IPM / YLM - 2023 Test - 2 Synopsis

IPM / YLM - 2023
TEST - 2 SYNOPSIS
1. To what extent can the policies of Lord Dalhousie be blamed for the Revolt of 1857? Explain
Introduction
Lord Dalhousie was the governor-general of India from 1847-56. During the tenure of
Dalhousie, the feelings of unrest that were growing among the Indians finally got manifested
in the form of the revolt of 1857.
Main Body
Policies of Lord Dalhousie were responsible for the revolt of 1857 in many ways
1. Expansionist policies of Lord Dalhousie in the form of Doctrine of lapse –The annexation
of states like satara,jhansi,nagpur sambhalpur, udaipur on the pretext of Doctrine of
Lapse left thousands of nobles, officials, retainers and soldiers jobless.
2. Frequent annexations of princely states like travancore, awadh etc
3. Wars with Burma, 2nd anglo sikh war etc enraged Indians.
4. Social and religious reforms – Various social reforms have been believed as threats to
the established social structure.
a. For example - An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu
who had converted to Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties. The people
were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to
Christianity.
b. Widow remarraige act was passed, which was not appreciated by orthodox
sections of india.
5. Introduction of modern transport and communication – The Introduction of modern
transport and communication led to the influx of British manufactured goods into India,
which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry of India. Indian handicraft
industries had to compete with cheap machine-made goods from Britain.
a. These all impacts together led to the economic misery of the inhabitants and the
small traders and handicraftsmen leading to the strong reaction against the British
administration in India.
6. Military reforms led to resentment among the Indian soldiers - As he had no confidence
in the Indians, a new Gurkha regiment was created.
o A new “Irregular Force” was also formed and posted in Punjab. Lord
Dalhousie denied the pension and titles to an heir of many soldiers.
However, there were other factors also which was responsible for the revolt of 1857
1. Land Revenue system of the Britishers - The Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems demanded
revenue which was exorbitant and the methods of collecting the revenue were cruel.
● In 1852, the Inam commission was established which recommended the takeover
of the Jagirs on which the revenue was not paid. The result was that twenty
thousand Jagirs had been confiscated.
2. Assigning the Low position to Indians in Administration- The notorious signboards ‘Dogs
and Indians not allowed’ were common in the British places of activities in India.
3. The roles of Christian missionaries - The increased activities of the Christian
missionaries were seen with suspicion and mistrust.
● The Priests were appointed in the army to “teach” the sepoys about Christianity,
which was considered a threat to the religious sentiment.
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Conclusion
Revolt is not the consequence of immediate exploitation or persecution of a single factor or a
single person. The policies of Dalhousie acted as a spark to already raging discontentment
among different classes of people, leading to the revolt of 1857.
2. In what way did administration under the company differed from that of the Indian rulers?
Elaborate.
Introduction
‘Company rule’ in India refers to the rule of the British East India Company (1767-1858) on
the Indian subcontinent. The administration under the EIC derived from a well-oiled system
headed by the Board of control and the Court of Directors. This was different from the
administration followed by Indian rulers based on the system of the Mughal administration.
Body
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Fig 1: Administration under EIC
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Fig2: Administration under Mughal
The administration under company rule differed from Indian rulers in the following ways:
● Revenue systems: The British Introduced new systems of revenue collection like the
Zamindari system, and the Ryotwari & Mahalwari system in different parts of the country.
○ The Ryotwari & Mahalwari systems were quite different from systems of Indian
rulers like the Dashala, zabti system of Mughal times.
● Rule of law vs Rule by ruler: British introduced a uniform civil code & criminal code, a
more formally trained army & a police system to better control the law & order situation.
○ Whereas Indian rulers had a hereditary system of policing going by various names
like Jahagirdars, poligars etc.
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● Bureaucracy and Judiciary: The British introduced the concept of district collectors who
had administrative & judicial powers. Also, the British introduced a hierarchical judiciary
to dispense justice.
○ The law and order administration was maintained by the King during the time of
Indian rulers, whereas the British followed the policy of tier administration. Police
troops were maintained under the head at local, taluk and district levels.
○ Established civil and criminal courts headed by britishers but guided by pundits and
qazis.
● Political motive: But all administrative systems introduced had the ultimate motive of
increasing the British hold on Indian trade, politics, economy & wealth. This led to a series
of famines during the rule of the company.
○ On the other hand, though the administrative system of earlier rulers was obsolete
but it had a human aspect also & profit motive was not the ultimate purpose.
● Economic motive: Unlike Indian rulers, their motive was mainly economic in nature. They
utilized India as their market.
○ For Example, the great famine of Bengal was a result of bad British policies. Previous
rulers used to provide support in such times.
● Social & cultural interference: Usually the past rulers were not so interfering in the local
culture. But the British tried to change it.
○ E.g. They changed the life of tribals by making forests government property, thereby
forcing them to not perform their indigenous methods in it.
Even though some differences exist among Britishers they were united in purpose and Ideology
whereas Indian Kings lack unity among themselves to conquer neighbouring states and
expand their territory. The Britishers had the benefit of Modern Nationalism and Political
Unity whereas Indian kings lacked those ideals.
Conclusion
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The main difference in the administration of Indian rulers and East India company was because
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Indian rulers were driven by the motive to rule a large area of the subcontinent whereas the
motive of the East Indian company was purely economic.
3. Can Jallianwala Bagh Massacre be considered as a turning point in our freedom struggle?
Give your reasons.
Introduction
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (on April 13, 1919), in which British troops fired on a large crowd
of unarmed Indians in an open space known as the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in the Punjab
region of India killing thousands of innocent people. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was a crime
that stunned the nation with the scale of its brutality. Following the event, the national
Movement moved into a different trajectory thereon, acquiring with time an unstoppable
momentum.
Body:
Yes, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was a turning point in our freedom struggle;-
● Disbelief in colonialism; - The massacre unveiled the true face of British brutality. The
event was condemned by all, many in Britain too.
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o To most Indians, the massacre of the unarmed was a betrayal of the trust that they
had placed on the British to rule them wisely, justly and with fairness.
o Jallianwala Bagh revealed the evil that resided in the ‘enlightened’ empire.
● Movement and protest; - Beginning from the non-cooperation movement and the
Khilafat Movement, Indian nationalists began to demand the withdrawal of the British
from India.
● United by emotion;- It united the people in their struggle. Rabindranath Tagore
renounced his Knighthood in protest of the Jalianwalla Bagh mass killing.
o this incident shocked the conscience of many Indians who believed in the British
idea of rule of law.
● Change in attitude; - It led to a significant change in the attitude of Mahatma Gandhi and
created the base for a mass movement in the form of the Non-cooperation movement
which was further carried forward in the form of the civil disobedience movement and
Quit India movement.
● Change in Punjab’s attitude; - after the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Punjab witnessed
different forms of violence and political resistance, which was a departure from earlier
times when Punjab was largely loyal to the Empire.
● Rise of revolutionary activity; -
o There was the emergence of the 2nd wave of Revolutionary ‘Nationalism’ with
leaders like Bhagat Singh, Chandra Sekhar Azad and many others.
Conclusion
The incident at Jallianwala Bagh affected the course of world history, but it is the people who
actually affected and led the change. The people, in fact, as Gandhi famously said, became the
change they wanted to see in the world.
4.
his contributions during the freedom movement.
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Would you consider Ambedkar as the key pillar of modern India? Justify your reasons citing
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Introduction
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Dr B. R. Amdedkar is one of the eminent persons who laid the foundation for modern India.
He was the champion of the oppressed classes and the leader of all.
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Fight against Untouchability and discrimination :
 Ambedkar was against caste-based discrimination in society and advocated for the Dalits
to organise and demand their rights
o In 1920, Ambedkar launched a newspaper called “Mooknayaka” (leader of the
silent). Other periodicals include ‘Bahishkrit Bharat’ (1927), ‘Samatha’ (1929) and
‘Janata’ (1930), through these Ambedkar advocated for the abolition of
untouchability and spread awareness of the Dalit plight.
o Ambedkar launched full-fledged movements for Dalit rights by 1927, during Mahad
Satyagraha 10,000 men and women walked together to break the law on not
allowing the Mahars to drink water.
Dalit political representation:
 In 1919, in his testimony before the Southborough Committee in preparation of the
Government of India Act Ambedkar opined that there should be a separate electoral
system for the Untouchables and other marginalized communities.
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o He was part of the Bombay Presidency Committee that worked with the Simon
Commission in 1925. He represented the untouchables in the Round Table
Conference in 1930.
o As a result of his consisted effort, separate electorates were extended to depressed
classes and other minorities.
o But, in 1932, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact, which provided reservations for the
depressed classes within the general electorate.
Emphasis on Education:
 Ambedkar thought that education would enlighten his people and bridge the gap between
the higher classes and untouchables
o In 1923, he set up the ‘Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (Outcastes Welfare Association)
to spread education among the marginalized and to improve their economic
conditions. He gave the slogan: “Educate-Agitate-Organize”.
Champion of women’s rights
o In 1928, as a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay, he supported a Bill granting
paid maternity leave for women working in factories.
o In the Kalaram temple-entry movement of 1930 Ambedkar inspired women to
come out of their social arenas and speak with courage.
o As Minister of Labour in the Viceroy’s Executive Council in 1942-46, he passed
several progressive legislation for women that dealt with equal wages for equal
work, casual and privileged leave, compensation in cases of injury, and pension.
As the head of the drafting committee: Ambedkar was a wise constitutional expert, he had
studied the constitutions of about 60 countries. Ambedkar is recognized as the “Father of the
Constitution of India”.
Emphasis on constitutional methods: of achieving our social and economic objectives.
o
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He never called upon his followers to follow unconstitutional methods such as bloody
methods of revolution. He said, “where constitutional methods are open, there can be
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no justification for these unconstitutional methods”.
Constitutional guarantees:
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o The draft prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and protections to
individual citizens for a wide range of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, the
abolition of untouchability, and the outlawing of all forms of discrimination.
o Ambedkar considered the Right to Constitutional Remedy as the soul of the Constitution.
Recognition of liberty, equality and fraternity as the principles of life:
o These principles of liberty, equality and fraternity are not to be treated as separate items
in a trinity. They form a union of trinity in the sense that to divorce one from the other
is to defeat the very purpose of democracy.
Social democracy:
o Ambedkar advocated avoiding hero-worship, and to work towards a social – not just a
political – democracy. Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it
social democracy.
Conclusion
Ambedkar´s contributions have helped shape modern Indian ideals and more importantly, it
has helped us realise that the progress of the country is incomplete without the upliftment
of depressed classes.
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5. Can the Lahore Congress session of 1929 be considered to have shaped the vision of an
Independent India? Illustrate
Introduction:
In 1929 the Congress session was held at Lahore, and was very significant as the Indian National
Congress, took the resolution of Poorna Swaraj or complete independence.
Body:
Background:
The session took place amidst the breakdown of negotiations between leaders of the freedom
movement and the British over the question of dominion status as Lord Irwin retraced back on his
declaration that India would be granted dominion status in future.
Yes, the Lahore Congress session can be considered to have shaped the vision of Independent
India:
 Poorna Swaraj declaration: This demand (as different from the previous demand of
dominion status) pressurized the British for further devolution of power to Indians.
a. It ultimately led to the foundation for future negotiations in Cabinet Mission (1946),
Wavell Plan and Mountbatten Plan (1947).
 Symbolic message: At this session, the Indian tricolour flag was hoisted by Pandit
Jawahar Lal Nehru on the bank of the Ravi River. This kept the spirit of independence
alive in the masses.
 Boycott of Round Table conference: This made the Indian stand clear that leaders won’t
budge on their basic demands.
 Influence of socialist ideology: This was seen through the elevation of Jawahar Lal Nehru
to the presidency of INC. This socialism became the core of the vision of Independent
India and remains so in many of our policies, even today.
 Resolution of Civil disobedience movement (CDM) was adopted: It led to a new wave of
consciousness and nationalism in the Indian masses.
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b. The Working Committee of Congress was authorized to start preparations for the
launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement by initiating the non-payment of taxes
and resignation of its members from legislatures.
Conclusion
Thus, the session led to a new phase of struggle. The Purna Swaraj resolution was seen as a
critical symbolic event by leaders of the freedom movement and Indians in general
6. “Out of his tyranny was born a stronger sense of nationhood”. Analyze the statement with
reference to Lord Curzon.
Introduction
Lord Curzon’s seven-year rule (1899-1905) in India was full of missions, commissions and
omissions. Administrative measures adopted during his rule—the Official Secrets Act, the
Indian Universities Act, the Calcutta Corporation Act and, above all, the partition of Bengal—
left no doubt in Indian minds about the basically reactionary nature of British rule in India.
Main Body
Curzon policies which led to the rise of Indian nationalism
1. Partition of Bengal: triggered widespread opposition not only in Bengal but across India
and gave impetus to the freedom movement. The partition provoked great resentment
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and hostility all over India. All sections of Congress, the Moderates and the Radicals
opposed it.
a. The struggle that unfolded in the response, which came to be known as the
Swadeshi movement, was the strongest in Bengal but with echoes elsewhere too.
The protest was to boycott British goods, especially textiles, and promote Swadeshi
goods.
2. Educational Reforms- Curzon played a vital role in university reform, and in 1904 he
founded the University Committee.
a. However, the real motive was that he wanted to control the voices coming from
this university, and to suppress them he drafted the University Act of 1904.
b. Gokhale called this a retrograde measure
3. Calcutta Corporation Law and Ancient Monuments Act: Curzon introduced the Calcutta
Corporation Act in 1899, which reduced the number of elected Indian members to the
company, and Indians were called incompetent and tried to subdue the British
government completely.
 This didn’t go down well with Indian moderates as well as radicals.
4. Agricultural policies –
a. In 1900, the Punjab Land Seizure Act was passed, which prohibited the transfer of
land to usurers in case farmers did not pay their loans.
 This further created disenchantment among peasants.
5. Foreign policies of Lord Curzon led to a strong reaction against the British -
a. Afghan: Lord Curzon’s Afghan politics were motivated by political and economic
interests and fears of Russian expansion into Central Asia.
b. Northwest Frontier: Curzon, unlike his forefathers, pursued a policy of consolidating
and protecting British-occupied territories in the North-West.
c. Tibet -
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6. Promoting communal politics - Curzon was the proponent of communal politics. He

