LECTURE 2

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

LECTURER: MISS EDNA
DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
This topic will be taught in two parts:
Part 1
I. Topography, land use and physical features.
II. Environmental [ considerations.
III. Road safety considerations.
IV. Road function and control of access
V. Economic and financial considerations
Part 2
I. Traffic volume and capacity.
II. Design speed and other speed controls.
III. Design vehicle and vehicle characteristics.
OVERVIEW
This lecture is a follow up from lecture 1 where the functionality of the road, control of access
and road reserve was introduced. This class will look into certain basic design controls and
criteria which govern the geometric features of a highway.
1. DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
The geometric form of a road consists of a number of geometric design elements. Appropriate
standards and combinations of these elements should be determined on the basis of following
controls and criteria:
1. Topography, land use and physical features.
2. Environmental [ considerations.
3. Road safety considerations.
4. Road function and control of access.
5. Traffic volume and capacity.
6. Design speed and other speed controls.
7. Design vehicle and vehicle characteristics.
8. Economic and financial considerations.
The design engineer should consider all these controls and criteria, in order to arrive at a final
design which is,
 in balance with the physical and social environment,
 which meets future traffic requirements and
 which encourages consistency and uniformity of operation.
In this way it is possible to eliminate at the design stage environmental and operational problems
which would otherwise

 Increase accident potential and other detrimental effects

 Incur costs for remedial measures in the future.

1.1 Topography, land use and physical features

Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a highway.
Road design is an exercise in three-dimensional planning whose success will be measured not
only by the efficiency of the road but by its appearance and impact upon the adjoining area.
A fundamental consideration in route location and final design is to fit the road into the
landscape, with broad awareness of the character and features of the area through which it
passes. This is required not only to obtain an aesthetically pleasing alignment, but in general is
also necessary in order to obtain the most economical solution and the best possible service to
the traversed area with the least detrimental effects.
Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location alignment, gradients, sight
distances, cross-section and other design elements of a rural road.
The classification of the terrain is normally done by means of cross slope of the country that is
the slope approximately perpendicular to the centerline of the highway. Terrain is classified as
flat/level, rolling and mountainous

