Unit I.

Introduction
Environment:
Definition:
a. The environment refers to our immediate surroundings in which all living and non-living
components co-exist. It can be used to refer to the social, natural or built environment.
b. Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and
space.
Types of Environment
There are two different types of environment:
a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
b. Built/Man-made Environment
a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
It consists of all components provided by nature and hence can be called as the natural
environment. It is also referred to as the physical environment as it pertains to the physical
requirements of life. These physical or geographic conditions are not dependent on the existence
of humans. Sometimes, humans have no control over the physical conditions of the environment.
It includes natural resources, the earth’s surface, mountains, plains, land, water, deserts, storms,
cyclones, volcanoes, oceans, climatic factors, and so on. It is also used to refer to biological
situations such as complexities associated with plants and animals.
b. Built/Man-Made Environment
This environment is used to refer to the one created by man in order to regulate and monitor
certain environmental conditions. Some address it as a social-cultural environment. It can further
be divided into two types of environments.
1. Inner Environment
2. Outer Environment
1. The Inner Environment
It is a social environment and it exists as long as a particular society exists. It pertains to the
regulations, traditions, organizations and institutions. It involves customs and folkways which is
existent in every human group. It is addressed with names such as non-material culture, social
heritage etc. This heritage is essential for the social life of humans to flourish, it is known to have
an influence on an individual’s life. The altered form of the economic and physical environment
– artificial environment, are seen as two different aspects of the man-made environment.
2. The Outer Environment
Through advancement in the field of science and technology, humans have attempted to alter
conditions of their physical environment. This outer environment is as a result of these
modifications which includes modern infrastructure in cities, our homes and their associated
amenities, our modes of communication and transport, our resorts to conveniences and luxury,
different kinds of industry manufacturing luxurious commodities, electrical appliances and so on
which ultimately aims at civilization and urbanization.
The inner and the outer environments are correlated and hence inseparable.

Ecosystem:
1. An ecosystem is a physically defined environment, made up of two inseparable
components:
  The biotope (abiotic): a particular physical environment with specific physical
characteristics such as the climate, temperature, humidity, concentration of nutrients or
pH.
 The biocenosis (biotic): a set of living organisms such as animals, plants or micro-
organisms, that are in constant interaction and are, therefore, in a situation of
interdependence.

2. An ecosystem is a chain of interaction between organisms and their environment.

The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands
of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in
coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops
is tundra type.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are
hot and the nights are cold.
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment. 
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely: 

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where
the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
 Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic and abiotic factors

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem.  Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either
be a carnivore or an omnivore.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. 
Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.

o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on

tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food
chain as they have no natural predators.
  Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter.  Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem.  It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc. 

I. Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
It is the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to
organism.
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant
life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise
their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on
through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to
an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.
A classic example of a food chain in an ecosystem
2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer
level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers
are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mice, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.
In essence:
 Grasshopper →Mice→  Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a
single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains.
In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.
Services provided by Ecosystem:
Without ecosystem services, life on Earth as we know it wouldn’t exist. There are four main
categories of ecosystem services:
a. Provisioning services refer to the products secured by ecosystems. These
include:
• Water
• Food (including cattle and seafood)
• Pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• Energy (sunlight, hydropower, biomass)
b. Regulating services are the ecosystem services that allow the regulation of
ecosystem processes such as:
• Climate regulation (and carbon absorption and storage via the oceans, trees, soil)
• Waste decomposition (one of the most essential microbial process happening in soil)
• Crop pollination (performed by agents such as bees that contribute to the reproduction
of flowering plants)
• Water and air purification and regulation
• Control of pests and diseases
c. Supporting and habitat services refer to the ability of ecosystems to give
habitat for migratory species and to support the viability of gene-
pools.This is possible thanks to:
• Primary reproduction
• Nutrient and seed dispersal
d. Cultural services are the benefits ecosystem services bring to humans.
Examples of these are:
• Inspiration for intellectual (creativity), cultural (entertainment) and spiritual (why)
purposes
   – Remember how it feels good to seeing and hearing wild birds
   – Animals, plants and even the funghi kingdom serve as inspiration in theaters,
movies…
   – Many people go to natural sites when they want to be alone or reflect about life
• Recreational experiences such as outdoors activities or ecotourism
• Scientific discovery and optimization/efficiency by following examples of the natural
world (biomimicry)

Ecology
Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms interact with each
other and their environment. It is studied at various levels, such as organism, population,
community, biosphere, and ecosystem.
Ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life processes, adaptations and
habitats, interactions and biodiversity of organisms.

I. Biotic and Abiotic Factors

The main aim of ecology is to understand the distribution of biotic and abiotic factors of living
things in the environment. The biotic and abiotic factors include the living and non-living factors
and their interaction with the environment.

Biotic components
Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. A few examples of biotic components
include bacteria,  animals, birds,  fungi, plants, etc.
Abiotic components
Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an ecosystem. These
components could be acquired from the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. A few
examples of abiotic components include sunlight, soil, air, moisture minerals, and more.
Living organisms are grouped into biotic components, whereas non-living components like
sunlight, water, topography are listed under abiotic components.

II. Types of Ecology

Ecology can be classified into different types. The different types of ecology are given below:

Global Ecology
It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere, and oceans. It helps to
understand the large-scale interactions and their influence on the planet.

Landscape Ecology
It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms, and other products of ecosystems.
Landscape ecology throws light on the role of human impacts on the landscape structures and
functions.

Ecosystem Ecology
It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-living components and
their relationship with the environment. This science research how ecosystems work, their
interactions, etc.

Community Ecology
It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among living organisms.
Ecology community is made up of two or more populations of different species living in a
particular geographic area.
Population Ecology
It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the size of the population
of organisms. Ecologists are interested in fluctuations in the size of a population, the growth of a
population and any other interactions with the population.
In biology, a population can be defined as a set of individuals of the same species living in a
given place at a given time. Births and immigration are the main factors that increase the
population and death and emigration are the main factors that decrease the population.
Population ecology examines the population distribution and density. Population density is the
number of individuals in a given volume or area. This helps in determining whether a particular
species is in endanger or its number is to be controlled and resources to be replenished.

Organismal Ecology
Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism’s behaviour, morphology, physiology,
etc. in response to environmental challenges. It looks at how individual organisms interact
with biotic and abiotic components. Ecologists research how organisms are adapted to these non-
living and living components of their surroundings.
Individual species are related to various adaptations like physiological adaptation,
morphological adaptation, and behavioural adaptation.

Molecular Ecology
The study of ecology focuses on the production of proteins and how these proteins affect the
organisms and their environment. This happens at the molecular level.
DNA forms the proteins that interact with each other and the environment. These interactions
give rise to some complex organisms.

Importance of Ecology
The following reasons explain the importance of ecology:

Conservation of Environment
Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It shows the individuals
the extent of damage we cause to the environment.
Lack of understanding of ecology has led to the degradation of land and the environment. It has
also led to the extinction and endangerment of certain species. For eg., dinosaurs, white shark,
mammoths, etc. Thus, the study of the environment and organisms helps us to protect them from
any damage and danger.

Resource Allocation
With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are necessary for the
survival of different organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge has led to scarcity and deprivation
of these resources, leading to competition.
Energy Conservation
All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of ecological
understanding leads to the over-exploitation of energy resources such as light, nutrition, and
radiation, leading to its depletion.
Proper knowledge of ecological requirements prevents the unnecessary wastage of energy
resources, thereby, conserving energy for future purposes.

