various galleries and shafts are needed
J
for transmission of electrical current· and for ventilation.
)
During conceprual srudies various alternatives may be considered, and familiarity with the
~.
most frequently adopted arrangements, types, and function of the appurtenant underground
J)
I 1-125 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

features is a necessity for developing of realistic and economic concepts. For these reasons,
the most frequently encountered appurtenant underground features will be described before .· .
the subject of the main powerhouse cavern is treated. (
In conjunction with the discussion of the appurtenant underground features, the most fre-
quently used arrangements of the underground features, such as single powerhouse cavern
and multi-cavern layouts will be examined.
Appurtenant d. Appurtenant Underground Features

underground
features (1) Types of Appurtenant Features. - The following appurtenant underground features
may be required in addition to the main powerhouse cavern:
• Transformer cavern
• Low voltage lead galleries
• Valve gallery
• Equipment and personnel access
• Cable, ventilating shafts
• Draft tube gate galleries and access
'I
• A cavern or shafts for downstream surge chamber or chambers, respectively, which
actually are features of the water conduit system, may be required for concepts with
long tailrace tunnels. If provided, their location and arrangement must be studied
together with the powerhouse cavern.
• Surge chambers
(
Either all or some of the above features may become part of the project concepts which
will be discussed later in this section. Figures 1-45, 1-46 and others in section 1 and fig-
ures 1-110, 1-111, 1-112, and 1-114 below illustrate the relationship of the appurtenant
underground features to the powerhouse cavern of some existing projects.
Figure 1-110.- Cabora Bassa Powerplant, Zambezi River, Mozambique.

[Lemperiere and Vigny, 1975].

78
Note that Cabora Bassa has five 415-MW units, which results in an assymetrical tailrace Five-unit
tunnel arrangement The trifurcation for the tailrace tunnel, serving three units, is not rec- arrangement
ommended because of the resulting sharp rock pier noses and wide underground span
downstream of them. A manifold arrangement would be preferable. Providing five units
never lends itself well to provision of power or tailrace tunnels serving more than one unit.
If more than four units are required, a six-unit or eight-unit (or even larger) arrangement is
recommended.
Figure 1-111.- Mica underground powerhouse, Columbia, Canada.

[Meidal and Webster, 1973].
Figure 1-112 illustrates the 16-333 MW unit LG2 power plant arrangement (see also fig.
1-42) with four units being served by a single tailrace tunnel. If the reservoir would be
located at some greater distance from the powerhouse, most likely a similar arrangement
would also be made for the power tunnels, one each for four units, which then could be
manifolded into four penstocks.
\
!., . ·

F····.
\::- ·.·
intake structure
--
tO tr~ait'l Qa{tl
to Radisson_
Figure 1-112.- LG2 underground power plant arrangement, James Bay, Canada.
I
(Larocque, 1976).
(2) Description of Appurtenant Underground Features
(a) Transformer caverns (

Transformer 1) Transfo1111er location considerations. - Transfo1111ers may be located above ground
location or underground. Underground locations are considered when the UGPH is located too deep
for an economical installation of low-voltage leads to the surface switchyard. The maxi-
mum powerhouse cavern depth below the ground surface, at which the transformers can
still be located at the surface, will vary for each project. It will also depend on whether or
not suitable topography exists for construction of a switchyard at the ground surface.
The James Bay LG2 powerhouse (fig. 1-113) cavern is approximately 460 feet below the
ground surface; the transformers and the switchyard are located at the surface, thus elimi-
nating the possible need for transformer cavern.
A vertical low-voltage bus shaft, approximately 440 feet high, connects the low-voltage
lead gallery with the transformers at the ground surface.
At Cabora Bassa (fig. 1-114) the powerhouse cavern lies only slightly lower, at approxi-
mately 460 feet below the ground surface than the LG2 cavern (fig. 1-113) and the trans·
former cavern is located underground. The Cabora Bassa arrangement is similar to that of
Churchill Falls (fig. 1-47).
)
(
Optimum
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 I

1-128
7o/
G'::-
"'"",}
''
I'
'J--ventialtion
' shaft
'''
''
'''
''
''
'
) Figure 1-113.- Jarnes Bay LG2 underground powerhouse complex. (Larocque, 1976).
( ..
r
)
transformer hall
rbusbar tunnel , surge tank
I / access road to
1 the power house
I '
=;.T-::_-.:-.:-..:-:=n
,-,.
170·54 171·&'2
outlet
tailrace
Figure 1-114.- Cabora Bassa underground powerhouse, Zambezi, Mozambique.

[Lemperil!re and Vigny, 1975].

depth for The above two examples indicate tbat at approximately 450 feet deep, tbe location of tbe
transformer transformer cavern could go eitber way- surface or underground. Botb civil and electrical
caverns engineering considerations, along with owner's preference from operations and mainte-
nance point of view, should enter decisions in regard to transformer location on the surface
or underground.
Otber considerations regarding transformer location underground include the following:
• Underground location offers greater protection in several respects.

• Large physical size tbree-phase transformers are undesirable because of requirements
for·)"ider access runnels and transformer caverns.
• Provision of single-phase transformers may require longer caverns.
• Handling of transformers underground may be more cumbersome tban at the ground
surface.
• Greater protection is needed against possible fires and oil gushes as a result tbereof.
• Greater ventilation capacity is needed tban for surface locations.
In spite of tbe aforementioned negative aspects, tbere are many hydroelectric underground
installations all over tbe world tbat have tbe transformers located underground and where
such design has been tbe only logical solution.
Need for 2) Need for transformer galleries (caverns). - Generally, separate transformer galleries
transformer are needed when:
caverns
• The main powerhouse cavern widtb must be kept to a minimum, which is mostly dic- (
\ ..
tated by tbe rock quality surrounding tbe powerhouse cavern.
• The capacity and physical size of the units are large, resulting in large physical size of
tbe transformers and tbus tbeir location inside the powerhouse cavern would result in
an excessive size of tbe cavern, considered both from structural and economic
aspects,
• The powerhouse is a large multi-unit installation which does not lend itself well to
transformer location between the units or behind them in one cavern, because of diffi-
cult maintenance access and crane clearances for removal of tbe transformers,
• Preferences for provisions of fire safety dictate other arrangements.
Upstream 3) Location of transformer caverns (galleries).- Most contemporary underground pow-

location of erhouse designs have the transformer galleries located eitber upstream on downstream of
transformer and parallel witb tbe main powerhouse cavern. The following figures will illustrate these
cavern approaches.
For the 11-475 MW unit Churchill Falls powerhouse (see fig. 1-47), the transformer
gallery is located upstream of tbe main powerhouse cavern. It is raised above the generator
floor level to provide greater clearance above tbe penstocks. This arrangement, as evident,
necessitates sloping low-voltage bus galleries witb corresponding sloping bus ducts and
access stairs.
)
(

TRANSFORMER POWERHOUSE
GALLERY
EL.460.0'
Figure 1-115.- Churchill Falls powerhouse, Churchill, Quebec, Canada.

[Wermelinger et al., 1971].
The main reason for the upstream location of the transformer gallery appears to be to
enable locating the downstream surge chamber as close as possible to the draft tubes for
( better control of downstream surge effects.
) '·'·
Another advantage is that the upstream location of the transformer gallery reduces the
) length of the draft tube tuiUlels.
It should be noted that most underground powerhouse designs on record have the trans- Downstream
former galleries on the downstream side. The following figures illustrate various concepts location
of the downstream location for the transformer gallery.
The Kafue powerhouse is. set approximately 1,600 feet below the ground surface and the
high voltage cables rise to the ground surface over that height (see view "a" of fig. 1-116
above). Horizontal bus-bar galleries lead to the transformer gallery which is located imme-
diately downstream of the draft tube gate slots.

concrete-lined oens!ocks- _
steel-lined penstod.s----11
tiXlflels to be plugged [=::::!
a. Vertical profile through Kafue powerhouse complex.
tusblll'ga!leries
~F.~~~~~~·=~~;-~;~:~:;;~; ~~ ..
0 10 20 30 40 5Mt
b. Cross-section through powerhouse cavern, draft tube gate slot, and transformer cavern.
(
Figure 1-116.- Kafue powerhouse, Kafue River, Zambia. [Rosenstriim, 1972].
.-. ;;;-~.-. ------ .. -,_.

61
LUD SHAFT
BRtAKER CHAM8EA
Figure 1-117.- Mica powerhouse, Columbia River, British Columbia, Canada.

[Taylor and Lauga, 1978].
For the 6-435 MW unit Mica powerllouse the transfonner gallery is located between the
powerhouse cavern and the draft tube gate slots. The concrete lining of the draft tubes and
the upstream face of the gate slots provide adequate protection against seepage from the
relatively low surges in the short tailrace tunnels (fig. 1-111).
Another example of a downstream location for the transfonner gallery is the 10-70 MW
Pelton unit Guatape powerllouse in Columbia (fig. 1-118). This powerllouse, set at 2,070
feet below the ground surface, may be the world's deepest underground powerllouse.
A simple arrangement of horizontal bus-bar tunnels, serving a pair of units, connect to the
transformer gallery which runs directly above the tail tunnel stoplog gallery.
Various other transformer locations have found application as illustrated schematically in Other
figure 1-119. Plan "a" shows a frequently used location for small unit installations inside transformer
the main powerllouse cavern. The location along the powerllouse access tunnel (plan "b'') locations·
has been used on some projects. With this arrangement, the access tunnel serves also to
carry the high-voltage leads along its walls to the switchyard.
Plan "c" shows the transformers located between the units. Some studies have indicated
economical advantages for this arrangement. There is only a single, but a longer, cavern
needed. The cavern width is not affected by the presence of the transformers within the
'- · main powerllouse cavern.
1-133 ASCEIEPRI Guides 1989

(
L-...a,Om.
SCALE
a. Plan of powerhouse and transformer caverns.
~.r:------~~~--------~
,.
.rn&::Q?n lj (
/::~
YAI. ~ I
.-.:-. ~ I
fl.'J jl
YIM4•< J ':"m
~ 'F"
~-··
·~ ;;J:l; ... , • J.!M.Il5 IF'
! ""'--==----===========
~
I' f f
01.039.73
-=- ---- -
o rom
SCALE
b. Cross-section through powerhouse and transformer caverns.
Figure 1-118.- Guatape powerhouse, Colombia. [Mejia and Bacci, 1969].
ASCEiEPRI Guides 1989 1-134

P.H. CAVERN
~I
~-ACCESS TUNNEL
Figure 1-119.- Alternative transformer locations. (Courtesy ofHarza).

r'
This arrangement, because of the limited width of the cavern is suitable only for three-
phase transformers.
Figure 1-120 illustrates the Tumut 2 UGPH arrangement in the Snowy Mountains of
Australia. A separate transformer gallery is located in extension of the access tunnel which
enters the powerhouse from the upstream side.
The transformer gallery has been located to enable. the surge tank location as close as pos-
sible to the draft tubes for effective surge control. Perhaps, other considerations too, such
as geological aspects, entered the decision making process for the location and orientation
of this rather wide gallery.
Transformer location studies should be closely coordinated with the responsible electrical
and mechanical engineers for best solutions under consideration of all engineering aspects.
(b) Bus-bar galleries. - Bus-bar galleries connect the main powethouse cavern with the Bus-bar
transformer gallery for passage of the low voltage leads to the transformers (fig. 1-118a). galleries
They may also be utilized to house the related unit electrical equipment such as generator
breakers, start-up breakers, potential transfonners, etc., such as indicated in figure 1-121.
Usually there is one gallery for each unit. The width of such galleries may vary between 12
to 25 feet. From geotechnical point of view, each gallery constitutes a structural liability
l. and, therefore, their width should be kept to a minimum.

(
Figure 1-120. _: Thmut 2, Australia, underground powerhouse arrangement.
·- ···- 4'-d' .....
I I
Figure 1-121.- Cross sections or a bus-bar gallery. (Helms, PG&E). )
;. '~ ;·:·:: ;-~·;-:-- ·.·.-;--::._-_- •t .·.·.-;,, .. ,._.•..

Where the surrounding rock mass is heavily jointed and thinly bedded, or otherwise of
moderate quality, buses of two or more units should be combined in a single gallery. The
• provided for installation of the buses only
galleries could be made narrower, or only drifts
without the breakers and other equipment.
Figures 1-115, l-116b, 1-117, and l-118b illustrate bus-bar gallery longitudinal sections
between the powerhouse and the transformer gallery. The vertical setting of the latter deter-
mines whether the bus-bar galleries are horizontal or sloped. Both arrangements apparently
are acceptable, however, the horizontal gallery run, being the simpler both from design and
construction point of view, is preferable. Therefore, whenever possible, transformer gallery
vertical setting should be selected with that in mind.
(c) Valve galleries. - If penstock shutoff valves are needed and their location within the Valve
main powerhouse cavern would require substantial widening of the .cavern over its full galleries
height, then provision of separate valve galleries may be found to be economically feasible
(figs. 1-122 and 1-123).
It must be said, however, that most underground designs incorporate the guard valves with-
in the main powerhouse cavern because a separate valve gallery has the following disad-
vantages:
• Spiral case extension, which is of smaller diameter than the penstock, becomes exces- Valve gallery
sively long and because of its smaller diameter, results in increased head losses. disadvantages
• A separate access, from the main access tunnel, is required.
• As for the transformer galleries, connecting tunnels between the main powerhouse
cavern and the valve gallery are needed for routing of mechanical piping, electrical
conduits and control cables, and for personnel access.
• A separate valve gallery crane is required.
• Substantial provisions to control groundwater seepage into the valve gallery, along
with appropriate drainage provisions, may be needed when the rock mass is. subject to
saturation from ground water or exposure to seepage from reservoir.
On the other hand, provision of valve galleries offers the following advantages:
• With the valves removed from the main cavern, the upstream part of the turbine and Valve gallery
generator floors can be made continuous without interruptions by the large hatch advantages
openings over the valve pits.
• Further, with the openings removed, there are no restrictions for routing cable trays,
exposed conduit or piping systems in the area upstream of the generator barrel and
below the generator floor.
• The above advantages render the design of the turbine and generator floors (where the
latter are provided) much simpler, which is also true for construction.

~:::~~:''""'
.,;("'• ..........
', *-7
~ v~ntilation shaft
.'r'T---41-'-<:.:: ' -----

previous location of cavem,
tailr&ee ~nd surge tank.
Figure 1-122.- Agus IV, Agus, Philippines. [Falcon et al., 1984].
32·00•-------1
busbar shalt
5-2~ '
-- (1-;a.-
valve chamber
'l!...-..l...-..l"2...-il""'
Figure 1-123.- Revin pumped storage powerhouse, France. [Gerard, 1972].
--;~·.c·-·;·-.·;··.•·;-_-.·
In summary of the above advantages and disadvantages, it is recommended that the initial Guidelines
attempts should be directed towards incorporation of the valves within the main cavern for for guardvalve
the following reasons: galleries
• The entire design is more compact.

• Hydraulic losses are smaller because larger penstock size is earned closer to the tur-
bine.
• The valves can be serviced by the main powerhouse crane.
• All mechanical and electrical systems serving the valves are shorter.
• The potential valve gallery location upstream of the main cavern may possibly be bet-
ter utilized for a drainage gallery over the penstocks.
Depending on the quality of the surrounding rock, geotechnical considerations may govern
the decision for or against provision of a valve gallery.
(d) Equipment and personnel access Access

tunnels
1) Access tunnels. - With few exceptions, the most commonly used access to the
UGPH is via an access tunnel, both for equipment and personnel. The access tunnels are
sized for two-way traffic which, in most cases, determines the maximum width of the tun-
nel. For large unit installations some of the equipment such as guard valves, turbine run-
ners and transformers dictate the use of special oversized transport equipment.
The access tunnel width may be increased if it serves also to carry high voltage cables to
I
switchyard.
Most tunnel widths are in the range between W = 20 to 30 feet or even more.
)
The widths of the access tunnels of some plants are listed below:
Plant W(ft)
---
Churchhill Falls 33
Mica 33
Bad Creek 30
Raccoon Mountain 29
Northfield Mountain 26
Bear Swamp 25
Waldeckii 20
Tumut 1 19.3
Generally, the tunnel shape is with vertical walls and half-round roof (figure 1-124). The
) height may be approximately the same as the width or less for very wide tunnels (33 feet
for the tunnel at Churchill Falls and Mica). The height for the Bear Swamp access tunnel is
35 feet to allow for installation of ventilation ducts and wall pipes.
The tunnel routing should contain a slight bend near the portal to preempt driving against Access tunnel
bright daylight when driving from the powerhouse. This geometry has been recommended alignment
by some owners.

•··...
to•
Figure 1-124- Access tunnel cross section, Bear Swamp Pumped Storage Plant.
[C.T. Main, 1972].
Thnnel grades Thnnel grades should be kept below 10 percent, preferably around 6 percent maximum, but
this limitation may result in excessively long access tunnels if the powerhouse setting is (
relatively deep below the elevation of th~ tunnel portal
Thnncllloors Tunnel floors shall be paved, in most cases concrete slab has been the preferred type.
Gutters for adequate drainage to t11c powerhouse sump arc required along both walls of the
tunnel. Seepage water flow across the paving shall be prevented to protect against vehicle
slippage and accidents.
Elevators 2) Elevators. - Emergency escape (access) elevators to ground surface are sometimes
incorporated in vertical shafts that arc used as high-voltage cable shafts. Such shafts may
also contain ladders, spiral stairs, or ship ladders, which can be used in emergency.
An elevator to rhe ground surface may be considered for a convenient access from the pow-
erhouse to the surface switch yard if that is located above the powerhouse cavern or nearby.
If the powerhouse is at shallow depth, and the elevator from the powerhouse can be ser-
viced by an access road, then the provision of an elevator for personnel access from the
ground surface may be the preferred design approach.
If an elevator connected with t11e ground surface is intended to function also as a service
elevator then it should be sized and designed to carry light maintenance equipment and
tools as for the Churchill Falls plant (fig. 1-125).
)
(
For preliminary layouts the elevator size can be assumed as shown on figure 1-125.
1-140
.. ~ •·. ~--·--
2'%" 714"
9'-1%"
CAR PLATFORM
. . :".· . :,; .:.:. ;~

-~~·: .. ·~.~-: :~~-. ·. ·.~- ..
::; ~I~========:i==~r:-----~·~·
o ,U!
ba:~
- __..U..
.E
io
:
.J u~ ~- ~
I
: .
"'
_,
L
~ ~ -~~-T ~~ ,.J ~.t
..... "
..
.•••• • . •,,. "!f, ••
..
B"(TYP.I ,13' 10"1

f'm.o. ttv"it.i
10'-0"
HOISTWAY 8"
a. Elevator arrangement and size.
\..
b. Elevator shaft.
Ytnlilulim
tiW
.Busbtl/7
c. Access shaft, Salamonde, Italy.
Figure 1-125.-- Elevator arrangement and size.

.I
\
Cable and (e) Cable and ventilation shafts

ventilation
shafts 1) High-voltage cable shafts. - If transformers are located underground, high-voltage
cables or gas-insulated buses are carried to the surface switchyard via vertical (see fig.
1-116a) or sloping shafts, or tunnels.
If the shafts or tunnels serve no other purpose than to carry the high-voltage leads, either
stairs, for tunnels and sloping shafts, or ladders for vertical or steeply sloping shafts, must
be provided to accommodate inspection as shown on figure 1-126.
SLOPING SHAFT
STAIRS OR
LADDERS
.~... ···Z.. ~ .'"'-' .
'·'
Figure 1-126.- High-voltage cable shaft. (Courtesy of Harza).

(
The cable shafts are conveniently utilized also as ventilating shafts. In that case, they are
provided with fans rather than depending on natural draft-effect. The ventilation air-flow
has a beneficial side effect - it also withdraws the heat emitted from the high-voltage
cables.
As mentioned under "Elevators" above, high-voltage shafts can be combined, for economic
reasons, with emergency escape shafts as shown on figure 1-127.
ELEVATOR SHAFT
500kV SF6 GAS
INSULATED BUSES
,,___SHOTCRETE
Figure 1-127.- High-voltage cable shaft combined with elevator shaft. (


Access tunnels can be utilized to carry high-voltage cables or gas-filled buses. To protect
them against damage, they are usually separated from the vehicular area of the tunnel by a
trench cover slab spanning over them or they are placed above a suspended ceiling, or
behind an appropriate, latticed curtain wall (for ventilation).
2) Low-voltage lead or bus shafts. -If the transformers are located in a surface switch- Low-voltage
yard, the low-voltage leads, or buses, are carried to the surface similarly as described for lead shafts
the high-voltage cables in special shafts (see fig. 1-113) or elevator shafts. In some cases,
if the switchyard is near the access tunnel, the latter is used to carry the leads to the switch-
yard.
A shaft, housing the low-voltage buses, elevator and stairs for the Haas underground pow-
ethouse (one of the early ones in the U.S.), located on the North Fork of Kings River in
California, is shown on figure 1-128a. Low-voltage lead tunnel for the Bear Swamp
pumped storage plant is shown on figure 1-128.
STAIRWAY CONOVITS AND AIR

VNLINED ANO WA TEA PIPES
ten: OIA. COUNTERWEIGHT
Si-IAFT V-+.--IELEVATOA SHAFT
ENCLOSED
BUS
LANDINGS AT 12'-"---F.i:'"l
a. Low-voltage bus shaft with elevator. [Cooke, 1958).
b. Low-voltage leads tunnel. [C. T. Main, 1972).
'-··' Figure 1-128.- Low-voltage bus shafts.

Ventilation (f) .Ventilation shafts and other ventilating provisions. - Shafts are also provided for the
shafts sole purpose of ventilation. Such shafts can be up to 20 feet in diameter, or even more, to
control air velocities. The air shafts should be lined with concrete or, at least, shotcrete to
protect the excavated rock face from weathering or falling rock.
Shaft lining If no lining is provided, the shaft bottom should tenninate below the air inlet opening and
provided with a cleanout access.
For smaller plants with a small interior volume of air, the air can be supplied through the
open area of the access tunnel. The exhaust air can be returned through the access tunnel
but in an exhaust duct.
Air volume Air shafts should be sized to move the entire interior air mass at least four to five times per
hour. The air velocities in the shaft should be limited to approximately 2 ft/s to control the
suction effect at the air inlet.
The air outlet should be arranged vertically to prevent entrance of rainwater and should be
louvered and screened against access of any kind.
Draft tube (g) Draft tube gate piers and gallery

gate piers and
gallery 1) Location of draft tube gates.- For cavern powerhouses, draft tube gate location dif-
fers somewhat from that shown for surface or even for pit powerhouses (fig. 1-107). The
draft tube gates are not located next to the downstream wall of the cavern for the following
reasons:
c.·
• Gate slots next to the cavern wall would bring the tailwater close to the cavern interior
and subject the rock face of the cavern to highly undesirable hydrostatic pressures,
resulting in cracking and potential leakage. The rock face would, most likely, fail
unless substantial watertight reinforced concrete linings were provided. The result
would be a structurally poor and uneconomical design.
• From a rock mechanics point-of-view, excavation of another opening next to the main
powerhouse cavern, with a narrow pillar (the cavern wall) in between them, could
bring only failure already during construction unless very expensive support mea-
sures are provided.
The above reasons dictate that the draft tube gates usually be located a safe distance down-
stream of the cavern face, as shown on figures 1-129, 1-130, 1-131, and 1-132. They may
require specially excavated gate shafts as shown on the last two figures, or along the
upstream face of the surge chamber. A relatively high setting of the turbine shown in figure
1-49 enables a rather close location of the draft tube gate slot to the powerhouse cavern.
If the gate slot serves also as a surge chamber orifice, its width will be governed by the
hydraulic design of the surge chamber.
.I
-.-.··-·-:-
A•A
-·· .,+,-
,, -
...
''
Figure 1-129.- Borisoglebsk Project, Paz River, U.S.S.R. [Yashkul, 1985].
Some designs (figs. 1-44, 1-46, and 1-133) incorporate a hydraulically operated sliding Draft tube
type draft tube closure gate within the powerhouse cavern. The advantage of this arrange- gate in cavern
ment is the small-size gate and a fast, effective closure against the tailwater.
The disadvantage (if there is one) is that the draft tube tuonels downstream of the gate can
not be unwatered unless the entire tailrace tunnel is unwatered. The gate slot above the
draft tube must be provided with a steel lining and a bonnet (cover) at the top of the gate
slot, which are normally furnished with the gate. In addition, maintenance of the gate is
somewhat cumbersome. In general, this type of design is not encountered frequently; per-
haps, more often for pumped storage plants.
Figure 1-133 shows the Montezic pumped storage powerhouse cavern with draft tube clo-
'! sure within the powerhouse and, as a double precaution, a spherical valve downstream of
the gate.
To overcome the possibly slight disadvantages mentioned above, the Shintoyone pumped
storage powerhouse (fig. 1-134) has the draft tube closure gate located at the transformer
gallery. This arrangement has found application on numerous other plants.
''
0 10 20 30 40 50m
,,,
(
'
(a} Longitudinal cross·sedion through new intake, penstock and powerhouse

(b) ~/an view showing location of future second unit
Figure 1-130.- Porjus Project (480 MW), Lule, Sweden. [Water Power, 1975].
ASCEJEPRI Guides 1989 1-146
.·,•;,.:.·..:.·
draft tube
gate shatu
Figure 1-131.- Kiambere powerhouse (140 MW), Taua, Kenya. [Gill and Lawrenson, 1986].
machine chamber
tlilrace
tunnel
Figure 1-132.- Kotmale powerhouse (201 MW), Sri Lanka. [Gosschalk and Longman, 1985].
)
- ·~''';:>;';o:c:,;;:-;>~':':~··7'.'~':'0'----"' -':-.·~-~;·_ --:.·.·,·.·.·.·.
aoss-section of 1 trao51'ormer cavern
I
Figure 1-133.- Montezic pumped storage powerhouse, France.

[Bergeret et al., 1983].
Draft tube 2) Draft tube piers. - The design of draft tube piers for cavern powerhouses is similar
piers to that for surface powerhouses. For draft tubes without center piers, and where the draft
tubes are fonned as voids in the rock, the rock pillars between the draft tubes are extended
as concrete piers to fonn the gate slots (fig. 1-135).
The draft tube pier portion, which is downstream of the upstream face of the gate slot, may
be located at the upstream face ofgate shaft (fig. 1-116b, 1-130, 1-131), draft tube mani-
fold, tailrace tunnel (fig. 1-117), or surge chamber (fig. 1-113).
The concrete stub fonning the pier hose should be anchored to the rock pillar.
Pier The pier width will be governed by the rock pillar thickness left in place between the draft
anchorage to tubes. The minimum pier thickness will be the same as established for surface powerhous-
rock pillars es (see section D).
If rock pillars are not left between the draft tubes, the piers are constructed of reinforced
concrete throughout their length and the design is same as for surface powerhouses. (

I
( .
I draft tube gate
) Figure 1-134.- Shintoyone pumped storage powerhouse, Japan.
FACE OF GATE
SLOT ABOVE~
ROCK ANCHORS
ROCK PILLAR
REINFORCED DRAFT TUBE

CONCRETE LINING
) FLOW
N.T.S.
Figure 1-135.- Draft tube gate pier concept.

The length of the piers in the downstream direction may be increased at the top to provide
a bracket effect for the support of the draft tube deck as shown on figure 1-136 illustrating
the design used for the Bersimis Lac Casse powerhouse draft tubes.
If the piers are located in a downstream surge chamber, they then must terminate above the
maximum surge level to obtain freeboard for the draft tube deck.
52'-3"
TAIUi:ACE
TUNNEL
Figure 1-136.- Bersimis Lac Casse draft tube and tailrace tunnel, Bersimis,
(
Quebec.
Draft tube 3) Draft tube deck. - The draft tube deck provides access to the individual gate slots
deck and is connected to a draft tube gate access gallery which usually branches off the main
powerhouse access tunnel.
For installation and operation of the gates, the deck, exclusive of any parapet or curb, should
extend at least 4 feet downstream of the gate slot to provide for passage of personnel.
The deck should be set high enough to enable dogging of the draft tube gates (stoplogs)
above the maximum surge level (see preceding figures), or the gates must be stored in the
draft tube gate access gallery. Special niches may be provided along the gallery wall for
that purpose.
In most cases, a monorail hoist with the runway cantilevered from the gallery wall or roof
may suffice to handle the draft tube gates. A bridge crane may be provided for larger gates
or where the gate slot is farther downstream from the wall rendering wall-supported mono-
rail hoists unsuitable.
The bridge crane can be supported on:
• Continuous corbels, as is frequently done for the main powerhouse cranes )

• girders supported either on individual brackets embedded or anchored to the walls, or c. ·
on columns.