Terrain % cross slope of the country

Level/flat 0 to 10
Rolling 10 to 25
Mountainous 25 to 60

In flat terrain the topography may have little influence on location, but it may cause difficulties in
some design elements, e.g. drainage. Furthermore, it may encourage monotonous straight
alignments with abrupt changes in direction which may be surprising and difficult to recognize by
drivers because the topography gives no indication of what to expect.
In mountainous terrain the route location and certain design features may be almost entirely
governed by the topography,
Geological, soil, climatic and drainage conditions also affect the location and geometrics of a
road. of particular importance is the prevention of soil erosion.
Man-made features such as agricultural, industrial, commercial, residential and recreational
developments are important controls for the route and final design. Care should be taken to
avoid unnecessary destruction, demolition or severance of valuable properties.
Information regarding topography, land use and physical features are essential and should be
obtained in the early stages of planning and design. In this respect it is necessary to consult with
the physical planning authorities (Physical Planning Department and the Provincial Physical
Planning Officers) in order to coordinate the project with existing and proposed land uses and to
protect the selected route from conflicting development.
1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
No road project is without both positive and negative effects on the environment, the location
and design of a road should aim at maximizing the favorable effects of the project, such as
providing or removing undesirable traffic from environmentally vulnerable areas, while at the
same time minimizing the adverse effects of the project as much as possible.
The following factors, related to the road as a physical feature in the environment, have to be
considered in the location and design of a road project:
(1) The preservation of the natural beauty of the countryside.
(2) The preservation of areas and land use of particular value, including:
 national parks and other recreational areas;
 wildlife and bird sanctuaries;
 forests and other important natural resources;
 land of high agricultural value or potential;
 other land use of great economic or employment importance, and
 historic sites and other man-made features of outstanding value.
(3) the prevention of soil erosion and sedimentation.
(4) The prevention of health hazards by ponding of water leading to
the formation of swamps.
(5) The avoidance or reduction of visual intrusion.
(6) The prevention of undesirable roadside development.
Other considerations are mainly related to the operation of the road as a facility for moving
traffic and include the following detrimental effects:
 Noise pollution.
  Air pollution.
 Vibration.
 Severance of areas (barrier effect).
These operational effects are mainly a problem of urban roads and traffic, but in some cases are
also relevant to the design of roads in rural areas.
Some of the adverse environmental effects are fairly easy to quantify (e.g. noise levels and air
quality), whilst others are more difficult (e.g. visual impact).
In many cases it is necessary to seek the advice and services of other professions to reach a
proper evaluation of the problems and establish adequate remedial measures.
1.3 ROAD SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Designing safety into roads is one of the main objectives of geometric design. Safety features
applicable to a given type of road should be built into the road during its initial construction.
Safety considerations in road design have two different objectives:
(i) To provide design features aimed at preventing accidents,
(ii) To provide design features aimed at reducing their seriousness when they occur.
For the prevention of accidents, the following points are of importance
1. Provision of physical separation between motor vehicles and non-motorized traffic
(pedestrians, cyclists, animals); and separate facilities for these two road user types.
2. Provision of a balanced design, i.e. compatibility between the various design elements.
3. Avoidance of surprise elements for the drivers: i.e. no abrupt changes in standard,
adequate visibility conditions and proper phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment,
4. Avoidance of situations where drivers must make more than one decision at a time.
5. Provision of design features that reduce speed differentials between vehicles: e.g. Flat
grades and speed change lanes.
6. Proper location and design of junctions with particular emphasis on sufficient sight
distances, a minimum of conflict points, and clearly defined and controlled traffic
movements.
7. Proper design, application and location of traffic signs, markings and other traffic control
devices
8. Provision of design elements compatible with traffic volumes and type of traffic (long-
distance, local, etc.).
9. Provision of proper drainage of the road surface.
Because of the human element involved, some accidents will happen even on roads designed to
high safety standards. Therefore, a basic consideration in road design is to minimize injuries and
damage when accidents do occur. Important points in this respect are:
 1. Roadside slopes should be made as flat as feasible. desirably I:4 or flatter, and the
roadside area should be well rounded where slope planes intersect.
2. Road sign and lighting support» no owner utility poles should be located far enough from
the carriageway to make them unlikely to be struck by an out-of-control vehicle, they
should have breakaway capability.
3. All drainage structures should be designed so that out of- control vehicles can either pass
safely over them or be safely deflected.
4. Safety fences should be considered only when fill slopes 1:4 or flatter are not feasible.
and the damage caused by hitting the safety fence would be less serious than damage
from leaving the carriageway.
5. Safety fences should be provided at dangerous obstacles which cannot be removed, and
which would cause serious damage if hit by an out-of-control vehicle (e.g. bridge piers
and abutments)
Road safety considerations and features are built into the principles, criteria and values for the