pitted Muslim leaders against congress leaders in an attempt to divide the country but it
strengthened the movement.
7. Official secrets act, 1904
8. Instituted many committees to Strenthen police, which was inimical to the budding
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national struggle.
Conclusion
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Thus, Curzon’s policies were short-sighted and reactionary that ultimately proved to be
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decisive in creating a strong reaction British administration in India and it paved the way for
the greater movement and struggle towards freedom and greater effort to understand the
exploitative nature of British rule.
7. Between 1858 and 1905 there was neither aggression nor a sense of direction for the Indian
masses. Do you agree? Give your reasons
Introduction
After the 1857 revolt the confidence of the Indian masses eroded and the period of 1858 to
1905 was mostly a truce period for the Indian national movement. In this period very few
political activities occurred and that was largely scattered and lacked the support of the
masses.
Body:
Neither aggression nor a sense of direction because of the following reasons;-
● Lack of political consciousness; - after the revolt of 1857, local zamindars, moneylenders
and rulers of princely states became loyal and collaborated with the British rulers and
were less enthusiastic about the national cause and lacked political consciousness among
themselves.
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● Effects of 1857 revolt; - the crushing of the 1857 revolt by Britishers instilled fear and
terror among the minds of common people and thus they became directionless and there
was no aggression from their side.
● Moderate phase of congress; - The Moderates phase (1885-1905) dominated the Indian
National Congress in its early phase which believed in resolution, petitions, meetings etc.
and lacked political faith in the masses considering them ignorant and conservative.
o But they failed to realise the power of the masses and thus could not take militant
political positions against the authorities.
● Elite class; - most of the political associations in the early half of the nineteenth century
were dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements. They were local or regional in
character. Through long petitions to the British Parliament, most of them demanded—
o administrative reforms
o association of Indians with the administration
o Spread of education.
● Divide and rule policy of Britishers; - During the 1857 revolt there was strong cooperation
between Hindus and Muslims but after the revolt British focused on dividing the unity
between the two by the policy of divide and rule.
o It favoured Hindus at one time and Muslims and another trying to create discontent
between the two communities.
● Lack of any national leader; - the period between 1858-1905 lacked a leader who enjoyed
all of India's support and recognition from the masses which proved disastrous for any
movement and struggle which began during that period.
However, there was some sense of direction in the form of :