Eco-Friendliness
Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption of a lifestyle that
protects the ecology of life.
Ozone Layer
The ozone layer  is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of
the Sun's ultraviolet radiation and contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other
parts of the atmosphere.
Formation of Ozone Layer:
Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking
ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into individual
oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O2 to create
ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is unstable and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a
molecule of O2 and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen
cycle. Chemically, this can be described as:
O2 + ℎνuv → 2 O
O + O2 ↔️O3
Ozone Layer Depletion:
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are
the hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·)
and bromine radical (Br·). At present all of these have both natural and man-made
sources. These elements are found in stable organic compounds,
especially chlorofluorocarbons, which can travel to the stratosphere without being
destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl
and Br atoms are released from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light,
e.g.
CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl· + ·CFCl2
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the
assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety
of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone
molecule (O3), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen
molecule (O2). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom
and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:
  Cl· + O3 → ClO + O2
A chlorine atom removes an oxygen atom from an ozone molecule to make a ClO
molecule
 ClO + O3 → Cl· + 2 O2
This ClO can also remove an oxygen atom from another ozone molecule; the chlorine
is free to repeat this two-step cycle
The overall effect results decrease in the amount of ozone.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion:
a. Natural Causes of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
The ozone layer has been found to be affected by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots
and stratospheric winds. But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the
ozone layer and the effects are also thought to be only temporary.
It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and Mt.
Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed towards ozone depletion.
b. Man-made Causes of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
Human activities are the main cause of the depletion of the ozone layer. It occurs due to the
excessive use of the man-made chemicals that are bromine and chlorine which release  from the
man-made compounds such as:

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

 Halon

 CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform)

 CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride)

 H CFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons)

 Chlorofluorocarbons

 Methyl bromide

The main cause for the depletion of ozone is determined as excessive release of chlorine and
bromine from man-made compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride),
HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons), hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found
to have a direct impact on the depletion of the ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-
depleting substances (ODS).
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed back in the
form of rain on the earth and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With so
much stability, they are transported into the stratosphere.
The emission of ODS accounts for roughly 90% of the total depletion of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere. These gases are carried to the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere where ultraviolet
radiation from the sun breaks them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl
bromide and halons).
The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with the ozone molecules and destroy their
molecular structure, thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break more than 1,
00,000 molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive than
chlorine molecules.
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion:
a. Increase in UV Rayes
Ozone layer is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB
radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the thickness and
density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the
Earth's surface.
b. Biological Effects
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased UV radiation
on human health. Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both
positive (including production of vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and
cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a
health risk to humans.
c. Effects on Animals
A November 2011 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found
that whales off the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these
scientists "fear that the thinning ozone layer is to blame. Apart from whales many other animals
such as dogs, cats, sheep and terrestrial ecosystems also suffer the negative effects of increased
UV-B radiations.
d. Effects on Crops
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically
important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the
retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its
increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation,
plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be
directly affected by UVB radiation.
Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion:
Less use of Fuel: by reducing the usage of the fuels and petroleum used in vehicles nowadays we
can help in reducing the ozone layer depletion

Less use of pesticides: pesticides helps in growing your farms and plants but cause harm to the
ozone layer and contribute to ozone layer depletion.
Limited use of harmful chemicals for cleaning: the chemicals used for making cleaning products
results in depletion of the ozone layer.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Can be defined as:

a. The systematic identification and evaluation of the potential impacts (effects) of

proposed projects plans, programmes or legislative actions to the environment.
b. The systematic process of identifying future consequences of a current or
proposed action.
EIA is both an art and a science. Management aspect in EIA is an art, whereas the technical
analysis is based on the scientific principles.
Objectives of EIA
Consequently, the aims and objectives of EIA can be divided into two categories.
• Inform the process of decision-making by identifying the potentially significant environmental
effects and risks of development proposals.
• Promote sustainable development by ensuring that development proposals do not undermine
critical resource and ecological functions or the wellbeing, lifestyle and livelihood of the
communities and peoples who depend on them.
• Protect human health and safety.
• Avoid irreversible changes and serious damages to the environment.
• Safeguard valued resources, natural areas and ecosystem components.
• Enhance the social aspects of the proposal.
Characteristics/Principles used in EIA:
1. Participation:
An appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested parties.

2. Transparency:

All assessment decisions and their basis should be open and accessible.

3. Certainty:
The process and timing of the assessment should be agreed by all participants in advance.

4. Accountability:
The decision makers of all parties are responsible for their action and decisions under the
assessment process.

5. Credibility:
Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.
6. Cost effectiveness:
The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at the least cost to
the society.

7. Flexibility:
The assessment process should be able to deal efficiently with any proposal and decision making
situation.

8. Practicality:
The information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily usable in decision
making and planning.

History of EIA

Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental

awareness. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in
1969, with the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). EIAs have been
used increasingly around the world. The number of environmental assessments filed every year
"has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact Statements (EIS). An
environmental assessment is a "mini-EIS designed to provide sufficient information to allow the
agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
is necessary.

Common Stages in an EIA Process

Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure that time and resources are directed at
the proposals that matter environmentally and end with some form of follow up on the
implementation of the decisions and actions taken as a result of an EIA report. The eight steps of
the EIA process are briefly presented below.
1) Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project, requires an
EIA and if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment required.
2) Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impact that should be further investigated.
This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.
3) Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts likely environmental and social
impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.
4) Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse
environmental consequences of development activities.
5) Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision-making
body and other interested parties.
6) Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides
information necessary for the decision-making.
7) Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.
8) Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It checks
whether the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the
mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report.
Some Misconceptions about EIA:

1. “EIA is too complex”

2. “EIA is too expensive”
3. “EIA will be misused to stop development”
4. "We are too poor to afford EIA"
5. "EIA doesn't produce useful results"
6. "EIA is just an add-on and occurs too late to do any good"
7. “EIA delays projects”
Air Pollution:
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans
drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the
composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has
resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

III. Types of Air Pollutants

There are two types of air pollutants:

Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide
emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary
pollutant.

IV. Causes of Air Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide
released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment.
These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate
it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.

Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of
equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also
deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air.
The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not
only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

V. Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The
cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas
are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or
indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the
air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s
temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in
the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain
which damages human, animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is
the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the
harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among
individuals.

Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the aquatic life. Pollution also compels
the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also
led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.

VI. Air Pollution Control

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes
of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also
conserves energy.

Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch
off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the
individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such CFLs also controls pollution to a greater
level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various
countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a
cleaner environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:

1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.

2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can
be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the
reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be
substituted with other less polluting materials.
 3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol
and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These
are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air,
most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of
vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain
existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have
process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation.
Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in
areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

Water Pollution:
Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies. Water pollution is caused
when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater, and aquifers get contaminated
with industrial and agricultural effluents.
When water gets polluted, it adversely affects all lifeforms that directly or indirectly depend on
this source. The effects of water contamination can be felt for years to come.

Sources Of Water Pollution

The key causatives of water pollution in India are:

 Urbanization.
 Deforestation.
 Industrial effluents.
 Social and Religious Practices.
 Use of Detergents and Fertilizers.
 Agricultural run-offs- Use of insecticides and pesticides.

Water Pollution – A Modern Epidemic

One of the primary causes of water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by toxic
chemicals. As seen in the example mentioned above, the dumped plastic bottles, tins, water cans
and other wastes pollute the water bodies. These result in water pollution, which harms not just
humans, but the whole ecosystem. Toxins drained from these pollutants, travel up to the food
chain and eventually affect humans. In most cases, the outcome is destructive to only local
population and species, but it can have an impact on a global scale too.
Nearly 6 billion kilograms of garbage is dumped every year in the oceans. Apart from industrial
effluents and untreated sewage, other forms of unwanted materials are dumped into various
water bodies. These can range from nuclear waste to oil spills – the latter of which can render
vast areas uninhabitable.

Effects Of Water Pollution

The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and its concentration. Also, the
location of water bodies is an important factor to determine the levels of pollution.

 Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result of
dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial establishments.
 Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, behaviour,
causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that causes a lot of problems from
reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This chemical is bioaccumulated in
fish, chicken and meat. Chemicals such as this travel up the food chain before entering
the human body.
 The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts the
food-chain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon entering
the food chain through animals (fish when consumed by animals, humans) can continue
to disrupt at higher levels.
 Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis through
faecal matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water can always
cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera etc.
 The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because of water
pollution.

Control Measures of Water Pollution

Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods. Rather than
releasing sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat them before discharge. Practising
this can reduce the initial toxicity and the remaining substances can be degraded and rendered
harmless by the water body itself. If the secondary treatment of water has been carried out, then
this can be reused in sanitary systems and agricultural fields.
A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb dissolved toxic chemicals such as cadmium
and other such elements. Establishing these in regions prone to such kinds of pollutants will
reduce the adverse effects to a large extent.
Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are precipitation, the ion
exchange process, reverse osmosis, and coagulation. As an individual, reusing, reducing, and
recycling wherever possible will advance a long way in overcoming the effects of water
pollution.

Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic
substances. It is a serious environmental concern since it harbours many health hazards. For
example, exposure to soil containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of
contracting leukaemia. An image detailing the discolouration of soil due to soil pollution is
provided below.
It is important to understand that all soils contain compounds that are harmful/toxic to human
beings and other living organisms. However, the concentration of such substances in unpolluted
soil is low enough that they do not pose any threat to the surrounding ecosystem. When the
concentration of one or more such toxic substances is high enough to cause damage to living
organisms, the soil is said to be contaminated.
The root cause of soil pollution is often one of the following:

 Agriculture (excessive/improper use of pesticides)

 Excessive industrial activity
 Poor management or inefficient disposal of waste
The challenges faced in soil remediation (decontamination of soil) are closely related to the
extent of soil pollution. The greater the contamination, the greater the requirement of resources
for remediation.

VII. What are the Pollutants that Contaminate Soil?

Some of the most hazardous soil pollutants are xenobiotics – substances that are not naturally
found in nature and are synthesized by human beings. The term ‘xenobiotic’ has Greek roots –
‘Xenos’ (foreigner), and ‘Bios’ (life). Several xenobiotics are known to be carcinogens. An
illustration detailing major soil pollutants is provided below.
The different types of pollutants that are found in contaminated soil are listed in this subsection.

Heavy Metals
The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, in abnormally high concentrations) in
soils can cause it to become highly toxic to human beings. Some metals that can be classified as
soil pollutants are tabulated below.

Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution

Arsenic Mercury Lead

Antimony Zinc Nickel

Cadmium Selenium Beryllium

Thallium Chromium Copper

These metals can originate from several sources such as mining activities, agricultural activities,
electronic waste (e-waste), and medical waste.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often abbreviated to PAHs) are organic compounds that:

1. Contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

2. Contain more than one aromatic ring in their chemical structures.
Common examples of PAHs include naphthalene, anthracene, and phenalene. Exposure to
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to several forms of cancer. These organic
compounds can also cause cardiovascular diseases in humans.
Soil pollution due to PAHs can be sourced to coke (coal) processing, vehicle emissions, cigarette
smoke, and the extraction of shale oil.

Industrial Waste
The discharge of industrial waste into soils can result in soil pollution. Some common soil
pollutants that can be sourced to industrial waste are listed below.

 Chlorinated industrial solvents

 Dioxins produced from the manufacture of pesticides and the incineration of waste.
 Plasticizers/dispersants
 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
The petroleum industry creates many petroleum hydrocarbon waste products. Some of these
wastes, such as benzene and methylbenzene, are known to be carcinogenic in nature.

Pesticides
Pesticides are substances (or mixtures of substances) that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of
pests. Common types of pesticides used in agriculture include:

 Herbicides – used to kill/control weeds and other unwanted plants.

 Insecticides – used to kill insects.
 Fungicides – used to kill parasitic fungi or inhibit their growth.
However, the unintentional diffusion of pesticides into the environment (commonly known as
‘pesticide drift’) poses a variety of environmental concerns such as water pollution and soil
pollution. Some important soil contaminants found in pesticides are listed below.
Herbicides

 Triazines
 Carbamates
 Amides
 Phenoxyalkyl acids
 Aliphatic acids
Insecticides

 Organophosphates
 Chlorinated hydrocarbons
 Arsenic-containing compounds
 Pyrethrum
Fungicides

 Mercury-containing compounds
 Thiocarbamates
 Copper sulfate
These chemicals pose several health risks to humans. Examples of health hazards related to
pesticides include diseases of the central nervous system, immune system diseases, cancer, and
birth defects.

What are the Processes that Cause Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories –

 Naturally caused soil pollution

 Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity)

Natural Pollution of Soil

In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are naturally accumulated in soils. This can
occur due to the differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere. Another manner in which this
type of soil pollution can occur is via the transportation of soil pollutants with precipitation
water.
An example of natural soil pollution is the accumulation of compounds containing the
perchlorate anion (ClO4–) in some dry, arid ecosystems. It is important to note that some
contaminants can be naturally produced in the soil under the effect of certain environmental
conditions. For example, perchlorates can be formed in soils containing chlorine and certain
metals during a thunderstorm.

Anthropogenic Soil Pollution

Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human activities can
lead to the contamination of soil. Some such processes are listed below.

 The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil with
asbestos.
 Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the soil with
hazardous concentrations of lead.
 Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with the
hydrocarbons found in petroleum.
 Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the dispersion of
metallic contaminants into the nearby soils.
 Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy metals.
 Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely pollute the soil.
For example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result in the seepage of the waste
into the soil. This waste can go on to pollute groundwater as well.
  Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and inefficient use
of chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.
 Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil (if not disposed of
correctly). These wastes may also contain several carcinogenic substances.
Other forms of waste that can pollute soil include nuclear waste, e-waste, and coal ash.

What are the Negative Consequences of Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution harbours a broad spectrum of negative consequences that affect plants, animals,
humans, and the ecosystem as a whole. Since children are more susceptible to diseases, polluted
soil poses a greater threat to them. Some important effects of soil pollution are detailed in this
subsection.

Effects on Human Beings

Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous). Therefore, these
contaminants can find their way into the human body via several channels such as direct contact
with the skin or through the inhalation of contaminated soil dust.
The short term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include:

 Headaches, nausea, and vomiting.

 Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing.
 Irritation of the skin and the eyes.
 Fatigue and weakness.
A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such diseases are listed
below.

 Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the nervous system.
Children are particularly vulnerable to lead.
 Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).
 Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver.
 Higher risk of developing cancer.
It can be noted that many soil pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons and industrial solvents
have been linked to congenital disorders in humans. Thus, soil pollution can have several
negative effects on human health.

Effects on Plants and Animals

Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients, plant life
ceases to thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminium can prove toxic to
plants. Also, this type of pollution often increases the salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable
for the growth of plant life.
Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil pollutants
through a process known as bioaccumulation. When these plants are consumed by herbivores, all
the accumulated pollutants are passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of
many desirable animal species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top of
the food chain and manifest as diseases in human beings.

Effects on the Ecosystem

 Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the atmosphere by
winds or can seep into underground water reserves, soil pollution can be a direct
contributor to air and water pollution.
 It can also contribute towards acid rain (by releasing huge quantities of ammonia into the
atmosphere).
 Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms that improve soil texture and help
in the decomposition of organic matter. Thus, the negative effects of soil pollution also
impact soil quality and texture.
 Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution. In China, over 12 million tons of
grain (worth approximately 2.6 billion USD) is found to be unfit for human consumption
due to contamination with heavy metals (as per studies conducted by the China
Dialogue).

VIII. How can Soil Pollution be Controlled?

Several technologies have been developed to tackle soil remediation. Some important strategies
followed for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed below.

 Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited

locations.
 Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in order to
force the contaminants into the vapour phase, after which they can be collected through
vapour extraction.
 Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and plants for
the decontamination of soil.
 Mycoremediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal
contaminants.

Noise Pollution:

Noise pollution refers to the excessive amount of noise in the surrounding that disrupts the
natural balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like volcanoes can
contribute to noise pollution.
In general, any sound which is over 85 decibels is considered to be detrimental. Also, the
duration an individual is exposed plays an impact on their health. For perspective, a normal
conversation is around 60 decibels, and a jet taking off is around 15o decibels. Consequently,
noise pollution is more obvious than the other types of pollution.
Noise pollution has several contributors, which include:
  Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.
 Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.
 Construction noises
 Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.)
 Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)
Noise pollution has now become very common due to dense urbanisation and industrialisation.
Noise pollution can bring about adverse effects such as :

 Hearing loss
 Tinnitus
 Sleeping disorders
 Hypertension (high BP)
 Communication problems

[End of this document contents more about pollution, if you are not satisfied
with the answers above then you can go to the end of this document and read]

Desertification:

Desertification is the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert by
losing its flora and fauna, this can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human
activities or improper agriculture. Desertification is a process of degradation of the land. It
occurs because of man-made activities and climate change. Desertification takes place when a
particular type of biome converts into a desert biome. 