various design elements given in the Road Design Manual. However, this does not necessarily
ensure that the completed road will be of a safe design unless the design engineer is fully aware
of, and takes into account, the road safety aspects through- out all Phases of the design work.
1.4 ROAD FUNCTION AND LEVEL OF ACCESS CONTROL
The function of a particular road, as defined by the majority of the road users (long-distance
traffic, through traffic, local traffic, etc.) has to be taken into account in the determination of
design standards for the project and in particular in the selection of the design speed and cross-
section.
In particular, careful consideration must be given to the choice of design standards for roads
whose major function is to cater for long- distance regional traffic (generally A and B Class
roads). Because of the long distances involved, traffic tends to move at high speeds on some of
these roads, and it may therefore be necessary to adopt higher standards than are warranted by
traffic volumes in order to provide an acceptable level of road safety.
Depending on the function of a road, various levels of access control should be imposed. All
points of access should be carefully considered and planned at the design stage. Access should not
be allowed at locations where entering and leaving vehicles will create a hazard, particularly where
sight distances are restricted or at points too close to other junctions. The proper location and
design of access points may in some cases necessitate adjustments to the initial alignment.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
The relationship between costs and benefits is a measure of justification, and often a deciding
factor in determining the geometric features of design.
The costs include right-of-way (road reserve), construction, maintenance and vehicle operation.
The general value resulting from an improved road link Includes services and benefits to the
country, community and road users.
A high geometric design standard is warranted where there are sufficient benefits to road users
to justify the additional costs above that of a low design standard. Particularly in the stages of
planning the preliminary design when decisions regarding location and general design parameters
are made, the relationship between costs and benefits for different alternatives is of great
importance.
Preliminary or approximate cost estimates should be made for each alternative plan. All major
item: should be included; road reserve acquisition, site clearance, earthworks, drainage,
pavement, structures and, where significant, relocation of utility services and the cost of
maintaining traffic during construction. Estimated annual costs of maintaining and operating the
roadways roadsides (ditches)and structures should also be included if there appear to be
significant differences between alternatives.
To complete a monetary analysis of alternative plans, the total road user costs should be
determined for each alternative. Road user costs are the drivers' vehicular operating costs and,
where relevant, the value of (gained) time. The total of the road user costs for each alternative
plan can be a good factor for comparison as they reflect speed, distance (directness) and
operating conditions.
A computer model called the "Road Transport Investment Model" (or the “Highway Cost Model”)
*, which estimates the costs of different investment strategies for rural roads in developing
countries, is operational in Kenya. It is based on research carried out mainly in Kenya by the
British Transport and Road Research Laboratory, and it can provide useful assistance to the
design engineer, as long as up-to-date and reliable input data, especially on maintenance
(procedures and productivity) and vehicle operation, are readily available.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE
DESIGN OF AN URBAN ROAD
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
1 Introduction
The geometric design of Construction of Road X is as per the requirements of the January 1979
edition of Road Design Manual Part 1- Geometric Design of Rural roads and the 2001 edition
Draft Design Manual Part II for Urban Roads from the then Ministry of Works- Roads
Department, hereafter referred to as road design manuals, while respectively referred to as
Rural Road manual and Urban Roads Manual.
The geometric design included the following design elements: horizontal and vertical alignments,
the road cross-section and intersections.
The road design standards applied to these elements are in consideration of topography and land
use, environmental considerations, road function, traffic volume, design speed, design vehicle and
economic considerations as described in the road manuals. The design ensured balanced
application of minimum values to meet the requirements of a proper alignment
2.Existing Alignment
The project roads are within Nairobi County, having a total length of approximately 5 km. The
proposed roads traverse through a built up urban area with the constrained corridors and
encroaching temporary structures. The general alignment of the proposed roads is generally
level vertically and with few but sharp horizontal curves. Therefore, its design will follow both
urban standards. All the proposed roads are in use despite their poor state hence there is an
existing corridor albeit narrow in most sections requiring removal of temporary structures and
relocation of services to attain the required cross-sectional width. The designed alignment is
within the existing corridor with minor deviations on sections where geometry improvement is
necessary
A summary of the tasks carried out during the engineering design are summarized as follows:
1. A review of the existing relevant data on the project road and in the project study area;
2. Route survey followed by a detailed topographical survey of the proposed project routes.
3. Analysis of the hydrology of the route traversed by the project road;
4. Materials investigations of the in-situ soils along the alignment and probable sources of
construction materials;
5. Detailed engineering design for optimum alignment and design standards including cost
estimates.
6. Estimation of project cost and preparation of Tender Documents.