● Reform movement;- this period saw the rise of the socio-religious reform movement in
India and thus leaders and people were focused more on removing social ills from the
o
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society instead on involving or motivating people for mass movements.
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For instance, the establishment of the Ramkrishna Mission, Deva Samaj, Arya
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Samaj etc.
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Self-interest;- The peasants, artisans, Tribals, ruling classes (active or dispossessed),
military personnel (those under the Company as well as the demobilised soldiers of ex-
rulers), religious leaders (Hindu and Muslim), etc., fought for the protection of their
interests.
● Localised; - the movement or struggle which began during this period was backwards-
looking and traditional in outlook. They were the result of local causes and grievances
and also were localised in their consequences.
o For instance, tribal movements like Bhil Uprisings, Rampa revolt etc.
Conclusion
The mass character of the movement was crucial to raising a national consciousness against
British rule. Before the mass mobilisation policies of Congress, vast parts of the country were
left untouched by the freedom movement.
However, after 1905, from Swadeshi to Home league, Non-cooperation to civil disobedience,
and Individual Satyagrah to Quit India movement all focused on mass participation and were
aggressive as well as fuelled by clear objectives.
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8. During World War II, the Indian national movement was torn between ousting the British Raj
and joining the larger cause of defeating fascism. Comment
Introduction
World War II saw a deep divide in the Indian National Movement on how to deal with the war
and the rapidly shifting alliances among the great powers. India's contribution to WW-2 was
driven by not only domestic politico-economic and social factors but also the changing world
order and India's position.
Reasons for the division:
1. Political Factors:
 Congress leadership was divided: - E.g. In April 1941 Bose arrived in Nazi Germany,
where Germany offered unexpected but equivocal sympathy for India's
independence.
o German funds were employed to open a Free India Centre in Berlin.
o On the other hand, Gandhi supported the British in World War II, while also
advocating for the Quit India campaign.
 Conditional support: Congress was critical of fascist Germany and Japanese
imperialism, it asked for steps to ensure India's independence from the British Raj
before dragging India into the war.
 Muslim League: Unlike Congress, Muslim League supported the cause of the British
to put forward their agenda of Independent Pakistan.
2. Social and Economic Factors:
 The great famine of Bengal of 1943 and the abject poverty of the people forced
them to the war not because they wanted allied powers to win but to earn bread
and livelihood.
3. International Factors:

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Imperialism as more evil than the then British Raj.gg
Indian contribution to WW-2 was because India saw fascist Germany and Japanese
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The War was seen as a People's War by Indian Communists when the Soviet
Union was attacked by Nazi Germany in 1941.
India was on the side of the Allied Nations to defeat fascism:
 As a supplier of troops:
o India had 2.5 million serving the all-volunteer army. Around 87000 men lost their
lives during WWII.
 Financial aid:
o Several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied
campaign during the War.
 As a Logistics Base:
o India set up bases in the Kharagpur and Hijli region for American operations to fly
a mission in China and Japan.
 As a supplier of raw materials
o 5 million died in Bengal due to famine during this time as the British diverted a
major chunk of local produce for the war effort.
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o India supplies coal, iron ore, steel, cement, cotton & leather goods & timber
become war materials. India was, next to Britain, the largest contributor to the
Empire’s war.
India as on the side of Axis Power:
 A section of the national movement led by Subhas Chandra Bose chose to ally with the
Germans and Japanese and formed the Indian National Army in the quest to oust the
British colonial rulers from India.
Conclusion
Despite the difference, Indian overwhelmingly supported the cause of ending the world war
and decolonization of countries. India did achieve both- peace as well as independence, but at
the cost of partition.
9. The revolutionary nationalist movement evolved under Bhagat Singh as the emphasis shifted
away from militancy and heroic action to the creation of a mass-based struggle. Elaborate.
Introduction
Bhagat Singh, an iconic revolutionary, thinker, voracious reader and one of the well-read
political leaders at that time, who because of his interest in studying and his keen sense of
history gave the revolutionary tradition a goal beyond the elimination of the British.
Body:
Shift from militancy and heroic action to creation of mass-based struggle;-
The period before and after the non-cooperation movement in India was marked by an
increase in militancy and a rise in cases of heroic action.
Bhagat Singh emerged as a torch-bearer for the revolutionaries and the revolutionary
nationalist movement in India evolved under him, in the following ways;-
● New idea and interpretation of revolution; - revolution was no longer equated with
heroic action and violence.
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New socialist order;- the main objective of HSRA under Bhagat Singh was to achieve
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national liberation that is imperialism was to be overthrown but beyond that, a new
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socialist order was to be achieved, ending “exploitation of man by man”.
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Progressive revolutionary class;- In Bhagat Singh’s view, a revolution does not mean a
mere transfer of political power from one set of rulers to another set of rulers.
o Instead, a true revolution is about a radical, transformative, paradigmatic shift in
the realm of political power, i.e. from the hands of exploitative rulers to the hands
of a progressive-revolutionary class.
● Shift in the attitude of HRA;- Under him, they had also decided to start labour and
peasant organizations and to work for an organized and armed revolution.
● Support for Marxism; - Bhagat Singh advises the working-class youth of the country, in
particular, to adopt Marxism as their ideology, work among the people, organise
workers and peasants, and form a communist party.
o Thus, he had come to believe that popular broad-based mass movements alone
could lead to a successful revolution.
 Secularism and tolerance;- Bhagat was fully and consciously secular—two of the six rules
drafted by Bhagat for the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha were that its members would
have nothing to do with communal bodies and that they would propagate a general
feeling of tolerance among people, considering religion to be a matter of personal belief.
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 Socialist reconstruction of Indian Society; - He advocated that the overthrow of British

rule should be accompanied by the socialist reconstruction of Indian society and for this
political power must be seized by the workers.
 Need for Mass mobilisation; - Bhagat Singh was critical of the individual terrorism which
was prevalent among the revolutionary youth of his time and realised the need for mass
mobilisation by the Communist Party.
 In his final writings, he argued that the party had to organise the workers and the
peasantry. The fight around the small economic demands through the labour unions was
the best means to educate the masses for a final struggle to conquer political power.
Conclusion
On the canvas of modern Indian history, politics and social thought, Bhagat Singh shines as one
of the most illustrious and glorious revolutionary stars.
Indeed, his authentic legacy resides in the fact that he was among one of the first and finest
Indian revolutionaries and modern political thinkers who adopted revolutionary progressivism
in thought and adhered to it uncompromisingly in his political actions.
10. The ‘Constitutional reforms’ of 1909 were nothing short of a farce. Critically Comment.
Introduction
Indian Councils Act 1909 introduced for the first time the method of election, an attempt to
widen the scope of legislative councils, placate the demands of moderates in the Indian
National Congress and increase the participation of Indians in the governance. The Act
amended the Indian Councils Acts of 1861 and 1892.
Features of the Indian Councils Act 1909 Act

 It increased the size of the legislative councils, both Central and provincial. The number

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of members in the Central Legislative Council was raised from 16 to 60.
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British retained the official majority in the Central Legislative Council but allowed the
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provincial legislative councils to have the non-official majority.
It enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils at both levels. For
example, members were allowed to ask supplementary questions, move resolutions on
the budget, and so on.
 It provided for the first time for the association of Indians with the executive councils of
the Viceroy and Governors.
○ Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the law member. Two
Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.
 It introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting the concept
of a ‘separate electorate’. Thus, the Act ‘legalized communalism’.
 It also provided for the separate representation of presidency corporations, chambers of
commerce, universities and zamindars.
Critical Evaluation of the Reforms

 The reforms of 1909 gave the country's people a shadow rather than substance.
 Could not address the Indian political problem: The reforms of 1909 afforded no answer
and could afford no answer to the Indian political problem.
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○ Lord Morley made it clear that colonial self-government (as demanded by

Congress) was not suitable for India, and he was against introducing a
parliamentary or responsible government in India.
 The position of the Governor-General remained unchanged: His veto power remained
undiluted and the Act successfully maintained relentless constitutional autocracy.
 Divide Nationalists: It was aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks by confusing the
Moderates and at checking the growth of unity among Indians through the instrument of
separate electorates.
○ Congress considered a separate electorate to be undemocratic and hindering the
development of a shared Hindu-Muslim Indian national feeling.
 While parliamentary forms were introduced, no responsibility was conceded, which
sometimes led to thoughtless and irresponsible criticism of the Government.
 Only some members like Gokhale put to constructive use the opportunity to debate
in the councils by demanding universal primary education, attacking repressive
policies and drawing attention to the plight of indentured labour and Indian workers
in South Africa.
Conclusion
Indian Council Act of 1909 was instituted to placate the moderates and was an appeasement
policy to disseminate Muslims from National Movement by granting them a separate
electorate. The people had demanded self-government but what they were given was
‘benevolent despotism’.
Additional Details:
Despite criticism, the Act of 1909 was important for the following reasons
● It effectively allowed the election of Indians to the various legislative councils in India for the
first time, though previously some Indians had been appointed to legislative councils.
though this was contrary to the intent of Morley.