Causes of Desertification:

1. Overgrazing
2. Deforestation
3. Farming Practices
4. Urbanization and other types of land development
5. Climate Change
6. Stripping the land of resources
7. Natural Disasters

Desertification Impacts

1. Farming becomes difficult or even impossible in the area

2. Flooding chances are more
3. Hunger – because of no farming
4. Poor quality of water
5. Overpopulation
6. Poverty as a result of the above
Unit II. Global Warming and Climate Change
Global Warming:
A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
Global Warming is defined as the increase in the earth’s atmospheric and oceanic temperatures,
widely due to an increase in the greenhouse effect resulting from various reasons.
Causes of Global Warming or Climate Change
Natural Causes of Global Warming
1. Forest Fires
Deforestation by nature is another leading cause of global warming. Forest fires emit carbon-
filled smoke into the atmosphere, and new forests’ growth is slow and not stable enough to
produce the much-needed oxygen into the newly, suffocating carbon air. Natural forest fires will
eventually run their course, but left in the ashes are polluting gases that get trapped in the
atmosphere.
2. Permafrost
When frozen soil, constituting about 25% of the Northern Hemisphere, increases, it keeps in the
carbon and methane gases. Permafrost is actually leaking carbon into the earth’s atmosphere.
While scientists cannot stop permafrost from emitting these gases, the earth’s melting icecaps at
incredibly fast rates, are cause for concern.
3. Sunspots
According to the Environment Protection Agency (EPA), sunspots are increasing global
temperature. Sunspots restrict the passing of solar plasma, which in turn gives off radiation.
Sunspots and solar flares are powerful and unstoppable.
They can change the energy radiating to earth’s atmosphere, and thus increase climate
temperature. Solar flares, however, have been a naturally occurring event for millions of years.
4. Water Vapor
According to NASA, two-thirds of the gases stuck in the thick blanket is in the form of water
vapor. This hitch in tow effect means rising temperature, rising vapor. The water vapor is unable
to escape and thus results in hotter climate changes.
5. Man’s Best Friend
Our friendly, furry, bizarre, and sometimes extreme pals in the animal kingdom are also to
blame, sort of. While animals also breathe out carbon dioxide and methane, their small
contribution is miniscule compared to humans and their consumption of non-renewable energy.
Nature’s animal release of carbon dioxide, although minor, is still a natural causing factor in
releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Human Causes of Global Warming
1. Man-induced Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees and plants to make way for any development activity.
Mother nature taking out an entire forest is one thing, but the man doing it for the use of crop
cultivation, fuel, and other consumption, is another. Each day our forests are bulldozed for the
prospect of farms and factories. Fuel used for wood and charcoal only adds to the polluted
gases in the atmosphere.
The loss of our forests results in a chain reaction where too much carbon is released into the air,
with not enough oxygen to combat it. Deforestation is blamed for the rise in the greenhouse
gases present in the atmosphere by cutting or burning them.
2. Fossil Fuels
Pollution, whether it is vehicular, electrical or industrial, is the main contributor to global
warming. Every day billions of vehicles release various gases into the atmosphere. This causes
the Earth to warm up and increase its average temperature. Electricity causes pollution in many
ways. Over 75% of electricity worldwide is produced by the burning of fossil fuels. Many gases
are sent into the air when fossil fuels are burnt of which main is the carbon dioxide gas.
Fossil fuel like coal is burnt to produce electricity. Coal is the major fuel that is burnt to produce
power. Coal produces around 1.7 times as much carbon dioxide per unit of energy when flamed
as does natural gas and 1.25 times as much as oil.
Industries, on the other hand, release various gases into the water and air. Carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide are the major greenhouse gases. Different gases have different heat-
trapping capabilities. Some of them trap more heat than carbon dioxide. Methane is much more
effective than carbon dioxide in entrapping heat in the atmosphere. By driving cars, using
electricity from coal-fired plants and heating up our homes from natural gases, we release carbon
dioxide and other heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere.
3. Landfills
When we throw garbage out of our house it goes to landfills. Landfills are those big chunks of
garbage that stink and can be seen in so many places around the world. The garbage is then used
by big recycling companies to make some useful products out from it.
Most of the time that garbage is burnt which releases toxic gases including methane into the
atmosphere. These enormous amounts of toxic greenhouse gases when go into the atmosphere
make global warming worse.
4. Overpopulation
Another cause of global warming is overpopulation. Since carbon dioxide contributes to global
warming, the increase in population makes the problem worse because we breathe out more
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. More people means more demand for food, more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, more demand for cars and more demand for homes.
More demand for food will lead to more transportation since the movement of goods and
services is done by the transportation sector. More demand for cars means more pollution in the
air and more traffic on the roads which means longer waiting time on the traffic lights and that
will result in the burning of more fuel. More demand for homes means cutting down of plants
and trees to make way for homes, schools, and colleges.
5. Mining
Oil and coal are the two main culprits in producing greenhouse gases. Methane, like carbon
dioxide, creates a thick shield over the atmosphere trapping the sun’s rays. With the continued
use of mining operations, these harmful gases will only increase.
6. Fertilizer Use
The unique thing about fertilizer is that it produces nitrous oxide once it absorbs the soil. Nitrous
oxide is 300 times more dangerous than carbon dioxide. The EPA strongly warns that the
farming industry’s use of fertilizer is one of the leading causes of global warming.
7. Meat Consumption
Due to our Western diet and habits, the raising, grazing, and manufacturing of animal products
contribute greatly to the rise of global temperature.According to research, 51% of the greenhouse
gases: methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide are caused by animal agriculture. If we would
stop ordering juicy cheeseburgers, excessive amounts of carbon dioxide by animals stop emitting
the atmosphere.

Agroecology:
Agroecology is the study of ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems.
Bringing ecological principles into agroecosystems could suggest novel management approaches
that would not help in climate change. Agroecology encompasses the relationship between
agricultural production systems and ecological processes. It includes all the techniques that allow
agricultural practices to be more respectful of the environment and its ecological specificities.
 Strengths of natural ecosystems

Natural ecosystems exhibit certain strengths or characteristics. These include the following:

1. Efficiency. Efficient energy flows are characteristic of natural systems. The sun’s energy
captured by green plants is then used by many organisms, as fungi and bacteria decompose
organic residues and are then fed upon by other organisms, which are themselves fed upon by
others higher up the food web. Natural ecosystems also tend to be efficient in capturing and
using rainfall and in mobilizing and cycling nutrients. This helps to keep the ecosystem from
‘running down’ through the excessive loss of nutrients and at the same time helps maintain the
quality of the groundwater and surface waters. Precipitation tends to enter the porous soil, rather
than runoff, providing water to plants as well as recharge to ground water, slowly releasing water
to streams and rivers.

2. Diversity. A great biological diversity, both above ground and in the soil, characterizes many
natural ecosystems in temperate and tropical regions. This provides checks and balances, nutrient
availability to plants, checks on disease outbreaks, etc. For example, competition for resources
and specific antagonisms (such as antibiotic production) from the multitude of soil organisms
usually keep soil borne plant diseases from severely damaging a natural grassland or forest.

3. Self-sufficiency. A consequence of efficiency and diversity is that natural terrestrial

ecosystems are self sufficient— requiring only inputs of sunlight and rainfall.