4) Draft tube gate gallery and access tunnel. - The draft tube gate gallery runs above Draft tube
tbe draft tube piers to enable handling and positioning of tbe gates into each draft tube slot. gate gallery
Eitber tbe full gate or stoplog height or tbe height of individual gate sections of larger and access
gates, plus clearances for handling and for the hoist, will dictate tbe gallery height. The tunnel
width will be governed by draft tube deck requirements (widtb of slot plus 4 feet minimum
on each side for gate hauling).
A draft tube gate access tunnel is required for access to tbe draft tube deck in tbe draft tube
gate gallery and, if connected witb a surge chamber, to provide for air supply and exhaust
when tbe latter is in operation. In tbat case, tbe access tunnel and the gate gallery should be
sized such that maximum air velocities do not exceed, say, 20 mph wind velocity, or
approximately 30 ft/s (9 m/s). This agrees witb tbe criteria recommended by Corps of
Engineers for tbe design of intakes for outlet works air vents.
The widtb of tbe gate access tunnel should be based on one-way traffic assuming tbat vehi- Access tunnel
cles would back out from tbere. A widtb of approximately 18 feet (5.5 m) be considered as width
a minimum requirement to allow for sufficient clearances for truck and personnel passage
between tbe tunnel walls.
Since tbe draft tube access tunnel grade will slope towards tbe draft tube gate gallery, Tunnel
because of tbe downward grade of tbe powerhouse access tunnel, appropriate drainage gut- drainage
ters should be provided along botb sides of the access tunnel for drainage to tbe gate slots.
The access tunnel floor should be paved witb a concrete slab at least 8 inches (20 cm) Tunnel floor,
r·· thick. In good rock, pattern rock bolts may suffice as tbe only supports for tbe tunnel walls support of
I
and roof. Fractured rock and rock subject to deterioration will require wire mesh reinforced walls
\
shotcrete approximately 3 inches (8 cm) tbick.
'
(h) Downstream Surge Chamber Provisions Downstream
surge chamber
I) Need for surge chamber. - Depending on tbe length of tbe tailrace conduits, down- provisions
stream surge chambers, located downstream of tbe powerhouse, may or may not be needed.
Altbough the need for surge chambers should be based on detailed transient analyses, pre-
liminary determination can be based on tbe requirement that if:
a surge chamber is not needed. In tbe above expression:
L = lengtb of tailrace tunnel,

V = velocity in tbe tunnel, and
H = tailwater head on tbe tunnel. .
) The velocities in tbe tailrace tunnel will be in tbe range of 15 ft/s or even more. Witb 15
ft/s, from tbe above criteria:
\ .1:...<6
'·• H-

Preferably, L/H should be 4 to 5 based on industry recommendations.
According to Krivchenko et al. [1985], surge provisions are not needed if the conduit c··.
length does not exceed 150 meters (330 feet) under pressurized conditions.
Surge chamber design is not discussed in this section and is treated in volume 2 of the
Guidelines, Chapter 6, "Transients and Surge Tanks." However, some discussion of the
surge chamber types, whlch may have to be considered in underground powerhouse lay-
outs, is briefly presented in this section.
2) Downstream surge chamber types. - Any vented cavity above the tailrace tunnel
crown and connected with the tunnel may, depending on its size, offer some surge relief.
To that extent, draft tube gate slots, and the gallery connecting them, may suffice as surge
chambers for small powerhouses with small discharges. However, large installations will
require speCially designed provisions to control surges.
3) Construction tunnel utilized as surge chamber. -For some projects, where the con-
struction access tunnels are not utilized as permanent access tunnels, the former can be uti-
lized as surge chambers or surge tunnels. The concept is similar to that illustrated for pit
powerhouses on figure 1-101.
4) Cylindrical surge chambers. - Cylindrical surge chambers, each serve two units for
theTumut 2 plant (fig. 1-120) and for the Agus IV plant (fig. 1-122) with individual
chambers for each unit.
(
Advantages of Because of their shape, cylindrical surge chambers reduce rock mechanics design problems
cylindrical as compared with large cavern type chambers with high walls. Thus, they are preferable
surge when the rock mass at the powerhouse cavern is not of the best quality. However, the exca-
chambers vation costs, because of the confined space, may be higher than for long caverns (see
below), uniess the support provisions for the latter outweigh the savings in exc.~vation.
The interior of the chambers should be lined with shotcrete, reinforced with wire mesh or
concrete lining, to protect the rock face against gradual degradation. If shotcrete is used, it
should be anchored to rock because it could easily be separated from the rock face and
damaged by external hydrostatic pressures.
5) Cavern type surge chambers. - For plants with many units, the cavern ·type surge
chamber may offer economic advantages over the cylindrical type. Churchl\l ..Falls (fig.
1-47) and James Bay LG2 (fig. 1-113) plants are provided with very similar f~rge cavern
type surge chambers. Cabora Bassa (figs. 1-110 and 1-114) has two separate. cavern type
chambers.
A curved cavern type chamber is illustrated for the Ambuklao plant (fig. 1-52)-!o fit the
curved powerhouse cavern shape.

All surge chamber caverns must be vented through galleries or shafts that are located above
the maximum surge levels and that daylight to open air. Maximum air velocities should be
limited to 20 mph as already noted in subsection H.6.d(2)(g)4).
The cavern type surge chambers should be located sufficiently far from the main power-
house chamber such that the rock pillar left between is not overstressed under any condi-
tion. At Churchill Falls the distance (in good granitic type of rock) was approximately 100
feet. About the same clear spacing was provided at James Bay.
It is recommended that for preliminary layouts the pillar thickness between the powerhouse Cavern
cavern and the surge chamber cavern is separation
distance
W= 1.3B
where:
B = powerhouse cavern width, and

W = rock pillar widjh between caverns
·"
The above relationship fs in the range used for existing caverns in good rock. For surge
chamber caverns, whose floors are substantially above the lowest point of the powerhouse
cavern, it may be possible to reduce the rock pillar thickness below what is recommended
above.
Appropriate rock mechanics studies should be performed to detennine the combined stress
conditions that result from existing in situ stresses and the secondary stresses caused by
excavation of the caverns in the rock mass, and to determine the support requirements as
discussed in subsection H.6.d.
) As for circular surge chambers, the exposed rock faces of the surge cavern chambers shall
be lined either with shotcrete or concrete. The lower part of the surge cavern, which fonns
the tailrace tunnel, should be lined with concrete (anchored to rock) for hydraulic reasons
and to protect the rock from degradation.
6) Modified tailrace tunnels. - The Soviet design for the Hoa-Binh power station in Modified
Vietoam defeioped a new concept for the design of tailrace tunnels with the aim to elimi- tailrace
nate conventional surge chambers dissussed above. tunnels
The proposed concept entails enlargement of the tailrace tunnel above its crown as indicat-
ed on the cross sections identified as Var I, II, and Ill beyond point "a."
1-153 .' ASCE/EPRI

·'l
Guides 1989
Through • .,.
Var I Var JI
sru
"
" '
L
Figure, 1-137.- Concept of modified tailrace tunnel. [Krivchenko et al., 1985].
The referenced publication establishes the crown proflle geometry as follows:
(
where:
discharge of unit
q ~
maximum design discharge '

Q = net discharge towards tailrace as function of dq/dt,
F ~ cross-sectional area at "a," and
B ~ width of tailrace tunnel.
The crown proflle thus determined is of parabolic shape.
Reduction of civil works volume by elimination of special surge chambers is claimed by

the authors.
Compressed 7) Compressed Air Chambers.- Several plants in Europe, especially in Norway, have
air chambers used compressed air or "air pillow cushion" type of surge chambers in lieu of conventional
chambers. They are used mainly when prevailing topography would make the latter sys-
tems impractical and, thus, expensive. That condition may result when the tailrace tunoel is
very long and the powerhouse located deep in the mountain, which could make it rather
difficult to vent the surge tanks to the atmosphere.
)
For compressed air chambers, the rock must be much more thau just watertight, because
the air conductivity through rock fractures and joints in rock may reach 1,000 times that of
water (EPRI AP-5273). In addition, substantial mechanical equipment (compressors) is
needed to replenish the air lost.
Some intended compressed-air surge chamber designs in Norway did not materialize
because it was not possible to obtain the required confinement for the air cushion.
Substautial amount of consolidation grouting may be required to make the rock mass suit-
able for the purpose aud, thus, to obtain a reliable system.
An acceptable air loss is in the order of approximately 1.0 m3Jmin or 35 ft3Jmin at atmo-
spheric pressure. There are no existing plants that utilize compressed air surge chambers in
the United States.
e. Caverns for Powerhouses. - With the understanding of the purpose and concepts of the Powerhouse
various appurtenant underground features described in the preceding section, the designer caverns
eau proceed to develop the hiyout of the powghouse cavern with du'e consideration for
provisions related to 1he appurtenant features. '
However, before proceeding with the layout, the designer should be cognizant of some Impacts of
basic geotechnical aud rock mechanics aspects that may substantially affect cavern layout. geotechnical
aspects
Because the powerhouse cavern is the central feature of an underground powerplant com-
plex, the relationship of all appurtenant underground features will be governed by the
impacts of the geotechnical aspects upon the orientation and location of the powerhouse
cavern in the rock mass.
Likewise, the size and shape of the cavern, while greatly dependent on the size of the water
passages (spiral case, draft tube) and the generating equipment size, will also be governed
to an appreciable extent by rock-mechanics considerations.
(1) Cavern Orientation Cavern orien-

tation
(a) Orientation with respect to joint systems. - Ideally, caverns should be oriented nor-
mally to a principal joint system, or, at least under an angle large enough so that a joint tra-
verses the cavern without daylighting in a wall under a sharp angle.
Cavern orientation parallel to the principal joints, especially those dipping steeply into a Cavern air
cavern wall, shall be avoided because such joints tend to form unstable rock wedges with a bisects joint
vertical wall. If two or more principal joint sets are encountered, the longitudinal axis of systems
the cavern should bisect the joint system.
Appropriate rock mechanics studies should be conducted to determine the possible size and
shape of resulting free bodies in the rock along the cavern wall aud the related support
requirements.
(
J
(b) ·orientation with respect to principal in situ stresses. -Another aspect to consider is
the direction of the maximwn lateral principal stresses. If the latter are of reasonably high r. ·.·.· ·
magnitude, say, over 10 MPa (1 ,450 lb(in2), and if they act against the longitudinal walls of I(
the powerhouse, the related deformations may result in substantial support requirements
for high walls.
It is thought, however, that problems associated with joint systems paralleling the longitu-
dinal walls may be greater than those caused by high lateral in situ stresses.
Minimum (2) Minimum Rock Cover.- Norwegian practice for caverns in good rock requires a mini-
rock cover mwn sound rock thickness of 5 meters (16 ft) above a potential loose rock zone that could
over cavern develop in the roof (fig. 1-138). The criteria indicated on figure 1-138 could also be
checked against the rule of thwnb:
cmins. !.OB to 1.58

In some instances, shallower roof cover thicknesses may be feasible if the rock bedding
and jointing is such that the rock can be reinforced and stitched to become self supporting.
This approach, however, is not strongly recommended.
Fignre 1-138.- Minimum rock cover for caverns.

[Broch, 1982].
Cavern size (3) Cavern Size and Shape.- Cavern size is governed to a great extent by the quality of (
and shape the surrounding rock in combination with the provisions for its support, if such is required.
~- ---··-·-·--~ -- ·~-,.- .. ,-•• -n-.>--.-c--,·~- , ..,.,_,,-, .-,."c".-

Except for very large storage and utility caverns that have been developed in excellent rock
in Scandinavian countries, the width of most large powerhouse caverns vary between 70 to
115 feet (21 to 35 m). Caverns substantially wider than maximum precedents for power-
houses would probably render such underground powerhouse designs uneconomical,
because of the support requirements, and even unsafe in the weaker rocks.
Table 1-4 presents cavern dimensions for a number of powerhouse caverns, both for con- Table for
ventional hydro and pumped storage powerhouses. Along with cavern sizes, the number ea vern sizes
and size of units, rock cover above the cavern and rock type are indicated for designer's
information and as preliminary guide for an assessment of cavern size requirements. The
information is arranged in descending widths of the caverns. It was not attempted to list all
underground powerhouses in operation; the intent was to get a reasonably complete listing
of the larger powerhouse caverns.
The actual cavern size should be determined on basis of actual requirements for water pas- Cavern width
sages, generating and auxiliary equipment as described for surface powerhouses and, later,
in this section. In this connection, appropriate studies should be conducted as to the trans-
former location discussed in subsection H.6.c(2)(a).
(4) Cavern Width.- The cavern width is one of the most important cavern design param- •
eters because it governs the following design aspects, such as:
)
• Minimum rock cover above the cavern crown
• Potential loose rock loads above the cavern crown
(''
)
• Rock support requirements
• Rock bolt or rock anchor lengths
• Cavern crown deformations
• Powerhouse crane 'span length
Because the cavern width provided will be excavated the full height of the cavern and
because underground excavation, including the required support, is very expensive, excess
width should be avoided.
Table l-41ists ouly caverns that are 21 meters (69ft) or wider. There are numerous power-
house caverns with smaller widths which, generally, have been designed for unit sizes
below 100 MW and usually no provisions for transformers in the powerhouse cavern.
The cavern width should be determined by using the same steps outlined for determining
generating bay width for surface type powerhouses described in section D.3. In addition,
the decision should be made as to whether guard valves and transfonners should be housed
in the main cavern.
Initially, the cavern walls should be assumed to be conventionally vertical which is the pre- Wall shape
ferred shape for their simplicity in excavation.

>
(/)
~;g
-e.
Cl PS ~ Pumped storage C/PS • Conventional and Pumped storage
"'""
-
"'
\0
00
\0 PROJECT COUNTRY NO.
UNITS
~
WIDTH
CAVERN SIZE
HEIGHT LENGTH
meters
GROUND
COVER
__
m_ ROC:K TYPE REMARKS
1 cirata Indoriesia 4 125 35 49.5 253 100111 Pyroclastic, some shale Under Construction
2 Imaichi Japa~ 3 350 33.5 51.0 160 400 Sandstone, slate P.S.
3 wald~k II w. Germany 2 239 33.5 40 106 260 Graywacke, sandstone, shale P.s.
4 Veytaux-Hongrin .Switzerland 4 60 30.5 26.8 137.5 330 Fractured limestone, schist P.S.
5 Fadalto Italy 2 120 29.6 57.3 69.6 shallow Sound limestone
6 El Cajon Honduras 4 80 29.5 49 110 200 Karstic limestone
7 Grimsel II Switzerland 4 75 29 19 140 200• Hard gneiss P.s., horiz. units
8 Cabora Bassa Jiozambique 5 415 28.9 56 220 140 Unknown
9 Ferrera Switzerland 3 62 29 25 143 150 Hard gneiss P.s.
,
10 coo-Trois Pants
Robiei
Belgium
Switzerland
6
4
125
41
27.5
27
40
28.7
130
75
75
?1?
Thin beds phyllites, poor shales
Conglo•erate, gneiss
P.S.
P.s.
12 Shintakasegawa Japan 4 336 27 54.5 163 250 Good quality granites P.s.
--
I
U\
00
13
14
15
16
LaGrande 2
He 1m3
Kemano
Montezic
Canada-
USA
ca:nada
France
16
3
16
4
333
350
100
228
26.5
25.3
25
25
47,3
38.1
42.7
42.5
483
102.4
213.4
145
100
370
430
380
Granitic gneiss w/diorite
Grandiorite
Granitic, diorite
High quality granite
P.S.
P.s.
17 Churchill FAllS Canada 11 475 24.7 44.8 296.3 300 Gneiss, diorite, syenite
18 Dinarw-ic U.K. 6 300 24.5 52.2 180.3 300 Good quality slate P.s.
19 Mica Canada 6 435 24.4 44•• 2 237.2 220 Schist, interbedded gneiss
20 El Toro Chile 4 100 24.4 40 103 ?1? Grandiorite Pelton units
21 Bear Swamp USA 2 300 24.4 45.7 68.6 100 Chlorite micaschist P.s.
22 Lake Delia Italy 8 130 24 60.5 195.5 150 Gneiss P.s.
23 TUmut· 1 Australia 4 80 23.5 33.5 91.5 340 Granite, gneiss
24 Boundary USA 6 150-200 23.2 53.4 145 150 Limestone
25 Sackingen w. Germany 4 83 23 30.6 102 400 Solid gneiss P.s., horiz. units
26 Turlough Hill Ireland 4 73 23 32 82 200 Coarse grained granite P.S.
27 Kariba Zimbabwe 9 100 22.9 40.2 148 60 Biotate gneiss
28 Bad Creek USA 4 250 22.5 so.o 132 160 Metamorphic gneiss P.s., under construction
29 Raccoon Mountain USA 4 382.5 22 so 150 200 Limestone P.s.
. , 30 Northfield Htn. USA 4 250 21.3 44.2 100 170 Gneiss, quartzite P.s •
31 Chute-des-Passes Canada 5 150 21.2 38 140 120 Gran! tea, gneiss ea
;]·.•
32 Edward Hyatt USA 6 293-351 21 36.6 67.7 90 Amphibolite C/PS
:1
:i •Information qiven is very approximate.

·'..,
:~
::
Table 1-4.- Underground powerhouses with caverns 21 meters or wider.
:l
•i
~
'~'- 071
Curved walls may have to be used if the lateral in situ stresses are high regardless of Distressed
whether or not deep distressed rock zones could develop with vertical walls as indicated on zones
figure 1-139. With high lateral stress intensities, the depth of the disturbed zone, where the
strength·stress ratio is 1 or less, can reach 20 feet or more.
If curved walls are used, additional space is gained which can be utilized for high or low.
voltage cable, conduit and piping runs.
I
b /
)
w
{',~·~
Figure 1-139.- Strength·stress' ratios for different shapes of cavern waJis.

[Hoek and Brown, 1980].
1-159 ASCE/EPRI,Pllides 1989
I
>~,~~.;.f--::-:~~~--:::~~:::::7.~::.:-r-:-:·~--:::.·:~,~ ·:.:::::~-~-< -~.. . ~ :.':~.:.·,;,··.-.·. •:.•.·-~--~-;.-<_.-.-~~~--·>~------·-·~·> ·•
The graphs on figure 1-140 allow preliminary detennination of roof and sidewall stresses
with known values of vertical and horizontal in situ stresses for various cavern shapes. For (·.c. .·.·.•. •.·.
powerhouse caverns, only shapes 2, 3, I and vertically elongated shape 5, in that order,
may find application. Factors A and B should be adjusted for shape 5.
VALUES OF CONSTAHTS A ' 8
11
~ 0§@)a:J<1l®CDIECD
A s.o •.o
'·' ).2 ).1 ).0 2.0 .., 1.8
• 2.0 1.5 1.8 2.) 2.1 ).0 s.o I,,

"'
•r---~-----r--------~
••,,
-•(l•k)
..
••
·3,~-----L----~----~~--~.
RATIO HCIRilOMTAL IN SITU STRESS • k kATIO KOitiZONTAL IN SITU STRESS • k
VERTICAL IN SITU STIUSS VERTICAL IN SITU STilES$
Figure 1-140.-- Influence of cavern shape and applied stresses upon maximum
boundary stresses. [Hoek and Brown, 1980].
Cavern height (5) Cavern Height. - The cavern height should limited to the minimum required for
equipment installation and maintenance for the following reasons:
• To keep the excavation costs, including those for support, to a minimum.

• To reduce structural height and, thus, the depth and height of possible distressed zones
that result in heavier support requirements.
• To reduce the thickneSs of pillars between adjoining caverns because, as a rough rule,
(although not configured by the designs of Churchill Falls, LG2 powerhouse, and oth-
ers), the pillar thickness in good rock should not be less than the cavern height
. [Broch, 1982] to avoid high stress concentrations; for caverns or galleries of low
heights, the thickness should be at least 5 meters (approximately 16.5 ft).
• Less circulating air volume for cavern ventilation is required if the volume of the cav-
ern void is kept to the minimum required. (

95
One way how to reduce the wall height during construction is to leave in place all natural
rock surrounding the draft tubes and the spiral cases, as already mentioned under pit pow-
erhouses in subsection H.5j(2) (fig. 1-103). This approach will be required for large cav-
erns with higb walls and high lateral in situ stresses acting upon such walls.
For smaller caverns, with less excavation volume involved and lower walls, or where the
lateral in situ stresses are low, it may be advantageous to excavate the cavern floor follow-
ing the draft tube profile through the full length of the cavern.
The cavern height is determined on the basis of the turbine and generator setting, the erec- Cavern height
tion clearances for the turbine runner, or rotor with shaft, including the powerhouse crane determination
outlines plus the space resulting froni the arched roof above. Except for the latter aspect,
recommendations made for the surface powerhouses subsection D.3 apply also for under-
ground powerhouses.
(6) Cavern Length. -The length of the cavern should be detennined on basis on the Cavern length
monolith width required for each unit plus space for equipment unloading and erection,
and for any service facilities.
Erection and unloading bay width (measured normal to the flow) may be approximately Erection bay
1.2 to 1.5 times the unit bay width, which can become longer if the stator is assembled in width
the erection bay instead of on the generator barrel with factory-reassembled stator seg-
ments. This later approach is no longer recommended because the stator laminations can-
not be overlapped at the individual segments. The lack of lamination overlapping has been
I the cause for breaking of the laminations. Therefore, stators of large units are completely
)
assembled at the sites in the erection bay. Small stators can be shipped in one piece from
the factory. The 11-unit Churchill Falls powerhouse has two erection bays, one at each end
of the powerhouse the total length of the erection area amounts to about 2.15 unit bay
widths, or about 150 feet.
Except for powerhouses with units of smaller physical size (fig. 1-144), which enable pro-
vision of service bays along one side of the cavern, quite frequently it is the practice to
incorporate the service bay in the erection bay of the powerhouse, including the control
room. This provision will increase the erection bay length accordingly.
If the transformers are located between the units,. the length of the cavern will increase
commensurately. There are only a few precedent designs with the latter arrangement. The
economic aspects of such an arran~ement, as for others, should be studied before adopted
for final design.
(7) Powerhouse Cavern Layout, Space Provisions.- In general, the layout of cavern pow- Cavern
erhouses follows the approaches described for surface powerhouses under consideration of layout, space
some limitations as already indicated for pit powerhouses. provisions
The principal limitations to the layout are those stemming from considerations that have
I
been mentioned already earlier and are emphasized again:
c··
~·

• Geotechnical considerations regarding the cavern width and shape
• Economic considerations as related to the high cost of cavern excavation, including
the necessary support and instrumentation requirements
The above aspects should be kept in mind when the layouts for cavern powerhouses are
developed, i.e., they should be done with economy constantly in mind. While this approach
shall be true for any kind of designs, the relatively higher cost for all work performed
underground should, however, be a constant reminder for the designer.
Reference is made to Wolf's paper [1961] and to more recent publications on the subject
listed in the references section that provide useful guidance on underground powerhouse
layouts and design considerations.
Unit bays (a) Unit bays.- The unit bays are laid out and sized similarly as for surfaces powerhous-
es, however, with due respect to controlling the overall width of the cavern dictated by the
considerations mentioned above.
Contraction For smaller units, contraction joints do not have to be provided between every unit, but
joint rather between every pair of units for four and six unit installations (figure 1-141) as sug-
arrangement gested by Wolf [1961]. In moderate climates, and assuming precooled concrete, this
approach could also be used for large unit powerhouses.
CONTRACTION
,r~ICCESSTUNNEL
CONTRACTION JOINT OMITTED
Figure 1-141.- Joints between small unit bays.
For construction expediency, construction joints may be provided where contraction joints
are omitted.
If high lateral pressures exist, Wolf has suggested that it is advantageous to provide the
contraction joints· along the center lines of the units to form an !-section (see fig. 1-141,
shaded area) in the generator slab between the units. The !-section would structurally be a
stiffer member than the rectangular plate with a large round hole, somewhat off-center of
the slab in most cases. (

The above suggeStion has some structural merit but complicates the design of the generator
barrel and, possibly, the substructure below. Moreover, construction will be complicated to
1:":
some extent. Therefore, it is thought that a better solution would be to use as few contrac-
\,; tion joints between the units as possible and to reinforce the slab to control cracking as
required by such a design. Concrete placement with precooled aggregate will reduce the
potential for cracking.
(b) Unit location in flaw direction.- Unit location, or actually the location of the axis of Unit location
the cavern with respect to the units in the flow direction, will greatly depend on: in flow
direction
• What equipment, besides the units, is housed in the cavern and where (upstream or
downstream side) is it located
• What space provisions are made in the cavern for equipment access, such as hatches,
galleries, passages between generator barrels and walls, etc.
• On which side (upstream or downstream) of the generator the low-voltage leads exit
and connect to electrical equipment
• Where the stairs and elevators are located, which may require larger access passage
ways for personnel and maintenance equipment
The generating units, representing the largest equipment in the powerhouse, will be located
more or less centrally (see fig. 1-142), except for some necessary shift of the cavern axis
with respect to the units to accommodate the other equipment or space provisions (fig.
1-143).
....... _.
IAIIoiiiUU,,_,_.~_,-
T T • T ,--
j ~ .L.-
Figure 1-142.- James Bay LG2 powerhouse cavern with rock ledges for support.
[Ludwig and Olive, 1980].

Steps in As for the surface powerhouses, the exterior shell of the cavern powerhouses is shaped
powerhouse only after the interior arrangement of the principal equipment and the required foundations
layout therefor have been detennined. The principal steps are outlined below (for more detail see
subsection D.3):
• Draw water passage outlines (plans and sections) and enclose with necessary sub-
structure concrete.
• Detennine generator setting, generator barrel size and generator floor (if provided)
level or top of generator barrel level.
• Draw crane clearance diagram (vertical cross section) to detennine powerhouse crane
setting.
• Based on preliminary maximum equipment weights, detennine crane capacity for
either single or two crane arrangement and obtain crane outline.
• Set minimum clearances above the trolleys to determine spring line level for cavern
roof arch.
• If turbine guard valves are needed, provide a valve gallery upstream of the spiral case
inlet.
• Add passages, minimum 10 to 12 feet wide each side (upstream/downstream) of the
generator barrel, to detennine location of the cavern walls; the upstream wall should
align with the upstream wall of the valve gallery, if such is provided.
• Split the distance between the walls to detennine the location of the cavern axis with
respect to the units.
Crane support • Decide what crane supports should be used:
types o Overexcavated roof at spring line to fonn rock ledges (fig. 1-136), which are feasi-
ble in good rock only- see figure 1-133 for distressed zones resulting from such
excavation; also, some designers think that such rock ledges can be damaged from
c
blasting and that costs are increased because, of "rock sculpturing" (apparently,
this opinion is not shared by the designers of the LG2 powerhouse).
o Continuous concrete corbels anchored to walls with post-tensioned anchors -no
support columns needed but corbel installation delays excavation and post-ten-
sioned anchors can be substantial for heavy cranes.
o Steel or precast-prestressed concrete girders on columns from compatible material
- widely used, but columns can be set only after foundation concrete is placed
and thus crane installation is delayed for use in construction.
• Depending on crane support type selected for preliminary concept, draw parabolic
roof arch with a pitch approximately one-fourth to one-third, or more, of the span, the
flatter shapes for rocks of good quality.
Rock • Prepare rock mechanics analyses with the help of two dimensional FEM analyses to
mechanics detennine stress intensities, range of expected defonnations and support requirements
analyses to access the feasibility of the first preliminary shape selected for investigation.
With smaller units (below 100 MW), a single cavern offers space for transfonners, auxil-
iary equipment and other space as evident from figure 1-137. The cavern has been shaped
to include the main transfonners located along the upstream side, with cable and piping
galleries along the downstream side. The crane runway occupies only a part of the 29.5-
meter (96.8-ft) wide cavern located in lhnestone. )
(

97
....-
tube I_..
Section of the undf'Jrground power st11tion. where: tU. 1•
drnt tube: 04.2 • drain11ge eh an~; 04.3 • pipe dumnel: 03.1 •
front st11ir ease; 03.2 • v•lve chamber: 03.7 • ~s to dr#t
tube; 02. 1 • turtJinegovernor room; -02.2 • turbine intermediM•
room; 02..3 • pipe gllll•r; 02. 11 • conrrol room for bunerfty
v111Ya; 01.2 • generator intermediate room; 01.3 • pi~ Md
able g111fttry; 01.9 • ct~ble pasuge; 01.16 • genen~torvolr~
sw#ellge11r: 01.17 • gftf'HI,..tor room; 0. 1 • mKhirwt h11ll; CU •
Jlll'f'Viu paag•: 0.14 • genenrornnsfonner. 0.16 • comtol
.,...: 1.3 • Qble •nd v.ntil11tion p11.suge; 2.3 • ,.suge: ~ 1 •
ur.rior ,.suge; 3.2 • 12nril~ tHt11m for crane r11ils: 3.3 •
craM g11ll.ry; 3.8 • cabJe ,.suge; 11nd. 3.9 • vwmil.rion.
Figure 1-143.- El Cajon, Hunuya, Honduras, 4-91.25 MVA units.

[Arriviallaga and Kreuzer, 1981).
An almost opposite arrangement to that shown on fig. 1-137 is represented in the Kemano
powerhouse with 10- 100 MW Pelton units. At one time (in the 1950s), Kemano was the
world's largest underground power plant.
The Kemano cavern is located in excellent granitic diorite type rock and is 81.5 feet (24.8
m) wide. Note, that the rock walls are unlined but hidden behind curtain walls to ensure
dry exposed wall faces. '
The preceding illustrations (figs. 1-143 and 1-144) illustrate that the cavern axis will be
offset substantially with respect to the units if the transformers are housed in the power-
house cavern.
If the units are large and studies indicate preference to keep the transformers next to the
units, they can be located in niches along the powerhouse cavern wall. In that case, one
transformer will serve two ui'iits to limit the number or size of the niches for structural rea-
sons - rock stability along the cavern wall broken up by the niches as shown on figure
1-145.

('
Figure 1-144.- Kemano, Kemano River, British Columbia, Canada.

[Wise, 1952].

70 , ...
'$'... EL. I go' <i, POW£RHOUSt
~ ~ ~··
CORftUGAT[O
ARCH PANELS
. EL.t70'
I'<. ~'TRANSFORMER
C , l ALCOVE
u•il'• : I EL.
rJfL,--J ~IIZ3'
J
EL.IIO'
EL.,.·~IWJ
A-A
0 zo 40 60 80 100
Sc:Al.E-':"EET
Figure 1-145.- Northfield Mountain Cavern, New Hampshire, with

transformer niches. [Wild and Kittrick, 1971].
(c) Draft tube shape. - For underground powerhouses, me draft tube shape is made as Draft tube
narrow as possible to reduce rock excavation for economic as well as structural reasons. shape
The draft tube elbow will, by necessity, be shaped as for conventional powerllouses but
then transitioned to a circular shape for connection to the draft tube tunnels as indicated on
) figure 1-146.
The shape of the draft tube requiring the lease excavation is desirable to obtain greater
assurance for stable rock conditions in the lower part of the powerhouse cavern during
excavation of the draft tubes. If the draft tube foundation profile is excavated through the
full length of the powerhouse, and the draft tubes are formed in concrete, it is still neces-
sary to maintain the draft tube width as narrow as possible to reduce the width of the transi-
tion from the draft tubes to the draft tube tunnels.
(d) Draft tube and spiral case embedment. - The aspect of the draft tube and spiral case Draft tube,
embedment is already discussed in section H.5f, "Substructure Outline." The same consid- spiral case
erations also apply to cavern powerhouses. embedment
For caverns with high walls and high lateral in-situ stresses against the side walls, it will be
necessary to limit rock excavation for the draft tubes and spiral cases only the minimum
required. The more rock is left in place to provide structural support, as evident from figure
1-147 for the Churchill Falls cavern and as illustrated on figure 1-103, the better it is for
the structural support of the walls.
~..
--- ..·- .·n.·.·.·-

..,---1"1"-::..:::o:._FT.URBINE DISTRIBUTOR
LIV
---------
I \
I \
\ • I
jl!
-------
Figure 1-146. ~ Draft tube shape for underground powerhouse draft tubes.
(
Figure 1-147.- Churchill Falls cavern excavation.