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● The introduction of the electoral principle laid the groundwork for a parliamentary system even
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● It also recognized the elective principle as the basis of the composition of the legislative council
for the first time.
● It gave further avenues to Indians to ventilate their grievances. They also got an opportunity to
criticize the executives and make suggestions for better administration.
11. To what extent the revenue policies of the British represented the advancement over pre-
British era policies? Explain
Introduction:
The consolidation of British rule in India was financed by the revenue generated through the
taxation of the Indian peasantry. The British policies revolved around getting maximum income
from the land without caring much about the Indian interest of the cultivators
Body:
The British principally adopted three types of land tenures
14
An advancement over previous revenue policies:

 Legal property rights vs customary rights :
o The British introduced a judicially enforceable property rights system on land. This
was in sharp contrast to the pre-British system under which peasants only enjoyed
customary rights.
 Established Right to property:
o In the Pre-British era, the land belonged to the King but after the coming of the
British, the concept of private land developed.
 More Incentives:
o Incentivizing producers to take initiatives to produce more was more substantial
than the ‘Taccavi’ loans given in pre-British India.
o Cultivation of land increased, and more areas came under cultivation.
 Commodification of land:
x aammss. o
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
o
Stable revenue :
o PPddff44ee x
Converting the land into a commodity which could be sold and bought in the market.
The British introduced a stable revenue collection system where the land revenue
rates were relatively fixed.
o This was in contrast to the pre-British system where princely states imposed high
rates during years of high production and low rates in low-production years.
 Salaried officials :
o The British introduced salaried revenue collecting officials which vastly increased
the efficiency of tax collection. This was in contrast to the pre-British system like
the Jagirdari system where the major portion of produce was cornered by Jagirdars
 Credit market
o It was the first time advance payment was made
o The British traders paid part-payments, around 10% to 20% in advance for growing
cash crops
o This was a big allure as advance money was in great demand since there was no
credit market
Impacts:-
● Peasants
15
o High burden of taxation

o Cultivators had to pay both Rent and Revenue
o Labourers and peasants were rendered landless (due to indebtedness they had to
sell land to moneylenders)
● Land
o Little spending by the Government on the improvement of land productivity.
o Britishers, intermediaries and Zamindars always tried to maximize their benefits
and they did not pay any heed to the declining fertility of the land
o Moreover, the expansion of the irrigation system was too slow to provide any
benefit to the agricultural field as such the fertility of the land was decreasing
rapidly.
● Zamindari
o Alienation of the old zamindari class
o Entry of non-agrarian class into agriculture
● Old Zamindars lived in villages and had traditions of showing some
consideration whereas the new merchants and other moneyed classes lived in
towns and were quite ruthless in collecting revenue.
Conclusion:
British introduced a new advanced form of private ownership of land, but it is only the sole
purpose of protecting the government interest .it facilitated the rise of absentee landlords, and
oppressive money lenders and pushed the peasant further into misery
Additional Details:
Zamindari/ The area Bengal, Bihar, Banaras,
Permanent covered 19% of Odisha, northern Karnataka,
system British India
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North Madras
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Mahalwari
settlement
The
PPdd
covered 29% of
British India
ff4
area
4ee xSindh,
province,
(SCAM-B)
Punjab,
Awadh,
Central
Delhi
Ryotwari system The area Madras, Coorg, Bombay, East

covered 52% of Bengal (CUP), Assam
British India
16
Zamindari/ Permanent settlement, 1793

 Devised by Lord Cornwallis with the help of John shore in 1793
 19% of British India - Area covered: BBO, Varanasi, Gazipur, north Karnataka
 Objective
o To secure a fixed and stable income for the state
o To extend cultivation and encourage agricultural enterprise
Ryotwari system,1792
 1792: Thomas Munro and Alexander Read developed this system
 There were no traditional/ big zamindars in south India.
 They suggested revenue be collected directly from the Ryots
 Settling revenue directly with the Cultivator/Ryot (the settlement was not permanent)
 The revenue was based on the estimate of the potential of soil
 Recommended assessment of land and soil quality but no survey was carried out

payment of revenue)
x aammss. o
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The peasant was recognized as the proprietor of land (owner of the land subject to

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50% of the net produced was fixed as land revenue
Mahalwari
 William Bentinck (1822) with Halt McCanzee developed this system
 Francis Hasting and R M Bird
 Village community -> considered as the owner of the land
 Settlements were made estate by estate or village by village
 Collect land revenue through the headman of the village / local leader (called Lambardar
or Nambardar)
 The revenue demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed.
12. Eighteenth-century India failed to make progress economically, socially or culturally, at an

adequate pace. Do you agree with this statement? Comment.
Introduction
India during the eighteenth century AD was steeped in tradition. It failed to imbibe the
scientific knowledge that the West had to offer. Politically, it was extremely disunited. All these
factors made it easy for the Europeans to colonize India.
17
Body:
Reasons for failed progress in the 18th century
Economic Conditions: The first half of the 18th century saw an increase in:-
o the state's demands for revenue,
o the oppression of its officials,
o the greed and rapacity of its nobles, revenue-farmers, and zamindars,
o the marches and countermarches of its rival armies,
o the plundering of its populace by the numerous adventurers.
Inequality: Extreme poverty existed side by side with the extremely rich and luxurious.
○ On the one hand, there were the rich and powerful nobles steeped in luxury and comfort;
on the other, backward, oppressed, and impoverished peasants living at the bare
subsistence level and having to bear all sorts of injustices and inequalities.
Agriculture: Indian agriculture during the 18th century was technically backward and
stagnant.
○ The techniques of production had remained stationary for centuries.
Trade: Mughals were able to make significant profits from enormous trade both inside India
and between India and other nations in Asia and Europe.
o Constant warfare and disruption of law and order, in many areas during the 18th
century, banned the country’s internal trade and disrupted its foreign trade to some
extent and in some directions.
o Many of the trade routes were infested with organized bands of robbers, and traders
and their caravans were regularly looted.
o The impact of foreign trade was also complex and differential: Sea trade expanded, and
overland trade through Afghanistan and Persia was disrupted.
Political factors which hurt trade also adversely affected urban industries. Many prosperous
cities, the centre of flourishing industries, were sacked and devastated.
○
○
Delhi was plundered by Nadir Shah;
a
Lahore, Delhi and Mathura by Ahmad Shah Abdali;
x ammss. o
. orrgg
○
○ ddff44ee x
Agra by the Jats, Surat and other cities of Gujarat and
PP
Deccan by Maratha chiefs, Sirhind by Sikhs and so on.
Social and cultural Conditions

 Social life and culture in the 18th century were marked by stagnation and dependence on
the past.
 Lacked modern scientific thoughts: Modern views and scientific rationalism (as was
prevalent in the west) have still not reached India.
 Religious backwardness: the discrimination, Sati system, and Brahminical tyranny were
still prevalent.
 Social division: People were divided by religion, region, tribe, language, and caste.
○ Moreover, the social life and culture of the upper classes, who formed a tiny
minority of the total population, differed in many respects from the life and culture
of the lower classes.
○ Caste: It was a major divisive force and element of disintegration in India in the 18th
century. Caste rules were extremely rigid. Inter-caste marriages were forbidden.
○ There were restrictions on inter-dining among members of different castes.
18
However, some progress was also made in the 18th century

