Tema 1. Marco histórico-geográfico de Roma. Britania.

Pervivencia en el mundo anglófono

1.1 Myth and Mythology

From Plato's time until the 19th century, philosophers and theologians have proposed numerous
definitions of myth, all of them based on the study of the Greek and Roman classics, from which it
has also derived some of its methods of interpretation. In contemporary times, scholars attempt to
propose a more universal definition of myth, based on the study also of non-European mythologies,
and take into account the various approaches to the subject offered by anthropology, psychology…

The word myth comes from the Greek word. It’s a traditional story (latin trado, “hand over”) without
identifiable author. Myths have collective importance, they transmit a culture’s wisdom and models.
Because myths narrate fantastic events with no attempt at proof or justification

● Myth refers to the supernatural and the sacred: it is a comprehensive (but not exclusive) term for
stories primarily concerned with the gods and humankind's relations with them.

● Legend has a perceptible relationship to history; however fanciful and imaginative, it has its roots
in historical fact (Trojan war, Romulus and Remus, King Arthur, etc.)

● In the fables the characters are personified animals or natural objects. The fable is intended to
teach morals or practical lessons about human behaviour (The Lion and the Mouse, The Tortoise
and the Hare…). Myths do sometimes teach lessons, but this isn’t their purpose.

● folktales. Like myths, they present extraordinary events and encounters between ordinary
humans and supernatural adversaries such as witches, giants, or ogres. Fairytales are a particular
kind of folktales (Cinderella, etc.). Their object is primarily to entertain.

1.2 Greek origins of classical mythology

Greek myths, which sum up a large part of the archaic Greek religion, were derived from a rich old
oral tradition. Storytellers (ἀοιδόι, “singers”) entertained their audience by reciting myths. The
transcription of the oral tradition was carried out but by poets.

Due to its oral origins, it is difficult to date the appearance of a myth, but also to identify the original
version among the different variants that mythical stories usually present..

Greek religion does not have sacred texts like the Bible. The Greeks have bequeathed to us only
literary treatments of the myth.

● It is not certain that Homer really existed (8th century BC) and his figure could only be the
synthesis of several epic poets. Literary forms such as the epic have frequently served as vehicles
for transmitting myths.

● The Theogony of Hesiod (7th century BC) tells the story of the genealogy of the gods and the
establishment of the reign of Zeus.

● Myth is the root of Greek drama: the tragedies of classical Greece, performed at the festival of
Dionysus, deal with many mythological subjects (Oedipus, Medea, etc.).
The sort of relationship that exists between myth and literature exists also with respect to the other
arts: mythical representations are in the origin of architecture and sculpture. Dance is also a medium
for the expression of mythological themes, and music is played at religious ceremonies to increase
the efficacy of prayers and invocations to divinities.

1.3 Roman sources of classical mythology

The contact with Greek mythology had a lasting effect on Rome. In the 3rd century b.C When the first
historians and epic poets began to write in Latin, the influence of Greek literature was already
dominant. The poet Ennius equated the 12 principal Roman gods with the 12 Olympians:
Zeus/Iuppiter, Hera/Iuno, Aphrodite/Venus, Ares/Mars… Apollo is the only common god’s name.

This adoption of Greek culture can be seen in the fact that the early history of Rome is related to the
Trojan War. Such idealizing was especially practiced by authors who were contemporaries of Augustus
(who reigned from 27 BC to 14 AD), a period of reconstruction and revival of the supposed principles
of the early Romans:

● Virgil (70-19 BC) developed in the Aeneid, the national epic of mythical Rome, the legend of
how the Trojan prince Aeneas, son of Venus, came to Italy. He crossed the seas (like Ulysses in
the Odyssey), and triumphed in battles (like Achilles in the Iliad).

● The historian Livy (59 BC-17 AD) recorded the foundation myths of Rome (Romulus and
Remus, etc.) in the first book of his Ab Vrbe Condita (“From the foundation of the City”).