3.Description of Proposed Roads and Project Area

This section describes the length of the project, road reserve, hydrology and drainage,
topography, geology, climate and land use in Road X project.
3.1 Project Roads Length
The project Roads measure to approximately 5 km in total.
3.2 The Road Reserve
The project roads have road reserve of between 9m - 15m approximately. There is
encroachment on the project roads by residents and business premises.
3.3 Hydrology and Drainage
The Roads drain into the surrounding Outering Road and Kangundo Road which further
discharge their water into Nairobi River which is the nearby crossing river in the vicinity.
3.5 Land forms and Soil
The area has a combination of metamorphic rocks and other superficial rock deposits.
3.6 Topography
The proposed road alignments pass through a level terrain with elevations ranging between
1616m to 1622m. The level terrain and the current road condition leads to drainage problems in
Innercore Estate which is exacerbated with prevalent expansive soils along the road alignment.
3.7 Climate and Rainfall
Nairobi County is warm and temperate having significant rainfall during the year. The rainfall
received in the County is an annual average of 674 mm. The month with the highest number of
rainy days is April (20.97 days). The month with the lowest number of rainy days is September
(4.23 days). The month with the highest relative humidity is November (74.78 %). The month
with the lowest relative humidity is February (53.25 %). The warmest month of the year is
February, with an average temperature of 20.5 °C | 68.9 °F. July has the lowest average
temperature of the year. It is 17.0 °C | 62.7 °F (Source: Nairobi climate: Average Temperature,
weather by month, Nairobi weather averages - Climate-Data.org)
3.8 Vegetation and Land Use
The proposed roads pass through private residential properties, institutions and commercial
zones. The area is mostly a planned residential zone comprised of residential houses and both
permanent and temporary business premises. Much of the land (80%) is privately owned.
Government land constitutes 10% of total land and includes land for schools, administration and
health facilities. Majority of the land cannot support crop farming and is occupied by residential
houses.
EXAMPLE 2: URBAN ROAD

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The Government of the Republic of Kenya (GoK) has earmarked funds through the Development
Vote for use in engaging in services of a consultancy firm to undertake Preliminary and Detailed
Engineering Design of Naivasha Road and Kikuyu Road.
Uniconsult Engineering Consultants Ltd in association with Norken International Ltd was
commissioned to undertake the consultancy services after a competitive bidding process.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The study will provide the decision makers in the Government of Kenya through Kenya Urban
Roads Authority, with sufficient information to construct the road:
The project will;
 improve access to goods/passenger transport services and reduce transport costs along
the two routes;
 improve access to social and economic development opportunities along the route, by
providing high capacity transport infrastructure for both motorised and non-motorised
traffic (NMT);
 Improve safety for NMT by developing cycle tracks, footpaths, traffic calming measures,
street lighting, signage and marking;
 Reduce traffic congestion and delays particularly at the Kawangware, a major
transportation bottleneck.

The above factors will contribute to the attainment of Kenya’s priority goals under vision 2030
and on-going national efforts to alleviate poverty, and accelerate national economic growth.
The major work components of preliminary engineering design will include:
i) Collection of Traffic Data (historical and present) and analysis;
ii) Traffic surveys, forecasts and computations;
iii) Ground Controls;
iv) Topographical survey and mapping of the existing road corridor and such extension as
required for interchanges and Junctions;
v) Establishing the existing road reserve corridor from Physical Plans of the area;
vi) Obtaining Cadastral Maps to collate with the Physical plans in order to identify possible route
corridors;
vii) Hydrological study of all drainage and water courses and determine drainage requirements;
viii) Materials Investigations for road alignment materials;
ix) Investigations and testing suitable sources of road constructional materials located within
the project area;
x) Preliminary pavement design;
xi) Inventory and study of all road junctions, Accesses, and lay-bys;
xii) Preliminary Engineering Report;
xiii) Preliminary Book of Drawings;
xiv) Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Project Report;
xv) Resettlement Action Plan;
xvi) Feasibility Study Report; and
xvii) Preliminary Engineer’s Cost Estimates.

i. Site Reconnaissance and Route Location

The project key staff were mobilised to the project immediately upon receipt of the instruction
to commence the assignment. The entire road corridor was inspected. There was appreciation of
the demography and settlements, existing road condition, available right of way, drainage,
Junctions, Public Transport operations, Pedestrian flows etc.
ii. Surveys and Data Collection
After the existing data has been collected, collated and reviewed, the Consultant will embark on
the additional surveys that will be necessary to complement available information and
consequently review and design the works in accordance with the TOR.
The information to be sought will include the following: -

 Economic - Land tenure along the road

Data
- Demographic Data; population growth and changes in rural
urban population distribution, national and regional
economic growth rates

- development of agriculture, industry and commerce within

the project area

- development of social services facilities and schools

- Employment

 Climatic - Rainfall (monthly distribution and intensity, No. of rainy days

Data per month

- Temperature (minimum, median, and monthly ranges

throughout the year)

- climatic features of importance: wind, erosion, effects of

extreme temperatures on the alternative wearing course
designs

 Environme - Preservation of areas and land use, agriculture and natural

ntal Data conservation areas

- Impact on agriculture.