 At the dawn of the 18th century, India was one of the main centres of world trade and
Industry.
○ Peter the Great of Russia was led to exclaim: “Bear in mind that the commerce of
India is the commerce of the world. He who can exclusively command it is the
dictator of Europe.”
 Emergence of new courts and local nobility and zamindars led to the emergence of new
cities such as Faizabad, Lucknow, Varanasi and Patna.
○ India remained a land of extensive manufacturers; Indian artisans still enjoyed
fame all over the world for their skill.
 India was still a large-scale manufacturer of cotton and silk fabrics, sugar, jute,
dyestuff, minerals and metallic products like arms, metal wares, and saltpetre
and oils.
○ India’s imports and export: pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water
from the Persian Gulf region; coffee, gold, drugs, and honey from Arabia; tea, sugar,
porcelain, and silk from China.
 India exported cotton textiles, raw silk and silk fabrics which were famous all
over the world for their excellence and were in demand everywhere.
○ Some industries gained as a result of expansion in trade with Europe due to the
activities of the European trading companies.
Conclusion
While the Indian economy was quite resilient and there was certain continuity in economic
life, there was no greater effervescence or buoyancy in economic activities in the 18th century
than in the 17th century. Moreover, the next two decades were marked by further economic
exploitation, although some social and cultural reform was instituted by the efforts of reforms.
eighteenth century.
x aammss. o
. orrgg
13. Trace the expansion and consolidation of British rule in India in the second half of the
Introduction
PPddff44ee x
The English East India Company (EIC) was started as a joint-stock company under the royal
charter issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. Their influence in India started to grow as they got
powerful in trade. The most crucial period for point of expansion and consolidation was the
second half of the 18th century when states like Bengal, Mysore and Maratha came under their
rule.
Body:
Expansion and consolidation of British rule in India in the Second half of the eighteenth
century;- The process of imperial expansion and consolidation of British paramountcy was
19
carried on by the Company during the second half of the 18th century through a two-fold
method:-
Policy of annexation by conquest or war
Expansion and consolidation in Bengal; -
● Battle of Plassey (1757); -
o The battle was fought by the forces of Siraj Ud Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) against
the troops of the British East India Company, led by Robert Clive.
o Victory at Plassey enabled the East India Company to establish a puppet Nawab on
the throne of Bengal and was a major turning point in modern Indian history that
led to the consolidation of British rule in India.
● Battle of Buxar (1764);-
o British East India Company emerged victorious defeating the Mughal forces. The
war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
 The treaty made the Nawab a firm friend of the Company and turned Awadh
into a buffer state.
o The battle cemented the way for the expansion and consolidation of the British
Empire in India.
Conquest of Mysore;- Mysore’s power was also seen as a threat to the control of the English
over Madras.
● 1st Anglo-Carnatic war (1767 -69); - led to the Treaty of Madras (1769).
o Under this treaty, Hyder Ali was promised the help of the English in case he was
attacked by any other power.
 nd
2 Anglo Carnatic war (1780-84);-
o The war continued for four without any major conclusion. Fed up with the
inconclusive war both sides concluded the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) under
● rd
a mmss. o
. o rgg
which both the parties gave back the territories they had taken from each other.
r
3 Anglo Carnatic war (1790-92); - led to the conclusion of the Treaty of Seringapatam,
x a
1792.
o
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Under this treaty, nearly half of the Mysorean territory was taken over by the
alliance of the British, Nizam and the Marathas.
● th
4 Anglo Carnatic war (1799); - The period of 1792-99 was used by both the British and
Tipu Sultan to recoup their losses.
o Tipu Sultan died in the war and all his treasures were confiscated by the British.
Later, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Mysore.
Fall of Marathas; -.
● 1st Anglo Maratha war (1775-82);-
o Treaty of Salbai (1782). The treaty guaranteed peace between the British and
Marathas for twenty years.
● nd
2 Anglo Maratha war (1803-05);
o The war ultimately resulted in the British control over a large part of Central India
and established the dominance of the British in India.
● rd
3 Anglo Maratha war (1817-19); -
o The debacle of Marathas in 1818 led to the complete dominance of the British
throughout India, except for the northwest where the Sikh Empire still thrived.
20
Policy of annexation by diplomacy and administrative mechanisms.

 Warren Hasting’s Policy of Ring Fence (by creating buffer states): The states brought
under the ring-fence system were assured of military assistance against external
aggression—but at their own expense.
 Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance; - was an extension of the ring-fence system which sought
to reduce the Indian states into a position of dependence on the British government.
o The Indian state to fall into this protection trap included the Nizam of Hyderabad
(September 1798 and 1800), the ruler of Mysore (1799), and the ruler of Tanjore
(October 1799), the Nawab of Awadh (November 1801) etc.
Conclusion
The battle of Plassey had made English a powerful factor in the politics of Bengal and the
victory of Buxar made them great power in North India and a contender for the supremacy of
the whole country. The defeat of Marathas and Mysore made them sole power in the whole
of India. Later the policy of doctrine of lapse also significantly contributed to the expansion
and consolidation of British rule in India.
14. How effective were the social reform movements of the nineteenth century in bringing a
change in Indian society? Critically Evaluate.
Introduction
The dawn of the 19th century witnessed the birth of a new vision among some enlightened
sections of Indian society. The impacts of the socio-religious reform movements were huge
and long-lasting, especially against social evils such as atrocities on women through purdah,
child marriage, hypergamy, dowry and sex-based inequality.
Body
x aammss. o
. orrgg
Effectiveness of Social reform movements and their positive impact on Indian society:
PPddff44ee x
Broadly the social reform movements had a two-point agenda- fight for the betterment of the
status of women in society and fight to remove disabilities arising out of untouchability. Some
of the achievements in these domains had a lasting impact on changing society:
Steps taken to ameliorate women’s position:
 Abolition of Sati: With the efforts of Raja ram Mohan Roy, the government declared the
practice of Sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide by enacting
the law The regulation of 1829.
 Preventing female infanticide: The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared female
infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder. An act was passed in 1870 that made it
compulsory to register the birth of a baby.
 Widow remarriage: The Brahmo samaj had the issue of widow remarriage high on its
agenda, due to the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar the principal of Sanskrit college
Kolkata, that the Hindu Widows Remarriage’s Act 1856, was passed.
 Controlling child marriage: Due to the relentless efforts of Parsi reform B.M. Malabari,
The age of consent Act, 1891 was enacted to completely stop child marriage.
Steps against rigid caste system:
21
 Various organisations strove to undermine caste-based exploitation: Numerous

organisations such as the Brahmi Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna
mission, the Theosophical Society, and individuals worked to spread education among
the untouchables and remove restrictions on them from entering temples, ponds and
various public places.
 General stirrings among the lower class themselves: with increasing opportunities for
education and general awakening, there were protests from the lower class themselves,
for example: in Maharashtra Jyotiba Phule born in a Mali family, led a movement against
brahminical domination.
 British rule created certain conditions that undermined caste consciousness without
intention: through direct administrative measures and certain indirect suitable
conditions they did away with the caste system. For example, the creation of private
property and the free sale of land upset the caste equation.
However, these social reform movements were effective to only a certain extent and these
have led to the destruction of the very fabric of harmonious society in the 20th century which
culminated in the communal violence and partition of undivided India into two nations based
on religion.
Negative aspects of these social reform movements:
 One of the major limitations of religious reform movements was that they had a narrow
social base, namely the educated and urban middle classes, while the vast majority of
peasants and urban poor were ignored.
 The reformers' proclivity to appeal to the greatness of the past and to rely on scriptural
authority encouraged mysticism in new guises and fostered pseudo-scientific thinking
while putting a brake on full acceptance of the need for a modern scientific outlook.
 Above all, these tendencies contributed, to some extent, to the compartmentalization of
caste Hindus.
x aammss. o
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Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis, as well as the alienation of high-caste Hindus from low-
o