● Ovid (43 BC-17 AD) is the most important mythographer of classical mythology after Homer.
His Metamorphoses includes more than 200 myths and has been very influential in literature
and art. In Fasti he portrayed the festivals of the first six months of the old Roman calendar,
the legends of the gods, and the origin of many of their rituals.

Since Latin writers continued to transmit in their works the stories of Greek mythology, knowledge of
myths endured in the Middle Ages in Latin, then the Renaissance rediscovered the original texts.
Subsequently, Greek mythology has been passed down to the present day as an uninterrupted
cultural heritage.

1.4 Functions of Myths

“Myth has two main functions. The first is to answer the sort of awkward questions that children ask,
such as ‘Who made the world? How will it end? Who was the first man? Where do souls go after
death?’…The second function of myth is to justify an existing social system and account for
traditional rites and customs.” (Robert Graves, New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, 1959, p. V)

1.4.1. Religion

The myth explains the religious beliefs and justifies religious rituals. Greek religion is polytheistic,
strongly marked by anthropomorphism. One of the remarkable features of Greek mythology is that it
takes place in geographically identifiable places. This can undoubtedly be seen as a desire to place
myths in a real and lived context.

Myths support belief in the gods by telling their stories. This criterion distinguishes myths from tales.
Apparently, there is no difference between characters such as Cinderella and those of Homer. But
Cinderella never was worshipped, while altars were dedicated to heroes and heroines.
Myth has close links with rites (prayers, sacrifices, etc.). For example, The Olympic Games were part
of a religious festival to honor Zeus.

1.4.1.1. Roman Religion

Roman religious system was a mosaic of Etruscan, Sabine, Greek, Egyptian and Oriental influences.

Romans saw their religion as a contract between man and the gods: Do ut des: I give to you so that
you give to me. If mistakes were made in ceremonies (auspices, sacrifice of animals, etc.) it was
believed that the gods would not uphold their end of the contract.

● Etimología de religión: de re- (intensivo) y ligare (atar). Religio es la inmensa cantidad de “actos
ritualizados”, generadores de atadura o vínculo, del ser humano con una divinidad o ente espiritual, de
manera que el propio acto estipulado lo “religa”, es decir, lo vincula a nosotros.

Public rites were conducted by religious officials employed by the State. The temple of Jupiter on
Capitoline Hill was the final destination of victorious military commanders who would leave a portion
of their booty as an offering. His wife (and sister) Juno presided over every facet of Roman women’s
life. Roman cities often adopted their own patron deity and built temples to honor them. On holidays,
citizens were required to suspend business. For example, in December, the Saturnalia was a merry
festival ot Saturn, the rustic god of seed sowing, later identified with the Greek Chronus. A sacrifice at
the temple of Saturn was followed by public feast and gift giving. Slaves were absolved of duties and
may have switched roles with masters.

As far as Christianity is concerned, it is remarkable the fact that, although Jesus is conceded to have
had actual existence, the traditions that have preserved his memory emphasize the elements that
function most mythologically.

1.4.2. Myth and etiology (αἰτία, aitia: cause, reason)

The most obvious function of myths is the explanation of facts, whether natural or cultural. Myths tell
how a reality comes into existence:

● the origin of the world or cosmogony, as in the Genesis of Judaism or Christianity;

● the birth of the gods: theogonic myths, as in Athena's birth from the head of Zeus;
● the appearance of man and woman: anthropogonic myths, for example, fashioned from the dust
of the ground, as in Genesis.
● the end of the world: eschatological myths. In Christianity, as in messianic movements, there is
an expectation of a new heaven. In Buddhism, there is the idea of rebirth or reincarnation.

Myths also venture to explain the dichotomy between body and soul, the source of goodness and
evil, the concepts of destiny, fate, or time (cyclic or linear), the nature and meaning of love, etc.

In this way, myth demands a return to reality, while tales remain purely fictitious. For example,
Prometheus stole the fire fom the gods, and we have possessed it ever since; while Snow White or
Cinderella have left us nothing. They transport us elsewhere, while myth brings us back to the world
and justifies it.