The spiral cases are usually embedded after their testing when they are filled with water for
that purpose. During embedment, an internal pressure equivalent to the maximum static
head is maintained. Consequently, the embedment concrete will be required to resist only
overpressures.
(e) Lower service galleries. - The lower services galleries, such as shown in figures Lower service
1-115, 1-117, 1-142, and 1-143 require continuous excavation through the lower part of galleries
the cavern. If rock is left in place for the draft tube and spiral case embedment, excavation
of a longitudinal service gallery between the spiral case and the draft tube would weaken
the rock left in place and, therefore, galleries would not provided on the downstream side
of the units.
Consequently, the service gallery principally for draft tube access is provided along the
upstream side of the cavern as indicated on figures 1-115, 1-117, and 1-137.
Sometimes, especially for large units, it is desirable to provide service galleries along both
sides of the unit which affords draft tube cone access from two opposite sides. Such an
arrangement enables easy installation of a service platform for turbine runner maintenance.
Lower service galleries are also utilized as exits for raw water intake and distribution pip-
ing, including the required auxiliary equipment, such as strainers, valves and others.
{f) Substructure, turbine floor.- The substructure consists principally of the concrete that Substructure,
forms the draft tubes and embeds the spiral cases. The extent of the embedment depends turbine floor
upon how much rock is left in place as discussed in subsection H.5f
The turbine floor level is set, as already covered for surface powerhouses in section E.6.a, Spiral case
at least 3 feet above the spiral case. For larger units, with commensurately larger spiral cover depth
cases and generator barrels, the concrete cover over the spiral cases should be about 5 to 6
feet.
Sufficient concrete cover over the spiral cases is needed to safely distribute all the loads
transmitted through the generator barrel. These loads will consist mostly of the following
load components:
• Weight of concrete of the generator barrel and any floor slabs supported !hereon
• Weight of the generator
• Hydraulic thrusts from the turbine
• Short-circuit torque effects
• Equipment laydown or erection loads supported by floors framing into the generator
barrel
The embedment mass is also. beneficial in that it contributes to vibration control and great- Mass for
ly reduces noise effects from an operating unit. vibration
l control
J
The top of the turbine floor should be provided with a subdrained floor to control seepage
if such can be expected. The subdrained floor may consist of a 3- to 4-inch-thick separate Subdrained
t ·.'. ·
..
_cy concrete floor placed on corrugated metal sheets that cover the top of the substructure con- floors
crete. Intercepted seepage from below is drained through the corrugated voids into

drainage goners that run along the periphery of the cavern. For the best drainage effect, the
top of the substructure floor should be float finished.
Generator (g) Generator floor.- If a generator floor is provided, i.e., the generators with their sup-
floor port barrels are not free-standing, such floors perform the same functions as described for
surface powerhouses in subsection F.2. Consequently, the design of generator floors for
cavern powerhouses is basically the same as for surface powerhouses.
One exception, however, in the design approach is the fact that floors in the caverns do not
support hydrostatic loads from exterior walls. Instead, they may have to serve as props
between the cavern walls to control their deformations. If the lateral load is substantial, it
may be advantageous to separate the floors from the rock walls and allow the latter to
move freely and, thus, to control deformations around the inside of the generator barrel.
However, if at all possible, the beneficial strut-effect of the generator slab should be uti-
lized by designing the floor accordingly.
To obtain a sturdy, massive type of construction that is less susceptible to vibrations, the
generator floors should not be less than 12 inches (30 cm) thick.
Drip ceiling (h) Drip ceiling. - As the name implies, the principal purpose for the drip, or false, ceil-
ing (figs. 1-136 through 1-140) is to intercept seepage water dripping from the cavern roof
onto the equipment or floor below.
An equally important function of the drip ceiling is to pick up any small rock fragments
that may separate from a roof that is not lined with shotcrete or concrete. In time, even
small shotcrete particles may separate and fall down. The drip ceiling should also afford
access to lighting conduits, and fixtures hung from the ceiling.
Materials used for drip ceilings are:
• Galvanized corrugated sheets

• Painted metal roof deck type panels
• Precast light-weight concrete panels
The drip ceilings are suspended from the roof with the suspension systems connected to
anchors embedded in the rock. The entire system should be designed for a live load of 60
lb/ft2 and some light equipment loads.
Curtain walls (i) Curtain walls. - In many cases curtain walls of various materials have been provided
to hide the natural rock walls for some of the following reasons:
• To create a cavity so that any seepage water along the excavated rock faces is not visi-
ble and thus to obtain a "dry look." The curtain walls may act as an apron against
possible spouting seepage water.
• To enable painting of the walls in light colors and thus to improve the overall appear-
\
ance of the walls. )
• To hide exposed anchorages of rock bolts or tendons which may not give a finished
appearance.

• Constructed walls are easier to clean and maintain than most natural rock or shotcret-
ed faces.
All curtain walls are usually of light-weight construction. Precast concrete panels are only
2 inches thick supported on light prefabricated metal support systems. Also, brick or con-
crete block masonry and insnlated metal panels are used.
In some plants, the ceiling and walls are illuminated with indirect light to obtain pleasing, Indirect
daylight-type atmosphere for the personnel. lighting
(j) Powerhouse crane provisions
I) Main cranes.- For most powerhouses, single services cranes are provided to handle
all heavy equipment with the main hook and the lighter equipment (say, up to 20 tons) with
an auxiliary hook.
Sometimes, it is advantageous to provide two lighter and somewhat faster cranes that can
be coupled for lifting only the heaviest parts, such as the rotor, turbine runner, or fully
assembled stator. A twin crane provision will result in lighter (shallower) bridge crane
girders and, thus, some savings in cavern height.
2) Auxiliary cranes. -The main powerhouse cranes have a relatively low bridge travel Auxiliary
speed (50-60 ft/min) and impede handling and erection of smaller parts, such as generator cranes
laminations and other parts or equipment of similar size. Furthermore, because of their
slow speed, they are not very suitable to handle any light loads, including construction
materials and small auxiliary or maintenance equipment. To overcome the above shortcom-
ings of the heavy main cranes, auxiliary cranes have been installed below the main cranes
in some plants, similarly as indicated on figure 1-148.
The auxiliary cranes, either one crane or two in a larger powerhouse, do not govern the
height of the cavern because they are set below the main crane whose setting does govern
the powerhouse height.
(k) Stairs. - Stairs, covering the full height between the top and bottom service levels in Stairs
the powerhouse, shonld be provided at each end of the powerhouse. The main access stair-
way should be located in or next to the erection bay where the principal operating and
maintenance service and visitors reception areas are located. The stair runs and landings
should be at least 4 feet wide.
Either cast-in-place concrete, concrete-filled steel pan, checkered or grating type stairs are
used. The concrete-filled steel pans supported on steel stringers can be constructed relative-
ly quickly and offer good appearance. They can also be used in areas visited by the public.
Open grating type stairs can be used for the lower levels.

E'.'
\{-::-:
·:;._.:
AOCKBOL T~ AHO
ANCHORS
i, PENSTOCK
et, DISTRIBUTOR
FLOW
Figure 1-148.- Auxiliary crane in a pumped storage powerhouse cavern.
More elaborate designs than the above, with natural stone or terrazzo treads and risers have
been used on a number of projects depending on owner's preference. Intetmediate stairs
serving the generator and turbine floors, or between the lower service galleries and the tur-
bine floor, are required in multi-unit powerhouses for quick, convenient access to the vari-
ous levels and for safety reasons.
Erection bay (8) Erection Bays
(a) Erection bay location. - Formost underground powerhouses, as for surface power-,·
houses, the erection bay is located at one end of the cavern and is directly connected witli
the access tunnel.
If the powerhouse is built in two stages, the future units may be installed on the opposite
side of the erection bay from the initial units, such as illustrated on figure 1-118a. That
arrangement offers the advantage that no future construction takes place next to the units
already in operation.

· unit No, 11 ! unitNo.1 access shaft
access tunnel
· - distributor
el. 385ft.
Figure 1-149.- Churchill Falls powerhouse, Quebec -longitudinal section.

[Willett, 1977]..
For multi-unit powerhouses, such as the 11-unitChurchill Falls powerhouse (fig. 1-149),
(. two erection (service) bays may be provided to expedite unit installation. An access tunnel
i
serves the erection bay next to unit 11 whereas an access shaft is located next to the main
erection bay which houses also most of the service areas.
(b) Erection and service bays. - The size of the areas required for equipment unioading Erection and
and erection, including laydown space for equipment overhaul is discussed in section D.4, service bays
which principally deals with erection bays for surface powerhouses.
For those cavern powerhouses that do not have sufficient space for service bays along the
unit bays, space can be provided at each end of the cavern. It is especially convenient to do
that in extension of the erection bay, as is evident from figure 1-149 for Churchill Falls.
The following station service areas can be located in and next to the erection bay:
• Control and cable spreading rooms

• Battery and carrier current rooms
• Electrical and mechanical shops with tool rooms (all close to the erection bay)
• Elevators, stairs, visitors facilities
• Offices, first aid, toilet facilities
• Ventilation equipment
• Oil storage and purification
• Draft tube unwatering pumps
• Compressor rooms

Control room In some plants, the control rooms (with cable spreading space) are located at the opposite
location end of the cavern. ·It is not advisable, however, to locate the control rooms too close to the
last unit and its switching devices because the current changes by the latter may affect the
control circuits adversely.
The size of individual space provisions will vary from project to project. Representative
sizes are given in section E.4.
Access (c) Access connections. - Usually, the underground erection bay is connected to the
locations access tunnel from either the cavern end or one side of the cavem Both arrangements have
been implemented and must be studied for the specific project.
The location of the access connection depends on the cavern orientation with respect to a
feasible location of the access tunnel portal. Although, the plan geometry of the access tun-
nel can contain curves to suit the powerhouse cavern location and orientation, the geometry
should, however, be the simplest possible. Therefore, the tunnel is connected to the cavern
face most suitable to satisfy a simple tunnel geometry.
In either case, whether the tunnel connects to the cavern end or at the cavern side, the tun-
nel connection should be made as close to the erection bay side wall or end wall as possi-
ble, as indicated on figure 1-145. Those arrangements will result in the least interference
with the erection and unloading space available.
Arrangement (a) on figure 1-150 may be preferable because the crane has larger coverage
over the equipment trucked into the erection bay for unloading because erection bays gen- (
erally are longer than they are wide. Appropriate crane clearance studies, as discussed in
section 0.4, should be prepared to detennine the required erection bay size for both access
tunnel connection schemes.
a ACCESS TUNNEL
ERECT, BAY SERV. BAY-IF PROVIDED
ACCESS TUNNEL
(
Figure 1-150.- Alternative access tunnel connections to erection bay.

102
(d) Ventilation requirements. - All underground spaces should be adequately ventilated. Ventilation
The capacity of the ventilation equipment related space provisions should be such that: requirements
p--
\c,.c
Volair/hr = 4 Voluo space
which has been used at some underground installations with satisfactory results.
(9) Cylindrical Cavern Powerhouses.- For one- or two-unit underground installations, a Cylindrical
cylindrical (circular) cavern shape may offer some advantages as claimed for the Kerckhoff cavern
2 underground powerllouse in California (fig. 1-151), powerhouses
J.-~h•mv••• building
115113·8 kV
main swi1chboard
Figure 1-151.- KerckhotT powerhouse, San Joaquin, California.

[Zayakov, 1981].

According to the designers, the main advantages of a domed, cylindrical cavern are the
reduced excavation and rock support requirements because (1) of the smaller cavern vol-
ume and (2) because of greater structural restraint resulting from the cavern shape.
These advantages may be even more important in poor to moderate rock formations.
The Kerchhoff powerhouse contains one 140-MW unit, however, installation of two small-
er units wou1~ also be feasible as implemented with some pumped storage shaft type pow-
erhouses, the cylindrical cavern powerhouse being an extension of the latter.
)
(

(10) Cavern Rock Support and Reinforcement Rock support
and
(a) General considerations. - No rock formation is a perfect, homogeneous! isotropic reinforcement
rock mass. There are, in most cases, some joints, joint systems, or even some distorted
zones in the area where the cavern is situated. However, even if the in situ state of the rock
would be of excellent, sound quality, some damage or disturbance will result because of
the blasting effects during excavation of the cavern.
Because of blasting disturbance, some spot bolting, or shotcreting may be needed even in
the best of the rock surrounding the cavern.
Very good, sound rocks quite often are under high in situ stresses which can be the cause
for substantial rock spalling and rock bursting from the excavated faces requipng, in some
instances, substantial rock bolting.
All cavern excavations result of inward movement of the excavated cavern faces. Cavern face
Deformations of cavern roof and walls in good sound rock and with moderate lateral in- inward
situ stresses will, in general, be of a relatively small magnitude (fractions of an inch). In movements
softer rocks, because of lower rock modulus of deformation, the inward movement,
depending on the wall height, will be greater.
(Qbere are several caverns that have experienced deformations in the range of 2 to 12 inch-
es, of' approximately 0.2 percent to I percent of the cavern widt§) and have been technical-
ly feasible to construct, but with great difficulties. Such cavern excavations in poor rock
Bracing have required structural steel bracing systems between Systems the cavern walls to
arrest large deformations and prevent the walls, and thus the entire cavern, from collapsing.
Two such examples are shown on figures 1-152 and 1-153.
)
On figure 1-152a, the maximum deformations are in the order of only 4 cm, or approxi-
mately 0.16 percent of the cavern width of25.65 meters, but required a heavy steel bracing
system that interfered considerably with embedment of the spiral cases and concreting of
generator foundations.

section B section D section C section E
a. Deformations in cavern walls.
b. Heavy steel bracing system.

Figure 1-152.- Kisenyama powerhouse, Japan.
(Jaeger, 1976].
Figure 1-153.- Saussaz powerhouse, Arc River, France. C·

(Jaeger, 1976].

Heavy reinforced concrete beams, post-tensioned cables and steel struts were required to
control deformations and stabilize the walls for the Saussaz powerhouse (2- 73 MW units)
in France. The cavern was constructed in heavily jointed and faulty sandstones with shists.
Other powerhouse caverns had similar problems. The Coo-Trois Pouts pumped storage
powerhouse cavern has been constructed in poor rock- thin beds phyllites, quartzo-phyl-
lites, and quartzites. Walls moved inward by as much as 30 cm, or approximately 1.36 per-
cent of the cavern width. Heavy steel girders were used to brace the walls.
The above discussions illustrate that large caverns are technically feasible even in poor
rock conditions, but one must be aware of the associated construction difficulties, delays
and the associated increase in costs. The engineering efforts are increased commensurately.
The examples indicate of the range of deformations that may be acceptable for cavern Acceptable
design, however, any deformations beyond 0.1 percent of medium (65 ft) to large spans magnitude of
(lOO ft and more) should be treated with caution. deformations
It should also be noted that high lateral in-situ pressure intensities on vertical-walls can
cause high stress concentrations with associated deformations and possible rock crushing
in the roof. Sometimes, change of cavern shape may be the appropriate solution (fig.
). 1-139);
(b) Support pressure requirements.- Ideally, if the full magnitude of the existing in-situ Support
stresses could be quickly restored during the process of excavation, there would be no pressure
changes in the stress field and, consequently, no deformations. requirements
1 Realistically, however, it is impossible to restore the stress balance that existed before the
excavation. This can best be illustrated with the aid of an example:
Practical minimum spacing ofpost-tensioned cables: about 10 feet o.c., e.w.,

Cable capacity: say 100 tons,
Pressure applied to unit area:
lex; · = 1 tonJft2 = 13.9 lb/in2 (0.1 MPa)

( 10)
Vertical in situ stresses for a cavern 500 ft below ground surface:
The horizontal stress intensity may be only 50 percent, i.e. 300 lb/in2 (2.1 MPa)
Even if the anchor pressure is more than doubled, it would represent only 10 percent, at the
most, of the in situ stress range calculated in the above· example. Therefore, it is advanta-
geous to let the cavern faces to deform in a controlled-manner to such an extent that practi-
cally feasible support pressure intensities can be provided.
·..
··--. ,- ___ _
__
The above approach is analogic to beam, girder, or truss design - designs approaching
inf"mate stiffness would require great depths of such members. Hence, they are designed for r.·.·. ·. ·
acceptable deformations. Airplane wing designs are made very flexible to reduce their size 1._ .
and weight.
Flexible For the reasons discussed above, stiff roof arches and wall linings, as provided in the past,
linings can only cause problems -nominal to heavy cracking because of their excessive stiffness
preferable that is incompatible to deform with the rock. Consequently, if linings (mostly shotcrete) are
required, they are made thin to be flexible and, thus, are able to adjust, without cracking, to
the deformations at the rock face.
Provisions of post-tensioned bolts or tendons reinforce the rock and, thus, engage it as a
load-carrying structural member around the cavity. As such, it is allowed to deform com-
mensurately with the support pressures provided.
Figure 1-149 presents precedent support pressures used for cavern crowns and walls of
existing projects. From chart (a) it is evident that representative support pressures provided
in the crown are in the range of 10 to 20 lbfin2 (0.07 to 0.14 MPa). The support pressures
for the walls are in the range of approximately 4 to 12lb/in2 (0.03 to 0.08 MPa) which rep-
resent caverns in good rock and are not representative of the pressures developed on the
projects of figures 1-147 and 1-148.
Nominal / Jaeger [1976) concluded that support pressures as large as 2 to 3 kg/cm2 (0.2 to 2 MPa) are
support difficult to obtain and that usually 1.0 to 1.5 kg/cm2 (0.1 to 0.15 MPa) support pressure is
pressures provided. These conclusions are in agreement with the discussions offered above. c )
Preliminary Graphs (a) and (b) on figure 1-154 provide useable preliminary information for initial
design design assumptions. The rock support pressures should be modeled in FEM analyses,
information applied progressively with each stage of excavation.
(c) Space provisions for future support. - All support design must be accompanied by
adequate provisions for instrumentation to monitor the rock movements around the cavern
and compare them with limiting values established by the design.
Anchorage The spacing of the initial anchorage provisions should be wide enough to allow for possi-
spacing ble additional support provisions in the future. Such considerations will, most likely, be
provisions required for caverns which have been constructed in weaker rocks to begin with. Possible
rock saturation after completion of the project and anchorage force relaxation may cause an
additional deformation trend, which should be arrested.
The rock support pattern for the Waldeck II pumped storage cavern in Germany is a good
example of the foresight for additional support needs in the future, as indicated on figure
1-155.
ASCE!EPRIGuides 1.989 1-180

••
.
• ROC.K &OLTS
1!1 T£NOON!o
IO
.--CRUACHAN
•• e.o ao. 100
WIDTH Of' OPENING, B1 f'T

... ••• .
,
a. Support pressures for cavern crown.
•ROCK 80LTS
•• •TENDON~
NTS CAVITY 11, STABICI2)
MORROW POINT) UPP£R HA..l::-F-~

OF WAL.L.-
NOR AD
EXPANSION HT! CAVITY li
ATF'AILURE\
NOR1HF'IEL.D
( /1 CHURCHILL
• HONGRIN
EL. "TORO_......... )
BOUNDAR'I'
l...CWER HALF
OF WAL.L
_,a NT5 CAVITIES
VLANDEN/ I &..D IJNITJAL.)
.. 10 .o . 100 aao
HEIGHT OF OPENING, H, FT
... ,.. ... ...
b. Support pressures for cavern walls.
Figure 1-154.- Internal support pressures for caverns.

[Cording et al., 1971).

The Waldeck !I cavern is constructed in sedimentary rock, composed of interbedded, mas-
sive graywacke, sandstone, and shale beds. This cavern, of 33.4 meter maximum width, is
one of the most heavily anchored caverns with the support intensity approximately ~I;':
0.2MPa. The future provisions, if needed, would approximately triple this amount which
would be twice the maximum amount suggested by Jaeger. See subsection (JO)(b) above.
+ +.+ +.+ +,
+++4--+4
TYPICAL ANCHOR PLAN
EXPLANATION
• 170 Ton Anchors·lnitiol
~ 170 Ton Anchors- Reserve I
~ ~ 170 Ton Anchors- Reserve n

+ 12 Ton Anchors
c
a. Cavern cross section, b. ;\nchor pattern with
showing anchors and locations for future
construction stages • provisions (Reserve I, 11).
Figure 1-155.- Waldeck ll powerhouse, Germany. Rock support provisions.

[USBR 1974; Abraham and Porzig, 1973]. /
Most caverns require only a fraction of the support indicated for Waldeck !I as discussed
under item (b) above.
Bolt length (d) Rock bolt and anchor length. - The length of rock bolts or post-tensioned tendons
depends greatly on the depth of the destresscd zones and prevailing geologic weaknesses,
such as joint systems in the surrounding rock. Each case has to be analyzed separately
based on the geologic conditions and design parameters governing the design under con--
sideration.
However, for preliminary studies, information on precedent designs can give valuable
guidance for assumptions to be made for preliminary estimates and, also, as a reasonably
good check for fmal designs. Figure 1-156 gj.ves information separately for bolt lengths in
crowns (a) and walls (b). From chart (a);-1he bolt lengths in the crowns (Le) should be
between 25 and 40 percent the width of the opening (B).
ASCE./EPRI Guides 1989 1-182

I
I
I
"'
I 50
,.,_..,
.J • IIIOCII &OLTS
~
.:i1"'
.J
~
lil""
111 • I
10
40 ~
WIDTH OF OPENING, B, ,.T
e.o 70 .. . IIlO 110
a. Bolt lengths for cavern crowns.
I •• ~
(-PCIINT
ST.ABIUZED 'IIMLL WITH
&0' TO 110' TENDONS) _,
o· "' EL TORO
50
• TENDONS
~l'i
,.,_
....-
. • "OCK BOLTS
£ NOR AD
EXPAN&X>N
~
....
z
30
.
~
0 20
10
0
•• .. &0 lOO
HEIGHT Of" OPENING ,H, FT
120 ..
, 1110 200
b. Bolt lengths for cavern walls.
Figure 1-156.- Bolt lengths for caverns.

.l [Cording et al., 1971].

--'-~---··---· ·----. ·~·''~-- - .. ·c.~·::;~~-~·::·.
.,./,
The average bolt length in the walls (Lw) for a number of caverns has been 20 percent of
the wall height (H) or shorter. For some caverns, the bolts in the walls have been even
longer than L = 0.4H. r·.···
At Waldeck II, the tendons were 19.0 meters (0.56B) to 28.5 meters (0.858) long.
""
Similarly, the tendons for the 35-meter-wide Cirata powerhouse cavern in Indonesia were
15.0 meters (0.43B) and 20.0 meters (0.578) long. The shorter tendons were located in the
lower half of the cavern as indicated on figure 1-157.
I 4.000 I 4000 I 4.QOO I <A Ptrfion>
.......... OP.S..-.,f hZO.J

·--lwtt ll• fal
•
.!
tt~l~l~t:·ur
........... ~.,...,....._
0 P.S.......,.U•f5al
. . . . . . . 1&• ~-·
Figure 1-157.- Cirata powerhouse cavern, Citarum River, Java, Indonesia.

Rockbolt pattern. [Kamemura et al., 1986].
Caverns, for which the bolt lengths have been more in agreement with the average values
for crowns and walls given above, are illustrated on the following figures.

.,! '
I
r··
----· ..._~ .·
IL.lS.O'
Figure 1-158.- Northfield Mountain pumped storage powerhouse cavern,

Massachusetts.
For the Northfield Mountain cavern, the crown bolts vary between 0.36B and 0.5B, where-
as the wall bolts are only 0.238 long. Spacing is 5 feet o.c.
The Vanderkloof powerstation has been constructed in dolorite (diabase), also in contact
with shale, with significant jointing.\,The 32-mm-Qiameter bars w~n1y.abo.ut..3.0..metem
l9ng in tJlt;. crown (Q.l~~:.l.~,t-~esE,Ie !Q.QL~P~),JUd abou! Q,~B}~JJl.,t~.!!!l!-4

Churchill Falls Type A bolts were Williams #11 (60 ksi) and Type-Steko I Ifs-inch-diame-
ter D-20 anchor (60 ksi).
Figure 1-161.- Thrlough Hill pumped storage powerhouse cavern, Ireland.

[Water Power, 1972].
v'(t Turlough Hill, the longest bolts in the crown are 0.22 B and in the walls were 0.17 B long.
(e) Required design parameters. - It is not the intent of these guidelines, because of the Required
depth of the subject matter, to present rock mechanics related detailed design procedures, design
as it is not the intent to present reinforced concrete and structural steel design aspects. parameters
However, the following information regarding required design parameters is presented to
point out that certain geotechnical investigation and testing work is needed before the
design process begins.
1) In situ principal stresses. - Although, preliminary analyses can be performed on In situ

basis that: principal
stresses
Sv =oH;
8 = specific weight of rock mass, and
H = height of overburden.
SH = (0.5 to 1.0) Sv

Appropriate in situ testing must be perf01med to detennine the actual maximum and mini-
mum principal stresses and their direction. No cavern design shall be attempted without
that knowledge.
The principal stresses can vary along a wide range, depending on the depth of the cavern
below ground surface and on existing tectonic forces in the rock mass.
The actual in situ stresses can be substantially higher than the vertical pressure intensities
as calculated above, with the horizontal stresses higher than the vertical stresses even at
shallow depths. Table 1-5 presents infonnation to illustrate comparison with actually mea-
sured in situ stresses and esculated gravity stress intensities.
Depending on the cavern orientation and the direction of the principal stresses, these will,
in most cases, act obliquely to the cavern walls. The governing horizontal component act-
ing nonnal to the cavern walls shall be calculated on basis of contributions of both the
maximum and minimum principal stresses from the stress ellipse.
Table 1-S.- Comparison of stresses for various projects.
*Calculated
Project Depth below In situ gravity
surface, stress, stress,
meters MPa MPa I
I
Churchill Falls 300 13.6 8.1 (
Canada
James Bay LG2 100 11.2 2.7
Canada
Turlough Hill 100 7.0 2.7
Ireland
Dinorwic 300 11.7 8.1
North Wales
Helms 300 5.1 8.1
California
Waldeckii 260 1.8-3.5 7.0
W. Gennany
Kafue 500 20 13.5
Zimbabwe
Mica 220 10.6 6.0
Canada
Tumut 1 335 13.5 9.0
Australia
Ertan
China
300 20-35
~'
3.5-6.2
Cabora Basa 130-230 10
Mozambique
• With a specific weight of2.7 and 100 meter cover, the theoretical vertical in situ stress is (
about 2.7 MPa.
ASCEIEPRI Guides. 1989 1-188

Table 1-5 indicates that the in situ stress intensities are not proportional to rock depth over
the cavern. Consequently, it is very important that the actual in situ stress conditions are
assessed as accurately as possible. This information is the most important information
required for cavern design.
Two methods can be used for determination of the in- situ stresses:
• Overcoring
• Hydrofracturing
Both methods are implemented in bore holes, except that overcoring can be performed
basically only in shallow holes, whereas hydrofracturing tests can be performed in relative-
ly deep holes. The latter method appears to yield more reliable results [Haimson, 1981,
1978].
2) Rock modulus of deformation.- As for any other structures analyzed to determine Rock modulus
their deformations under sustained loads, also displacement analyses for an in situ rock of deformation
mass around the cavern require the knowledge of the modulus of deformation, E,, of the
rock mass.
The modulus of deformation is the modulus that defines the compressibility of the in situ
rock mass, i.e. it is not the modulus of elasticity of a sound rock sample taken from the
rock mass.
If properly determined, the rock modulus of deformation shall reflect the influence of any
disturbances in the rock mass, such as the presence of joints, bedding planes and shear
\ .-' zones within the depth of the rock mass tested. Thus, the rock modulus of deformation
!';
(E,)will always be smaller in magnitude than the modulus of elasticity (E) of the sound
rock in the rock mass; i.e.:
According to Jaeger [Water Power, October 1966]:
where v = Poisson 's ratio.
E, for intact rock will be equal to E. Table 1-6 lists maximum and minimum values of E
for some rock types that can be used as guidance for preliminary design work. The values
listed should be used with appropriate judgement and should be compared with values
obtained on known projects.
1-189 ASCE/EPRl Guides 1989

Table 1-6.- Modulus of deformation for rock types.
(Courtesy of Corps of Engineers).
CI:IID"Cb.~
Loc~1DD
T..U..
---.........
,...,.,.....
'"
1.6
'-'
Hod.ulua ot
~r~i?
... ..
'·'
'·'
0.3
0.6
Dlorit.l ' D111rite Clad ..
Motite Schilt
6.0
0.9
1.0
2.6
0.5
O.J
i
Ollorl te Sdlin
j'·' 2.6 o.• I
I
1 o.) o.• 0.1
Oraphit.. Sehiat.
I
._ I I
.Aucm OD.eln 3.0 0.5
0 ••
o.o
...,
ar..u.w ce-1 ..
'·' 0.5
.1.1 ...... ' 0.9 I

.,...,......
I
i
D12: !TI!Ject, InA lJ.M.-\ciM Cobbla
I'
..__. '·'
0.2
1.8
'·' '·'
1.0
'
......._
ldlovt&U tiUl
.........
"""'" '·'
5.0
).6
1.3 i
].0
'·' I
Gle:a CU;Jaa Dla
bpbibollte
'·'
11-3
'T'
&cariac.oll:a !&aalt. '0.6 --,:.:! 0.1
1.5 o.6
Bob• Cr.rQral. %'a:lm'll

Vednlar Bu&.lt
~ SUt.toa•
'·' o.OJ. o.oo5
,...,
Rock Jtb•r .J=cti011 1111
...,.
------
0,01 O.W
0 Results from Dworshak Dam

Deere ~t al., 1967 [J J
•J"' o.e
w w
• Oronge-Ftsh Tunnef-vert•col
JOtkrnQ tests Ohv•er,I977[27J
~ Oronge-T1sh Tunnel-hori:ronfol
jock1ng tests
ID OrakensberQ tests
r: 0.6 e Elondsberg tests
0
;;: m Orange River proJect
..,,
0
o Die p sloot
e Q4
,• •
,
-g
~ 0.2 ..
0
- - - ? -..::;:.o:>--
----"-;-
~-?-
20
Rock quality
-- 40 60
desiQnotion,
~ 0 0
•;.
80
0
100
Figure 1-162.- Modulus reduction ratio correlated with RQD. (

[Bieniawski, 1978).
ASCE/EPRlGuides 1989 1-190
•r ·,·,·,
11J>
The chart on figure 1-162 presents valuable infonnation on the relationship of rock mass
E, (EM on chart) and the modulus of elasticity EL detennined in laboratory and correlated
with the rock quality designation (RQD). This enables detennination of preliminary values
of E, based on initial results from extracted drill hole cores.
Infonnation from 15 selected projects comparing the in situ and laboratory tested rock
modulus is presented in table 1-7.
The actual rock modulus of defonnation for a project should be detennined on the basis of In situ test~
appropriate tests, as indicated in table 1-7. Accordingly, at least the following tests should
be included in the testing program:
• Plate bearing tests

• Flat jack tests
• Dilatometer tests
• Seistuic pulse velocity tests
All the above tests are recommended to enable obtaining a broad data base for evaluation
of the test reliability and estimating the in situ rock modulus of defonnation, E,. The proce-
dures for such tests are outlined in detail in various subject-related publications listed in the
bibliography, such as [Carding, 1971; Stagg and Zienkiewicz, 1968; Junikis, 1983; and
Bieniawski, 1978].
r····. 3) Other design parameters. - To enable detennination of the stress patterns around an Other
1· excavated cavern, and the related rock movements (defonnations) and their effect upon the design
in situ rock, the following other design parameters are required: parameters
• Poisson's ratio, a parameter required in most rock mechanics-related elasticity calcu-

lations, especially those related to strains and defonnations
• Unconfined compressive strength of the rock to enable evaluation of factor of safety
against crushing of the rock under the resulting stresses
• In situ shear strength as related to the angle of internal friction and cohesion to enable
stability calculations along potential failure planes
• Unit weight for estimating in situ stresses and gravity loads
Stagg and Zienkiewicz [1968], Junikis [1983], and other subject-related publications
describe details for tests and methods for detennination of the above parameters.
( 11) Support Design Approaches Support

design
(a) Introduction. - Subsection 10, "Cavern Support and Reinforcement," discusses the approaches
need for internal pressure requirements to control defonnations of the excavated cavern
faces. Illustrations are presented of support requirements for a number of constructed cav-
erns with the support_ systems varying from light rock bolting to heavy structural bracing
systems.
I
\,;) The range of practically feasible maximum internal pressure intensities that can be devel-
oped with rock bolts and anchors and their required length is discussed.