PPddff44ee x
The evolution of a composite culture, which had been visible throughout Indian history,
appeared to be stalled with the rise of another form of consciousness, communal
consciousness, alongside national consciousness among the middle classes. Ex. Shuddhi
and sanghatan movements by Staunch hindus and tanzeem and tabligh by Muslims.
Conclusion
The nineteenth-century reform movements made a significant contribution to the
development of contemporary India. They represented societal democratization, the abolition
of superstition and heinous habits, the spread of enlightenment, and the development of a
reasonable and modern worldview
Additional Details:
Reformers such as Bengal's Rammohan Roy, Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokhitavadi), D.K. Karve,
jyotiba Phule of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh's Veeresalingam called for religious reform with
the ultimate motive of political benefit and social progress. The rise of nationalism and a feeling of
patriotism were other byproducts of these movements. It had an everlasting impact on the nation.
Factors giving rise to reform movements:
22
● Impact of British rule on Indian society: Its impact on Indian society and culture was totally
different from the earlier experiences, wherein invaders who settled within frontiers were
absorbed by its superior culture or interacted positively to become a part of it. However, the
British conquest was different, it presented India’s picture as a stagnant civilisation and static
decadent society.
● Evils plaguing Indian society: various religious superstitions plaguing Indian society such as
obscurantism, superstition, polytheism, idolatry, degraded position of women, and the
Exploitative caste system were all the reasons behind the stagnation of the society as a whole.
● Spread of education and increased awareness of the world: values like rationalism, humanism
and religious universalism were made aware to the people with education which became a
yardstick for judging religious rituals and practices and their social relevance.
● Rising tide of patriotism and democracy during the late 19th century: the impact of modern
western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new awakening.
There was an awareness that a vast country like India is colonised by a handful of foreigners
because of weaknesses within the Indian social structure and culture. Thus, a need for reforms.
15. Elaborate on the series of events which led to the partition of India. Do you think it could
have been avoided? Give justification for your argument.
Introduction:
The Partition of India was the process of dividing the subcontinent along sectarian lines, which
took place in 1947. It is one of the largest migrations in human history, as millions of Muslims
moved to West and East Pakistan while millions of Hindus and Sikhs headed in the opposite
direction. Many hundreds of thousands never made it.
Body:
x aammss. o
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PPddff44ee x
Divide and rule Politics:

 Partition of Bengal: 1905 partition on religious lines. Muslim League formed in 1906
supported the partition.
 Separate electorates: Provided to the Muslims in Minto-Morley reforms. It sowed the
seeds of communalism and checked the historical process of the unification of India
Communal events of the 1920s and the 30s:
23
 Tabligh and Shuddhi movements caused conflicts; the cow protection movement, and
music before the mosque instilled hatred against each other. Khilafat movement invoked
the Muslim cause into politics. Though it had unity, it weakened the secular cause.
Failure of Muslim league in 1937 elections:
 The Indian National Congress emerged in power in eight of the provinces - the
exceptions being Punjab and Sindh. The All-India Muslim League failed to form a
government in any province. This antagonized Jinnah who decided to organise them into
a force strong enough to be able to negotiate.
Two Nation theory:
 After poet Mohammad Iqbal developed the idea, in 1940 the Muslim League passed a
resolution that asked for independent states for Muslims in the North-west and the
Eastern areas of the country.
 Throughout the 1940s, there were talks and demonstrations of the “Two Nation” Theory.
Jinnah espoused that Hindus and Muslims were two entirely different peoples and
entirely different nations and the two could not be accommodated in the same country.
 In 1942, Gandhiji has accepted in principle the concept of " Self - determination " In the
context of Pakistan.
 Rajagopalachari formula accepted the inevitabilty of a muslim majority state , provided
that it was formed through plebiscite.
Failure of Cripps mission and the quit India Movement:
 Cripps’ Mission was rejected by both the INC and the Muslim League. The INC under
Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement. Almost the entire leadership of the
INC was jailed without trial, keeping them imprisoned until 1945.
 This enabled the Muslim League, which had rejected Gandhi’s calls to join the Quit India
Movement, to grow in influence and outreach. The growing incidents of communal
violence in the country escalated the rise of the League.
Failure of cabinet mission plan:

x aammss. o
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 PPddff44ee x
INC and the ML accepted the long-term plans of the cabinet mission. The Election in 1946
affirmed the Muslim league as the sole Muslim party.
Nehru denied the proposal regarding the composition of the new government but
agreed to be a part of the Executive Council until the Constitution was framed. These
developments agitated Jinnah. He rejected the proposals of the Cabinet Mission
altogether. Furthermore, fearing that his idea of Pakistan will never come to pass; Jinnah
called for ‘Direct Action Day.
Direct Action Day:
 On August 16, 1946, Direct Action Day became exceedingly violent in Kolkata.
 The League entered the Council, but the communal violence did not end. All the efforts
made by Congress to convince Jinnah, to align the League with their plan of action failed.
Upon Lord Mountbatten’s arrival in India, Congress expressed its incompetence in making
this coalition work and eventually agreed to partition.
Could this have been avoided?
Yes.
If the Muslim League and congress agreed to work together: as during the Lucknow pact of
1916.
24
 The Nehru report was rejected by the league; 14 points by the Muslim league were not
accepted by congress.
 In the 1936-37 provincial elections, the League requested Congress to form a coalition
govt. in the United Provinces, but Nehru declined due to ideological differences.
If Congress had gained Muslim support
 Nehru further launched a Muslim mass contact program in 1937, to connect with the
entire Muslim community. But it failed.
 The Indian National Congress failed to assess the impact of the Muslim league’s campaign
in the 1940s and lost severely to the Muslim League in Bengal, Sind and Punjab in the
1946 provincial elections.
If Nehru had accepted to grouping in Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946:
 After Nehru’s rejection of compulsory grouping, the Muslim leagues call for the direct
action day. It led to violent communal riots killing 4000 in Kolkata and lakhs displaced.
With no sight out from the violence, the INC accepted partition.
Had the Indians realized the British intentions:
 The British didn’t oppose the idea of Pakistan from 1940 to 1946 and rather encouraged
it. They thought to use the Pakistan card, as a counterpoise to the Congress’s demand of
Swaraj.
 If both the religious communities would have understood the ill-intent of Britishers while
pleasing one community over the other. The partition could be avoided.
Partition was necessary:
The inevitability of partition: Even if all of the above had happened, it would just be a
temporary fix.
No end to the violence
 Only an immediate transfer of power could forestall the spread of ‘Direct action’ and
communal violence.
Lack of unity:

x aammss. o
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PPddff44ee x
It was clear from various constitutional missions that the autonomy of provinces was a
guarantee if not for partition, making independent India a weak state. This would
eventually lead to the Muslim majority states wanting to break free.
Separate electorates:
 Would continue, further dividing the nation into communal lines. Thus the on-ground
enmity between the groups would have been fueled further.
Conclusion:
The process of drawing lines on the map was one thing; but the on-ground process of Partition
was bloody and violent, especially for Punjab and Bengal, which were the main regions being
partitioned. This could have been avoided if the British, INC and the Muslim league worked
together.
16. ” The women were not merely passive workers following in the footsteps of celebrated men;
they were active revolutionaries". Examine the role played by women revolutionaries in
India’s freedom movement.
Introduction
The women during the freedom struggle were not merely passive workers following in the
footsteps of celebrated men; they were active revolutionaries, taking up arms, launching
25
underground organisations, publishing anti-British literature, and being subjected for years to
torture and imprisonment
Main Body
Women during the early phase of the freedom struggle
Women have been participating in the national movement since the early struggle against the
Britishers for example:
 Bimbai Holkar defeated the British in the guerrilla war.
 Rani Chenamma could protect the independence of her Kittoor state.
 During the revolt of 1857, Rani Laxmibai and Begam Hazarat Mehal played heroic roles.
 Rani Gaindineliu is a Naga woman who remained undeterred by colonial excesses and
patriarchal barriers.
Women during the Gandhian movement
It was a Gandhian movement where women participated actively for the first time. Women
played a key role in the constructive programs, especially Khadi/Swadeshi.
The prominent women leaders associated with the Gandhian movement have been
 Annie Besant
 Sarojini Naidu
 Bhikaji Kama,
 SuchetaKripalani,
 RajkumariAmrit Kaur.
Women during the revolutionary struggle
o Women took an active role during the militant form of struggle also. We can give the
example of
o Pritilata Waddedar- During the Chittagong raid. She became a part of the
revolutionary Surya Sen’s group. Popularly described as “a beacon of light for
x aammss. o
. orrgg
women”, she led the shootout at the Pahartali European Club in Chittagong.
o
PPdd f 4e x
Kalpana Datt also helped Surya Sen during the raid of Chittagong. Kalpana Datta
f 4 e
was an active participant and actively took part in the activities of the
revolutionaries. Be it bomb-making or attacking the symbols of British power.
o Veena Das - Veena Das made an attempt to assassinate Stanley Jackson, the then
Governor of Bengal.
o Usha Mehta, a committed patriot set up a radio transmitter, called The "Voice of
Freedom" to disseminate the "mantra" of freedom-war.
Conclusion
While discourse surrounding the freedom struggle has not entirely discounted the role of
women, it has certainly not given enough recognition to the women in proportion to their
integral roles in the war against the British. The story of women’s participation in India's
freedom struggle is the story of making bold choices, and finding themselves on the streets,
inside the jail and in the legislature.
17. Detailing the effect of colonialism on Indian exports, discuss how the changes in world
geopolitics affected livelihoods in India?
Introduction
26
Britain’s relationship with her Indian colony was one of political subordination, but economic
exploitation formed the core of this relationship. This process of colonization was geared
clearly to benefit the mother country, even at the cost of the colony.
Body:
Effect of colonialism on Indian exports;-
● Supplier of raw materials; - The world demand for food and raw materials was immensely
stimulated by industrialization in Europe. India became an exporter of primary products
(raw material) such as raw silk, cotton, wool, sugar, indigo, jute, etc.
● Importer of finished goods;- India became an importer of finished consumer goods like
cotton, silk and woollen clothes and capital goods like light machinery produced in the
factories of Britain.
● Drain of Indian wealth; - Drain of wealth means that the main motive of economic
policies in India was to snatch maximum benefits from India’s trade.
o Foreign trade in India during the colonial period generated a surplus revenue due
to excess exports. However, this surplus export did not flow any silver or gold into
India.
o Rather, this surplus export was utilized to make payments for:
 The costs made for the office set up by the colonial government in Britain
 Expenses on the war fought by the British government,
 Import of invisible items etc.
o All of this led to the drain of Indian wealth.
● Low production of essential goods; - the export of Indian goods came at cost of low
production of essential goods like clothes, food grains, etc.
o Since resources were used to produce items for export it resulted in an acute
shortage of essential goods.
● Increase in Agricultural exports; - Better means of communication (telegraph) and
a mms
distance trade in agricultural products feasible.
x a s. o
. orrg
transportation (railways, steamships, opening up of the Suez Canal in 1869) made long-
g
●
o
PPddff44ee x
Between 1870 (Suez opened in 1869) and 1914, exports increased 500% in value
(about 80% of all exports were non-manufactured – i.e. plantation).
Benefited only a few sections; - The larger part of the profits generated by the export
trade went to British business houses, which controlled shipping and insurance
industries, besides commission agents, traders and bankers.
o Those who benefited in the colony were big farmers, some Indian traders and
moneylenders.
● Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture; - From the 1860s onwards, the nature of