1.4.3. Establishing social order

Myths have a social function, which is to unite the group in which they are held. Myths establish rules
to maintain order in society by showing what is and what is not acceptable behavior.
Most often, the ideal human attributes shine brightly through the character of a hero. The Homeric
epics were both an example and an exploration of heroic values, and became the basis of education
in Classical Greece.
Though not always as celebrated as the male heroes, several women throughout classical mythology
are esteemed for their attributes. The most important is the virtue of loyalty to family. Other
common characteristics of a good woman are her cleverness, wisdom, and hospitality.
Myths explain why some people within a culture maintain a higher social standing and Myths validate
rulers' claims to have been descended from gods.

1.4.4. Entertainment

Amidst all these functions of the myth lies the one function that has withstood the test of time,
technology, and progression: entertainment. The myths are, above all else, stories which present all
the faces of human experience. The entertaining nature of Greek myths promote their transmission,
retention and aesthetic influence in more modern societies, as shows the prevalence of themes from
Classical mythology in Western painting, sculpture, and literature.

Mythological Words and Phrases in English

- What does this expression (or word) mean?

- What is the origin of the expression (or word)?
- Could you use it in a sentence?

Trojan War

1. apple of discord
2. to hector
3. Achilles' heel
4. stentorian
5. “Beware of Greeks bearing gifts”
6. Trojan horse
7. Cassandra
8. mentor
9. Scylla and Charybdis
10. siren song
11. cyclopean

Gods, goddesses, heroes, monsters

12. mercurial
13. hermetic
14. titanic
15. Pandora's box
16. venereal disease (veneration) / aphrodisiac
17. erotic
18. cupidity
19. jovial
20. aegis (under the)
21. cornucopia
22. muse/music/museum/mosaic
23. martial
24. panic
25. narcissism /narcissist-ic
26. Herculean
27. hydra
28. Sisyphean
29. tantalizing
30. Morpheus (in the arms of)
31. Midas touch
32. chimera

1. Verosimilitud del mito

Al relatar sucesos extraordinarios, actuaciones de seres sobrenaturales, obras, en fin, que están más
allá de nuestro tiempo y tal vez de nuestro espacio, los mitos se refieren al ámbito de lo maravilloso.
Pero entendamos bien que no pretenden ser verosímiles, la verosimilitud significa ajustarse a unas
limitaciones de una realidad que los mitos trascienden por su mismo impulso y su contenido. Son
verdaderos, para quienes creen en ellos; son la Verdad misma anterior a la realidad, que se explica
por ellos. Los mitos suministran una primera interpretación del mundo. En tal sentido tienen mucho
que ver con la religión. Y también en el sentido de que, al funcionar como creencias colectivas, como
un repertorio de relatos sabidos por la comunidad, vinculan a ésta con su tradición y fundan una
unanimidad de saber, que transmite una cierta imagen del mundo, previa a los saberes racionales y a
las técnicas y ciencias.

2. Libertad en el tratamiento de los mitos

Los mitos reflejan siempre la sociedad que los creó y los mantiene. Por otro lado, a pesar de su afán
por mantenerse inalterados, a pesar de su anhelo de rehuir lo histórico, los mitos se van alterando a
través de los sucesivos recuentos. Ahora bien, la transmisión y el paulatino alterarse de los mitos se
han visto afectados en la sociedad helénica por tres factores determinantes: el primero es que fueran
los poetas los guardianes de los mitos; esta relación entre la mitología y la poesía ha conferido a
aquélla una inusitada libertad. En segundo lugar, la aparición de la escritura alfabética ha significado
una revolución en la cultura griega; con ello la mitología queda unida a la literatura y expuesta a la
crítica y la ironía, como no lo está en otras culturas donde la transmisión es oral o bien está ligada a
un libro canónico o un canon dogmático. En tercer lugar, está la aparición de la filosofía y el
racionalismo en la Jonia del siglo VI a. C. y su prolongación en la filosofía posterior, que intenta dar
una explicación del mundo y la vida humana mediante la razón, en un proceso crítico de
enfrentamiento al saber mítico.