4. Self-regulation. Because of the great diversity of organisms, outbreaks (or huge population
increases) of diseases or insects that severely damage plants or animals are uncommon. In
addition, plants have a number of defense mechanisms that help protect them from attack.
5. Resiliency. Disturbances occur in all ecosystems— natural or not. The stronger ones are more
resistant to disturbances and are able to bounce back quicker.
Climate change is a complex problem, which, although environmental in nature, touches and has
consequences for all spheres of existence of our people. It impacts on and is impacted by global
issues, including food, trade,
poverty, economic development, population growth, sustainable development and resource
management. Stabilizing the climate is a definitely a huge challenge that requires planning and
steps in the right directions. However, the bigger questions lie in understanding not just the ‘how
much’ but also the ‘how-to’- how to reduce these emissions, how to produce enough healthy
food and how to have clean energy?
Solutions for mitigating climate change come from all arenas in the form of creating new
technologies, renewable clean energies and even changing management practices. Agroecology
is one such practice that deals with the ‘how to’ of mitigation as well as adaptation to climate
change. The uncertainty of raising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, droughts and the
emergence of unfamiliar pests and diseases, demands a form of agriculture that is resilient, and a
system of food production that supports local knowledge transfer and on farm experimentation
through building adaptive capacity of farmers. Majority of climate change mitigation activities
are foundations of organic practices. Organic production systems serve as the best widespread
examples of low emissions agriculture. Organic systems are more resilient than industrial
systems in terms of withstanding environmental shocks and stresses including droughts and
flooding. Conventional agriculture releases high carbon emissions due to the over use of fossil
fuels and destroys biodiversity. For agriculture, the idea is for a shift towards agroecological
models of production that allow drastic reductions in the use of fossil fuels, present great
mitigation potential through soil, wildlife and plant rejuvenation, and have the flexibility as well
as diversity required to allow adaptation to changing conditions. In practice, agriculture can
contribute to cooling the planet in three ways: by reducing the use of fossil fuel (through
reducing and/or completely removing chemical and synthetic fertilizers and pesticide production)
and of fossil fuel powered transport and machinery; by positively effecting biodiversity and by
slowing the release of biotic carbon.
Agroecology can significantly impact climate change positively as it builds: Agro-ecosystem
resilience that would look at consistency and sustainability of yield even and especially so, with
the changing climate; Livelihood resilience that would help in achieving diversification of
livelihood options through poultry, cattle, fish breeding etc...
This also helps in separating agricultural practice from instability and changes in other markets,
while holding assets on the farm and also reduced or completely stops dependency on external
inputs. Smallholder agroecology is not only an effective solution to complex agricultural
challenges, but also an affordable way to increase yields without external inputs outside the farm.
Further, it offers low inputs, low emissions and local control over production decisions, offering
Food Sovereignty alternative to the unsustainable agro-monocultures currently being pushed to
address the food
crisis. Several characteristics that are found in local or indigenous breeds will become
increasingly important as climate change alters the environment and affects the produce. Local
seeds and crops have a much better chance of
survival in their local environment with the changing climate conditions. Their protection, along
with the local knowledge is critical to their management and breeding, is extremely crucial to
feed us in the future.
Agro-ecological solutions to climate change are based on a systemic approach, on a deep
understanding of the transformation processes of living beings, which involve political, social
and economic transformations. Multi-functional and diverse agricultural systems and locally
diversified food systems are essential to ensure food security in an era of climate change. A rapid
global transition to such systems is imperative both to mitigate climate change and to ensure
food security.

As stated in the “Declaration of Small Food Producers and Civil Society Organisations” at the
Second International Symposium on Agroecology: “Agroecology cannot be understood as a
simple set of production techniques and practices. Agroecology is a lifestyle to our peoples,
carried on in harmony with the language of nature. It represents a paradigm shift in the way we
deploy social, political, productive and economic relations with our territories, to transform the
way we produce and consume food and to restore a socio-cultural reality devastated by industrial
food production. Agroecology generates local knowledge, builds social justice, promotes identity
and culture and strengthens the economic vitality of rural and urban areas.

The following are some adaptive measures for eco-friendly agriculture systems.

The more an agricultural systems can be modelled close to natural ecosystem, it will more
adaptive to the climate change. The natural system which is efficient, diverse, self-regulating,
resilient will cope up better with any unfavorable effects including the adverse impacts of
climate change. Thus, the following are some measures to keep our agriculture system close to
natural ecosystem thereby safeguarding them from unfavorable climate systems.

1. Select crops and varieties resistant to local pests (in addition to other qualities such as yield,
taste, etc.)

2. Plant perimeter (trap) crops that are more attractive to a particular pest than the economic
crop(s) growing in the middle of the field and can intercept incoming insects.

3. Create field boundaries and zones within fields that are attractive to beneficial insects. This
usually involves planting a mix of flowering plants around or inside fields to provide shelter and
food for beneficial.

4. Use cover crops routinely to provide multiple benefits such as habitat for beneficial insects,
adding N and organic matter to soil, reducing erosion and enhancing water infiltration into the
soil, retaining nutrients in soil, (and much more). It is possible to supply all of the nitrogen to
succeeding crops by growing a vigorous winter legume cover crop such as crimson clover in the
south and hairy vetch in the north.

5. Use rotations that are complex, involve plants of different families and, if at all possible,
include sod crops such as grass/clover hay that remain without soil disturbance for a number of
years.

6. Reducing tillage is an important part of an ecological approach to agriculture. Tillage buries

residues, leaving the soil bare and more susceptible to the erosive effects of rainfall, and at the
same time breaks up natural soil aggregates that help infiltration, storage and drainage of
precipitation.

7. Add large quantities of organic materials on a regular basis—animal manures, composts, tree
leaves, cover crops, rotation crops that leave large amounts of residues. Soil organic matter and
its management are at the heart of creating healthy soils that have significant internal strengths
that produce healthy plants that have good defense mechanisms.

8. Taking advantage of global transportation systems to delivering surplus food to where

it is needed[69] (though this does not help subsistence farmers unless aid is given).

9. Developing crop varieties with greater drought tolerance.[71]

10. Rainwater storage. For example, according to the International Water Management

Institute, using small planting basins to 'harvest' water in Zimbabwe has been shown to
boost maize yields, whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger, they have led to
three or fourfold increases in millet yields.[72]

11. Falling back from crops to wild edible fruits, roots and leaves. Promoting the growth
of forests can provide these backup food supplies, and also provide watershed
conservation, carbon sequestration, and aesthetic value.

Climate Change and Local Adaptation

 Installing protective and/ or resilient technologies and materials in properties that are
prone to flooding
 Changing to heat tolerant tree varieties
  Rainwater storage to deal with more frequent flooding rainfall – Changing to water-
permeable pavements, adding water-buffering vegetation, adding underground
storage tanks, subsidizing household rain barrels
 Reducing paved areas to deal with rainwater and heat
 Adding green roofs to deal with rainwater and heat
 Adding air conditioning in public schools
 Requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations
 Raising pumps at wastewater treatment plants
 Surveying local vulnerabilities, raising public awareness, and making climate
change-specific planning tools like future flood maps
 Incentivizing lighter-colored roofs to reduce the heat island effect
 Installing devices to prevent seawater from backflowing into storm drains
 Installing better flood defenses, such as sea walls and increased pumping capacity
 Buying out homeowners in flood-prone areas
 Raising street level to prevent flooding

Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change:

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of
the United Nations that is dedicated in providing the world with objective
and scientific information relevant to understand the scientific basis of the risk of human-
induced climate change, its natural, political, and economic impacts and risks, and possible
response options.
The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The IPCC has adopted and published "Principles Governing IPCC Work",[7] which states that the
IPCC will assess:

 the risk of human-induced climate change,

 its potential impacts, and
 possible options for prevention.

Three Working Group of IPCC:

 Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.
 Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to
climate change, consequences, and adaptation options.
 Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and
otherwise mitigating climate change.

Assessment Reports Prepared by IPCC

The IPCC has published five comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the latest climate
science, as well as a number of special reports on particular topics. These reports are prepared by
teams of relevant researchers selected by the Bureau from government nominations. Expert
reviewers from a wide range of governments, IPCC observer organizations and other
organizations are invited at different stages to comment on various aspects of the drafts.