agricultural production was determined by the demands of the overseas markets for
Indian primary products.
o The items exported in the first half of the nineteenth century included cash crops
like indigo, opium, cotton and silk.
o Gradually raw jute, food grains, oil seeds and tea replaced indigo and opium. Raw
cotton remained the most in-demand item.
● Agricultural dependency increased. - The Industrial Revolution in Europe enabled the
mass production of cheap machine-made goods, which flooded Indian markets.
27
o Unable to compete with this, Indian commodities lost both their overseas and
domestic markets.
o This destructive process led to deindustrialization that increased pressure on land
causing further pauperization of the peasantry.
Impact of world geopolitics on Indian livelihood;-

 Food and famine: Impact of world wars
o The jute industry collapsed in the 1930s, which was followed by a devastating
famine in 1943 in Bengal mainly due to the policies of Churchill during WWII.
o Whenever there was a disturbance in world geopolitics, For instance, during war
years there was requisitioning of food supplies, particularly cereals, leading to
rampant food inflation.
 Impact of American Civil War (1861): When the American Civil War broke out and cotton
supplies from the US were cut off, Britain turned to India. As raw cotton exports from
India increased, the price of raw cotton shot up. Weavers in India were starved of supplies
and forced to buy raw cotton at exorbitant prices.
o A decline in world demand for Indian cotton led to heavy indebtedness, famine and
agrarian riots in the Deccan cotton belt in the 1870s.
 Employment opportunities; - Industrial revolution led to the deindustrialisation of Indian
industry which resulted in an increase in indebtedness and more people were forced to
become landless tenants.
o The skewed income distribution grew even more so, shifting from jute farmers to
capital.
o However, Due to the growth of urbanization and industrialization, employment
opportunities grew and the remittances were used for the development of the
villages.

x aammss. o
. orrgg
Indentured labour;- due to the shortage of labourers in plantation sectors in British
colonies, indentured labourers were sent from India to other British colonies. They have
PPddff44
to survive in unfamiliar land in hardship.
ee x
28
Conclusion
Phased economic exploitation of the colony was the core motive for the British to establish
their rule in the Indian subcontinent. The nature of this exploitation changed over the course
of their reign, owing to changes within Britain, and these, in turn, had specific economic, social
and political consequences for the colony
18. Examine the educational policy of the British with a brief note on the Orientalist vs Anglicists
debate.
Introduction
The British interest in education began in the second decade of the 19th century. The
government realised that it was better to employ educated Indians, as it would drastically bring
down the administrative costs. Moreover, such educated Indians under the influence of
western learning would be loyal to the British government.
Body
Education policy under EIC:
Initial policies were crafted to understand Indian culture so that EIC could better administer
India e.g., Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784), and Sanskrit College (1791). However, with more
requirements of officers and pressure to keep the cost low, EIC started recruiting low-rank
officers as Indian. For this, they introduced modern education in India (the charter act of 1813
gave 1 lakh Rs for this purpose). However, there arose a controversy: - Orientalists Vs Anlgicists.
Orientalists Anglicists
Orientalists were a group of those Anglicists were those who were in
people who were in support of giving support of the English language and
education to the Indian people in the wanted people to be taught modern
Indian language. western education
The Orientalists led by Dr H.H.Wilson and The Anglicists led by Charles Trevelyan,
a mmss. o
. orrgg
H.T. Princep advocated in favour of Elphinstone advocated the imparting of
Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian as the western education through the medium
x a
medium of education.
PPddff44ee x
of English.
In this context, the establishment of Charter act of 1813 allowed the Christian
the Calcutta Madrasa by Warren Missionaries to spread their religious and
Hastings in 1781, the Benares Sanskrit modern ideas in India.
College by Jonathan Duncan in 1791 and
the Asiatic Society of Bengal by William
Jones in 1784 are noteworthy.
WOOD’S DESPATCH OF 1854: It is also known as the ‘Magna Carta of English education in
India’ was the first comprehensive plan to envisage mass education in India.
 It prompted the government to take responsibility for education (vernacular language in
primary schools and use of English for higher education) and suggested grants in aid to
encourage private enterprises to invest in education as well as the education of women.
Education policies under the British Crown:
29
Under the crown rule, several committees were set up to promote education in India.
However, their basic aim was to produce loyal officers and curb any revolutionary tendencies
among youth. E.g., the Hunter Commission (transferred control of primary education to the
hands of the district board), and Curzon enacted the Universities Act of 1904 to curb
revolutionary ideologies.
However, still, mass education was not favoured. Saddler commission asked for schools till 12
years and a university degree for 3 years.
After 1920, education became a provincial subject, but without any financial assistance. Hartog
committee (1929) rejected the need for compulsory education.
Conclusion
It was only after the coming of the congress government in many of the provinces (1937) that
primary education for the masses was emphasized. Wardha's scheme of education focused
on “learning through activity” which was based on Gandhiji’s ideas published in Harijan.
19. To make political independence more meaningful, there were certain weaknesses in the
Indian social structure which needed to be strengthened. Discuss the statement in the
context of Gandhiji's constructive programme.
Introduction
Centuries of British colonial rule destroyed the intricacies of Indian social structure, it created
fissures in communal harmony, strengthened caste rigidities and criminalized tribals, to
highlight a few.
Body
The major weaknesses in Indian social structure included:
Conflicts between different religious groups: mainly Hindus and Muslims.
 The British government used communalism to counter and weaken the growing national
movement. As seen in the partition of Bengal in 1905 and the introduction of separate