Table 1-7.- Comparison of modulus of deformation for selected projects.
[Bieniawski, 1978].
.,.., l~t-Jiltl Jbodul~~to ~OJ)'mod1.1lvl..
e-
c-
N~
Name of projta. rcfcrmcc.
rodt type md date ;.m. tes~.
No. of
·~
Rmp
Oh
M- ..... GP•
M~• Rm1a1h
Orowille Dam [23]

Mauivc amphibolite
Plate bearinJ
Tunnd rdualion
'.
ll
&.3-12.4
U-51.7
10.4
17.9
74..5-105.0 89.0 Wide scau~:r in lbt
jadl; rc:sults y~ rod
Flat jades 30 9.1-113.5 SIJ uniform
""
TUIIIUI 2 [\I)
Gllris.s/granite
Plate bc:ari.!lf
Tunnel rdaution
6
3
1.8-520
"
11.0
41..5-86.1 59.1 Large .seatter in plate
barinJ results lO:I
""
PoaliD.II [43]
Mtl<htoDe
Flat jacks
""""""""'"'
Fill jacks .6
2
:WJ-1).0
IU:-~
JiJ.-.22.1
>7J
11.7
20.6 )1,.0-45.0 lU
• "" P,.on;halt. Daut ( 17, IS] Plate beariDJ ,_,_,.., 2)j 51.7 G • ori(l:inal
Ma.uin stU~itC pia Ooodmut jad: G
s "" 11.6-1!.6
16.5-36.4
IU
23.6
ruults by
Goodmul (17]
'"' H 42.1-74.3
...,.
5lJ
' Telw:hapi Tunnd [17, 18]

Fn.dured diorilCI pcia
Plate be#iq
GoodUIUI p.a. G •• 3.>-5.5
4.1-7.!
713 s- COfftded
by Heuzeand
s 3.~7.9 SaJc:m (18)
,.,,,"
1967
• Cn:slt~~ore Mi~[17,18] Plate bcariq

H
2
1$.9-26.9
12.0-1!.7
2l.l .,, H • same data
......
Mu.ive marble Flat~ 12.4-lfU Rakulated by
Goodnwa jack G 9>-11.7 IliA Humulid (24)
"'' s ,.,.....,
...
11.7-17.0
T\uloush Hill (42]

Gra~~ite
Lup lW jal:b
H
• ......., 29J ....,.,

1969
Lab Dd..,[44]
""'"'
1970
............... "'
P!ate beuiBa: 12 7.5-211.4
9.7-26.l
u
I!J
11G-3l.4 2U From 1966 to 191J.
at the Witbank-
Breytea c:oa16ckll.
9 Gordoo Scheme: [4S] PTatt:beariD&
• ,.
19.0 l&.G-91.0 67.0 S.A.. 44 larp scUe
Quarulte
1971
Dilat()!Mler
TUMid re!ualioo
2
10 ~ .. i>t-'illlleiUIMR
cooduaed 011
pillan io COII!pl'n-
co.:LI
10 Cbun:h~l Falls[46)
Aatjacks
Platcbcarina
16
10
lli).960
3<5--<SJ ,,
51.0
45.0-75.0 55»
llioG (7]. TI!ese:
pYC the ill-'ilu
rnodul111 £,. • 4.0·
\elh
Massive piss
11
19n
...,.....
Wl.lda:k 1J (47]
'"'
PIIIC
Jl.&d~
ba:riDa
prc:a
TUMid rd&DtioD
lG-7.0
4.5-10.0 "'
,,.
...,...., ,...
,. . GP. (l9-l0 GPa~
wbilc tbc labonut>rl"
2Jll> modu/11:1 o( tbc crr.ol
.... £, • S.2GPa
(4.6-6.1 GPa) .. ~
.,
Pllle bcarina 24.5-32.0 27.0 /
... ........
12 Mica Project (48] 12
QIW1Zitc piu flat jacks 19 \,
1974 Ill
""""""' i'"'
I] Cbannd TunDCI [41] P'lat•bc:lriaf 2..03-3.41 l4
"
CIWk
1975
LG-2 Projec~
M-ive granite
1976
[49] Plate bcarin& Jl010.9 ,., ...
105.0
_,,.,
flu jadr;
""' """'"'"
IS Dillll'f1ric (40} Aat jacks leSIS
R.QO iDda
"'"
1977
In addition to rock bolts and anchors, shotcrete is also widely used as a temporary and per-
manent component for the support of excavated rock faces. It will not be required on
durable rock faces that are excavated in massive rocks (gneisses, granites, etc.), which can
stand unprotected and would not suffer structural degradation during the life of the project.
However, caverns excavated in heavily jointed rock will require either shotcrete or con-
crete protection to preserve the structural integrity of the rock faces. Because of its ease of
application, early strength, and low cost, shotcrete has been widely used for this purpose.
Shotcrete cannot be the sole structural support of a cavern. If support is needed, either the
rock mass itself (of good sound rock) or a supporting rock zone, fanned by reinforcing it
with post-tensioned rock bolts and anchors, and the face between the anchors supported
with shotcrete, should provide the structural support.
This subsection will first present discussions on shotcrete physical characteristics and
design approaches. The design approaches for a combined rock bolt (anchor) and shotcrete )
c
/
support system (The "New Austrian Tunneling Method" - NATM) will follow. Cavern
structural design steps and methods to be used, will be summarized in subsection 12.
~~SCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1-192
)
-.-~-.--.-..- ...... -------
111
·.·. (b) Shotcrete: genera/purpose and function.- The purpose and function ofshotcrete in Shotcrete
its application in underground construction can be in the following modes: purpose and
function
• Sealing the excavated face to:
o Maintain its structural integrity by binding together individual smaller rock frag- Seal rock face
ments and larger rock blocks
o protect against drying shrinkage and flaking of the excavated face when some
rocks (like some shales) are exposed to air Fill joints

• Filling of open joints between individual rock blocks to obtain bearing and shear
resistance in the joints and, thus, prevent loosening of the individual rock blocks Bond blocks
• Bonding of individual rock blocks together such that when the excavated surface
deforms and shotcrete has gained strength, the rock zone around the cavern face,
together with the shotcrete and rock anchors, forms a support ring to resist the loads
resulting from the stress field around the cavern Support
• Supporting of individual large rock blocks trying to separate from the rock mass as large blocks
the rock mass moves towards the interior of the cavern and the joints open in dis-
tressed zones (presence of tensile stresses)
• Resisting of rock popping and spalling from the excavated face when high in situ Resist pop-
stresses prevail ping
• Providing some support effect even in squeezing rock situations
• Sealing of open joints against groundwater entrance during construction Seal open
• Sealing of open joints to prevent grout loss during consolidation grouting joints
f~. It is obvious from the above multipurpose applications and functions of shotcrete that it is a
) :' very suitable material for underground construction.
) (c) Physical characteristics.- The physical characteristics that make shotcrete as versa- Physical
tile as implied by the application purposes given above are: characteristics
'i
• Fast setting time- initial in 5 minutes, final in 15 minutes Fast setting
• Early compressive strength for shotcrete made with regulated-set portland cement time
(RSPC) according to ASCE/ACI publication SP-45:
400 lb/in2- 30 minutes
1000 lbfin2- 60 minutes
2000 lb/in2- 3 hours
• High early shear strength capacity: High strength
100 lb/in2- 5 hours
350 lb/inl2- 10 hours
• Flexural strength can reach 150 to 600 lb/in2 in 1 hour, depending on the mix used
• Bond strength, interpreted as the stress at pull-out failure of pull-out tests, can be
approximately 0.2f'cs lf'cs = compressive strength of shotcretes)
• Corps of Engineer tests on shotcrete-concrete bonding, by applying a tensile force to
separate shotcrete from concrete, have indicated failure in the concrete rather than at
the surface of bond
• The bond between shotcrete and rock surfaces depends greatly on the surface condi-
tion of the rock (clean and damp, or dry and dusty) ahd depends also greatly on the
amount of shotcrete intrusion in open joints, crevices, and roughness of the surface

• Based on the above, the bond strength between shotcrete and rock could be assumed:
fbond =tensile strength(= 0.2/'csl of shotcrete or the rock, whichever is smaller
Strength Typical strength requirement specifications for some projects have been as follows:
requirements
Compressive strength (lb/in2) at:
Project
8 hours 72 hours 28 days
Washington D.C. Metro 500 2,500 5,000

New Melones Project 670 5,000
Bath County 600 3,000
Corps of Engineers 700 2,000 (24 hrs)
(d) Shotcrete design practices. - The term "shotcrete design," in most cases, refers to
provision of temporary and/or permanent tunnel support. If rock conditions dictate support
for caverns, shotcrete is used in conjunction with rock anchors, the latter providing the
principal support system whose function is to assist the rock to form a rock support zone
around the cavern. Shotcrete provides surface or some "sldn" support between the anchors.
Their interaction is discussed in subsection e, "The New Austrian Tunneling Method."
Shotcrete design is treated in the literature in general terms; the discussions deal mostly
with selection of shotcrete lining thicknesses based on past experiences. Such discussions
are presented mostly in the form of case histories of shotcrete application and the observed
results. The general approach assumes what has worked in the past can be applied on (
future projects, but with the exercise of appropriate judgment because rock conditions vary
from site to site.
Shotcrete design, per se, is mostly very empirical, based on somewhat broad assumptions
of the loads applied, the structural interaction of the shotcrete with the medium it supports
and a rather broad assumption regarding the structural support system shotcrete provides.
This is quite contrary to the design of, for instance, concrete (plain, reinforced, or pre-
stressed) sections whose geometrical shape, support provisions and sustained loads are
rather well defined. Last, but not least, it should be noted that shotcrete is applied to rather
irregular rock surfaces, with resulting constant changes in its geometrical shape and the
thickness applied. Furthermore, shotcrete 's beneficial effects stem from its interaction with
the greatly varying, jointed, and rugged excavated surfaces in the rock formations; this
interaction is another aspect that can not be well defined.
The shotcrete "design" aspects noted above should serve as a sufficient indication that any-
attempt of a purely analytical design approach would be meaningless. Shotcrete "design"
depends greatly on assumptions made and comparisons with observed and measured field
performance on existing projects.
Idealized As briefly mentioned above, there are no set recommendations or guidelines for shotcrete
shotcrete design as there are for reinforced and prestressed concrete. It should also be kept in mind
outline that rock breaks out along very irregular, jagged lines, which dictate the shape of the
shotcrete cross section. Because it is structually beneficial to fill-in reentrant corners in the

112.
rock face to attain a better distribution of a tangential stresses along the cavern face, the
thickness of the applied shotcrete varies greatly. Thus, any shotcrete outline for design pur-
poses can be shown only in a greatly idealized shape.
Shotcrete design approaches can be divided in three groups: Shotcrete

design
1. Experimental rule-of-thumb methods based on well-established practices that entail approaches
application of shotcrete in one or two layers in thicknesses that have shown satisfac-
tory results on previous projects. The Scandinavian practice, because of the generally Rule of thumb
very good rock quality encountered in that area, follows this approach.
2. An approximate design approach for shotcrete support of gravity loads; i.e., rock Approximate
bodies that could become loose along the cavern roof or potentially sliding rock Design
wedges along the cavern walls. Rock bolts (anchors) are usually employed where
shotcrete alone is insufficient.
3. An empirical design approach, based on observations and measurements of the Empirical

behavior of initial provisions that have been determined on basis of a preliminary Design
design. The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) is based on this approach.
Based on this method, shotcrete alone may suffice as the sole support provision in
small tunnels (4-m dia.) in moderately to good rock [Rabcewicz and Sattler, 1965].
However, for larger tunnels and for cavern design, shotcrete can provide the desired
confining pressures only in conjunction with installed rock anchors. This method is
discussed below under subsection e.
The above design approaches are discussed below. It should be understood, however, that
there are numerous powerhouse caverns excavated in massive rock of good quality (RQD
near 100 and wide joint spacing) whose walls expose fresh rock and only a few, randomly
spaced rock bolts. The following discussions deal mostly with conditions that require pro-
vision of pattern rock bolts and shotcrete except, perhaps, for the Scandinavian approach
presented next.
1) Scandinavian approach. - The Swedish approach has been described by Cecil

[1970] and can be summarized as follows:
• A shotcrete layer 3 to 8 cm thick is applied immediately after blasting. If there are no

signs of distress or instability of the rock face, the initial shotcrete layer serves as per-
manent support.
• An additional layer of approximately same thickness is applied if the first layer fails.
• Shotcrete is seldom applied as a continuous membrane - only where the rock needs
to be bonded together to develop frictional resistance in the joints and, thus, also to
develop support in the rock itself.
The above approach is called the Rule-of-Thumb method. ·
Shotcrete is used with or without wire mesh to support loosening rock loads and to seal
rock faces against intrusion of water, or to retain grout during consolidation grouting.

Other 2) Other shotcrete design approaches - With rock anchors providing a certain confin-
shotcrete ing pressure, P;, the shotcrete can be thought of as distributing this confining pressure
design between the rock anchors. Thus, with reference to figure 1-163, the shotcrete shear stresses
approaches along the lines of the rock anchors are:
P. mn
Vs = 2( m' + n)t
Assuming that:
P; = 2 kg/cm2 ; m= n = 3.00 meters

tmin = 5 cm
2
2(300)
Vs = ( 00)S = 30kg/cm2(427lb/in2)
2 6
The authors of NATM use shotcrete shear strength equivalent to 0.2f'cs lf'cs = shotcrete
compression strength). For f'cs =2,000 lbfin2 at 1 day and F.S. = 2, the allowable shotcrete
shear stresses are:
V all = 0. 2(2~000) = 200 lb/in2

Thus, the shotcrete thickness should be increased to at least 10 or 12 cm.
(
Furthermore, to distribute the confining pressures between the rock anchors as assumed,
the shotcrete must bond to the rock and must not fail in tension. Although, shotcrete tensile
capacity can be quite high, steel wire mesh is used to assure against tensile failures.
There are no guidelines or recommended procedures for determination of wire mesh

requirements. Even case history publications are void of such information. Therefore, oniy
the following approximations are attempted.
The amount of wire mesh required could be based on the assumption that the axial tensile
stresses in shotcrete are equivalent to 50 percent of the confining pressures, i.e.:
Pst = 0.5 P;
Assuming again that P = 2.0 kg/km2, Ps1 = 1.0 kg/cm2, and the total tensile force devel-
oped at the lines of rock anchors, over a 15-cm (6-inch) wide strip, would be:
T = (1.0)(0.5)(300)(15) =2250 kg = 4,950 lb

Area of wire mesh required withfs = 0.8 fy :
4 95 . 2 or 0 .36 me
. h d'tameter
As (O. 8·)( 0) = 0 . 103 m
6

113
A WWF 6 x 6 with W10.5 wire would suffice; however, that is a rather heavy, inflexible
mesh, difficult to fit along the cavern walls. Therefore, a somewhat lighter mesh would be
easier to use. The heavy mesh requirement could be indicative that two layers of shotcrete,
each with a layer of wire mesh, would be appropriate.
Another approach could be to say that the minimum reinforcement should be 0.5 percent of
the cross-sectional area. Then with 5-cm-thick shotcrete, for 15-cm-wide strip
As= (15)(5)(0.005)=0.375 cm2: diameter= 0.69 cm or 0.27 inch
with, perhaps, similar conclusions as above.
3) Shotcrete capacity to support block loads.- Shotcrete is an excellent material for the Support of
support of rock blocks that, otherwise, might become loose, fall out and, possibly, cause loose blocks
deeper structural degradation of the excavated face over a more extensive area.
Because of its high-early bond, shear and flexure strength, shotcrete is capable to support
substantial rock weights and, thus, prevent their dislodging and preserve the structural
integrity of the cav~~ face. The following example illustrates shotcrete load-carrying
capabilities.
Assume a rock block of average width, length and height equal to 6, 10 and 5 feet, respec-
tively, with g = 175lbjft3, the shear stress on the perimeter of the shotcrete is:
V _ (6)(10)(5)(175) 137
s- 2(6 + 10)121 = -~-
For t = 2 inches, Vs= 68.5 lbjin2
The above indicates that 1-inch-thick shotcrete would suffice. For practical reasons, how-
ever, not less than a 2-inch-thick layer should be provided.
More information on shotcrete application and design, more empirical than theoretical, can
be found in the publications listed in the Section I, "References."
4) Slots in shotcrete.- If larger deformations than expected take place because of high Shots in
in-situ stresses, the resulting shortening along the inside face of the cavern may cause the shotcrete
shotcrete to break bond with the rock and buckle under the high tangential stresses. The
shotcrete separation from the face may pull out rock bonded to the shotcrete causing local
distress zones in the rock face.
Rabcewicz has recommended that relief slots be provided in the shotcrete in areas where
relatively large tangential stresses can be expected.
(e) The New Austrian Tunneling Method. - This method encompasses determination of NATM
required underground rock support, consisting predominantly of rock bolts and shotcrete,
but may also include steal support, wire mesh, steel straps, etc. The method relies heavily
1-197 ASCE/EPRlGuides 1989

on measurements obtained by instrumentation during construction and evaluation of the
assumptions made with the help of such measurements. As the name implies, this method
has been developed principally for tnnnel design and construction, however, the basic (;:'~.·.-.·..
approach can also be applied, with execution of appropriate judgements, to cavern design
and construction.
The NATM is characterized by the following empirical design philosophy and approach
[Rabcewicz and Sattler, 1965].
Required The required confining pressure, to obtain eventnal stability of the excavated rock face, is
confirming so designed that:
pressure
• Controlled defonnations take place in a zone around the cavern.
• As a result of the defonnations, the skin (rock face) support (shotcrete, rock bolts) are
engaged to exert a confining pressure on the rock face and thus assist in fanning of a
rock support zone along the cavern face.
• The more the rock face defonns, up to a point without a loosening effect in the rock,
the less confuting pressure is required (fig. 1-163).
• The skin support provided should be sufficiently flexible to be able to adopt itself to
the time-related defonnations and shortening of the excavated face without failure.
• The final design is obtained by field measurements of actual defonnations and evalu-
ation of the actnal support provisions made, and implementation of adjustments as
needed.
Shotcrete, with its early strength characteristics, is well suited for the above purposes. (:· ·
However, in cavern construction, if internal confining pressures are required, shotcrete
does not suffice as the sole support for the large roof spans and the high walls. It must be
used, reinforced with wire mesh, in conjunction with rock anchors which provide the pri-
mary support function.
The graph on fignre l-163, schematically illustrates the relationship between deformations
(wall or roof), the related reduction in radial pressures and the reduction in support require-
ments. The information for such charts should be obtained from FEM analyses for each
individual case, separately under consideration of staged excavation and support installa-
tion.
In order to enable plotting of the S,IR curve, the following parameters are needed:
S0 = primary stress condition, with direction of the principal stress,

fr = unconfined rock compressive strength parallel and nonnal to satisfaction,
rjl = angle of internal friction, and
Er = rock modulus of deformation.
1-198
------------- .. ..,.,.-.~
EFFECTIVENESS OF SUPPORT ACTION
INCREASES AS SHOTCRETE GAINS
STRENGTH AND ROCK ANCHORS
RECEIVE LOAD.
mm
P~1 • INITIAL SHOTCRETE AND ROCK

ANCHOR SUPPORT
P~1 • SUPPORT SV ADDITIONAL PROVISIONS
(LINING, ANCHORS I
t'i'>
V
Figure 1-163.- Relationship between radial deformations, radial stresses, and

reduction in support requirements. [Rabcewicz and Golser, 1973].
Figure 1-163 illustrates how the support requirements diminish with increased deforma-
tions of cavern walls or roof. Ideally, if the related deformations can be tolerated, support
provisions corresponding to P minis the most economical solution. According to Kastner, at
face:
fr' = 2c
tan(45 - 1/J/2)
where:
c = cohesion.

Support The support capacity (confining pressure) for shotcrete and rock anchors can be estimated
carrying as follows [Rabcewicz and Sattler, 1965]. The NATM recognizes that the mode of the fail-
capacity ure of the support system can be only in shear.
Shotcrete Shotcrete, per unit length:

resistance
( tl(f~s)
P:r = (sin a)( u)
where:
!'vs = shotcrete shear strength.
If steel supports are provided:
p = (A,,)(!;,,)
.srl (sin a)(u)(L)
where:
L = steel support spacing,

Ass = area of steel support, and
f'vss = shear strength of steel support.
('
..J
...~;!
"""'
uo
i=N
cr-
wa:
>!£
Ec:
ANCHOR, TYP.I--......:::..t-
As ·fy
·.
z CAVERN
SUPPORT ZONE
IN ROCK
Figure 1-164.- Rock support zone with confining support system. (

117
Anchor pressure expressed per unit length:
where:
anchor area, and

yield strength.
Total confining pressure available:
The support capacity of the rock support zone can be determined with the aid of Mohr's
circle (fig. 1-165):
S 1 • MAX. IN.SITU STRESS

Ss • SUPPORT PRESSURE ISHOTCRETE. ANCHORS!
Sn • NORMAL STRESS ON SHEAR PLANE IN ROCK
f'R = UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK
fvR • SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCK
<jJ =ANGLE OF FRICTION
f'R
Sn
Figure 1-165.- Mohr's circle for determination of shear stress in rock support
zone.
)
~.•..

To allow for a factor of safety of say 2, substitute fvr for j'vr/2 then:
L=_z_
cos B
where z should be equal to the width of the stress-relieved zone detennined from the plot
of stresses obtained from FEM analyses. It will vary along the wall height.
After detennination of z, the anchor embedment length beyond the stress relieved zone
should be determined as required by the design of the anchors.
Anchor The anchor resistance against movement of the rock between the shear planes is:
resistance
( sAsfy cos E)
qa= mnu
Total The total resistance of support provided, including that of the load carrying rock zone, is:
c
resistance
Pf should be plorted on the chart for d,IS, curve (fig. 1-163) to assess what deformations
can be expected and whether the above criteria is satisfied.
Factor of A factor of safety at least equal to 2 should be used with the above steps of calculations.
safety
In very good rock, and with low in-situ stress intensities, the rock support zone that fonns
around the cavern is the sole structural support around the cavern.
Caverns constructed in rock, where the in-situ stresses are high and the condition of rock
requires strengthening with rock anchors (bolts), the primary support system is the
anchored (reinforced) rock support zone. The shotcrete performs merely the support of the
rock face between the anchors.
A simple comparison between the thickness of the supported rock zone and of the
shotcrete, and their respective shear strengths, supports the above observation. It also
shows the importance of the natural rock support zone and why in good rock formations
the internal support pressures provided by the rock bolts and the shotcrete are not needed at c·. · '
all. These may be provided only at isolated spots to secure some potentially unstable rock
blocks.

116
(12) Cavern Structural Design Steps. - Although there is a great variety of publications Cavern
related to the design of caverns and tunnels (excellent bibliographies in [Hoek and Brown, structural
1980] and other references listed), there are no formalized, detailed design guidelines as for design
reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete structural steel and desigos with other materials
or systems. There are several reasons for this lack of fixed guidelines; a few are listed
below:
• The supporting material, the rock, which surrounds the cavity is not an isothropic,
homogeneous material as steel or concrete. Therefore, its physical characteristics may
vary greatly within short distances around the excavated opening,
• The geometry of joints and joint systems is highly irregular and can not be modeled
precisely.
• The joints represent weaknesses and their load-carrying capacity can only be approxi-
mated for modeling purposes.
• The science of rock mechanics is relatively new and lacks tools (methods) for reason-
ably. accurate analyses of the behavior of the rock material whose physical character-
istics can not be accurately assumed.
• Even state-of-the-art in situ field tests for determination of in situ stresses, rock mass
modulus of deformation, Poisson's ratio, in situ shear strength, etc, are subject to
great deal of interpretation and judgment requiring substantial experience.
For the above reasons, cavern design, per se, is more art than science. It depends greatly on
observations and comparison of past experiences and on judicial instrumentation (an insep-
arable aspect of the NATM) during construction.
Cavern design is not a one-step effort, it is rather an analytical sensitiyity assessment of

rock behavior around the cavern by varying the design parameters (such as ShfSv ratio),
joint load-carrying effectiveness, support requirements, and cavern shape.
Two recommended step-wise procedures for cavern design are outlined below.
L Aspects of numerical analyses [Keijer and Hahn, 1982]. Numerical

analyses
General observations:
• The authors recommend that numerical analyses should be treated with caution and General
that step-wise refmement is required. observations
• It is recognized that FEM offers a tool for better modeling of cavern geometry.
• Because of lack of design criteria, results obtained can not be compared with pre-
scribed standards, interpretation of results require substantial judgment.
Design steps recommended: Recommended

design steps
• Conduct field investigations, in-situ testing, obtain in situ stresses.
• Perform simple numerical analyses (other than FEM) for standard shapes for which
numerical design coefficients can be obtained from handbooks (such as, for instance
Hoek and Brown, 1980). Analyze for critical sections the ShfSv sensitivity versus
span length and plot approximate graphs.

• Next, perform elastic FEM (two-dimensional) analyses without joints for geometrical
sections that are, perhaps, more suitable than the ones used in the step above and for
which design coefficients are not available. FEM is very suitable in regard to this
aspect - it allows modeling of shapes other than standard shapes (circular, elliptical).
It may be required to perform a number of analyses with modified shapes to obtain
best stress distribution (minimum of stress concentrations and tensile stresses). It
would appear that such analyses would also model various amounts of support
provisions.
• In the next step, the FEM should be modeled with rock joints, including their strength
characteristics, to enable assessment of their impact on cavern roof and wall deforma-
tions, support requirements, etc.
2. Design steps recommended byHoek and Brown [1980]:
The publication by Hoek and Brown contains a wealth of information on rock mechanics
aspects related to the design of tunnels and caverns. Also, various data on rock mechanics-
related design parameters are included.
Hoek and Brown recommend the following steps for estimating support requirements, with
supplementary input by the writer.
• Classify the rock in which the cavern will be excavated.