La literatura selecciona entre las variantes míticas y, en un país fragmentado políticamente como era
Grecia, escoge también entre las variantes locales de las tradiciones, prefiriendo, cuando se trata de
un poeta del Ática, las variantes atenienses, pongo por caso, o dejando en la sombra ciertos aspectos
de los relatos que el poeta prefiere, por razones momentáneas o en atención a su público, silenciar, o
llegando en algún caso a censurar y modificar un mito tradicional por razones de moralidad.
Mencionaremos cómo en los poemas homéricos han quedado marginados dioses tan de primera fila
como Dioniso o Deméter, porque el poeta consideró que no interesaban a un público aristocrático, o
bien porque eran más propios de un ámbito campesino que del belicoso escenario donde actúan los
héroes y los otros olímpicos. Homero ha modificado sus relatos ajustándolos al gusto de sus
auditores, como los tragediógrafos exponían su versión cívica de los episodios heroicos. (Pág. 34)

Mediatizada por la escritura y por una literatura muy formalizada en diversos géneros poéticos, la
mitología griega cuenta con una condición singular: la de presentarnos una tradición que podemos
estudiar diacrónicamente. Encontramos un mito narrado en épocas y por autores distintos, con
variantes significativas, y podemos, por decirlo así, rastrear las huellas de un mito a lo largo de unos
siglos.
Es, en efecto, privilegio del poeta, por su relación con las musas memoriosas y su dominio del canto
memorable, transmitir y difundir el legado mítico, pero el pueblo es quien guarda ese repertorio
tradicional de narraciones de tiempos inmemoriales. Cuando un autor trágico reelabora en su drama
un tema mítico, tampoco tiene especial interés en transmitirnos la versión completa y canónica, sino
que centra su representación en algunos puntos que en su reflexión le parecen los más sugestivos y
convenientes. En general podemos notar que un mito se cuenta con una intención determinada y con
una determinada interpretación, y que las figuras mismas de los mitos, especialmente los héroes,
presentan unos matices distintos en unos y otros relatos.

Tomemos, por ejemplo, el personaje divino que es Prometeo, el Titán filántropo, el robador del fuego
celeste, el patrón de las artes y técnicas artesanas del metal y la arcilla. La intención de los narradores
y el contexto histórico y literario dejan su impronta en la iluminación del protagonista. En cambio, en
el Protágoras de Platón, los dones de Prometeo se interpretan como un elemento civilizador que,
para la existencia de un progreso social, han de ser complementados con el sentido de la justicia y el
sentido moral, que son regalos de Zeus, repartidos por igual a todos los hombres.

3. La tragedia

Las tragedias se representaban en el teatro de Dioniso al pie de la Acrópolis, y en unas fiestas cívicas,
las dionisíacas, ante un auditorio que era toda la ciudad. La representación conservaba muchos
elementos religiosos : está presidida por el sacerdote de Dioniso, comienza con un sacrificio sobre el
altar que está en el centro de la orchestra, y mantiene elementos arcaicos como las máscaras, los
coros, la presencia de los dioses, etc.
Y es interesante que fue justamente una polis democrática como Atenas la que velaba oficialmente
por esas representaciones teatrales. Mientras que no se preocupaba por facilitar el aprendizaje de la
lectura y la escritura, ni siquiera a un nivel elemental, sino que tal cosa quedaba al arbitrio y
conveniencia particular de los ciudadanos, el Estado ateniense velaba por el teatro, como si éste
fuera un fundamento de la cultura y la sociabilidad. También por encargo estatal, en el marco de las
fiestas de las Panateneas, se recitaban los poemas homéricos. La épica y la tragedia fueron no sólo
formas de arte, sino también instituciones sociales con valor educativo.

En las dramáticas escenas se plantean conflictos de valores en los que se muestra

paradigmáticamente la trágica condición del hombre.