Process in the preparation of the Reports:

There are generally three stages in the review process:[28]

 Expert review (6–8 weeks)

 Government/expert review
 Government review of:
o Summaries for Policymakers
o Overview Chapters
o Synthesis Report

Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a
non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches,
or urban use. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines deforestation
as the conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced).
Deforestation is the process in which large areas of forest lands are cleared for various human
activities. Deforestation has many negative effects on our environment, like loss of habitat for
animals and climate change. The process of deforestation is mainly carried out for monetary
gains. Approximately 18 million acres of forests are cleared each year for various uses causing
huge loss to our environment. The current issue of global warming is majorly related to
deforestation. 
Causes of Deforestation:
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the
overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for
48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for
14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.
Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions,
the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation,
and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though
there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities,
and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.
Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires
and climate change increase their frequency and power.
Effects of Deforestation:
1. Climate Imbalance and Climate Change
Deforestation also affects the climate in many ways. Forests are the lungs of our planet. Trees
take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen and water vapor in the air, and that is why tropical
rainforests are extremely humid.
Trees also provide shade that keeps the soil moist. All these are compromised with the lack of
trees. It leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric temperature, drier climate, further making
conditions for the ecology difficult that leads to climate change. 
Several animals and plant species that form the flora and fauna across the world are vastly
accustomed to their natural habitat. Therefore, haphazard clearance of forests would make it very
difficult for them to survive or to shift from their native environment or adapt to new habitats.
When a forest is cut down, the humidity levels come down and cause the remaining plants to dry
out. The drying out tropical rainforests increases fire damage that destroys forests rapidly and
harms wild animals as well as humans. 
Forests and climate are linked intrinsically. Forest loss and degradation are both a cause and an
effect of our changing climate. At the same time, deforestation is self-perpetuating.
Therefore, these occurrences are dangerous and fuel further deforestation. Also, the loss of trees
allows for flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and higher temperatures to occur more rapidly
and exponentially.
Source: Canva
2. Increase in Global Warming
Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees utilize greenhouse gases,
restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant deforestation, the ratio of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our global warming woes.
3. Increase in Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Forests help to mitigate carbon dioxide and other toxic greenhouse gas emissions. However,
once they’re cut, burned, or otherwise removed, they become carbon sources.
It’s estimated that deforestation is responsible for around 20 percent of greenhouse gas
emissions, and due to tropical deforestation, 1.5 billion tons of carbon is released every year in
the atmosphere.
4. Soil Erosion
Trees are also crucial for our local water cycles as they keep on returning water vapor to the
atmosphere. The soil remains moist as the rainwater percolates within the soil.
The fertile soil is held in place by intricate root structures of many layers of trees. With
the clearance of tree cover, the land is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry. 
Without trees, erosion often occurs and sweeps the land into nearby rivers and streams. Forests
serve as nature’s water purification plants. Soil erosion makes soil exposed to contaminants that
leach into the water supply, which damages the quality of our drinking water.
5. Floods 
When it rains, trees absorb and store a large amount of water with the help of their roots. When
they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted, and the soil loses its ability to retain water. It
leads to floods in some areas and droughts in others.
6. Wildlife Extinction & Habitat Loss
Due to the massive felling down of trees, various animal species are lost. They lose their habitat
and also forced to move to a new location. Many of them are even pushed to extinction.
Our world has lost innumerable species of plants and animals in the last couple of decades. A
study of the Brazilian Amazon forecasts that up to 90% of predicted extinctions will occur until
the next 40 years.
7. Acidic Oceans
The increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to deforestation and burning fossil
fuels make our oceans more acidic. Since the Industrial Revolution, beaches are already 30
percent more acidic, posing ocean species and ecosystems at extreme risk.
8. The Decline in Life Quality of People
People in millions all over the world depend on forests for hunting, small-scale agriculture,
gathering, and medicine. Everyday materials we use, such as latex, cork, fruit, nuts, natural oils,
and resins are found in the tropical forests. 
Deforestation disrupts the lives of millions of people. In Southeast Asia, deforestation has
contributed to social conflict and migration. Poor people from Brazil have been lured from their
villages to soy plantations where they are abused and forced at gunpoint to work under inhumane
conditions.
9. Food Insecurity in the Future
Deforestation for food may result in food insecurity in the future. Currently, 52% of all the land
used for food production is moderately or severely impacted by soil erosion. In the long term, the
lack of fertile soil can lead to low yields and food insecurity.
10. Loss of Biodiversity
Deforestation leads to a huge loss of biodiversity. About 80% of the global biodiversity is
located in tropical rainforests. Forests not only provide habitats for wildlife but also foster
medicinal conservation.
The forest acts as a critical medium to preserve the wide variety of species. It also destroys the
microbial community that is responsible for the production of clean water, the removal of
pollutants and the recycling of nutrients. 

Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect occurs when energy from the sun passes through a planet's atmosphere
and warms its surface, but the atmosphere prevents the heat from returning directly to space,
resulting in a warmer planet. Simply, the greenhouse effect is the way heat is trapped close to
Earth's surface by "greenhouse gases". Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxides, and water vapor.
A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations
warm the plants and the air inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and
warms the greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants.
Same is the case in the earth’s atmosphere. During the day the sun heats up the earth’s
atmosphere. At night, when the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere.
During this process, the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This
is what makes the surface of the earth warmer, that makes the survival of living beings on earth
possible.
However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has
increased considerably. This has led to several drastic effects.
Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse
effect. For eg., carbondioxide and chlorofluorocarbons.”
 Greenhouse Gases such as carbon dioxide is the primary cause for the Greenhouse Effect
 
The major contributors to the greenhouses gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc.
The increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations to escape from the earth and increase
the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.

Causes of Greenhouse Effect

The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation and to
produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in
population, the utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is a
considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases. 

IX. Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:

Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The main cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the
vehicles, industries and other human activities.
Depletion of  Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the
upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of
the harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change
the climate drastically.
The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.

Smog and Air Pollution

Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means
and man-made activities.
In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including
nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are the automobile
and industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals
among themselves.

Acidification of Water Bodies

Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to
the acidification of water bodies.
Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and
lakes thereby causing their acidification.

Runaway Greenhouse Effect

This phenomenon occurs when the planet absorbs more radiations than it can radiate back. Thus,
the heat lost from the earth’s surface is less and the temperature of the planet keeps rising.
Scientists believe that this phenomenon took place on the surface of Venus billions of years ago.
This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in the following manner:

 A runaway greenhouse effect arises when the temperature of a planet rises to a level of
the boiling point of water. As a result, all the water from the oceans converts into water
vapour, which traps more heat coming from the sun and further increases the planet’s
temperature. This eventually accelerates the greenhouse effect. This is also called the
“positive feedback loop”.
 There is another scenario giving way to the runaway greenhouse effect. Suppose the
temperature rise due to the above causes reaches such a high level that the chemical
reactions begin to occur. These chemical reactions drive carbon dioxide from the rocks
into the atmosphere. This would heat the surface of the planet which would further
accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the rocks to the atmosphere, giving rise to
the runaway greenhouse effect.
In simple words, increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway greenhouse effect
which would increase the temperature of the earth to such an extent that no life will exist in the
near future.

Difference Between Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Greenhouse Effect Global Warming

What does it mean?

It is the heat which escapes in the space, the The earth gets overheated by greenhouse gases and
greenhouse gases block this escaping heat and fossil fuels leading to the greenhouse effect, which
hence it enters the earth is global warming

Heat/Temperature aspect

It is how the atmosphere retains heat as the result Increase in the average annual temperature globally
of greenhouse gases

Cause

It is caused by atmospheric accumulation of gases It is caused by an increased concentration of

(methane and carbon dioxide, etc) containing some greenhouse gases in the atmosphere majorly
heat emitted by the surface of earth. contributed by human activities such as
deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, etc.