• Make preliminary evaluation of support systems based on recommendations for vari-
ous classes of rock.
• Determine in situ stresses as part of an appropriate in situ testing programs. It should (
be added that before the testing programs are initiated, a range of in-situ stresses,
expressed as ShfSv = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, can be assumed to obtain some idea about the
sensitivity of the in situ stress relationship to the support requirements.
• From charts (fig. 1-140) estimate maximum stresses in cavern roof and walls and
compare these with the unconfined compressive strength of the rock (preferably
obtained from tests or based on values obtained for similar rocks on other projects).
If adequate F.S. (>2) can be obtained, the cavern size and shape may be acceptable,
provided other stability problems (caused by configuration of joint plane intersec-
tions) along the roof and the walls are not present.
• If tensile stresses exist, refer to appendix 3 of [Hoek and Brown, 1980] and fmd a cav-
ern shape and stress conditions that are closest to the cavern under investigation. The
opening shapes, with the presented stress distributions, can. be used as a guide for
possible improvements in the cavern shape to minimize the tensile stresses (disturbed
rock zone).
• If tensile stresses can not be eliminated, provide rock anchors (bolts) to hold the rock
weight of the disturbed zone. Extend bolts beyond the disturbed rock zone for safe
anchorage.
• Compare rock anchor amount and length with information presented on figures
1-154 and 1-156 to see how the estimated results compare with provisions made for
similar caverns of other projects. Such comparisons are always a good scale and
check for the results obtained.
• The infnformati~n obtained from the above procedures would provide us e ful ~relimi- ( ..
nary i ormation on rock support requirements, if such are needed at a11, wh1ch can
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 1'-204

117
be used for preliminary cost estimates but, most importantly, for the following design
steps.
• Next, examine and determine support requirements for predictable unstable rock
wedges or blocks (based on plotted joint geometry around the cavern).
• Consider excavation sequence and support requirements to assure stability during
excavation.
Further recommendations:
It is recommended that these design steps be expanded to include the following additional
procedures:
• Prepare a preliminary two-dimensional elastic FEM analyses [USBR, 1967; Coates,

1970] first without and, second, with the effect of the anchorage provisions, if such
are provided. The FEM studies should recognize staged construction, and step-wise
provisions of the anchorage requirements.
• The preliminary FEM analyses should be evaluated for the following aspects:
o General stress distribution pattern
o Areas of stress concentrations
o Depth of destressed zones where tensile stresses prevail
o Deformations in cavern roof and walls
• Based on the FEM analyses, plot the dr!R and Sr curve (fig. 1-163) and check whether
the support requirements are larger than P min- Also check the shear resistance of the
rock support zone combined with the support provisions (rock anchors/bolts,
shotcrete), if any.
• The next steps may involve modeling of prominent joint sets in the FEM analyses to
assess their effect on the deformations and support requirements.
The .above design steps are outlined for the benefit of the hydro designer so that he has a
better appreciation for the required expertise, time-related efforts and, thus, can secure a
timely involvement of experienced rock mechanics engineers for conducting the necessary
studies.
Underground design lasts as long the construction lasts and even beyond that, along the
concepts described in the "Observations Method," by R.B. Peck (Geotechnique, 1969).
The analytical results obtained must be compared with the actual field behavior and, if nec-
essary, modified to suit. The contractual provisions, construction schedules and construc-
tion procedures should be prepared to suit.
(13) Instrumentation. - Instrumentation is an integral part of underground design. It Instrumenta-

serves mainly to either estimate or measure directly the actual movements of the rock face tion
and rock mass (deformations) into the excavated void (cavern) and, thus, enables gauging
the validity of the analytical results versus the actual behavior.
Based on observations during consttuction, which must be recorded to enable evaluation of

any trends in the behavior of the rock movements, support provisions can be modified to
correct undesirable trends in deformations.

Instrumentation directed towards measurement of deformations should be combined with
instrumentation (pressure cells) to enable assessment of actual stresses in the rock. This is
especially importaot when caverns are excavated in weaker, strongly jointed rock condi- (/'}
tions when relatively large deformations can take place. Under those conditions, the knowl-
edge of actual stress conditions aod the existing factors of safety in the rock is of great
importaoce.
Principal The principal equipment used for rock mass (away from the excavated face) and cavern
equipment face movements are the multiple position borehole extensometers (MPBXs). Convergence
measurements are carried out with a tape and rod extensometers between fixed targets in
the cavern walls aod roof. These measurements are supplemented with approximate preci-
sion surveys.
Instrumentation requirements, depending on cavern size, geological conditions surrounding

the cavern, rock quality and design approaches will vary from project to project. The
designers involved with the cavern design should be responsible for determination of the
amount aod type of instrumentation used. The same personnel should also be involved with
correlation of the observations made with the theoretical values assumed in the design.
Instrumentation, as related to cavern design, is considered as a purely rock mechanics

aspect aod is treated extensively in related publications. Most likely, the rock mechaoics
engineer in charge of the work will have some of them in his reference set. Carding [1971]
presents articles on the Oroville Dam aod Churchill Falls underground powerhouse testing,
design aod instrumentation aspects. Similarly, USBR [1967] presents infonnative material
on the same aspects for the Morrow Point Dam underground powerhouse. Hoek and Brown (
present a brief discussion on principal aspects of instrumentation.
One caution: instruments get damaged during construction or malfunction for other rea-
sons. Up to 20 percent of instruments installed may be out of service by the time construc-
tion is completed. Consequently, aoy program for underground instrumentation should be
prepared with provisions for redundaocy.

118
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Obert, L., Duwall, W.L, and Merrill, R.H., Design of Underground Openings in Competent Rock, Bulletin 587,
Bureau of Mines, 1960.
Osadchii, L.G., Ilyushin, V.F., and Bubman, LS., "Progressive Solutions in the Design of Underground
Structures for the Rognn Hydroelectric Plant," Gidrotekhnichekoe Stroitel'stvo, June 1980.
Palo, G.P., and Marks, C.R., Ill, "Design of Hydroelectric Stations," ASCE Transactions, vol. Ill, 1946.
) Patrick, J.G., "Development of Wells Hydroelectric Project," ASCE Journal of Power Division, March 1971.
Pinkerton, I.L., and Gibson, E.J., 'Tumut 2 Underground Power Plant," ASCE Journal of the Power Division,
March 1964.
Press, H., "Wasserkraftwerke," Verlag von Wilhelm Emest & Sohn, Berlin, 1954.
Raabe, J., Hydro Power, The Design, Use, and Function of Hydromechanical, Hydraulic and Electrical
Equipment, 1985.

Rabcewicz, L.V., "Stability ofThnnels Under Rock Load," 3 parts, Water Power, June, July, and August 1969.
Rabcewicz, L.V., and Golser, J., "Principles of Dimensioning tbe Supporting System for tbe New Austrian
Thnneling System," Water Power, March 1973.
Rabcewicz, L.V., and Sattler, R., "Die Neue Osterreichische Thnnel Bauweise," Der Bauingenieur Heft 8,
1965.
Rosenstrom, S., "Katue Gorge Hydroelectric Power Project," Water Power, June, July 1972.
Samuelson, T.L., "Libby Dam Nears Contract Award," Corps of Engineers, USCOLD Publication.
Sitnin, O.V., "Examples of Combined Layout of Hydrostations Under Confined Mountainous Conditions,"
Gidrotechnicheskoe Stroitel'stvo, September 1983.
Soos, G.K., "Building a Hydro Station in a Narrow Gorge," Water Power and Dam Construction, June 1982.
Stagg and Zienkiewicz, Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Wiley Publications, 1968.
Stevenson, W.C., "Special Design Problems at Grand Coulee Third Powerplant," USBR, American Power
Conference, April 1977.
Stinchfield, W.M., "Cbief Joseph Dam," 6tb International Congress on Large Dams, 1958.
Stone and Webster, "The Rock Island Project," American Power Conference, Aprill982.
Strandberg, H. V., "Design and Construction Features: Boundary Project," ASCE Journal of the Power
Division, Aprill966.
Takahashi, M., "The 1125-MW Pumped Storage Scheme at Shintoyone," Water Power, March 1972.
Taylor, H., and Lauga, H., "Symposium on tbe Mica Project," American Power Conference, Chicago, April
1978.
TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority), Compendium of Dams.
TVA, "Design of TVA Projects," Technical Report No. 24, vol. 1, 1952.
USBR (Bureau of Reclamation), Morrow Point Underground Powerplant, Rock Mechanics Investigations,
March 1967.
USBR, "Design Standards No. 9, Buildings," 1957 witb revisions 1959, 1961, and 1972.
USBR, "Report on Pumped Storage Technology in Europe," Combined Federal-Private Sector Study Tour
Team, 1974.
USBR, Selecting Hydraulic Reaction Turbines, Engineering Monograph No. 20, Denver, 1954, revised 1976.
Waldort, W.A., Veltrop, J.A., and Curtis, J.J., "Foundation Modulus Tests for Karadj Arch Dam," Proceedings,
ASCE Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, July 1963.
Warnick, C. C., Hydropower Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1984.
r_:.•
Water Power, "The American Niagara Development," August 1961.

Water Power, "The Development ofUme River," January 1962.
Water Power, "Tbe Aswan High Dam," August 1965.
Water Power, "A 292-MW Pumped Storage Plant Under Construction in Ireland," May, 1972.

Water Power andDam Construction, "Porjus: A New Powerplant Replaces a 50-Year-Old Station," June, July
1975.
Water Power and Dam Construction, "The Straight-Flow Turbine Turns Full Circle," January 1977.
Wermelinger, D., Thomson, J.S., and Gardiner, M.J., "Churchill Falls Power Facilities," ASCE Journal of the
Power Division, March 1971.
Wild, P.A., and Kittrick, D.P., "Northfield Mountain Underground Powerstation," ASCE Symposium on
Underground Rock Chambers, January 1971.
Willett, D.C., "The Churchill Falls Power Development," Water Power, December 1977.
Willey, C.K., "Wanapum Hydroelectric Development," Civil Engineering, September 1960.
Wise, L.L., "World's Largest Underground Power Plant," Engineering News-Record, November 1952.
Wolf, W.H., "Current Developments in Hydro-Electric Plant Design," ASCE Journal of Power Division,
November 1961.
Wolf, W.H., "Current Developments in Hydroelectric Plant Design," ASCE Journal of the Power Division,
November 1961.
Yashkul, D.M., "Experience in Operating the Hydraulic Structures of the Borisoglebsk Hydroelectric Station,"
Gidrotechnicheskoe Stroitel'stvo, March 1985.
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Zayakov, D., "Circular Underground Powerhouse for USA's Kerckhoff 2," Water Power and Dam
Construction, September 1981.
\
J 1-211 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989
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12.1
CHAPTER 2. HYDRAULIC TURBINES AND RELATED TOPICS
This section is expected to be available about January 1991
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12.2..
CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
CONTENTS
Section Page
A. General ...................................................................................................................... ,................................. 3-1

B. P1anning ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-l
1. Base load versus peaking and load-following ........................................................................................ 3-1
2. Underground versus surface power plant ............................................................................................... 3-3
3. Type ........................................................................................................................................................3-3
a. Unit size .............................................................................................................................................. 3-3
b. Vertical versus horizontal ................................................................................................................... 3-5
4. Adjacent or remote switchyard ............................................................................................................... 3-5
5. Indoor, outdoor, or semi-indoor power plants ........................................................................................ 3-5
C. Design ......................................................................................................................................................... 3-7
1. Generator ................................................................................................................................................ 3-7
a. Suspended ........................................................................................................................................... 3-8
b. Umbrella ............................................................................................................................................. 3-8
c. Modified umbrella .............................................................................................................................. 3-9
d. Thrust bearing on turbine head cover ................................................................................................. 3-9
e. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 3-9
2. Transfonner............................................................................................................................................. 3-9
a. General ............................................................................................................................................... 3-9
b. Three-phase versus single-phase ...................................................................................................... 3-10
c. Installation ........................................................................................................................................ 3-11
d. Size ................................................................................................................................................... 3-11
3. Control equipment ................................................................................................................................ 3-11
4. Associated electrical equipment ........................................................................................................... 3-12
a. Generator-voltage busses .................................................................................................................. 3-13
b. Generator-voltage switchgear ........................................................................................................... 3-14
c. Station-service equipment ................................................................................................................ 3-14
D. Construction .............................................................................................................................................. 3-15
E. Electrical fundamentals ............................................................................................................................. 3-15
1. Development of electric power ............................................................................................................. 3-15
2. Limitations of direct-current electricity ................................................................................................ 3-16
3. Advantages of alternating-current systems ........................................................................................... 3-17
4. Alternating-current circuit phase relationships ..................................................................................... 3-17
5. Effective orRMS values ...................................................................................................................... .3-17
6. General a-c methods ............................................................................................................................. 3~17
7. Significance of reactive power ............................................................................................................. 3-19
;· 8. Three-phase systems ............................................................................................................................. 3-19
9. Delta and wye connections ................................................................................................................... 3-20
·1 10. Phase sequence ..................................................................................................................................... 3-20
11. Power, reactive power and power factor in three-phase systems ......................................................... 3-21
12. Advantages of three-phase power systems .......................................................................................... .3-21
13. Generator voltages ................................................................................................................................ 3-21
ASCE!EPRI Guides 1989

CONTENTS -Continued
Page
Section
1
14. Transmission voltages ........................................................................................................................... 3-22
15. Common primary distribution feeder voltages ..................................................................................... 3-22 I
F. Electric machines ....................................................................................................................................... 3-23
:
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 3-23 1..
2. Generator speeds ...................................................................................................................................3-23
3. Synchronous generators ........................................................................................................................ 3-25
a. General ............................................................................................................................................. 3-25
b. Exciters ............................................................................................................................................. 3-25
c. Control of reactive power and power factor ..................................................................................... 3-26
d. Voltage regulators ............................................................................................................................. 3-27 I
G. Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................ .3-27
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FIGURES
Figure
3-1 Weekly load curve of a large electric utility system ................................. ,............................................. .3-2
3-2 Response characteristics ......................................................................................................................... 3-4
3-3 Turbine-generator- vertical arrangement. ........................................................................................... 3-6
3-4 Single-phase a-c power system diagram ............................................................................................... 3-10
3-5 Direct-current generation ...................................................................................................................... 3-16 (:
3-6 Alternating-current circuit theory ......................................................................................................... 3-18
3-7 General alternating-current networks ................................................................................................... 3-18
3-8 Thiee-phase power................................................................................................................................ 3-20
3-9 Wye and delta connections ................................................................................................................... 3-20
3-10 Direct-current control of reactive power .............................................................................................. 3-26
CREDITS
The "Electrical Engineering" chapter was written by:
Robert H. Auerbach, P.E.

1427 S. Ingalls St.
Lakewood, Colorado 80226
Chief, Electrical Branch, USBR (Retired)
ASCE/EPRIGuides 1989 ii
CHAPTER 3. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
A. GENERAL
The basic goal of the hydroelectric development is to provide a group of structures and Basic goal
equipment that will produce electrical power and energy safely, reliably, aud- efficiently, of hydro
This goal requires that the design team comprise representatives of all the engineering dis- development
ciplines needed to achieve a coordinated aud well-planned development.
The electrical engineering staff is a fundamental part of the team that prepares the initial Electrical
economic evaluation aud justification of the project and of the design and construction engineering
teams that complete the development. Electrical engineering design aud operations person- staff
nel should have continuous involvement so that the fmal development serves the need for
which it was built and can be operated efficiently, Planning and design should fully consid-
er future maintenance so that both normal aud emergency maintenance or repairs eau be
readily accomplished.
The following sections briefly describe the primary electrical engineering elements that
should be addressed. They are not given in sufficient detail for design but rather to present
the items to be considered by the electrical staff during the planning, design, and construc-
tion stages, and of which the civil engineering group should be aware.
B. PLANNING
(')' The considerations necessary during the planning stages are discussed in this section.
1. Base Load Versus Peaking and Load-Following

J
The loads on au electrical system vary with the time of day. Large industrial loads general- Loads
ly come on during the morning, continue through the working day, aud decrease during the
Itight. Domestic or residential loads come on the system qnickly from 5 to 8 a,m., decrease
during the day, increase strongly from approximately 5 to 9 p,m., and then drastically
decrease during the Itight. These and other factors produce a highly variable but largely
predictable load pattern. The large blocks of energy whose need persists for a number of
hours are called base loads; the short-duration energy requirements are called peak loads.
Because electrical energy cannot be stored, the peak loads must be matched by rapid
changes in electrical generation. Figure 3-1 depicts a typical weekly load curve and how
the demand is met. In the power system depicted, conventional and pumped storage hydro-
electric generation are available to level out the load curVe and satisfy peak demands.
)
During the developmental stage of an electrical system, hydrogenerators are often used to
supply a part of the base load, along with thermal generators. However, as energy require-
ments increase and the system matures, base loads are usually shifted to large thermal units
and, in some cases, nuclear uruts. However, these large thermal or nuclear units cannot
change load rapidly and efficiently. On the other hand, hydrogenerators can be brought on
line rapidly, used as required, and then shut down, all in an efficient manner. Therefore, the
hydrogenerators in a mature system are often reserved to "shave off the peaks" or to follow
rapid load changes (i.e., load-following).

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,,
i,
.. ,--.,---,------,--,---,---.,.--,
Fignre 3-1.- Weekly load curve of a large electric utility system. c

Plant The identification of the basic need for which the hydroelectric development will serve is,
operation of course, part of the original planning effort and must always be kept in mind as plans and
designs evolve. If the hydroelectric development is to be used for load-following (in most
cases it eventually will be even though its initial use was for supplying base load), several
electrical/hydraulic factors must be addressed in the civil structures. Water passages must
be planned and sized so that the water starting time (a function of flow, head, and passage
length) provides a suitable ratio with the mechanical starting time (a function of the WR2,
speed, and power). See Chapter 2,"Hydraulic Turbines and Related Topics." These factors
must be taken into account eady in the planning stage to provide a system that meets the
objective of the project.
Plant response Figure 3-2a depicts the desired .response rate for operation in a power system. The figure
to load change shows the relative response requirements for the various plant operations. Frequency regu·
lation requires making large load changes in a very short time. Just how a load change is
met on a particular system relates to the system's generating mix. Typically, if a large unit
is suddenly lost, the deficiency is met instantaneously by other operating !henna! units sup-
plying the lost energy usually by the interties. Within a few seconds, hydroplants make up
the loss, and the affected utility is expected to bring on other generation so that the
hydroplants could return to reserve status. Hydroplants with good waterway conditions can
easily meet the rapid load-response requirements of the power system without the technical
problems posed by steam plants. This subject is addressed in detail in volume 5 of these
Guidelines.
c. )
ASCE/EPRI Guides · 1989

Figure 3-2b depicts the relative response rates for the various types of generation.
2. Underground Versus Surface Power Plants
Most hydropower plants are built at the toe of the dam or along one or both of the canyon Power plant
walls downstream from the dam and have a normal surface design. However, if the proposed siting
site is in an area where the canyon is too constricted to accommodate a powerhouse and if geo-
logic conditions are favorable •. the plant can be located underground in one of the abutments.
If the plant is underground, the electrical engineering staff will have several options for
locating some of the major equipment The power transformers that step up the voltage to
system levels can be located underground with the generators or on the surface. It is
usually preferable to locate these large transformers underground to reduce energy losses Underground
and costs associated with high-current, low-voltage conductors. However, the tradeoff is an location
increase in the cavity size and the associated excavation cost, plus the introduction of a
high-voltage cable system. Installation of the power transformers containing large quanti-
ties of insulating oil brings in a requirement for fire suppression equipment such as C0 2 or
water spray. Options available for the high-voltage cable system include pipe-type, self-
contained, solid dielectric, and SF6 (sulfur hexaflouride). The last two systems mentioned
are more appropriate for the application because they avoid the additional fire hazards
associated with the oil needed in the first two systems. Details of surface and underground
arrangements can be found in Chapter 1, "Powerhouses- Surface and Underground."
3. Type
a. Unit Size. - Although there are no accepted industry standards, unit sizes are often Unit sizes
grouped as follows from the standpoint of the electrical equipment:
)
Micro-hydro- up to 100 kW
Mini-hydro- 100 to 1,000 kW
Small-hydro- 1,000 to 10,000 kW
Medium-hydro- 10,000 to 30,000 kW
Large-hydro- 30,000 kW and above
The difference between medium-hydro and the smaller installations is primarily in the
equipment arrangement and accessories required. The medium- and large-hydro units usu-
ally have walk-in housings, air-to-water heat exchangers, fire protection systems, and many
protective devices. The average micro-, mini-, and small-hydro units need not be this elab-
orate to meet performance requirements without sacrificing reliability. A simple installa-
tion will result in lower costs, making a smaller project economically feasible, whereas a
more complicated installation might prove uneconomical for projects up through the small-
hydro size.

tOOo•
•
100% per minute: DailY Load

100.
Following
Uai<
Commicncnt
Response
Rate,
!0.
%MW
per
Minute
1% peT minute
!.
q,...3- ,_....,. ''0>. /~

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.
..,. .,.
-:~.,
-'l.
.,.~
•
·~
•.,.'o• ..,.
-"
"~-
'o•
0.1
v.l L lU. lW. .i.WJ.
Minutes to Perform Load Change
a. Power system response requirements. ()
I I I 5
CYCLE SEC HR HRS
HYDRO
INTERTIE a
SWITCHING PUMPED
STORAGE
GAS TURBINES THERMAL
SPINNING
RESERVE ON SPINNING FROM ON SPINNI~G FROM
"jf,!.I 'f''l COLD
--=~ ~
2 ' 10 20 50 2 5 10 20 50 2 51020502 5 (
CYCLES MII\'UTES HOURS

\
SECONDS
I
b. Response times for various generation types.
Figure 3-2. - Response characteristics. )

If medium or large units are chosen, the powerhouse should be designed to accommodate
these units and their accessories. By comparison, a small unit can be placed in a power-
house without necessarily dictating structural requirements other than the foundation.
b. Vertical versus Horizontal. -The choice of either a vertical or horizontal unit is dictat-
ed. by the type of turbine most appropriate for the site. The electrical equipment can be
selected to suit the type turbine. HorizontlJ_JJni~ are associated with high-speed, high-head
situations. A high-speed generator operating at 6o Hznas fewer poles than a slower unit
(as'iifdicate(flnffie ronowing-equation) and is therefore relatively smaller.
p = 12QL = 7•200 (for 60-Hz systems)

N N
where:
P = number of poles,
f = frequency, and
N = synchronous speed.
;c·lJt}_!izmitlilJi"illiS~:-genera!ly,nQ-J<!~rJhan_ the l~~@,st.mediUIIbSize,utlitc{30,()()Q]LWt!!l_..

o~j!kVe~units -~:1_1)' i~_s_i_"~J'!QI!!_II!i_c:r£ .!o very la_rg_e, 1_11e_l_~__g(]?~~ring systems
used on vertical units have a direct effect on the.uiili-foundation and height of the power- Switchyards
house. Bearing systems are discussed further in Section C, "Design." Figure 3-3 shows a
vertical arrangement.
4. Adjacent or Remote Switchyard
I ) The switchyard should be located as close to the plant as possible to reduce the length of Plant type
I transformer circuits and to bring the controls and switching into a compact installation.
However, the fact that hydropower plants are generally situated in a canyon and immedi-
ately downstream from a dam frequently precludes the availability of sufficient area for a
switchyard adjacent to the plant. In some cases the switchyard has been located on the roof
II of a powerhouse. In addition, some plants are now incorporating SF6 switching equipment ·
which, because of its reduced size, makes possible the option of including the switchyard
in the plant. In many cases the yard is located remote from the plant, usually at the closest
flat site with sufficient area. This requires that preliminary electrical studies must be made
to determine the number of breakers and other large equipment and structures needed so
that an area estimate can be made and a switchyard site chosen.
5. Indoor, Outdoor,.or Semi-Indoor Power Plants
At indoor plants most equipment, including overhead bridge cranes, is located indoors. At
semi-indoor plants, most power plant equipment is also located indoors, except the gantry
crane, which serves the generating units through hatches with removable covers. At out-
door plants some of the power plant equipment, and cranes, are not protected by a building.
Determination of the type of structure to be adopted for a particular power plant involves
studies of climatic conditions, structural considerations, earthquake factors, flood hazards,
and economic considerations.
\
;:,.,.__ ,,,{::;;:-';".·.~-~ •::-::.·.~--·-·';r"T-7;-Y--.~-""7:-:;.·::;::::-;:.-.-;-.>-;-:.";":·;r. -,·;;-.·.- -·" ;-.-,...·.-.--__,-,. c· ·.:;:;:-.-;:- :-:;""':r_,. c:,,·:::-.c;:;,-;c.~-:-=~~7c:---:-,•,...-•~-"7""-··-~--~------~~·---~------------·-'--"~-·-----·--~
)
·~-- .(
Figure 3-3.- Turbine-generator- vertical arrangement (AIIis-Chalmers).
)
12.6
Electrical equipment can be obtained in weathe!proof housings so that, in theory, a power

plant need not be enclosed. In practice, most micro- and mini-hydro installations are
designed for outdoors to reduce costs. The main criteria for deciding how to house equip-
ment is determining whether ease of maintenance is important enough to offset the addi-
tional cost of providing the protection and convenience characteristic of an indoor plant.
Dismantling a large generator for scheduled or emergency repairs requires considerable
time and would be impractical to perform outdoors. Small units, however, can be lifted by a
mobile crane and shipped out for the required repairs.
C. DESIGN
The overall electrical requirements are determined and designed by the electrical engineer- Design
ing staff based on studies of the existing and future power system and the specific needs of
the site. For an important site, many staff-days are required to make the studies necessary to
ensure proper equipment ratings and applicability. Additional engineering time is also
required to research .current equipment design, to plan equipment layouts, and to design
interconnecting cable routing and designations. Other significant time investments are
required for preparing equipment specifications and for ensuring that the specifications pro-
vide for all the necessary functions, parameters, and limits.
To prepare specifications that can attract bids and become a contract, the staff must have Specifications
knowledge of many design details so that a full range of options can be considered, and
appropriate choices must be made and stated in the specifications. The electrical engineer-
ing staff, however, does not design the actual equipment. This is the function of the equip-
ment manufacturer, who must abide by the specifications, but has some flexibility in the
manner of achieving the desired results. For these reasons, in the following discussions the
term "design" is often used in the sense of determining and specifying the equipment
parameters rather than a detailed design of components.
Once the basic need is established, equipment can generally be designed for the pu!pose,
although special designs may be costly enough to justify a reconsideration.
At this stage of the development, designs should be nearly complete except for final adjust-
ments that may be made during the specifications preparation stage. Estimates are made of
electrical equipment sizes and weights, and equipment locations are coordinated with other
disciplines and indicated on general arrangement drawings.
The major electrical equipment to be considered is described below.
1. Generator
The generator is the largest and most complex piece of electrical equipment in the power Generator
plant. The complexity of the generator results from the presence of large rotating masses description
that must be delicately balanced and from the combinations of dielectric, thermal, and
mechanical forces on many of the components. Some of these forces remain confined to
the generator, whereas others (such as short-circuit forces) are transmitted to the foundation
and must be accommodated in the civil engineering design.

Generators are rated by their kVA (kilovolt-ampere) output, power factor, temperature rise,
speed, frequency, voltage, and number of phases. The product of the kVA output and the
power factor gives the kW (kilowatt) output of the generator. An additional explanation of
power factor is given in subsection E.
Generators up to the large size may be fully fabricated in the manufacturer's plant and mas-
sive pieces shipped to the site for final assembly. The plant design must accommodate
these pieces, both for temporary storage before assembly, and for lifting into place. The sta-
tor and rotor of a large generator are normally built on site. The assembled rotor is usually
the heaviest lift for the crane and therefore determines crane capacity.
As stated in subsection B.3.b above, generators may be either horizontal or vertical.

Horizontal hydro generators are mounted on a concrete base on the same horizontal plane as
the turbine, and the foundation is relatively simple. For vertical units all the rotating parts
of both the generator and turbine are supported on the generator thrust bearing. Because
these units may be very large, the foundation must be designed to withstand all associated
weights and forces. For vertical generators, there are three types of bearing arrangements,
commonly called suspended, umbrella, and modified umbrella. A fourth arrangement
involves mounting the thrust bearing on the turbine headcover. A description of each type
follows.
Suspended a. Suspended. -The suspended type construction has a thrust bearing and one guide bear-
ing located above the rotor and a guide bearing below the rotor. This arrangement is gener-
ally used for speeds above 200 rpm or for lower speeds where the kVA rating is small.
Actually, this arrangement can be used for all vertical shaft units, but may not be economi-
cal for large, low-speed units.
With suspended construction, the total bearing load - including the weight of the turbine
shaft and runner, the hydraulic thrust load, and the generator rotating weight- is transmit-
ted to the foundation through the generator stator yoke or frame. This results in a relatively
large upper bearing housing which spans and is supported by the stator yoke. The lower
bearing housing contains a guide bearing to help stabilize the shaft and rotating assembly.
With a suspended arrangement, the thrust bearing collar must be added to the shaft after the
rotor and upper bearing housing are in place and must be removed from the shaft before the
bearing housing and rotor can be removed. The powerhouse crane height usually is deter-
mined by the clearance necessary to move the assembled shaft and rotor from the unit or
over adjacent units.
Umbrella b. Umbrella. - This arrangement has a thrust bearing and a guide bearing located below·
the rotor but no bearing above the rotor. This bearing arrangement is limited to units of suf-
ficient diameter where adequate space is available below the rotor for installation and
maintenance of the large thrust bearing housing. The upper rpm limits for an umbrella unit
are determined by considerations of the physical stability of the generator rotating parts (a
function of both the diameter and rotor height) and of the locations of bearing centers on
the total shaft system.
c
ASCE/EPRI Gnides 1989 3-8
In this bearing arrangement, tbe weight of tbe rotating ~ssembly and hydraulic thrust is
transmitted to tbe foundation tbrough tbe bearing bracket below tbe stator. Without an
upper guide bearing, it is possible to remove tbe rotor (which is bolted to tbe shaft) witbout
disturbing tbe shaft and bearing arrangement. The crane height, if determined by generator
components, will be based on eitber tbe rotor height or tbe lower shaft lengtb.
c. Modified Umbrella. - In some cases, it is necessary to add a guide bearing above the Modified
rotor on an umbrella type unit because of mechanical stability or shaft critical speed umbrella
requirements. Witb this arrangement, a stub shaft extension can be used above tbe genera-
tor rotor and a guide bearing added. This removable stub shaft still permits separate han-
dling of tbe rotor and shaft, but requires dismantling of tbe upper guide bearing and tbe
stub shaft before removing tbe rotor.
d. Thrust Bearing on Turbine Head Cover.- The tbrust bearing location can be changed
from immediately below tbe rotor to tbe top of tbe turbine head cover. This arrangement is
practical.where space in tbe turbine pit is sufficient for dismantling or inspection of tbe
bearing. A guide bearing is still furnished immediately below tbe ·generator rotor and a
guide bearing above tbe rotor may be required to gain the mechanical stability described
previously. Altbough this arrangement may not appreciably reduce tbe cost of tbe genera-
tor/turbine combination, tbe potential to lower the height of tbe powerhouse may offer suf-
ficient cost savings to make tbe system feasible. Witb this arrangement tbe rotating load
along witb tbe hydraulic tbrust is transmitted to tbe foundation tbrough tbe turbine, allow-
ing smaller structural members immediately below the generator.
e. Summary. - In summary, numerous considerations must be addressed in deciding tbe

location of the tbrust bearing. For small kVA and for high-speed units, tbe suspended
arrangement is tbe only practical solution. Normal disassembly procedure is to remove tbe
turbine runner tbrough the generator, leaving the stator in place. Therefore, the runner must
fit through the lower bearing pit as well as through the stator. The lower bearing structure
)
must also be sized for removal tbrough tbe generator stator. As a result, diameter limitations
exist on small units. As unit diameters increase due to eitber higher kVA or lower rpm, tbe
stator diameters will increase at a faster rate than space requirements for turbine removal.
Under these circumstances space limitations for tbrust bearing housings below tbe rotor
become less restrictive.
2. Transformer
a. General. - A circuit diagram of a simple alternating-current (a-c) power system is Transformer

shown on figure 3--4. A single-phase system is shown for purposes of simplification - description
actual transmission systems are three-phase as explained in subsection E.l2.
The function of tbe step-up transformer is to convert tbe relatively low generator voltage to
a voltage suitable for transmission of power. Neglecting losses in the transformer (which
are small), the ratio ofvoltages on tbe low and high sides of the transformer is equal totbe
ratio of turns in the windings, N, on tbe respective sides of tbe transformer. The currents in
the two sides of tbe transformer vary inversely with the turns ratio.