- Disturbance of vegetation

- Prevention of soil erosion and water sources

- Impact due to the existing and proposed drainage

- Impact on demographic factors

- Impact social set up, health, HIV and AID, etc.

 Topograp - Inventory of all junctions, access, laybys

hical Data
- Mapping of Markets, Building structures, Telephone and
Power lines, water mains and reticulation within the road
reserve and beyond.

 Hydrologic - Inventory, location and sizes

al
- Visual Inspections
hydraulic
 Data & - Information on soils drainage along the alignments; sub-soils
Drainage drain ability, drainage impedance, flooding of flat areas, etc
structures
- Characteristics of water crossings

- Structural tests

- Hydraulic capacity of existing structures

 Traffic - Historical survey data

Surveys
- Existing traffic Volume counts Composition and occupancy.

- Origin – Destination survey, Axle-load surveys

- Speed and delay surveys

- Non-Motorised Traffic Data

- Accident Data

 Geological - geological features of the area including a description of the

investigati soils and rocks along the road’s alignment
ons
- Influence of geology and the availability of road construction
materials and water

- Information on potential sources construction material and

water construction

 Material - Alignment soils characteristics

investigati
- Available gravel sources, quality and quantity
ons
- Available hardstone sources, quality and quantity

- Available construction sand sources and quality

- Available water for construction sources, quality and

quantity

 Existing - Existing Pavement Structure

Pavement
- Existing Road Roughness
Data
- Visual road condition survey
1.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
1.3.1 Location
The two roads are located within Nairobi and Kiambu Counties with Naivasha road being entirely
located in Nairobi County and Kikuyu Road traversing the two counties.
Naivasha Road measures approximately 6.9 kilometres and commences at its junction with
Ngong Road at Dagoretti Corner ending at the junction with Waiyaki way/ Nairobi-Naivasha
Highway at Uthiru. At the Ngong Road junction, Naivasha road starts at a signalised junction with
the recently upgraded Ngong road dual carriageway (Km 0+000). The road then heads generally
in a westerly/ North-westerly direction toward Riruta (Km 1+200 – 3+500), and crosses over the
Kirichwa River (Km 1+050). After Riruta, the road proceeds in a generally North western direction
toward the Kapenguria road (Upper Kabete) roundabout (Km 6+050), and then onward to the
Road A8/ Nairobi-Naivasha Highway grade separated junction at Uthiru (Km 6+850 currently
under construction). The Naivasha road has junctions with Ngong Road, Wanyee road, Riara
road, Kinyanjui Loop Road, Kikuyu Road, Ndwaru Road, Kapenguria (Upper Kabete) Road, and the
Waiyaki Way/Nairobi – Naivasha highway. The road traverses over two rivers including the
Kirichwa River, both rivers being tributaries for the Nairobi River. The road mainly serves as a
major access artery to Riruta, Kawangware and Uthiru areas and provides access to various
institutions such as the Agriculture and Food Authority Headquarters, Melchizedek Hospital,
Riruta Administration Police Station, Dagoretti Sub County Headquarters, International Livestock
Research Centre and Kabete Polytechnic.
Kikuyu Road measures approximately 11.5 Km and starts at its junction with Naivasha road at
Riruta, ending at its divergence from the Nairobi Southern Bypass at Kikuyu town. The project
road starts at the Naivasha Road junction and heads generally west to the Dagoretti Road
Junction (Km 5+650). The road proceeds further northwest till Kikuyu town (Km 10+200) where it
takes a more northerly route till where it diverges from the Southern Bypass. The road also
passes through Waithaka and Dagoretti towns and just off the Thogoto area. The road has
junctions with Naivasha Road, Ndwaru road, Dagoretti road, Muhuri Road, the Thogoto – Ndeiya
Road, Springs Road, and Nairobi Southern Bypass. The road crosses over one river at Waithaka, a
tributary for the Nairobi River. The road mainly serves as a major access artery to Riruta,
Waithaka, Dagoretti, Thogoto and Kikuyu areas and provides access to various institutions such
as the Kikuyu Hospital, University of Nairobi – Kikuyu Campus, Feed the Children (NGO), Nembu