electorates in 1909.
a mmss. o
. orrgg
Violent riots took place such as the Dhaka riots in 1930; Kanpur in 1931 with the rise in
x a
PPddff44ee x
communal politics the harmony among the community was damaged.
Untouchability
 The practice of discrimination against various individuals and groups based on their caste
and occupation has been present for an extremely long period of time.
 These untouchables were denied to use of public wells, their children were not allowed
to be admitted to a school where the children of higher caste were present. Thus being
deprived of social, religious and civic rights, they had no choice of bettering their
conditions
Education:
 The education policy that was introduced was only to produce “cheap clerks” who could
help them in administration in their pursuit of economic subjugation of India.
 The education of the masses was neglected by the British, which is evident from the fact
that the literacy rate in India was 16% at the time of independence.
Economic disparities:
 The interests and privileges of the zamindar sections were protected against those of the
peasants through land revenue systems such as the zamindari system. By 1947, 7% of
landowners owned 54% of the land.
30
 Cheap and machine-made imports flooded the Indian market after the Charter Act of 1813
allowing one-way free trade for the British Citizens. Tariffs of 80% were levied on Indian
textiles. Thus destroying the traditional industries and cities.
Decaying condition of our villages:
 After deindustrialization. Many of the traditional artisans and handicraftsmen abandoned
their professions and moved to villages. An overburdened agriculture sector was a major
cause of poverty and this upset the village’s economic set-up.
The plight of Adivasis, farmers and labourers:
 Farmers: The zamindars with increased powers, demanded illegal dues and ‘begar, to
maximize their share in the production and had no incentive to invest for improvement in
agriculture. The overburdened peasant approached the moneylender to pay his dues,
thus the peasants suffered under the triple burden of the Government, Zamindar and
the Moneylender.
 Adivasis: They suffered due to the loss of traditional lands to the British. Tribal lands were
turned into state property and subject to taxes. Money lenders or ‘Dikus’ exploited them
further. The criminal Tribes Act of 1871 notified anyone born in the notified tribal
communities across the country as a "born criminal", irrespective of their criminal
precedents.
 Labourers: With the limited entry of modern Industries such as Railways, Jute and Textile
Industries. The workers found some work but faced exploitation such as low wages, long
working hours, unhygienic and hazardous working conditions, child labour and absence
of basic amenities.
 Many Indians were forced to work as plantation labourers. The indenture system bound
the labourers to the plantations through a penal-contract system in which the violators
who fled were given harsh punishments by the planters
Position of women:

x aammss o
. orrgg
The status of women reached the lowest level in society. The rate of literacy was so low
.
x
that hardly one woman in a hundred was able to read or write. Evil social practices,
PPddff44ee
inhuman superstitions and sinister customs caused the maximum degree of deterioration.
Child marriage, enforced widowhood, Devadasi, purdah, dowry, female infanticide and
the practice of polygamy made the Indian society static.
To these sections of people, political empowerment would mean nothing without addressing
the weaknesses in the social structure.
Gandhiji’s constructive programme:
While fighting for political independence, he also wanted to prepare the people for a new and
just social order so that Independence, when it came, would be "complete". In other words,
this was a struggle for Poorna (or complete) Swaraj for all irrespective of their caste, class or
religion.
This meant building up or constructing the nation from its smallest unit (consisting of self-
reliant individuals living in independent self-reliant communities) upwards, through nonviolent
and truthful means.
He appealed to all Congressmen and others engaged in the freedom struggle to address these
issues. The original 13 items were expanded to 18:
31
Communal Village Provincial

Unity Sanitation Languages
Removal of Basic National

Untouchability Education Language
Adult Economic
Prohibition Students
Education Inequality
Khadi Women Kisans Lepers
Knowledge of
Village
Health and Labour Adivasis
Industries
Hygiene
Conclusion
Most of the weaknesses still exist, though in different forms and even today India needs
Constructive programmes 2.0 to uplift several sections of society from poverty, illiteracy and
discrimination and achieve true political independence.
x aammss. o
. rrgg
20. Tribal movements during the British rule were the most frequent, militant and violent of all
o
x
movements. Elaborate the statement, giving reasons for the same.
Introduction
PPddff44ee
The tribes of India since time immemorial have been engaged in protecting their land and
culture from outsiders including powerful rulers like the British. Tribal movements in
colonial India were distinguished from the movements of other communities in that
they were the most militant, most isolated and most frequent. The tribal uprisings were
marked by immense courage on the part of the tribal, and their butchery by the official
machinery of suppression.
Main Body
Reasons for the tribal revolts
The causes for the tribal uprisings included
● Imposition of Land revenue Settlement- Expansion of agriculture by the non-tribal to the
tribal areas or over forest cover, led to the erosion of tribal traditions of joint ownership.
● Work of Christian Missionaries- The tendency of the missionaries to refuse to take up
arms or in discouraging people from rising against the government made the missionaries
to be viewed as an extension of colonialism and were often attacked by the rebels.
● British policies and acts like The establishment of the Forest department in 1864, the
Government Forest Act (1865) and the Indian Forest Act in 1878 together established
a complete government monopoly over Indian forest land.
32
● Extension of settled agriculture led to the influx of non-tribal in the tribal areas.
● New taxation rules - reaction to the effect of the landlords to impose taxes on the
customary use of timber and grazing facilities.
● Exploitation by low country traders and money lenders.
● Restrictions on shifting cultivation in forest
● Introduction of the notion of private property.
Tribal uprisings were most frequent:

The revolts among the indigenous population became a routine occurrence during colonialism,
especially in the nineteenth century. For instance,
 Chuar uprising in 1768
 Kol Rebellion 1795-1831
 Bhil rebellion 1822-1857
 Santhals revolt in 1855
 Kolis revolt in 1873
 Munda revolt in 1895
 Koya Rebellion 1922
This is only a small smattering of the total number of conflicts. Noted historian
Ramchandraguha Guha has documented over 110 different colonial-era peasant revolts. The
Anthropological Survey of India in their survey of tribal movements from 1778 to 1970 listed
70 revolts and gave their chronology.
Militant and violent nature of the tribal movement
The Colonial intrusion and the exploitation of traders, money lenders and revenue farmers in
sum disrupted the tribal identity to a lesser or greater degree. In fact, ethnic ties were a basic
feature of tribal rebellions. The rebels saw themselves not as a discreet class but as having a
tribal identity. At this level, the solidarity shown was of a very high order
x aammss. o
. rrgg
Tribal revolts were characterised to be the militant and violent in nature because
o
x
1. Brutal repression from the Britisher's side –
a.
PPddff44ee
For example, Santhals Rebellion - Zamindars, the Police, the revenue and the court
alas have exercised a combined system of extortions, oppressive exactions, forcible
dispossession of property, abuse and personal violence and a variety of petty
tyrannies upon the timid and yielding Santhals.
2. Tribal resorting to guerrilla warfare -
a. For example –Bhil rebellion –Bhils traditionally had an identity of guerrilla fighters
and warriors. The Bhils being nomadic hunters operated from the thick jungle and
the regimented British forces clearly found them difficult to overcome. The guerrilla
war lasted for over twenty years.
3. For tribals, it was not only economic but the question of cultural existence –
a. For example –Koi revolt - Koi revolt is an important mass uprising among the tribals
of Bastar. They stated that the forest and its trees were their mothers and they
would not allow the exploitation of their natural resources and forests.
4. Leaders were not educated and found violence as the only way-
a. For example the Munda Rebellion -. The movement aimed to reconstruct the tribal
society from disintegration, which was staring in its face due to the stress and strains
of colonial rule. They wanted to establish the Ulgulan- the great Tumult” aimed to
establish Munda Raj and independence.
33
b. Leaders were not educated enough to fight the Britishers through prayers and
petitions so they resorted to violence in many cases.
Conclusion
Even in the present times, when the government and its machinery fail to protect the tribals,
they are forced to take up arms against their exploiters. The instances of tribal movement,
therefore, remain a source of inspiration for all those who are exploited and marginalised.
x aammss. o
. orrgg
PPddff44ee x
34

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IPM / YLM - 2023

Fig 1: Administration under EIC

6. Promoting communal politics - Curzon was the proponent of communal politics. He

However, there was some sense of direction in the form of :

 Socialist reconstruction of Indian Society; - He advocated that the overthrow of British

Features of the Indian Councils Act 1909 Act

Critical Evaluation of the Reforms

○ Lord Morley made it clear that colonial self-government (as demanded by

though this was contrary to the intent of Morley.

An advancement over previous revenue policies:

o High burden of taxation

Ryotwari system The area Madras, Coorg, Bombay, East

Zamindari/ Permanent settlement, 1793

12. Eighteenth-century India failed to make progress economically, socially or culturally, at an

Social and cultural Conditions

However, some progress was also made in the 18th century

Policy of annexation by diplomacy and administrative mechanisms.

Steps against rigid caste system:

 Various organisations strove to undermine caste-based exploitation: Numerous

Divide and rule Politics:

● Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture; - From the 1860s onwards, the nature of

Impact of world geopolitics on Indian livelihood;-

Education policies under the British Crown:

Communal Village Provincial

Removal of Basic National

Khadi Women Kisans Lepers

Tribal uprisings were most frequent:

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