....., transmission line>-
t Ill
voltage step-up voltage step-down
transformer t:-an.sformer
1 to N1 ratio N2 _to 1 ratio
Figure 3-4.- Single-phase a-c power system diagram.
Thus in the simple a-c system shown on figure 3-4, by using a voltage step-up transformer
with ratioN 1 (N 1>1), the generator voltage, Ea, is stepped up to a higher voltage, Es, for
traosmission.
And the generator current, I G• is reduced by the same ratio, N, to yield a transmission line
current, I, of:
I= 1UNE (
The power loss in the transmission line is:
2
2 IGR
p LOSS =I R =- 2 -
Nl
By using transformers having large voltage ratios to step up generator voltages to very
large voltages for transmission, the transmission line currents can be kept small and the
transmission losses kept reasonable. Transmission losses in U.S. utilities represent about 7
to 9 percent of the energy generated.
Three-phase b. Three-Phase Versus Single-Phase. - In a three-phase transmission system, each trans-

vs. former can be either enclosed in a single tank or the transformer bank can be composed of
single-phase three single-phase transformers. Three-phase transformers have the following advantages:
1. The efficiency of a three-phase unit is higher than that of three single-phase units of
the same capacity.
2. One three-phase unit requires much-less projected floor space than three single-phase
units.
-3. A three-phase transformer has a lower installed cost than three single-phase trans-
formers. )
4. It reduces the complexity of the machine-voltage bus connection to the transformer. (-
__ _)
Despite the advantages of three-phase transformers, there are situations where a bank of
single-phase transformers is preferred. For instance, shipping clearances or loading limits
of highway structures may prohibit the use of three-phase units when transformers are
hauled by truck. Furthermore, underground power plants often use single-phase transform-
ers to reduce the size of the access tunnel into the transformer vault.
Providing spare transformers· may also influence the choice of three-phase versus single-
phase. Where there are several power plants in the area of similar size and the same trans-
mission voltage, identical three-phase transformers may be used and a spare unit purchased
that could be used in any of the locations. For more isolated power plants, single-phase
transformers with a spare may be the most practical solution to obtaining a backup in the
event of a failure.
c. Installation. -Single- or three-phase transformers are arranged in a line on the trans- Transformer
former deck, or on foundation slabs in the switchyard. The spacing between units should installation
be sufficient to make transformers accessible from all sides and to pennit free flow of air
for self-cooled and forced-air-cooled transformers. Some plants have used rails on the deck
and wheels on the transfonner base to allow movement of the transfonners. ln some cases
the transformer deck is elevated and a transfer car facilitates movement. Other plants do
not use rails, and the transformers are moved into position with jacks and rollers. If this last
option is chosen, the transfonner base must be structurally adequate for this purpose.
d. Size. - A three-phase transformer approaches a generator stator or rotor in size and

weight. If the generator is assembled onsite., the transformer will be the largest piece of
electrical equipment shipped.
Because the insulation strength of transformer windings is sensitive to moisture, during

manufacture the insulation is dried by heating and vacuum-processing. Thereafter, air
(which may contain water vapor) is prevented from coming in contact with the transformer
windings. During shipping, bushings and coolers can be removed from the transformer and
the tank holding the core and windings filled with nitrogen to prevent moisture absorption
from air. However, the transformer usually cannot be broken down any further for ship-
ment and, therefore, is a bulky and heavy piece of equipment for transportation and instal-
lation.
3. Control Equipment
The main control features for a power plant include the control circuits, control devices, Control
indicators, instrumentation, protection, and annunciation at the main control board and at equipment
unit control boards when they are provided. These features provide the operators with the
facilities required for the control and supervision of the plant's major equipment. Proper
selection of the control devices to be used in a main control system necessitates complete
information on the functions and control requirements of the controlled equipment. In the
design of these features, consideration must be given to the size and importance of the
plant with respect to other plants on the power system, the conditions under which the
plant is to be operated, the number and experience of operating personnel, the location of
the main control room with respect to the equipment to be controlled, the cost of the plant,
and all other influences on the control system. The control system of a power plant plays

an important part in providing reliable service; therefore, this function should be kept clear-
ly in mind in the design of all the control features.
Control types Control devices are classified as manual, automatic, or supervisory, depending on the
method of operation. With manual control devices, each operation is performed or initiated
manually. With automatic control devices, a sequence of operations is performed automati-
cally, but the initiation of the sequence of operations may be performed manually or auto-
matically by instruments or relays. Supervisory control systems are used where the distance
between the equipment controlled and the controlling site is substantial, requiring remote
control provisions. In many older plants, the supervisory system makes use of telephone-
type switches and relays that require milliamperes rather than amperes for operation and a
minimum number of wires, usually four or less, between termination points. Recently,
designs for new power plants and for rehabilitated plants have made use of programmable
controllers or computer-based systems to implement data acquisition and control functions.
These systems take advantage of the low cost of microprocessors to provide distributed
controllers for reliability. Each controller is associated with equipment groups, such as gen-
erating units or spillway gates, by means of standard computer information bus systems.
Because control philosophy and design is complicated, often the responsibility of special-
ists, it will not be treated in detail here. Where the instrument specifications require, ambi-
ent control equipment must be provided. Depending upon the arrangement of the control
equipment, ambient control of specific cabinets or of a whole room may be needed. It is
also important to consider the comfort and convenience of the plant operators, and to pro-
vide a manned control room that is economically designed yet functional and esthetically
pleasing. (
4. Associated Electrical Equipment
Associated The generator, transformer, and control equipment discussed above provide the greatest
equipment impact on the design of the civil structure by virtue of their size and weight (generator and
transformer) or their need for special surroundings (control equipment). Other major elec-
trical equipment that must be provided are generator-voltage busses, generator-voltage
switchgear, and station-service equipment.
Busses a. Generator-Voltage Busses, - The purpose of this equipment is to carry the current from
the generator to the step-up'transformer. The equipment consists of an assembly of rigid
conductors with associated connections, joints, and insulating supports within a metal
enclosure. Rigid busses are classified according to type of construction as follows:
1. Nonsegregated-phase bus. All phase conductors are in a common metal enclosure.

without barriers between the phases.
2. Segregated-phase bus. All phase conductors are in a common metal enclosure but
are segregated by metal barriers between phases. Because most manufacturers no
longer build this type of bus, it will not be discussed further.
3. Isolated-phase bus. Each phase conductor is enclosed by an individual metal hous-
ing separated from adjacent conductor housings by an air space.
(
.l
ASCE/EPRlGuides 1989 3-12

)
Nonsegregated-phase busses are available for either indoor or outdoor installation. The bus Nonsegregated-
is constructed specifically for use with metal-clad switchgear and has momentary current, phase bus
insulation, and temperature-rise ratings that are equal to that of the associated metal-clad
switchgear equipment. Nonsegregated-phase busses are available in continuous current rat-
ings up to 4,000 amperes.
When continuous current ratings reach 4,000 amperes, an isolated-phase bus is usually pre- Isolated-phase
ferred. This type of bus is also used on circuits whose importance requires the utmost in bus
reliability. This is because the separation of the conductors into individual housings pre-
cludes the conditions that could result in faults. It may be used either indoors or outdoors.
In high current ratings, when the size for self-cooled designs becomes too large to be eco-
nomical, forced-air cooling is available to reduce dimensions and weights to reasonable
values. Moving air is channeled down the bus between the housing and the conductor, and
the accumulated heat removed by means of air-to-water heat exchangers.
To prevent overheating of magnetic structural members (e.g., frames, beams, re bars) situat-
ed near high-current busses, special precautions are necessary. Bus structures that have a
single housing for all three conductors provide their own shielding if the material used for
the housing has high conductivity. In these cases, nothing more needs to be done about
shielding external to the bus structure. Bus structures having individual housings for each
conductor (isolated-phase bus) may create a magnetic condition that could easily cause
undesirable temperature rises in nearby magoetic steel members. In the past, this condition
was remedied by providing various shielding devices near isolated-phase busses at points
where excessive heating could occur. For example, beams or columns running parallel with
the conductors were protected by high-conductivity sheets or by grids of high-conductivity
material
.•.:
Innovations in bus design have lead to the development of an isolated-phase bus that is vir-
tually free of the inductive heating problems encountered in older designs. This significant
improvement in bus design has been implemented by a change to electrically continuous
housings, with sections welded together and grounded throughout the installation. The cur-
rent in the bus conductor produces a magoetic field that induces a current in the opposite
direction in the enclosure. The magnetic fields of these two currents tend to cancel, reduc-
ing the magneticfield external to the bus to 5 or 10 percent of the original values. Induced
currents in structural members (and subsequent heating) are thereby reduced and the need
for external shielding devices is usually eliminated entirely. An additional benefit of this
type of bus design is that the.enclosures are water- and dust-tight and therefore less suscep-
tible to contamination.
b. Generator-Voltage Switchgear. - The switchgear consists of a circuit breaker, instru- Switch gear
ment transformers, indicating devices, internal buswork, and provisions for connections to
the external bus. The switchgear is located between the generator and the transformer. The
circuit breaker provides a means of interrupting high currents during fault conditions and a
convenient disconnecting device for maintenance or tests on the generator. Instrument
transformers are used to provide protective relay zones for the generator and transformer
1 and, in conjunction with meters, to provide a method of metering generator output.
l,

Switchgear is classified as metal-clad, station class, or in-line. The maximum circuit break-
er rating available in metal-clad switchgear is 3,000 kVA continuous and 1,000,000 kVA
interrupting capacity. Circuit breakers for station class switchgear are rated up to 5,000 Q',
amperes continuous current and 2,500,000 kVA interrupting capacity. In-line switchgear
has circuit breakers capable of handling the requirements of the largest hydrogenerators,
with ratings of 50,000 continuous amperes.
Switchgear enclosures are large pieces of equipment. The arrangement of the power plant
must provide sufficient space for their installation and maintenance.
Station-service c. Staticn-Service Equipment.- The station-seJVice equipment consists of devices needed

equipment for the control and auxiliary power requirements of the generator(s) and the plant. Power-
consuming station-seJVice equipment includes gate motors, drainage pumps, air compres-
sors, oil pumps, crane motors, lighting circuits, space heaters, and air conditioners. For
these and the many others actually required, station-seJVice power is routed throughout the
plant and is a basic element in the design and operation of the plant.
Many of the station-seiVice needs are provided by alternating-current power. This power is
supplied by one or more generators in the plant or by the external power system. In large
plants, both supply sources are made available to allow plant operation when the generators
are shut down, or when the system itself is disrupted by storms or other unusual circum-
stances. If such a flexible arrangement is made, the main station-seJVice equipment
becomes a double-ended substation, with one end a transformer supplied by a generator,
the other end a transformer supplied by the system, and between them a distribution board
of circuit breakers that feed the plant loads. One transformer is chosen as the normal supply (
and there is an automatic switchover to the other if the first supply fails.
""
Micro- and mini-hydro plants often have only alternating-current station-seiVice equip-
ment. Larger plants, where higher reliability is required, usually also have direct-current
station-seJVice equipment. Power for the direct-current system comes from a storage bat-
tery bank. The chemical energy of the storage batteries can be converted to electrical ener-
gy over a relatively long period of time if not used in too large a quantity. This reseJVe of
energy can be used in emergencies to perform such essential operations as the closing and
tripping of circuit breakers, operation of oil-pump motors to maintain vital bearing lubrica-
tion,_ emergency lighting, and numerous other essential emergency operations. In addition
to these emergency operations, direct current lends itself well to normal control operations.
During normal station operation, motor/generator sets or rectifiers supply the station direct-
current load, and the station battery is merely floating on a direct-current system, instantly
ready to take over the load if the generators or rectifiers fail to function. When d-e station-
seJVice is used, space must be provided for the d-e breakers and for the storage battery
bank.

D. CONSTRUCTION
Electrical equipment is supplied and installed by contractors working under a furnish-and-

install contract, supply contract, or completion contract, or as an item of a construction
contract that includes the powerhouse or other major civil works. As mentioned earlier,
most electrical equipment is designed by a manufactorer to meet perfonnance requirements Contracting
chosen by the electrical design staff. The preparation of specifications for this equipment
and for its installation is therefore important in ensuring that the perfonnance criteria are
met and the equipment is likely to meet or exceed nonnallife expectancy.
Electrical utilities or agencies involved in construction of power plants use different meth-
ods to ensure the equipment meets specifications. During the design and manufacturing
stages, some utilities require the manufacturer to submit drawings and data to verify that
the equipment will meet the designer's intent. Other utilities rely primarily on the manufac-
torer to produce a quality product and wait for field tests to prove that perfonnance criteria
have been satisfied. Under the latter method, it may be more difficult to correct defective
equipment if the deficiency does not become apparent until after installation. In either case,
inspections by utility personnel during fabrication accompanied by perfonnance tests after
installation are necessary to ensure that specifications are met.
E. ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
1. Development of Electric Power
The first hydroelectric power plant, also the second central station, started operating at Historical
Appleton, Wisconsin on September 30, 1882. This plant, which employed the Edison d-e 1882
generator design, could also have been the first central station in ~eration had the opera-
tors not been under strict orders not to begin operation before Edison's Pearl Street Station.
In d-e power systems the generator must produce electricity at the utilization voltage.
Transmission losses severely limit the distance that power can be transmitted at low voltage
(a few hundred to a few thousand volts). The limitations of direct-current systems quickly
became apparent. The technology of alternating-current systems progressed rapidly with
the development of a-c transformers, motors, and generators. Because of the many advan-
tages of alternating current, utility systems have developed almost totally as a-c systems,
first as 25-Hz (25 cycles per second) systems and later as 60-Hz systems.
The 25-Hz systems had some advantages over 60-Hz systems as the power sources for a -c
to d-e rotary converters that supplied power to some industrial processes and to electrified
railroads and street cars. However, 25-Hz systems lost favor because of the significant cost
advantages of 60-Hz systems, primarily because 60-Hz transformers and machines require
less magnetic materials in their construction and thus can be smaller and less costly to con-
struct. Except for a few almost insignificant exceptions, all generation in the United States
today is at 60 Hz. Many older plants, like Niagara Falls, that were built originally with 25-
Hz generators have been abandoned or converted to 60-Hz generation. All new U.S. gener-
ation is at 60-Hz, whereas some foreign countries use 50-Hz systems.

2. Limitations of Direct Current Electricity
D-C Direct-current electricity has severe limitations for power systems that must supply large
electricity amounts of electricity to customers far from the generating stations. The principal problem
is that the d-e power must be transmitted and utilized at the same nominal voltage as it is
generated. This results in excessive voltage fluctuations at the customer locations and
excessive losses in generators, transmission lines, and transformers. See figure 3--5.
( transmission line 7>

I
R/2
LOAD
R/2
Figure 3-5. -Direct-current system diagram.
Power and The power and voltage relationships are:

voltage
Generated power: ( )
Load power:
Power loss:
Load voltage:
The load voltage, 'E£, must be kept low for safety reasons. This means that the current, /,
becomes quite large for large amounts of power, resulting in large voltage drops along the
transmission lines and large power losses in the transmission lines.
However, there is a world-wide resurgence of interest in high-voltage d-e power transmis-

sion of large amounts of power over long distances. Such systems utilize power converters
with solid-state electronics at each end of the d-e line to convert d-e power to a'c power
and vice versa. Voltage is increased from generation to transmission levels in the a-c sys-
tem before conversion to direct current. Power transmission is therefore performed with
high-voltage direct current, and power losses are actually lower than those for alternating
current
)
(
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 3--16

171
3. Advantages of Alternating-Current Systems
The disadvantages of direct current were so great that large electric power systems began to Alternating
develop only after the introduction of a-c transmission systems and the commercial devel- current
opment of the transformer. This began in 1885, when George Westinghouse and his associ-
ates started development of the transformer and a-c transmission systems. The first "long
distance" a-c power transmission line (13 miles long) began operation in 1890, to carry
electricity generated by hydropower at Willamette Falls to Portland, Oregon.
4. Alternating-Current Circuit Phase Relationships
The currents in an a-c electrical circuit containing resistance, R, inductance, L, and capaci- Phase
tance, C, circuit elements will be sinusoidal if the circuit elements are linear (values do not
change with current) and the applied voltage is sinusoidal.
The relationships between the voltages and currents in resistors, inductors, and capacitors
under steady-state sinusoidal conditions are shown on figure 3-6.
5. Effective or RMS Values
Unless otherwise stated, the terms "a-c voltage "and "a-c current" mean the effective or RMS values
RMS (root-mean-square) values. Most a-c voltmeters and ammeters are calibrated to read
) these values, which are equal to the d-e voltage and d-e current values that produce the
same heat in a resistor as is produced by a sinusoidal voltage or current.
I PEAK
I EFF =I RMS = ..J2 = O. 7lfl I PEAK
)
Thus, the nominal residential voltage of 120 volts ac means a sinusoidally varying voltage
with a positive peak voltage of 120~ volts and a negative voltage of -120.Ji, volts.
6. General Alternating-Current Networks
In normal a-c networks composed of series and parallel combinations of resistances, induc-
tances, and capacitors and supplied by sinusoidal voltages, the currents and voltages will
all be sinusoidal, with phase angles between the various voltages and currents,
-90°<8<+90°. See figure 3-7.
-- J

,- __
J.R.. ( ~: '-: .
~~·
. -~' ....
R ..
IR is in phase with VR 0 t
'' ''
'
-- '
,'
-~. .. ,.!....
. ~·
''
'
;
.
' ' ..... _~
'
•' '
A.t::.
c_L . -- re.. ... ,
..
'
re lead' Vc by go• ;
T,c 0
/ '
.
' '
' '
''
'
.......
Figure 3-6.- Alternating-current circuit theory.
I I
c
0 ~
" • ;y\/'
I•..~0~ ~
R
V V c
I
~
~
L
T
Figure 3-7.- General alternating-current networks.
The relationships between the magnitudes of the effective values of the voltage and current
can be expressed as:
Basic Current: V
I=-
electrical z
engineering
relationships
ImpedanCe: z = J R 2 + (XL - XC ) 2
Inductive reactance: X
L
= 211[L = wL
1 1
Capacitive reactance: XC = 2 7r{C = roC
Power factor angle: (} =llln-1

(XL -X
R C) c
ASCEJEPR! Guides 1989 3-18
The product of the magnitudes of the voltage and current, called volt-amperes, is a measure
of the capacity or rating of generators, motors, transfonners, and other power system
~L;' equipment. Large equipment is usually rated in kilovolt-amperes or megavolt-amperes.
The voltage, current, power, reactive power, and power factor relationships in a single-
phase system are shown below:
Real power: P =VI cos () Power

formulae
Reactive power: Q =VI sin ()
VA = J P 2 + Q2
p p
Power factor:
P.F.= cos()= VA = J p2 + Q2
.!:_
\
I= _y_
P.F.
'
7. Significance of Reactive Power
The significance of reactive power is considerable. Reactive power:
a. Increases currents in loads, transfonners, transmission lines, and generators. Reactive

b. Must be generated as well as real power. power
c. Must be transmitted like real power.
d. Produces real power losses in equipment.
e. Uses up generator, transmission line, and transfonner capacity that could be used for
real power.
f. Is more important than real power in causing voltage drops along transmission lines
and in transfonners.
8. Three-Phase Systems
While single-phase systems are the rule for supplying electricity to residences and other Three-phase
small consumers, electricity is generated, transmitted, and utilized by large customers as power
three-phase power.
Three-phase power means three separate sinusoidal voltages that vary 120° in time phase.
See figure 3-8.
3~19 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

Figure 3-8.- Three-phase power.
9. Delta and Wye Connections
Wlndings in motors, generators, transfonners, and load connections can be in either delta
or wye configuration (fig. 3-9). The midpoint of the wye may be connected as in four-wire
systems or left unconnected as in three-wire systems.
Figure 3-9.- Delta and wye connections.
10. Phase Sequence
There are two possible ways in which windings can be connected to produce three-phase
voltages, depending on the order in which the different line voltages reach their instanta-
neous maximums. These are:
Phase sequence ABC: VAB• Vsc· VeA
Phase sequence ACB: VAC• Ven. VsA
Phase sequence can be changed by merely interchanging any two wires of a three-phase
system.
A consistent phase sequence must be maintained in three-phase systems because:
)
1. Systems with different phase sequences cannot operate when connected together.
2. Changing the phase sequence will reverse the direction of rotation of three-phase
motors .
. ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 3-20

133>
11. Power, Reactive Power, and Power Factor in Three-Phase Systems
Real power:
Reactive power: Q = VJ (VL JL sio 8)
Volt amperes: VA = VJ(VL TL ) = J p2 + Q2
Current:
Power factor:
The subscript L refers to line voltages or currents.
12. Advantages of Three-Phase Systems
Although N-phase systems are possible, and some central power-generatiog stations in the
late 1880s utilized two-phase systems, all a-c generation in large power systems today is
tbree-phase for economic reasons. The principal advantages of tbree-phase over single-
phase are:
r"''I' 1. Three wires can transmit-y3times the power of2 wires for the same voltage to
ground.
) 2. Motors can be self-starting, without auxiliary starting circuitry.
3. Electric machioes and transformers are less costly to build.
13. Generation Voltages
The generation voltage is a compromise between the low voltage needed to minimize the
cost of insulating the windings and the ltigh voltage needed to reduce the current that must
be carried by the windings.
The most common line-to-line voltages of tbree-phase generators are:
• 2.4 kV
•4.16kV
• 6.9 kV (rare)
• 13.8 kV
• Higher in very large generators

14. Transmission Voltages
Transmission voltages have been more or less standardized, although exceptions to the C''
common voltage levels are not unusual. The most common transmission and sub-transmis- 'S,\'
si on line-to-line three-phase voltages are:
• 34.5 kV
•46kV
• 69kV
• 115 kV
•138 kV
• 161 kV
• 230kV
• 345 kV
• 500kV
• 765kV
There has been a steady increase in transmission voltages as power system loads and gen-
eration capacities have grown. Power capacity of a line varies as the square of the voltage
for the same line current. Thus, a 345-kV line has approximately 6.25 times the capacity of
a 138-kV line with the same size conductor.
15. Common Primary Distribution Feeder Voltages
Some very sJ;llall hydrogenerators may feed into power systems at the primary distribution (
voltage level because of the small capacity of the generator or its location in the power
system.
The common primary line-to-line (L--L) and line-to-neutral (L--N) feeder voltages in three-
phase systems are:
Delta (L-L) Wye (L-LIL-N)
2.4kV 4.16/2.4 kV
4.8kV 8.31/4,8 kV
7.2kV 12.sn.2kv
7.6kV 13.2n.6kV
13.0kV 23.9/13.8 kV
Small generators may be connected to the primary distribution system directly at generator
voltage or through a transformer at a lower voltage level, such as 480 volts.
)
(.

F. ELECTRIC MACIDNES
,::::- 1. Introduction
i:J
Electric machines (motors and generators) can be categorized as:
d-e machines
• shunt
• series
• compound
a-c machines
• synchronous
• induction
In addition, a-c machines are classified as single-phase or polyphase (three-phase)

machines.
\
Electrical machines consist of one or more stationary windiogs and one or more rotatiog
windings, all of which carry electrical currents. Windings are supported mechanically by
magnetic iron structures.
The magnetic structures are necessary to produce the large magnetic fields necessary to
provide motors and generators with acceptable operating characteristics at reasonable
costs. Portions of the iron exposed to alternatiog magnetic fields consist of stacks of thin
laminations of magnetic steel to reduce energy losses of magnetic field origin.
Type of machine Stator winding Rotor winding
) Synchronous Three-phase ac d-e field

Synchronous Three-phase ac Pennaoent magoet
Induction Three-phase ac Wound rotor

Induction Three-phase ac Cage rotor
Direct-current d-e field Commutated winding
The only types of electric machines to be considered for hydroplant generation are three-
phase a-c synchronous and three-phase a-c induction generators.
Large synchronous three-phase generators may have efficiencies exceediog 9S percent at

optimum load.
2. Generator Speeds
Generators are designed to run at speeds that are determined by the characteristics of the Generator
prime movers. The maximum speed at which a generator can operate and generate 60-Hz is speeds
3,600rpm.

Alternating-current generators will always have an even number of magoetic poles, P, pro-
duced by the windings of the machines (P = 2, 4, etc.). The relationship between the num-
ber of poles, P, the synchronous speed N of the machine, and the frequency f of the ac (d'
voltage generated is:
Synchronous speed = fl.Q.L

p
Synchronous For 60-Hz generation, the permissible synchronous speeds are thus 3,600, 1,800, 1,200,
speeds 900, etc. Because the generator is direct-coupled to the turbine, it plays an important role in
the specific speed selection.
Synchronous generators, where the magoetic field of the rotating winding (the field wind-
ing) is produced by passing de current through the field winding, operate only at syn-
chronous speed, except for momentary small departures from synchronous speed when the
input mechanical power or output electrical power is suddenly changed.
Induction generators, which do not have a rotor winding carrying de current, can only
operate as generators when running above synchronous speed, typically a few percent
above synchronous speed. The same induction machine operated as a motor will run a few
percent below synchronous speed.
Mechanical and electrical desigo considerations of synchronous and induction machines

dictate that machines for low-speed operation have many poles and large diameters com-
pared with their axial length. Machines desigoed for high-speed operation should have few
poles and higher friction losses and centrifugal forces due to the speed of the rotor. A high- (
speed machine will be much smaller in diameter but longer than a low-speed machine hav-
ing the same power rating. '·
In general, low-speed machines are more costly to build than high-speed machines and
may be less efficient as well.
Low- to medium-head water wheels operate most efficiently at low speeds, such as 100 to
300 rpm. Consequently, most large hydroelectric generators are low-speed designs with
many poles. In some installations, a mechanical geared speed-increaser is used to couple a
water wheel to a higher-speed generator to gain some of the efficiency of the low-speed
water wheel and the lower cost and other advantages of the higher-speed generator.
However, the added cost, losses, and maintenance of the speed-increaser must be consid-
ered in evaluating these desigos.
Steam turbines, operating under high steam temperatures and pressures, are most efficient
at high speeds. Consequently, most steam-turbine-driven generators are high-speed designs
operating at 1,800 rpm (four poles) or 3,600 rpm (two poles).
ASCE/El'RIGuides 1989 3-24
)
i37
Some typical pole and speed combinations for 60-Hz generators are:
i::.- Poles rpm Typical uses

\S•·.·
2 3,600 Direct drive, steam-turbine-
4 1,800 driven synchronous generators
6 1,200 Induction generators driven by

8 900 water wheels with speed increasers
42 171 Direct drive, water-wheel-driven

48 150 synchronous salient pole
64 112 generators
3. Synchronous Generators
a. General. - Low-speed, water-wheel-driven synchronous generators are characterized Synchronous

by many salient poles on the rotor that must be supplied by direct current to produce suc- generators
cessive north and south poles in the air gap between the rotor and stator. The magnetic field
produced does not move with respect to the rotor, but if the rotor rotates at synchronous
speed, the magnetic field in the air gap rotates at synchronous speed with respect to the sta-
tor.
Most large hydroelectric generators are vertical shaft units. However, some horizontal shaft
hydroelectric generators are found in small installations and in bulb turbine units.
In most designs, the d-e field current required for the rotor windings is produced external
) to the generator and transferred to the rotor by wires connected to fixed brushes bearing on
-~
a slip-ring assembly on the rotor that is connected to the rotor field winding.
I
b. Exciters. -The source of the d-e field current is called the exciter. Types of d-e exciters Exciters
that are used with synchronous a-c generators include:
I. Direct-current d-e generators. These are usually on the same shaft as synchronous
generators and mounted above vertical hydroelectric generators. A second, smaller
d-e generator called a pilot generator or subexciter may be used to supply the field
circuit of the main exciter. Direct-current generator exciters are found only in older
hydroelectric installations and are not incorporated in current designs.
2. Brushless exciters. These are used where an a-c voltage is induced into a winding in
a separate machine on the rotor and then the voltage is converted to direct current by
rectifiers on the rotor. No brushes or slip rings are necessary.
3. Static exciters. Static exciters that rectify 60-Hz voltage to produce direct current
utilizing solid-state rectifiers are widely used in modem generating station designs.
The source of the voltage is either the outside system, another generator, or the gen-
erator itself once it is up-to-speed and producing near-rated voltage.
3-25 ASCE{EPRI Guides 1989

Reactive c; Control of Reactive Power and Power Factor.- The reactive power generation and
power operating power factor of any synchronous generator in a multi generator system of two or
more synchronous generators can be controlled by varying the d-e field current.
Varying the d-e field current cannot change the electrical power output, which is deter-
mined by the mechanical power input. What does change is the internally generated volt-
age, and as a consequence, the generator current, reactive power generated (or absorbed
from the power system), and power factor. For any real power load on the generator, there
will be a value of d-e field current at which the synchronous generator will operate at unity
Power factor power factor, with no reactive power generated or absorbed. Increasing the d-e field current
above this value (over-excitation) will cause the synchronous generator to operate at a
leading power factor with an increase in the a-c line current and to be a source of reactive
power. Conversely, reducing the d-e field current below the value that produces unity
power factor operation will cause the generator to operate at lagging power factor with an
increase in a-c line current and to absorb reactive power from the power system.
Figure 3-10 shows in a general way the manner in which a-c line current, reactive power
generation, and power factor in a synchronous generator vary with d-e field current.
DC FIELD CURRENT
Figure 3--10. ~Direct-current control of reactive power.
I
( /

d. Voltage Regulators. - The magnitude of the internally generated a-c voltage depends Voltage
on the magnitude of the d-e field current. The reactive power output of a synchronous gen- regulators
erator and the power factor at which the machine operates is also dependent on the dOe
field current. Thus, a means must be provided for controlling the d-e field current; this
equipment is called the voltage regulator/excitation control.
During power system disturbances, rapidly changing the field currents in generators may
be necessary to help maintain the stability of the system.
Therefore, the voltage regulator and excitation system controls must be capable of auto-
matically adjusting the field current to:
I. Control terminal voltage,

2. Control reactive power output, and
3. Improve the transient stability of the system.
G. BIBLIOGRAPHY
IEEE, Guide for Installations of Vertical Generators and Generator/Motors for

Hydroelectric Applications, 1987.
Siemens-Allis Technical Reports, a series of technical memoranda by the Large Rotating
Apparatus Division of Siemens-Allis.
Shiles, J.J., Hydrogenerators and Controls, presented at short course on small-scale
hydropower development, University of Minnesota, 1986.
Towne, R.A., unpublished article, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, undated.
) USBR, Design Standards, No. 4, "Electrical Apparatus and Symptoms," chapters I, 2, and
3, 1985.
Warnick, C.C., Hydropower Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1984.
t /
~...