Environmental Degradation:

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of

resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction;
the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the
environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. As indicated by the I=PAT equation,
environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large
and increasing human population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita
affluence (A), and the application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T).
Types of Environmental Degradation
a. Land and soil degradation: Degradation of soil quality from poor farming
practices, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, leakage from landfills etc.
b. Water degradation: Pollution of water from trash dumped in oceans, illegal
dumping, disposal of large amounts of industrial waste into nearby rivers or lakes
etc.
c. Atmospheric degradation: This includes air degradation, particle pollution and
the depletion of the ozone layer.
 d. Several other kinds of pollution: Apart from land, water and atmospheric
degradation, many other kinds of pollution such as noise pollution, light
pollution that are part of environmental degradation.
Causes of Environmental Degradation
1. Land Disturbance
A more basic cause of environmental degradation is land damage. Numerous weedy plant
species, for example, garlic & mustard, are both foreign and obtrusive.
A rupture in the environmental surroundings provides for them a chance to start growing and
spreading. These plants can assume control over nature, eliminating the local greenery.
The result is a territory with a solitary predominant plant which doesn’t give satisfactory food
assets to all the environmental life. Thus the whole environment can be destroyed because of
these invasive species.
2. Pollution
Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful to the
environment. Air pollution pollutes the air that we breathe, which causes health issues.
Water pollution degrades the quality of water that we use for drinking purposes. Land
pollution results in the degradation of the earth’s surface as a result of human activities. 
Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage to our ears when exposed to continuous large
sounds like honking of vehicles on a busy road or machines producing large noise in a factory or
a mill.
3. Overpopulation
Rapid population growth puts strain on natural resources, which results in the degradation of our
environment. Mortality rate has gone down due to better medical facilities, which has resulted in
an increased lifespan.
More population simply means more demand for food, clothes and shelter. You need more space
to grow food and provide homes to millions of people. This results in deforestation, which is
another factor in environmental degradation.
4. Landfills
Landfills pollute the environment and destroy the beauty of the city. Landfills come within the
city due to the large amount of waste that gets generated by households, industries, factories and
hospitals. 
Landfills pose a great risk to the health of the environment and the people who live there.
Landfills produce a foul smell when burned and cause substantial environmental degradation.
5. Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and industries. Rapid
growth in population and urban sprawl are two of the major causes of deforestation.
Apart from that, the use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing, harvest for fuelwood and
logging are some of the other causes of deforestation. Deforestation contributes to global
warming as decreased forest size puts carbon back into the environment.
6. Natural Causes
Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can totally crush nearby
animal and plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive in those areas.
This can either come to fruition through physical demolition as the result of a specific disaster or
by the long term degradation of assets by the presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the
environment. The latter frequently happens after tidal waves, when reptiles and bugs are washed
ashore.
Of course, humans aren’t totally to blame for this whole thing. Earth itself causes ecological
issues, as well. While environmental degradation is most normally connected with the things that
people do, the truth of the matter is that the environment is always changing. With or without the
effect of human exercises, a few biological systems degrade to the point where they can’t help
the life that is supposed to live there.
Effects of Environmental Degradation
1. Impact on Human Health
Human health might be at the receiving end as a result of environmental degradation. Areas
exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma.
Millions of people are known to have died due to the indirect effects of air pollution.
2. Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is important for maintaining the balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating
pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation,
global warming, overpopulation and pollution are a few of the major causes of loss of
biodiversity.
3. Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer is responsible for protecting the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. The
presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere, is causing the
ozone layer to deplete. As it will deplete, it will emit harmful radiation back to the earth.
4. Loss For the Tourism Industry
The deterioration of the environment can be a huge setback for the tourism industry that relies on
tourists for their daily livelihood. Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss
of biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and water pollution can be a big turn off for most of
the tourists.
5. Economic Impact
The huge cost that a country may have to borne due to environmental degradation can have a
significant economic impact in terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up of landfills and
protection of endangered species. The economic impact can also be in terms of the loss of the
tourism industry.
Unit III. Population - Environnent interaction and Environmental
politics
Environmental Movement:
A political movement that focuses on protecting the environment, reducing environmental
damage (such as pollution), and reducing unsustainable use of natural resources.
History of Environmental Movement:
The origins of the environmental movement lay in response to increasing levels
of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great
factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an
unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of
industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.[2] Under
increasing political pressure from the urban middle-class, the first large-scale, modern
environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the
deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to
produce soda ash.
In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. Pioneers of
the movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They
fought for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife,
and water resources would lead to the downfall of society. The group that has been the most
active in recent years is the climate movement.
in the 1940s, Aldo Leopold wrote "A Sand County Almanac". He believed in a land ethic that
recognized that maintaining the "beauty, integrity, and health of natural systems" as a moral and
ethical imperative.
1962 - Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring". This book brought together research on
toxicology, ecology and epidemiology to suggest that agricultural pesticides were building to
catastrophic levels. This was linked to damage to animal species and to human health. It
shattered the assumption that the environment had an infinite capacity to absorb pollutants.
1968 - Paul Ehrlich publishes book "Population Bomb" on the connection between human
population, resource exploitation and the environment.
1968 - The Club of Rome, led by Italian industrialist Aurrelio Peccei and Scottish scientist
Alexander King, is established by 36 European economists and scientists. Its goal is to pursue a
holistic understanding of and solutions to the 'world problematique'. It commissions a study of
global proportions to model and analyze the dynamic interactions between industrial production,
population, environmental damage, food consumption and natural resource usage.
1968 - The UN General Assembly authorizes the Human Environment Conference to be held in
1972.
1969 - Friends of the Earth forms as a non-profit advocacy organization dedicated to protecting
the planet from environmental degradation; preserving biological, cultural, and ethnic diversity;
and empowering citizens to have an influential voice in decisions affecting the quality of their
environment -- and their lives.
Beginning in 1969 and continuing into the 1970s, Illinois-based environmental activist James F.
Phillips engaged in numerous covert anti-pollution campaigns using the pseudonym "the Fox."
His activities included plugging illegal sewage outfall pipes and dumping toxic wastewater
produced by a US Steel factory inside the company's Chicago corporate office. Phillips'
"ecotage" campaigns attracted considerable media attention and subsequently inspired other
direct action protests against environmental destruction.

1970 - First Earth Day held as a national teach-in on the environment. An estimated twenty
million people participated in peaceful demonstrations all across the USA.
1971 - Greenpeace starts up in Canada and launches an aggressive agenda to stop environmental
damage through civil protests and non-violent interference.
1972 - Rene Dubos and Barbara Ward write "Only One Earth". The book sounds an urgent alarm
about the impact of human activity on the biosphere but also expresses optimism that a shared
concern for the future of the planet could lead humankind to create a common future.
1972 - United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm under the
leadership of Maurice Strong. The conference is rooted in the regional pollution and acid rain
problems of northern Europe. This eco-agenda is opposed by the Group of 77 and the Eastern
bloc. Nevertheless, it provides the first international recognition of environmental issues. The
concept of sustainable development is cohesively argued to present a satisfactory resolution to
the environmental vs. development dilemma. The conference leads to the establishment of
numerous national environmental protection agencies and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a
wider appeal and influence. 
1972 - Club of Rome publishes "Limits to Growth". The report is extremely controversial
because it predicts dire consequences if growth is not slowed. Northern countries criticize the
report for not including technological solutions while Southern countries are incensed because it
advocates abandonment of economic development. The ensuing debate heightens awareness of
the interconnections between several well-known global problems.
1973 - Chipko Movement born in India in response to deforestation and environmental
degradation. The actions of the women of the community influenced both forestry and women's
participation in environmental issues.
1977 - Greenbelt Movement starts in Kenya. It is based on community tree-planting to prevent
desertification.

1977 - UN Conference on Desertification is held.

1980 - World Conservation Strategy released by IUCN. The strategy defines development as
"the modification of the biosphere and the application of human, financial, living and non-living
resources to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of human life". The section "Towards
Sustainable Development" identifies the main agents of habitat destruction as poverty,
population pressure, social inequity and the terms of trade. It calls for a new International
Development Strategy with the aims of redressing inequities, achieving a more dynamic and
stable world economy, stimulating accelerating economic growth and countering the worst
impacts of poverty.

1980 - US President Jimmy Carter authorizes study which led to the "Global 2000" report. This
report recognizes biodiversity for the first time as a critical characteristic in the proper
functioning of the planetary ecosystem. It further asserts that the robust nature of ecosystems is
weakened by species extinction.
1983 - World Commission on Environment and Development forms. Chaired by Norwegian
Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, the commission works for three years to weave together
a report on social, economic, cultural, and environmental issues.
1983 - Development Alternatives is established in India as a non-profit research, development
and consultancy organization. It fosters a new relationship between people, technology and the
environment in the South in order to attain the goal of sustainable development.
1984 - Worldwatch Institute publishes its first State of the World Report. The report monitors
changes in the global resource base, focusing particularly on how changes there affect the
economy. It concludes that "we are living beyond our means, largely by borrowing against the
future."