Primary School, Dagoretti High School and Ruthimitu Secondary School.
Naivasha road is currently a tarmac single carriageway, with the entire alignment in generally fair
condition. Similarly, Kikuyu road is currently a tarmac single carriageway, with the first 5
kilometres in poor state of repair, but with the rest of the alignment in generally fair condition.
The road traverses through a rolling terrain. The road is highly trafficked with both private and
public service vehicles operating at low levels of service during peak traffic periods.
1.3.2 Topography.
Both roads are located within the western part of Nairobi County, with Kikuyu road extending
into Kiambu County. The western part of Nairobi has the highest elevation and has a more
rugged topography in comparison with the rest of Nairobi. Both Naivasha and Kikuyu roads
traverse rolling terrain with Naivasha Road having 2 river crossings and one on Kikuyu road.
These rivers are tributaries of the Nairobi River within the greater Athi River Drainage Basin. The
area averages 1700m – 1900m asl. All the river crossings are on natural valleys with low fills,
hence having valleys with high road approach gradients.
The area traversed by both roads was observed to be dominated by red volcanic soils with
vegetation all year round. The area traversed by the road was traditionally an agricultural area
with both crop farming and animal husbandry extensively practised. This has since given way to
commercial premises and residential housing units. Both roads still have sections traversed that
have a rural character, interspersed by commercial and residential developments symptomatic
of a peri urban zone.
1.3.3 Vegetation
The Project road falls in a peri-urban area within Nairobi Metropolitan Region. The natural
vegetation comprising trees, bushes, subsistent farmland and grass continues to be depleted as it
gives way to the built environment. Vegetation appears to thrive more readily on the steeper
sections and valleys where development lags behind the flatter areas that are also closer to the
existing road. The vegetation cover is presented in the aerial map below that clearly distinguishes
the built up area where vegetation is practically bare.

Land Use
The Project road falls within Nairobi Metropolitan Region with urban settlements characteristics
having largely overtaken the historical rural character. Dense urban developments along Naivasha
include Dagoretti corner, Kawangware, Riruta and Uthiru. Along Kikuyu road, dense settlements
dominate the road from the start of the road to Waithaka and Ruthimitu, Dagoretti Market and
Kikuyu. These densely populated peri-urban zones have many residential and commercial
buildings. Kawangware and Riruta have blossomed into commercial centres with many temporary
stalls and trading areas set up within the road corridor. However, there are still areas along both
roads where small scale agriculture is still practiced, e.g. The approach to ILRI on Naivasha road,
and around Thogoto area on the Kikuyu Road.

There are many Government offices, Hospitals, Schools, markets, churches and other social
facilities using the road for access.

The population density is moderate to high through the alignment with frequent traffic congestion
and delays experienced along both roads especially at rush hour.

Climate
Nairobi County has a subtropical highland type of climate, with average day temperatures of the
mid-twenties. The area traversed by both Naivasha and Kikuyu roads, being on the highland side
of the greater Nairobi county, experiences slightly lower average temperatures than the rest of
Nairobi. An annual rainfall of 1,200mm per annum is distributed in two seasons; April-July long
rains and November/December short rains. Average annual temperatures ranges from lows of
11.1OC to highs of 24.5OC in the area traversed by the both roads.
Carrying out an environmental impact and social impact assessment of the project area in relation
to the proposed project including preparation of an Environmental Impact Assessment Report and
preparation of a Resettlement Action Plan for project affected persons. The Consultants are
advised to adequately furnish themselves with any information on the site to enable them
undertake the Resettlement Action Plan as per the current guidelines