!
1'
I
I
f. '
\~· ..
137
CHAPTER 4. TRANSMISSION LINES AND SWITCHYARDS
CONTENTS
Section Page
A. Transmission lines ...................................................................................................................................... A-1

1. General .................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
2. Steps for the planning and designing transmission lines ........................................................................ 4-1
a. Feasibility studies ...............................................................................................................................4-1
b. Licensing and pennitting ....................................................................................................................4-2
c. Engineering design .................................................................•........................................................... 4-2
d. Construction management .......................................................................................•.......................... 4-2
e. Construction ....................................................................................................................................... 4-2
f. Project startup and testing ..................................................................................................................4-3
g, Reliability, availability, and maintainability program .....................................................•.................. 4-3
3. Civil engineering responsibilities ........................................................................................................... 4-3
4. Suggested basic data for design and construction .................................................................................. 4-3
a. Field data ............................................................................................................................................ 4-3
b. Safety codes ........................................................................................................................................ 4-4
5. Overhead .................................................................................................................................................4-4
a. Right-of-way ......................................................................................................................................4-4
b. Interface with electrical systems ........................................................................................................ 4-5
c. Transmission structures ...................................................................................................................... 4-5
d. Structural loading ............................................................................................................................... 4-6
e. Transmission line design .................................................................................................................... f-7
f. Structure design .................................................................................................................... ;.............4-7
)
g. Transmission structure foundation design ........................................................................................4-ll.
h. Construction considerations .............................................................................................................4-11
6. Underground ....................................................................................................................................... i.4-12
a. General ............................................................................................................................................ .4-12
b. Cut-and-cover ...................................................................................................................................4-13
c. Trenching .......................................................................................................................................... 4-14
d. Plowing ............ ~ ................................................................................................................................4-14
e. Horizontal boring and augering ............. :..........................................................................................4-14
f. Pipe pushing and conduit driving .....................................................................................................4-15
g. Tunneling ......................... ,................................................................................................................4-15
7. Environmental considerations ...............................................................................................................4-15
a. Transmission line route selection .....................................................................................................4-15
b. Construction ..................................................................................................................................,..4-17
B. Switchyards and substations ...............................................................•.....................................................4-17
1. General design considerations ..............................................................................................................4-17
a. Structures ..........................................................................................................................................4-17
b. Geology ............................................................................................................................................4-18
c. Topography ......................................................................................................................................4-18
2. Factors affecting the design ..................................................................................................................4-18
3. Site preparation ...;.................................................................................................................................4-18

CONTENTS- Continued
Section Page
4. Structure design .................................................................................................................................... A-19

a. Design methods ................................................................................................................................4-19
b. Loading criteria ..........................................................................................................................•.....4-19
c. Deflection criteria .............................................................................................................................4-21
d. Functional types ...............................................................................................................................4-21
e. Structure member type .....................................................................................................................4-22
5. Foundation design .................................................................................................................................4-23
6. Environmental considerations ...............................................................................................................4-23
a. Buildings ..........................................................................................................................................4-23
b. Landscaping ......................................................................................................................................4-23
c. Construction .....................................................................................................................................4-23
C. References .................................................................................................................................................4-24 V
•
TABLE
4-1 Energy densities and power losses in underground power systems .....................................................4-13
F1GURES
4-1 Guyed V structure ...................................................................................................................................4-6

4-2 H-frame and externally guyed transmission towers ...............................................................................4-8 (
4-3 Sag and tension .......................................................................................................................................4-9
4-4 Stringing curves ....................................................................................................................................4-10
4-5 Substations ............................................................................................................................................4-20
CREDITS
The "Transmission Lines and Switchyards" chapter w~ written by:
Kin Y. C. Chung, Eng. Sc.D., P.E.

,Consulting Engineer
Gilbert/Commonwealth, Inc.
. Reading, Pennsylvania
Acknowledgments:
J. A. Nelson, Gilbert/Commonwealth, Consulting Engineer
R. J. Broad, Transmission Engineer, Commonwealth Associate, Inc.
M. L. Videto, Substation Engineer, Commonwealth Associate, Inc.
)
(
. fiSCE/EPRI Guides 1989 ii

CHAPTER 4. TRANSMISSION LINES AND SWITCHYARDS
A. TRANSMISSION LINES
1. General
The hydroelectric generating station, which usually delivers its entire output over two or
three heavy transmission lines, is generally located far from the distribution system into
which it feeds; hence, the connecting transmission lines are of great economic importance. Cost and
The cost and performance of the lines therefore have an important bearing on the cost of performance
energy delivered at the load center.
Transmission lines from the generating source to the load center or to a location for con-
nection to an existing transmission system can be either overhead or underground and
either alternating current (ac) or direct current (de). This chapter provides the guidelines Purpose
for planning and designing transmission lines and switchyards.
2. Steps for the Planning and Designing Transmission Lines [G/C, 1986]
a. Feasibility Studies. -Feasibility studies include electrical system studies, route selec- Feasibility
tion, and economic and optimization studies. studies
(1 J. Electrical System Studies.- Electrical system studies include load flow, transient sta-
bility, short circuit, shunt compensation, single- versus three-pole switching, transient
f'i) overvoltage, insulation coordination, design optimization, and others.
r
(2) Route Selection.- In selecting the route, the following steps are necessary:
• Perform aerial reconnaissance survey and preliminary field investigation to identify

all possible routes for constructing transmission lines.
• Coonlinate route evaluation with concerned federal, state, and local government agencies.
• Plan and conduct any public participation in this route selection process.
• Conduct underwater surveys for any potential submarine power cable crossings.
• Perform reliability study for each potential route.
• Perform environmental assessment of the potential route(s). Pertinent areas of impact
include the following:
o Air resources
o Earth resources
o Ecological resources
o Water resources
o Land use
o Socioeconomics
o Transportation and utilities
o Cultural and recreation resources
o Visual resources

(3) Economic and Optimization Studies.- Perform cost comparisons for the different
routings.
Permitting b. Licensing and Permitting. - Licenses and permits must be secured in a timely manner
for crossing national forests and other federal lands, navigable streams under U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers jurisdiction, and federal aid highways. Construction permits must also
be secured from various state regulatory agencies such as public service commissions and
departments of natural resources.
c. Engineering Design. - Geotechnical investigation must .be performed along the pro-
posed route. Design the foundations based on the geotechnical information. Select the
types, design the tower structures, estimate costs, and prepare material and construction
specifications and construction drawings.
Design d. Construction Management. - Construction management includes the preparation of

the following:
1. Project procedures manual

2. Specifications contracts
3. Scheduling and cost control
4. Procurement
5. Expediting
6. Shop and field inspection
Construction e. Construction. - Construction includes materials and equipment and field services.
materials and
equipment 1. Materials and equipment services:
• Schedule purchase and delivery of all project materials and equipment to ensure
continuous construction activity.
• Purchase all project materials.
• Inspect and test, during production and upon delivery, to confirm compliance with
specifications.
• Coordinate the receiving and unloading of materials before construction startup.
• Maintain a complete system of records for receipt, storage, and issuance of all
materials and equipment.
Field activities 2. Field services:

• Establish a system of communications, reports, and correspondence to effectively
exchange project information and properly document as-built conditions and job
progress.
• Administer, control, and account for all construction activities.
• Perform right-of-way inspections to coordinate proper clearing.
• Inspect all foundation work.
• Inspect the assembly and erection of all structures.
• Inspect the handling and installation of conductors.
• Inspect the installation of all major substation equipment before energization. )
• Provide monitoring of contractor's safety programs and practices.
• Provide on-going safety training for field personnel.
ASCE/EPRI Guides 19.89 4-2

f. Project Startup and Testing. - Provide final inspection, tests, and calibrations neces- Startup
sary to confirm that the project is complete and ready for commercial operation.
g. Reliability, Availability and Maintainability Program. ~Provide maintenance manual Maintenance

to ensure reliable operation. manual
3. Civil Engineering Responsibilities
a. Interface with electrical engineers. Review and obtain the following information: Responsi-
• Conductor type, size and number bilities
• Shielding angle
• Insulation level
• Air gap, working and ground clearances
• Phase spacing
b. Perform route selection
c. Do environmental evaluation
d. Perform geotechnical investigation and surveys
e. Provide soil, rock and ground water design parameters for foundation, grounding, and
corrosion designs
f. Provide licensing support
g. Design and engineering
• Structure design and configurations
• Foundation design
h. Provide cost estimates
i. Provide construction specifications, drawings and bid evaluation
j. Provide construction management
• Scheduling and cost control
• Procurement
• Expediting
• Shop and field inspection
k. Provide construction liaison
I. Provide as-built drawings
4. Suggested Basic Data for Design and Construction
a. Field Data. - Before design requirements for a transmission line can be formulated, it Field data
is necessary to gather certain preliminary information prior to establishing the voltage, type
of construction, and the desired conductor and overhead ground wire sizes and types.
Usually, the establishment of the voltage on major transmission lines, the number and type
of lines required in a given area, and the type of construction to be used depend on a com-
prehensive system study. This study would include the size and location of generators and
loads, and the possibility of using existing transmission facilities. After a system study has
established the required voltages and the end points of the transmission lines, the following
/
'• information is required tO" establish the details of construction and to prepare designs:
1. Operating voltage of the line

~: 2. Average and peak loads to be transmitted over the line, or the peak load and estimat- Design data
) ed load factor
4-3 ASCE/EPRI Quides<i989

3; Value in mils per kilowatt hour of the energy to be transmitted, and the value per
kilowatt per month or year of capacity to be served
4. A summary of local climatic conditions including
• Maximum and minimum temperatures
• Maximum wind velocities with and without ice
• Radial thickness of ice expected on the conductors
• Presence of corrosive smoke or fog attnospheres
5. A summary of subsurface conditions, that is, the presence of rock, sand, clay, alkali
or other corrosive agents, swamps, and muskeg
6. A map showing the general route of the line, and locations of terminal and intermedi-
ate substations
7. The length of and navigation cle~rance requirements for river and lake crossings
The information from I, 2, and 3 above is used to determine the most economic conductor
size. The other information is used mainly to establish the required mechanical and struc-
tural requirements for the line. To prepare specifications and designs, the following addi-
tional information is required:
Additional 1. Whether the line will be constructed by contract or government forces

data 2. Required delivery date of power
3. Delivery points for materials, and the proportion of each item of material required at I
each point
4. Key map, plan and profile sheets, and special crossing drawings
NESC b. Safety Codes. - The NESC (National Electrical Safety Code), issued by ANSI
(Safety code) (American National Standards Institute), contains safety rules for the installation and main-
tenance of electric supply and communication lines. The transmission lines should be
constructed in accordance with NESC unless the regulations of the state in which the par-
ticular transmission line is being constructed are more stringent than those of NESC. The
code specifies clearances, grades of construction, design loadings for conductors and sup-
porting structures, strength requirements, and special requirements for crossings of rail-
roads, thoroughfares, power circuits, and communication circuits. The code also specifies
the general geographic areas in which the design of transmission lines shall be based on
light, medium, or heavy loading conditions.
S. Overhead
Overhead a. Right-of-Way.- The proper location of the right-of-way over which a transmission line
right-of-way is to be constructed is an economic problem of great importance. Careful reconnaissance
work is needed to determine the best location. In flat and rolling country, aerial observation
and photographic mapping are now used to advantage. In rough country, an aerial survey is
of lesser value, although it may aid in the selection of the most direct route and in securing
the necessary information for the purchasing of right-of-way. Accessibility for delivery of
materials and for patrolling is a controlling factor. The detailed survey following the recon-
naissance should locate lakes, swamps, hills, towns, railroads, power and communication
lines, and legal property lines. Profiles should be run for determination tower locations and
heights to give the necessary clearance of the cables above the ground. The maps and pro-
files should show probable tower locations as selected by the field party.
)
The right-of-way for an important transmission line can be owned by the power company,
although in some cases the power company may preferably accept easements over certain
parcels of privately owned property. The width of the right-of-way is determined by the
ultimate number of circuits that may be run. It is desirable to place parallel tower lines far
apart that a falling tower of one line will not strike the other line. The edge of the right-of-
way should be at a safe clearance distance, roughly 2 inches per 1,000 volts, beyond the
extreme side-swing position of the center of the span. The right-of-way should be cleared
of trees, and it may be advisable to cut trees on adjacent property to prevent the possibility
of their falling on the lines.
b. Interface with Electrical Systems. - Conductor selection is one of the most important Electrical
decisions faced by a line designer. The conductor size is often established by corona per- system
formance rather than current-carrying capacity, and bundle-conductor configurations are
usually necessary to attain this performance. Corona performance would include radio
interference, audible noise, and corona loss aspects of transmission line,operation.
Overhead transmission lines and stations generate electric and magnetic fields, which are
taken into consideration as part of the overall design characteristics.The advent and
increasing use of higher voltage lines has increased the relative importance of field effects
such as induced voltages and currents in conducting bodies. Electric field effects are of
increasing concern in transmission line design as line voltages are increased nowadays.
Generally in line design, cost is more of a limiting factor than technical feasibility. Meeting Insulation
voltage stress requires insulation; more insulation brings greater reliability, but higher cost
costs. Thus, design criteria should strike a proper balance between insulation withstand,
cost, and system reliability on the one side and the voltage stresses on the other.
)
The initiation of an insulator flashover by a lightning stroke is a very complex electromag-
netic event. It involves poorly defmed gas discharge physics, rapidly changing electromag-
netic fields in which retardation plays a major role, nonlinear effects due to corona devel-
opment on the conductors and on the tower itself, and frequency- and current-dependent
impedances of the earth.
In summary, the following subjects concerning electrical systems can be obtained from the Data source
Transmission Line Reference Book [EPRI, 1982]:
• Detailed electrical characteristics of conductor configurations and circuits

• The corona mechanisms and important corona effects such as radio noise, audible
noise, and corona loss
• Both electric and magnetic field effects, and methods to reduce electric field effects
• The insulation design criteria
• A step-by-step, linearized numerical solution to evaluate the lightning performance
c. Transmission Structures. - One or several structure series may be used for each over- Structure
head transmission line project. The most common structure series are: lattice steel or alu- series
minum, steel, aluminum, or wood pole, and aluminum, steel or wood pole H-Frame. Each
can be single or double circuit and can be guyed or nonguyed (figs. 4-1 and 4-2). Each

Figure 4-1.- Guyed V structure. Courtesy of Gilbert/Commonwealth.
structure series may consist of the following basic structure types: tangent, light angle,
medium angle, light dead-end and heavy dead-end structures. (
Loadings d. Structural Loading. - Structural loading includes dead, climatic, accidental, construc-
tion and maintenance loads. Climatic loads are weather related and are associated with
wind, ice, or a combination of wind and ice. In addition, temperature and atmospheric pres-
sure also affect the magnitude of weather related loads. Loads induced by accidental events
may include breaks of components from defects, wear, fatigue, impact, seismic and torna-
does. Accidentill events also include structure failure due to landslides. Construction loads
are those loads that act upon the structures due to the assembly and erection of the struc-
tures themselves, and due to the installation of shield wires, insulators, conductors, and line
hardware. Maintenance loads are those loads that act on the structures and foundations as a
result of scheduled or emergency inspection and/or replacement of all or a part of a struc-
ture or all or a part of the. shield wire, insulator, conductor and conductor hardware system.
Fonnulas, charts, diagrams and examples to evaluate the structural loads are given in the
Guidelines for Transmission Line Structural Loading [ASCE, 1984]. Seismic risk evalua-
tion for the transmission project shall be based on latest national seismic risk map from
U.S. Geological Survey open file, 82-1033. In overhead transmission line engineering,
weather related loads usually govern the design.
Loading Loading cm;tditions for transmission line have also been investigated by Western Area
conditions Power Administration [WAPA, 1984]. For.. transmission line structures, there are six load- )
ing cases that govern the design:

H\
• Case 1 - NESC combined wind and ice loading

• Case 2 - High-wind loading
• Case 3 -Broken-wire loading
• Case 4 - Heavy-rime loading
• Case 5 - Stringing loading
• Case 6 -Camber loading
Not all these cases apply to every structure. For details refer to [WAPA, 1984].
e. Transmission Line Design. - Before supporting structures are designed, structure Line design
dimensions and the loads that must be sustained should be determined. Conductors having
high tensile strength can be strung with less relative sag than those having lower strength,
and a corresponding increase in spacing of structures of the same height can be made.
Other things being equal, the line with the longer spans will be more economical because
of the saving in insulators and reduction in maintenance cost.
The total cost per mile of line including conductors, insulators, structures, and foundations Cost
should be estimated for each conductor under consideration. Care should be taken that the
most economical spacing of structures and the most economical conductor tension are used
in each case, as the choice may be different for different conductors.
There are two general methods of calculating sags; one is based on the elastic cat<;nary, the Sag and
other on the parabola. The results of the two methods of calculation will be almost identi- tension
cal when the sag is small, but the error due to the parabolic assumption becomes greater as
the sag increases. For all practical purposes, the error is negligible for spans up to 1,000
feet and can generally be disregarded for spans up to 1,500 feet. For spans up to this
length, with wires strung so that the sag will not exceed one-tenth of the span, the error will
be less than 3 percent. The general equations, which are derived from the catenary and
parabola, are shown on figure 4-3 [Holland; 1980, and WAPA, 1984].
It is essential to give the field forces information which will enable them to string the
cables in such a way that under any of the assumed loading conditions the maximum ten-
sion cannot exceed the allowable. Typical stringing curves which show the relation
between the sag and the span or the relation between the tension and the span at various
temperatures are shown on figure 4-4 [Creager-and Justin, 1950].
f. Structure Design. - The outline and dimensions of the tower depend. largely on the Design
arrangement and spacing of the conductors, the minimum clearances from the ground to considerations
the lowest conductor, and the separation of conductors and ground wires if ground wires
are used. The separation of conductors and clearances from conductors to tower members
and the position of ground wires and their separation from the conductors are determined
almost entirely by electrical considerations and the degree of lightning protection which is
intended. Clearance of cables from the ground is determined by the distance necessary for
the protection from accidents to individuals and for uninterrupted service. It should not be
less than that specified by the National Electrical Safety Code.
)
5::~~"' .-e.,,·.'~-·-·-7~~-"- <"'?~' --~·:;<;v-;c;:>;<;::;-,--;";':;-,• :-.·:·.·.· .-.~ .••.• ·:·.· • '·.-.~~_,.,._._.-
BRACED
a. Typical H-Frame structures.
c
GUYED V GUYEDH GUYEDY
GUYED CC GUYED DELTA CHAINETTe
b. Typical externally guyed structures.
Figure 4-2.- H-Frame and externally guyed transmission towers. \

\

..
----~-~~~··-~.~- ·~~----···-·-~-~~·---~ ~·-·"·'"'''""···-·~-
~
11
:
--
-AG -
!I
p p
x ·~ IT X T
I
, I \ ! 1/
I fr-1 '
"' >-
"'I'
>-
H ~
' :::___ _j__L, ! H ~I
t 0
0
e
Directrix ! ' ' X
x' y=%-(e"+e"l=a cosh a

y = 40
Catenary
Parabola
w = Force per un1t length of cable and load
w= Force per un1t length of cable and load ' '
L =o(e"-e')=Za sinh ~=length of cable
> L= p + ~:' =Length of cable H = ow= T -sw= Horizontal tension
Vl
H= zaw = ~0,' = Horizontal tension
~ V=
w{3p~+Ss2 ) .
= Vert1cal tens1on
.
v = 9f (e"' -e"l
' = ow sinh ~ =Vertical tension
93
.....
60
T = yw = aw cosh i = H cosh i =Maximum tension
Cl T=.~~ Jp +16s 2 =Maximum tension
2
8. S= y-a = a(cosh -ij- -I)= Maximum sag
g. S,= ;~' = Sag at any point
~
w·o 2 · ·
a= ;; =length of cable whose moss is equal to ~
,_;.
S = 8H = Max1mum sag hori zonto I tension = Parameter of catenary ~
"'~ Figure 4-3.- Sag and tension. [Farr, 1980].
100
"'1-'1,....,
11-'1"
11'"
11-1'"
11-1'" 11-A=if:%~
1-,-r-c-,-,--.,---,
95~-+~~~~~-+~4-+-~-+~+-~-+-1-~~~~
1
0
0000, stranded, hard·drawn copper conductor, f-~+-~-+-+1 '//9j'-f--J
Ma~. tijnslon 11nder M·ln, Ice and4·1b wlnd-50001bs, 'X7
85~-,-,-.~~-,~-r-.~~-r~+-~-+-1-~
aoH-t+~-1-HH-++++-H-+++-H+ ~H-+-1
5H-+++-H+++-H++~-+++-~
,,H-++++-H-t-+++HH+++-1-
,,H-++++-H-t-+++HH-+++-
_ sol--i-+-l-+-+-~-+-+~+-~l--1-l--t
£ss~-+-+~+-+-~-+-l--1-t-~-+
~soH-+-+++HH-t++-1-~,.• ,,-r
·'' -+++-H-+-+-1
lu ~
•oH-+-++-1-HH-t+++-
"H-+-+-1-+-t-~-+-1--:,o ·•
30~-+-1-~+-+-~-+-1-
25~-+-+-~+-t-f-,;.,
20 -.;'/.O
151--J-+++- I Tempernture-sag curves
10 H--k "-+-IH-1-+H-+++-1--+-+-+-H-+++-1
5
H---fl"' I I I I
o~~~~~~~~~~L_~~~~~-+~~~~Lj.
400 soo 600 700 aoo 900 1000 noo 1200 lJOO 1400 tsoo 1600
Span In feet
3500
I
~ 3000
I
•g_ o",F
I Temperature-tension curves
.: 2500
:;
32° F-.....
60":f
h- I IIII
;;;
,! 2000
~
' '
-~,,~·'I I I III IIIIIIII
1500
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Span In feet
Figure 4-4.- Stringing curves. [Creager and Justin, 1950].
Design There are two philosophies of design in use by the utility industry: working stress and ulti-
philosophies mate strength designs.
Working (I) Working Stress. - A structural element is designed so that unit stresses computed
stress under the action of working or service loads do not exceed predesignated allowable values.
approach
These allowable stresses are prescribed by a building code or specification (such as the
AISC specification) to provide a factor of safety against attainment of some limiting stress,
such as the minimum specified yield stress. The allowable stress is obtained by dividing
the limiting stress by a factor of safety. The computed stresses are well within the elastic
range.
Ultimate (2) Ultimate Strength,- Under the ultimate strength design philosophy, loadings are mul-
strength tiplied by appropriate overload factors to give ultimate loads and the resulting ultimate
approach stresses are compared to the minimum yield stress or buckling stress of the material.
The analysis of stresses and solution of problems involved in the details of design of trans-
mission towers are not simple and should be instructed only by an experienced designer
familiar with the calculation of stresses in framed structures. Stresses should be computed
for the aforementioned structural loads.
I
I

Analyses using computer, both graphical and manual, are available in most texts. Computer
Commercial computer codes such as STRUDL and GTSTRUDL (Georgia Tech. Univ.) are programs
available to assist structural engineers in the definitions, analysis, and design of structures.
Detailed structural designs on steel, aluminum, and wood are described in the Civil Design
Manual [WAPA, 1984]. The unit stresses to be Used in determining sizes of members in
transmission structures depend on the amount of overload that is desired to have the struc-
tures capable of carrying. Allowable unit stresses for steel, aluminum and wood; and con- Unit stresses
crete should be in accordance with ASTM and ACI respectively.
For aluminum structures, the design criteria should comply with the following two guides: Aluminum
Guide for the Design of A/uminum Transmission Towers by ASCE, and the Task Group design guides
Report on Aluminum Latticed Structure Design by IEEE.
g. Transmission Structure Foundation Design.- Foundations for transmission structures Foundation

are subjected to unique loading conditions in which a high portion of the load is transitory design
and involves high uplift forces or high overturning moments with little vertical loading.
Foundation types for the transmission structures are mainly dependent upon the structure
type, governing loads, the soil and rock conditions, site accessibility, constructibility, and
economics.
Foundation types include spread foundations such as steel grillages, pressed plated, con- Types
crete footing (poured or precast), and rock socket foundations; drilled shaft foundations;
pile foundations; and anchor foundations (in soil or in rock).
Current analytical methods and guidelines for transmission structure foundation design Design
have been investigated by ASCE [1985; 1987; 1989] and IEEE [1985]. guidelines
h. Construction Considerations. - Results obtained from most geotechnical investiga- Construction

tions, indicate that following factors may be encountered during construction: access prob- considerations
lem, steep slopes, wet areas and artesian conditions, boulders and cobbles in soils, saturat- -factors
ed loose sand, and locations within debris dump areas. Major problem areas should be
identified after an appropriate geotechnical investigation program. Solutions should be
practical and economical.
Construction specifications should be prepared in accordance with applicable codes, stan- Specifications
dards, regulations, minimum material, and installation requirements. Any constraints from
environmental management and construction plans should be identified. Legal require-
ments can usually be furnished by the utilities. Traffic control should be included in the
specifications if required. Engineers should assemble a complete set of bidding documents
in accordance with the utility's established policy and practice of the utility. A fair cost
estimate should be prepared for each construction contract.
Construction management should include scheduling, cost control, procurement, expedit- Construction
ing, and shop and field inspections. management
4--11 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

6. Underground
Underground a. General. - The transmission of electric power by underground transmission technolo-

system- gies has been largely restricted to areas where overhead lines were not possible. Because
general of the complexity and cost of routing through urban areas, historical costs of underground
cable systems show large differentials when compared to the equivalent capacity overhead
system, However, in rural areas that would be considered in hydroelectric power evalua-
tions, this cost differential is reduced.
Current practice in underground power transmission at voltages above 100 kV makes use
of the following types of cable systems [DOE, 1977; EPRI, 1979]:
Underground • High-pressure oil-filled (HPOF) paper-insulated cables in which the tbree phase con-
cable systems ductors are enclosed in a steel pipe containing oil
• High-pressure gas-filled (HPGF) paper insulated cables similar to HPOF except that
nitrogen gas instead of oil is used as the pressurizing medium
• Medium- or high-pressure, self-contained oil-filled (SCOF) cables, usually with three
single-phase conductors and direct buried
• Extruded solid-dielectric insulated cables (cross-linked polyethylene (XLP) or ethylene
propylene (EPR) insulated), usually with three direct-buried, single-phase conductors
Extruded Extruded solid-dielectric cables have not been made commercially available at EHV lev-
solid-dielectric els, and lower voltage installations have not met with complete success in the United
cables States. There is one new 161-kV XLP installation in the United States. There are 230-kV
and 275-kV installations in Europe and Japan, respectively. Developmental work and test-
ing of a 345-kV XLP cable have been successfully accomplished in the United States, but
c
success of this cable manufactured under commercial manufacturing conditions has not
been demonstrated. It appears that extruded solid-dielectric insulated cable will find appli-
cation only at voltages somewhat below or at the lower end of the EHV range.
HPOFand HPOF and SCOF cables are now in operation at voltages up to 500 kV, both have been
SCOFcables exhaustively tested at 765 kV and can be used commercially when a need arises. Forced
cooling can be applied to increase the load-carrying capacity by as much as 50 percent. For
future application, other cable types such as gas-filled-spacer and superconducting ;tppear
to have promise. Gas-filled-spacer technology (GFST) will be in place for transmission
lines should the need arise fQ( large energy transfers. Studies have shown at a 500 kV, SF6
insulated GFST system would be cost competitive for a 60-mile transmission line rated for
a 10,000-MW power transfer from a generating plant to an urban substation. This technol-
ogy has been used in substations and for short underground connections to overhead lines.
Recent discoveries in superconducting research have indicated the probability of operating
such systems at higher temperatures than previously thought impossible. This could result
in substantial cost reductions. Superconducting cables appear to be relatively more advan-
tageous for de systems because electromagnetic losses of ac systems would be absent, with
resUlting savings for refrigeration systems.
EHV Table 4--l gives a general overview of cable systems that could be used for EHV applica- )
application tion. Note that the energy density for a superconducting de system indicates a useful space (
ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 4--12

conservation advantage that could be useful it if becomes necessary to transmit very large
amounts of power in a crowded urban environment.
There are several teclmiques used to install an underground power system: Installation
methods
o Cut-and-cover
o Trenching
o Plowing
o Horizontal boring and augering
o Pipe pushing and conduit driving
o Tunneling
o, Surface installation of power cables
Table 4-1.- Energy densities and power losses in underground power systems.
System Max.power Energy density Power loss

(MW) (MW/cm2) (%/mi)
HPOF-PPC-345 kV
Naturally cooled 550 1.75 2.5 X 10·2
Forced cooled 1,020 3.3 4.3 X l0-2
Gas spacer cable-500 kV

Naturally cooled 2,200 0.36 t.3 x to·2
Forced cooled 6,500 1.1 4.5 X 10-2 .
Superconducting de 10,000 7.75 4.5 X J0-4
b. Cut-and-Cover. - Cut-and-cover is the simplest and most commonly used, although Cut-and-cover
not necessarily the cheapest, method of preparing the earth for installation of underground
cable systems. The two fundamental operations are excavation and backfilling. The materi-
al that comes out of the trench may be unsuitable for backfill; consequently, many local
authorities require that all excavations in streets be backfilled with sand or an equivalent
material to avoid set!ling of the soil and subsequent creation of potholes in paved roads. In
addition, the power-handling capacity of the underground transmission line may depend on
the ability of the surrounding soil to carry away heat. Therefore, a specially selected mate-
rial called thermal sand, or another material with desirable mechanical and thermal proper-
ties, may be used in backfilling. An additional expense may be incurred in the removal and
disposal of the original excavated material. Where rocks and boulders are encountered,
additional expense is incurred for excavation and removal.
Open-cut trench sizes and configurations are determined primarily by the type of cable sys- Sizes and
tems to be installed. For pipe-type cables, the following must be considered: voltage, configuration
power, and number of circuits to be installed; access required for field assembly eperations
during installation; local regulations for cutting into city streets; whether the system will be
force-cooled or naturally cooled by conduction to its surroundings. Present conventional
' ' 4-13 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

systems at voltages from 115 kV to 345 kV require trench sizes from 18 inches to 4 feet
wide and 5 feet deep. Gas spacer cables at higher voltages may require trench sizes 71/2 to
10 feet wide. Burial of flexible, self-contained cables may be easier. Burial of newer sys- (b::";
terns, such as rigid superconducting systems and waveguides, may be more difficult
because of their special needs for access, straightness, and so forth.
Cost In general, civil engineering costs in open-cut trenching are directly related to the volume
of material to be handled and hence to the trench width. Trenching in urban areas is com-
monly performed by backhoe.
Should the ground water table be close to the ground surface, dewatering using well points
or sump pump may be necessary during construction. For trenches deeper than 5 feet, ade-
quate cut slopes or shoring (sheetpiling) should be constructed to ensure a safe operation.
Trenching c. Trenching. - Trenching is the name given to excavating an open trench with semi-
automated equipment called trenching machines such as the wheel type and the more con-
ventional chain (or ladder) type. All machines operate on basically the same principle: a
series of buckets or similar devices are mounted on closed-loop chains or wheels driven so
as to penetrate and remove the earth continuously.
Trenching machines are most useful in soil with relatively few obstacles. Today, machines
are capable of digging trenches from 8 inches to 6 feet wide and up to 25 feet deep.
When a submarine cable crossing is required, the trenching method to install the pipe
cables underwater is now common. Depending on the environmental requirements, a ( ·
clamshell may be necessary to minimize the disturbance of the sediment underwater. The
importance of the thermal sand around the cable is well understood in the transmission
field. To maintain 95 percent ampacity for the pipe-type cable(s), the thermal resistivity of
the sand surrounding the pipe is recommended to be 70 RHO or less. For comparison pur-
poses, the thermal resistivities of water, organic soil, and air are 165, 400, and 4,000 RHO,
respectively. To protect the integrity of the sand-pipe-cable system, geotextiles have been
installed on very soft trench bottoms underwater before the placement of the thermal sand
and pipe cable(s) [Chung, 1988 and 1989].
d. Plowing. - Plowing machines are designed to open the earth, plant the cable, and cover
it with one piece of equipment. The cable plow is intended to make a cut with as little dis-
turbance to the, surrounding earth as is compatible with the emplacement of the cable. The
feed mechanism for introducing the cable immediately behind the plowshare is integral
with the plow. They are unsuitable for use with present pipe-type cable systems or other
rigid systems, or with any systems requiring field assembly operations or special backfill
materials.
Horizontal e. Horizontal Boring and Augering. - Horizontal boring is the process of mechanically
boring removing soil and soft rocks in a horizontal direction without making a continuous surface
cut. The boring machine must be lowered into a position in line with the hole to be bored,
after which a horizontal hole can be driven several hundred feet. The bit-running of high-
voltage pipe cable through hard rock over relatively long distances presents a challenge to
ASCE/EPRIGuides 1989 4--14

current boring methods. Horizontal boring is especially useful for crossing streets, high-
ways, or railroads without disturbing the surface.
j. Pipe Pushing and Conduit Driving. -Pipe jacking or pipe pushing, which presently is Pipe jacking
seldom used, is a technique of statically forcing lengths of rigid pipe through the soil, usu-
ally bY means of a hydraulic ram. Pipe pushing methods can be used in most soils although
large rocks, boulders, or closely packed sandy soils may present some construction prob-
lems. The pipe pushing systems are usable only for straight holes. Penetration rates depend
on the soil. Costs for pipe installation by this method are usually higher than by cut-and-
cover and trenching methods.
Driving conduit by sonic techniques is another method in this class. It is based upon the Sonic
reduction in the mechanical resistance of soils by forced acoustic vibrations. The technique technique
appears to have important potential for development in the future.
g. Tunneling.- For horizontal boring and pipe pushing, the cutting tool is at the face of Tunneling
the hole, but control and mechanical energy are remotely supplied from the beginning of
the hole. Tunneling differs in that the hole digging machine is carried to the face.
Tunneling is therefore possible over much longer distances and around bends, but the hole
must be large enough to pass the tunneling machine itself.
The problems and drawbacks associated with current tunneling techniques are well docu-
)
mented.
If":\ There is general agreement that the most difficult and costly tunneling situations are pre- Tunneling
F sented by (1) a combination of hard rock and soft soil within the cross section excavated; drawbacks
and (2) loose or very soft soils with high a ground water table. In these cases, special boring
machines or soil stabilization methods may be required.
Tunneling methods have recently been developed and used for installing pipe under the
bottoms of navigable streams, thus reducing interference with commerce.
7. Environmental Considerations
a. Transmission Line Route Selection. - The following environmental considerations Route

concerning transmission line route selection are taken from the publication, selection
Environmental Criteria for Electric Transmission System by the U.S. Department of the
Interior and the U.S. Department of Agriculture:
\ 1. Rights-of-way should be selected to preserve the natural landscape and minimize con- Rights-of•way
'
flict with present and planned uses of the land on which they are to be located.
2. Where possible, retirement or upgrading of existing lower voltage transmission cir-
cuits should be required to allow construction of higher voltage and higher capacity
circuits on the existing right-of-way.
3. Properly sited established rights-of-way should be used where warranted for the loca-
tion of additions to existing transmission facilities.
4. The relative advantages and disadvantages of locating a new line either adjacent to or
widely separated from existing transmission lines should be considered. Right-of-way
l 4-15 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

'
'i
boundaries should be so located as to avoid creating unusable hiatus areas.
5. Rights-of-way should avoid heavily timbered areas, steep slopes, proximity to main
highways, shelter belts, and scenic areas.
Joint use 6. The joint use of electric transmission facilities by two or more utilities should be
encouraged when feasible, to reduce the total number of transmission lines construct-
ed.
7. The joint use of rights-of-way with other types of utilities should be coordinated in a
common corridor wherever uses are compatible.
Crossings 8. Where possible, transmission line crossings of major roads in the vicinity of intersec-
tions or interchanges should be avoided.
Long views 9. Long views of transmission lines parallel to existing or proposed highways should
generally be avoided. Alternative routes away from highways should be considered.
Where ridges or timber areas are adjacent to highways or other areas of public view,
overhead lines should be placed beyond the ridges or timber areas.
High points 10. Avoid crossings at high points in the road so that the towers cannot be seen from a
great distance. Instead, where possible, cross the highway between two high points, at
a dip, or on a curve in the road.
Wetlands 11. Avoid open expanses of water and marshland and particularly those utilized as flight
lanes by migratory waterfowl and as heavily used corridors by other birds. Avoid
areas of wildlife concentrations such as nesting and rearing areas.
Government 12. Where the transmission rights-of-way cross areas of land managed by government
agencies agencies, state agencies or private organizations, these agencies should be contacted
early in the planning of the transmission project to coordinate the line location with
their land-use planning and with other existing or proposed rights-of-way.
Forest 13. In forest or timber areas long spans should be used at highway crossings in order to (
retain much of the natural growth or provide a planted screen along the highways.
14. It may be desirable to occasionally deflect right-of-way strips through scenic forest or
timber areas. The resulting irregular patterns prevent the rights-of-way from appearing
as tunnels cut through the timber.
15. Long views of transmission lines perpendicular to highways, down canyons and valleys
or up ridges and hills should be avoided. The lines should approach these areas diago-
nally and should cross them at a slight diagonal.
Canyons 16. Transmission lines should cross canyons up-slope from roads which traverse the length
of the canyon.
17..When crossing a canyon in a forest, high, long-span towers should be used to keep the
conductors above the trees and to minimize the need to clear all vegetation from
below the lines. Clearing in the canyon should be limited to that which is necessary to
string the conductors.
18. Transmission facilities should be located part way up slopes to provide a background of
topography and/or natural cover where possible. Screen these facilities from highways
and other areas of public view to the extent possible with natural vegetation and ter-
rain.
Hill 19. Rights-of-way should not cross hills and other high points at the crests. To avoid plac-
ing a transmission tower at the crest of a ridge or.hill, space towers below the crest or
in a saddle to carry the line over the ridge or hill. The profiles of the facilities should
not be silhouetted against the sky. J
20. Rights-of-way should avoid parks, monuments, scenic, recreation, or historic areas. If a
line must be located in or near these areas, the feasibility of placing the line under-
)
146
ground should be clearly detennined. If the line must be placed overhead, it should be Parks and
located in a corridor least visible to public view. Other criteria or conditions as neces- other historic
~!'?:::
sary to minimize adverse impacts may be imposed by the agency administering the areas·
\~~;
lands involved.
21. Locate access and construction roads in a manner that wiii preserve natural beauty and Access and
minimize erosion. Locate grades and aligrunents to follow the contour of the land with construction
smooth, gradual curves when possible. Commensurate with the topography, locate roads
construction roads for later use as maintenance access roads or to provide access to
recreational areas. Use existing roads to the maximum extent possible. Agencies
administering the right-or-way lands involved may limit access and construction roads
due to certain fragile or conservation aspects of the lands and associated resources.
22. Select a route that will maximize the use of natural screens to remove transmission Natural screens
facilities from view.
23. Where lines cross roads, the right-of-way should be left in its natural state as far back Roads
from the road as possible.
24. If the rights-of-way are through dense areas of timber where trees are of equal height, Timberland
and the right-of-way must be cleared to a straight line, the maintenance plan should
provide for ultimately reaching the results through seeding, planting, and selective
) cutting of native material.
b. Construction. - Care must be taken in the construction phase of a project to damage Construction
the surrounding area as little as possible. The clearing of trees and vegetation should be effects
limited to the minimtnn area required. Timber should be removed only as required. Access
roads to the site should .be designed and located for minimum adverse impact and maxi-
mum land conservation. Cut and fill slopes should be designed to achieve maximum com-
patibility with the surrounding natural topography. Silt deposits in streams caused by ero-
sion run-off should be prevented by proper erosion control techniques.
)
B. SWITCHYARDS AND SUBSTATIONS

I
1. General Design Considerations
a. Structures. - Structures (fig. 4-5) for switchyard or substation can be categorized into Switchyard
three subdivisions; structures that support overhead conductors or wires, structures that structures
support equipment or buswork at a required height above grade, and structures that support
equipment at or near grade. The first type of structure includes take-off or dead-end struc-
tures, strain bus towers, and ground wire masts. The second type of structure includes
switch supports, bus frames, bus poles, equipment supports, etc. The third type of structure
usually includes foundations for transfonners, circuit breakers, etc.
Structures used in switchyards or substations are generally steel although at times, alu- Structure
minum, concrete and wood are employed. The steel structures are either latticed, composed materials
primarily of angles and standard shapes, such as wide flanges, I-beams or channels, or
tubular (tapered or prismatic). Aluminum structures are usually similar to steel structures
utilizing standard shapes that are readily available. The outline and member sizes selected
for cast-in-place reinforced concrete structures are limited by the problems and cost associ-
ated with fonning and concrete placement. Wood may be used for switchyard or substation
structures, usually in the lower voltages. Wood poles and members are readily available
)
I 4-17 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

'
and must be treated with an appropriate preservative. Economics and anesthetics are prime
considerations when selecting the structure type to be used [WAPA, 1984].
Geologic b. Geology. -Geologic information is necessary in the early stages of switchyard or sub-
information station design. Geologic information permits delineation of the various types of soils, their
approximate range of engineering properties, their stratification and information concern-
ing special design or construction problems that might arise through a study of the bedrock
geology. Because of the difficulty estimating the elevation and depth of bedrock within tol-
erances on the basis of regional geologic information alone, information from geotechnical
investigations should be obtained to provide subsurface parameters for foundation design.
Topography c. Topography. - Topography should also be considered in switchyard or substation

design. Low areas may be subject to flooding and require special grading and drainage
considerations.
As hydro stations are generally located in mountainous regions, their topography is usually
characterized by valleys and !tills with mild to steep slopes. The possibility of finding a
level area of adequate size for building a switchyard in the vicinity of a proposed hydro
station site is fairly improbable. The layout arrangement for the switchyard or the substa-
tion should therefore be designed based on the actual site conditions [J adaun, 1978).
2. Factors Affecting the Design
Design factors • Voltage and number of circuits- Establishes general size and shape requirements.
• Function- Includes switclting, distribution, or transmission.
• Physical layout and bus configuration- Establishes size and shape of site. The com-
mon bus arrangements ar,e single, sectionalized, main and transfer, ring
breaker-and-a-half, and double breaker-double.
• Future expansion - The possible need to expand the site must be factored into the
original design.
• Equipment maintenance and removal - Site design must include adequate space and
facilities for the installation and possible removal of large equipment such as power
transformers and circuit breakers.
• Location- Establishes the wind, ice, and seismic loads that the structures must resist.
3. Site Preparation
The objective of site work design for a switchyard or a substation is to provide an easily
accessible, dry, reasonably level area for the installation, operation and maintenance of
Preparation electrical equipment and structure.
of the site
Some of the most important factors from civil engineer's viewpoint are:
• Existing soil conditions

• Topography and drainage
• Access to road and railroads
• Appearance requirements
•Environmental requirements
ASCE/BPRlGuides 1989 4-18

'
,, 147
It is of considerable value for the engineer to make a personal site inspection before the . Site inspection
design is started. The design should take advantage of the natural drainage and topographi-
cal features consistent with the electrical layout [Videto, 1980].
4. Structure Design
a. Design Methods. -There are two philosophies of design in use by the utility industry: Design
"Working Stress" and "Ultimate Strength" designs. philosophies
(1) Working Stress.- A structural element is designed so that unit stresses computed Working
under the action of working or service loads do not exceed predesignated allowable values. stress
These allowable stresses are prescribed by a building code or specification (such as the approach
AISC Specifications) to provide a factor of safety against attainment of some limiting
stress, such as the minimum specified yield stress. The allowable stress is obtained by the
dividing the limiting stress by a factor of safety. The computed stresses are well within the
elastic range.
(2) Ultimate Strength.- Under the ultimate strength design philosophy, loadings are mul- Ultimate
\
I
tiplied by appropriate overload factors to give ultimate loads and the resulting ultimate stress
stresses are compared to the minimum yield stress to buckling stress of the material. approach
b. Loading Criteria. - Structures must be designed to withstand, without unacceptable Loading

deflection, the forces due to: criteria
)
r;).,; • Gravity (with ice, if applicable)
)/
• Wind (with ice, if applicable)
• Short circuits
)
• Dynamic forces of equipment operation
• Earthquake
• Erection and construction
Fonnulas, charts, diagrams and examples to evaluate the wind and the ice loadings are
given in the Guidelines for Transmission Line Structural Loading [ASCE, 1984]. Seismic
risk evaluation for the structures shall be based on u,s. Geological Survey Open File
Report 82-1033.
Loading conditions for switchyard or substation structures have also been investigated by Loading
Western Area Power Administration [WAPA, 1984]. There are a total of five loading cases conditions
that govern the design:
Case I - NESC combined wind and ice loading

Case 2 - High wind loading
Case 3 - Rime loading
Case 4 - Short Circuit or Impact
Case 5 - Earthquake
\ 4-19 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

'
. -----------'
I
a. 50~23~138-kV substation.
b. 345-kV substation. )
Figure 4-5.- Substations. Courtesy of Gilbert/Commonwealth.
ASCE/EPRl Guides 1988 4-20

Short-circuit loadings are the magnetic forces developed between conductors during fault Short-circuit
conditions [Videto, 1980]: loading
Fsc is the maximum short-circuit force on center conductor for a three-phase flat bus con-
figuration of round or square tubular conductors with the conductors equally spaced. Ksc is
the short-circuit force reduction factor (0.5 to 1.0; 0.67 is recommended).
Dynamic loads of equipment operation are the result of friction or dynamic forces, Dynamic
moments and torques due to the operations of apparatus such as switches and high-speed loads
circuit interrupting devices. This infonnation is obtained from the equipment manufacturer.
Considerations should be given to the application ofloads and forces to which the structure Erection and
is subjected during its erection and the installation of equipment and conductors. installation
loads
c. Deflection Criteria. - Deflection limitations are presentedin PubliCation SG6, Part 36,
of National Electrical Manufacturers Association as follows:
1. Structures supporting conductors or wires: Deflection

criteria
• Horizontal deflection of vertical member= 1/50 of the vertical height of the structure
• Vertical deflection of horizontal member= 1/200 of the length of the member
'"'~.\; • Horizontal deflection of horizontal member= 1/100 of the length of.the member
J./
2. Switch and bus supports:
• Horizontal deflection ofyertical member= 1/100 of the vertical height of the structure
• Vertical and horizontal deflections of horizontal member= 1/200 of the length of the
member
d. Functional Types. -There are essentially three types of strucmres, which may be cate- Structure
gorized from a structural design approach related to the function served in the switchyard types
or substation.
(1) Line Support Structure~, -.These structure~ are used as line exit,~tthctures, internal Line support
strain bus structures and ~in~ .tell)linatil)g structUre~. They consist basidl!ny of two high
towers and cross arm on whlch the line conductors are attached. They may be used as single
bay or multi bay structures.
The major forces acting on these structures are the shield wire and conductor tensions and
wind forces. Because of the large size Qf the structures and magnitude of forces acting
upon them, these structures are usually highly stressed and require the most design effort.
(2) Equipment Support Structures. -These structures are commonly referred to as bus Equipment
support structures, switch stands, lightning arrester stands, line trap supports, etc. support
) 4--21 ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

In low-profile switchyard or substation design, these structures are designed primarily as
vertical cantilever beams with wind and short circuit forces b!:ing the primary design
forces. Deflection may control the design size of some structures and should be reviewed
in all structures.
Switch stands should be designed more rigid than bus supports or other structures due to
the dynamic loading effect of the switch blade operation and the requirement that the
switch blade must always return (close) to the relatively .small space of the saddle. Any
appreciable twisting or deflection of the switch stand may prohibit this function.
Distribution (3) Distribution Substation StructiJre.- This structure is the column and beam structure,
substation similar to a building frame. It may consist of one or several bays in length and usually is
support one bay wide. It may vary in height from 20 to 40 feet or more.
The structure supports switches and other equipment. It usually will have line conductors
attached to one or more sides. This structure should be designed for rigidity and flexibility
in equipment location. Generally these structures are comprised of box truss members.
Structure e. Structure Member Type. -Three types of structure profile configurations are common
profiles in switchyard or substation today. They are classified from their general physical appear-
ance and structural member components. The types are lattice, solid profile and semi-solid
profile [Videto; 1980; WAPA, 1984].
Solid profile (1) Lattice. -The lattice structure consists primarily of angle members forming the chords
and lacing of a box truss acting as a beam or column. Usually the lattice structure results in
the least structure weight compared to other structures. It is also very stable and rigid .. It is (/
very easy to fabricate, galvanize and ship. However, it requires a large amount of bolting
and erection time in the field, unless the members are shipped preassembled. Maintenance
painting, if required, is also costly.
(2) Solid Profile. - The solid profile structure is made from wide flange shapes, pipes,
tapered round or polygonal shapes and rectangular tube shapes. The esthetic appearance,
relatively short erection time, and ease of maintenance make the solid profile structure a
popular choice for equipment support structures.
The square tube has good torsional resistant properties and is equal structurally about either
major axis. The wide flange shape has a minor axis which may control the design. It has an
open cross section and minimal resistance to torsional loads. Wide flange shapes are more
suitable for bolted structural connections and may require less welding during fabrication.
Line support structures may be· made of straight or tapered tubular round or polygonal
poles. The structure"may be either an A-frame configuration or a single pole. Crossamis
are made of straight or tapered round or polygonal members. A combined section from
wide flange shapes is used for crossarms also. Tapered poles are almost always designed
by the pole fabricator to the loading requiremenis specified by the Engineer.
Semi-solid (3) Semi-Solid Profile.- This type of structure is made from wide flanges, pipes or tubes
profile which form the major members and is braced between these major members with angle
. A:SCE/EPRI Guides 1989 4-22

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'
I
bracing, The design of this structure type is similar to the lattice structure and is very stable
and rigid because of the bracing.
Analysis and examples for all three types are described in detail in WAPA's Civil Design
Manual [1984].
5. Foundation Design
The common types of foundations for switch yard and substation structures and equipment Foundation
include: drilled piers, spread footings, piles, slabs on grade, and direct embedment for design
wood or concrete poles.
Recent state-of-art analytical methods and guidelines for most of switchyard or substation
foundations have been investigated by ASCE [1985; 1987; 1989] and IEEE [1985).
For foundations to support equipment such as switchgear, breakers, and power transform-
ers, dynamic loads should be considered in the design [Arya et al., 1979).
6. Environmental Considerations Environmental
a. Buildings. - Control buildings should have incorporated in their design construction

elements appropriate for the prevailing surrounding arcltitectural styles. If the building is to
be located in an urban or suburban area, arcltitectural features such as fences, paving,
benches, planters, and appropriate colored paint may be incorporated. These features and
accessories should express the nature of their surroundings either by blending or by posi-
tive contrast.
b. Landscaping_ - Landscaping practices should be developed and used to enhance the Landscaping
appearance of switchyard or substation areas. Vegetation helps blend structures and equip-
ment with the surrounding area, absorb equipment noises, and hide objectionable views.
When vegetation is chosen to perform specific functions, as mentioned above, the follow-
ing must be considered:
• Its physical requirements

• Its branching pattern, bark variation, foliage texture, spring bloom, and fall color
• Its mature size
• The maintenance it requires
c. Construction. - Care must be taken in the construction phase of a project to damage Construction
the surrounding area as little as possible. The clearing of trees and vegetation should be
limited to the minimum area required. Timber should be removed only as required. Access
"i roads to the site should be designed and located for minimum adverse impact and maxi-
mum land conservation. Cut and fill slopes should be designed to achieve maximum com-
patibility with the surrounding natural topography. Silt deposits in streams caused by ero-
sion run-off should be prevented by proper erosion control techniques.
4-23 ASCE/EPRI Guides '1989

C. REFERENCES
Arya, S. et al., Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
1979.
ASCE, "Guidelines for Transmission Line Structural Loading," prepared by Committee of the Electrical
Structures, 1984.
ASCE, "Uplift Behavior of Anchor Foundations in Soils," edited by Samuel P. Clemence, August 1985.
ASCE, "Foundations for Transmission Towers," Geotechnical Special Publication No. 8, April 1987.
ASCE, "Transmission Structure Foundation Design Guidelines," Transmission Structure Foundation I
Committee, 1989 (in preparation).
Cbung, K.Y.C., "Designing Geotextile Support for Submarine Power Cables," Second International Conference
on Case Histolies in Geotechnical Engineering.
Chung, K.Y.C., "Port Royal-Ladies Island 115-kV Cable Crossing for South Carolina Electric and Gas
Company," Gilbert/Commonwealth job file A661067-001, 1989.
Creager, W.P., and Justin, J.D., Hydroelectric Handbook, 2nd ed., JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
DOE (Dept. of Energy), Evaluation of the Economical and Technological Viability. of Various Transmission
Systems for Long Feeds to Urban Load Centers, HCP/f-2055/1, 1977.
DOE, Hydroelectric Power Evaluation, Chapter 10, "Transmission Facilities," DOE/FERC-0031, U.S. Dept. of
Energy, Office of Electric Power Regulation, August 1979.
EPRI, Underground Power Transmission, Arthur D. Little, Inc., under contract No. 14-01-000101407 with
U.S. Dept. of the Interior and Edison Electric Institute, October 1971.
EPRI, Transmission Line Reference Book, 115-138 kV Compact Line Design, 1978.
EPRI, Cost Components of High-Capacity Tramsmission Options, 2 vols., prepared by Gilbert/Commonwealth
for EPRI, EPRI-EL-1065, 1979.
EPRI. Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above, 2nd ed., 1982.
Farr, H.H., Transmission Line Design Manual, Water and Power Resources Service (USER), U.S. Government
PrintingOffice, WAPA-EM 6407, Denver, 1980.
G!C (Gilbert/Commonwealth), "Planning and Design of Transmission Lines," Capability and Experience
Profile, 1986.
Holland, H.F., Transmission Line Design Manual, Water and Power Resources Service (USER), Denver, 1980.
IEEE, (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) Trial-U$e Guide for Transmission Structure
Foundation Design, IEEE Std. 691, September 1985.
Jadaun, Y.S., "Designing Hydro Switchyards to Save Space and Money," Water Power & Dam Construction,
November 1978.
USER (Bureau of Reclamation), Flaming Gorge Power Plant, Bureau of Reclamation, June, 1962.
Videto, M.L., "A Civil View of Substation Design," Power Engineering Short Course, Prepared at
Gilbert/Commonwealth, Jackson, Michigan, presented at the IEEE PowerEngineerinz Society, Central Indiana
Chapter, November, 1980.
WAPA (Western Area Power Administration), Civil Design Manual, Engineering Manual 6407 (draft), 2 vols.,
July 1984.
- ·-----ci
I
,·_;~,,..-.,·-7-

Asce-Epri Guides 1989-Vol.3-Powerhouses and Related Topics

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Civil Engineering

. NIAGARA POWER PROJECl

Approved for publication by the Energy Division of the

_-,i~~~~!~·-----~------·-·------ ---. ------··-"" '®

The material presented in this publication has been.,prepared in accordance with

Copyright © 1989 by the American Socil~ty of Civil Engineers.

Respectfully submitted, ASCE Hydropower Committee

ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 I

ASCE CONTROL GROUP MEMBERS, 1984-1988

EPRI PROGRAM MANAGER

Douglas I. Morris, EPRl, Palo Alto, California

EDITOR AND TECHNICAL COORDINATOR

Thomas H. Logan, Chainnan, Consultant, Lakewood, Colorado

OTHER PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS

VOLUME 1. PLANNING, DESIGN OF DAMS AND VOLUME 4. SMALL-SCALE HYDRO

VOLUME 5. PUMPED STORAGE

ASCE EY-DIVISION, HYDROPOWER COMMITTEE

0 I wish to receive the 1991 revision to the Guidelines.

0 My comments, corrections, or additions are attached.

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

\c. ac Alternating current (adj. & noun) H Head

oc Degree Celsius max. Maximum

F.S. Factor of safety NPSH Net positive suction head

lbf Pound-force Engineers

Unit ftfs2 rnfs2

1 Foot per second squared (ft!s2) 1 0.3048

Unit ft2 m2 ha Acre mi2

1 Square foot (ft2) 1 0.0929 9.2903xi0-6 2.2956x I0-5 3.587xi0-8

Unit J ft-lb Btu kcal hph kWh

1 Joule (J) 1 0.7376 9.481x10-4 2.389x10-4 3.725xi0·7 2.778xi0-7

Unit dyn N lbf kgf kip

1 Dyne (dyn) 1 l.OxlQ-5 2.248x1Q-6 1.020x1Q·6 2.248x1Q·IO

Unit lb kg Metric slug Slug Metric ton Long ton

1 Pound Ob) I 0.4536 0.0462 0.0311 4.536xi0-4 446.4xi0-4

POWER (Rate of Energy Flow) (

I Btu/hour (Btu/h) 1 0.2161 3.929xi0-4 2.920x10-4

Unit Pa H 20ft Hgin lb/in2 atm

1 Pascal (Pa) 1 3.3456xl0-4 2.9533xJ0-4 1.4504xi0-4 9.8692x10-6

1 U.S. gallon per minute (gal/min) 1 0.00223 0.00144 6.3lxJ0-5

1 U.S. gallon per minute for 1 year= 1.614 acre-ft.

x degrees Fahrenheit (0 F) X (5/9)(x- 32) (Sjg)(x + 459 .67) X+ 459.67

*TURBINE SPECIFIC SPEED (N8 )

N 8 (U.S.) N 8 (Metric hp) N 8 (kW)

N8 (U.S. customary units) 1 0.225 0.263

1 Metric horsepower= 75 kg-m/s

Unit ft/d km!h ft/s mi/h m/s

1 Foot per day (ft/d) 1 I.27x10-5 1.157xi0-5 7.89lx10-6 3.528xi0-6

Unit L gal ft3 m3 acre-ft

1 Liter (L) 1 0.264 0.035 0.001 8.llxi0-7

1 U.S. gallon= 231 in3 = 0.83 Imperial gallons.

SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS

Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol

CONVENTIONAL HYDRO GUIDELINES

DIVISION 11. DESIGN

PART C. POWERHOUSES AND RELATED TOPICS

Chapter 1. Powerhouses -Surface and Underground

ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

" .-.- -. ,.t .-. -

CHAPTER 1. POWERHOUSES- SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND

A Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1-1

ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989

5. Integral intake geometry (low-head plants) .......................................................................................... 1-62

ASCE/EPRI Guides 1989 ii

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