1986 - IUCN Conference on Environment and Development held in Ottawa. Meeting

participants define sustainable development as the emerging paradigm derived from two closely
related paradigms of conservation 1) one reacting against the laissez-faire economic theory
which considers living resources as externalities and free goods and 2) one based on the concept
of resource stewardship
1987 - "Our Common Future" (Brundtland Report) published. It ties problems together and, for
the first time, gives some direction for comprehensive global solutions. It also popularizes the
term "sustainable development".
1987 - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.
1988 - Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change established with three working groups to
assess the most up-to-date scientific, technical and socio-economic research in the field of
climate change.
1992 - U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro. It
results in the publication of Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework
Convention on Climate Change, the Rio Declaration, and a statement of non-binding Forest
Principles. The parallel NGO Forum signs a full set of alternative treaties.

Women and Nature:

Metaphor: Women are associated with nature - i.e. 'Mother Earth', and Nature is associated with
women i.e. 'virgin' (sexually pure) awaiting exploitation or yet untouched by man. Female life-
giving principle was considered divine and a great mystery so women got Goddess statues
Societal: women are associated with physical side of life, their role is 'closer to nature' as they
centered to fulfill human’s physical requirements: food, reproduction, care of children and sick,
take care of day-to-day life. Women's nature-like role let men to go 'out into the world', to exploit
nature, generally passive as nature. Historically, women have had no power in the outside world,
no place in decision-making, intellectual life, the work of the mind has traditionally not been
accessible to women, they said to be ignorant. Women's values centred around life-giving, must
be re-valued, and elevated from their subordinate role, women's knowledge from experience be
recognized and respected. Women largely absent from formal policy formulation and decision-
making so involve women in such field at all levels; integrate gender concerns in policies and
programs; strengthen /establish mechanisms at the national, regional and international level.
Ortner, an anthropologist, was one of the first to raise the question about the relationship
between women and nature in the title of her 1974 paper, "Is the female to male as nature is to
culture?" Ortner argues that women "seem to be" closer to nature, because of their biology, that
is, their reproductive functions. However, she maintains that "... it is not biology per se, but the
social construction of it, that places women closer to nature," (in Sayers 1982: 108). Thus,
women are "perceived" to be inferior because of their anatomy and inherent social roles (eg.,
childcare), which are largely undervalued by society with its overriding emphasis on culture, on
thought and technology.
Merchant (1980) describes two contrasting images of women and nature in pre-sixteenth century
Europe. The first and more dominant image was organic, based upon a culturally sanctioned
respect for the earth which was seen as a "nurturing mother." The second and opposing image
saw nature as wild, as disorder which needed to be controlled. This was reflected in the
conceptualisation of women as witches who "raised storms, caused illness, destroyed crops...and
killed infants," (Merchant 1980: 127 in Jackson 1993: 390) and were therefore unjustly tried and
usually burnt alive.
Vandana Shiva (1989) identifies colonialism as the starting point for the exploitation and control
of women and nature in the Indian context. She argues that the model of development imposed
by imperialism marked a radical shift from the traditional Indian cosmological view of nature as
"Prakriti," a living and creative process based upon the feminine principle of "Shakti" (female
energy). Together with "Purusha," the masculine principle, it created the world. Thus, for women
"...the death of Prakriti is simultaneously a beginning of their marginalisation, devaluation,
displacement and ultimate dispensability. The ecological crisis is, at its root, the death of the
feminine principle," (Shiva 1989: 42).
According to Shiva, this relationship is based on shared similarities, that is both women and
nature create and sustain life and both (in India) have suffered the impact of colonisation and
post-colonial development. 
Ecofeminism:
Eco feminism is a social and political movement, attempts to unite environmentalism and
feminism with some currents linking deep ecology and feminism
Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal system is based on triple domination of the
people of Third World, women, and nature
Belief that the social mentality that leads to the domination and oppression of women is directly
connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of the environment
Ecofeminism, or ecological feminism, is a term coined in 1974 by Françoise d'Eaubonne .
Ecofeminist analysis explores the connections between women and nature in culture, religion,
literature and iconography, and addresses the parallels between the oppression of nature and the
oppression of women. There are different types of eco feminism which focus on areas such as
economics, spirituality, colonization, class struggle or racism.These parallels include but are not
limited to seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and
women as the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature.
Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected. Though the scope of
ecofeminist analysis is broad and dynamic, American author and ecofeminist Charlene
Spretnak has offered one way of categorizing ecofeminist work: 1) through the study of political
theory as well as history; 2) through the belief and study of nature-based religions; 3)
through environmentalism.
Eco feminism basically has two grounds; One women are nearer to nature & contributing for
nature while man are exploiting nature; another The social mentality that leads to the
domination and oppression of women is directly connected to the social mentality that leads to
the abuse of the environment’
Eco feminists also criticize Western lifestyle choices, such as consuming food that has travelled
thousands of miles and playing sports (golf) which require ecological destruction.
Ecofeminism do share a commitment to developing ethics which do not sanction or encourage
either the domination of any group of humans or the abuse of nature.
Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism reflects only paternalistic and patriarchal values. This
notion implies that the effects of capitalism have not benefited women and has led to a harmful
split between nature and culture. In the 1970s, early ecofeminists discussed that the split can only
be healed by the feminine instinct for nurture and holistic knowledge of nature's processes.
Vandana Shiva wrote that women have a special connection to the environment through their
daily interactions and that this connection has been underestimated. According to Shiva, women
in subsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in
their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point
that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and
sustenance needs are not recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm, because it fails to
perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and
knowledge with the creation of wealth".  Shiva blames this failure on the Western patriarchal
perceptions of development and progress. According to Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women,
nature, and other groups not growing the economy as "unproductive".
Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal systems that predominate throughout
the world reveal a triple domination of the Global South (people who live in the Third
World), women, and nature.
This domination and exploitation of women, of poorly resourced peoples and of nature sits at
the core of the ecofeminist analysis.

Environmental Politics:

Environmental politics is an academic field of study focused on three core components:

1. The study of political theories and ideas related to the environment.

2. The examination of the political parties and environmental social movements.
3. The analysis of public policy-making and implementation affecting the environment.

Environment politics is mainly compose of environment equity and environment justice:

Environment Equity
Environmental equity describes a country, or world, in which no single group or community
faces disadvantages in dealing with environmental hazards, disasters, or pollution.  Ideally, no
one should need extreme wealth or political connections to protect the well-being of their
families and communities.  Environmental equity is a basic human right.
According to the EPA, environmental equity can be broken down into two categories—fair
treatment and meaningful involvement.  Fair treatment means that no single sect of the
population should be disproportionately affected by environmental crises as a result of laws or
policies.  Meaningful involvement means that groups can offer input regarding decisions that
affect their health or their environment.  This involvement also means that their input will be
taken seriously and considered when making said decisions.  Additionally, lawmakers will
actively seek feedback from affected communities.
Environment Justice:
If environmental equity is a basic human right, environmental justice is the act of protecting that
right.  Environment Justice: equitable distribution of environmental risks and benefits; fair and
meaningful participation in environmental decision-making; recognition of community ways of
life, local knowledge, and cultural difference; and the capability of communities and individuals
to function and flourish in society. An alternative meaning, used in social sciences, of the term
"justice" is "the distribution of social goods".
Environmental justice involves the actions and activism necessary to highlight inequities and
level the playing field.  This means proper oversight and review of federal agencies, proper
permitting and licensing for companies, buildings, and warehouses that emit pollution, setting
clear standards, regulations, and laws that protect at-risk communities, and awarding grants to
organizations that act on behalf of these communities.
Equity is the outcome of environmental justice.  An equitable society is one in which justice has
been served.  They are complementary, not one in the same.
United Conference on the Human Environment
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm
Conference) was an international conference convened under United Nations auspices held in
Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. It was the UN's first major conference on
international environmental issues, and marked a turning point in the development of
international environmental politics. It was attended by the representatives of 113 countries, 19
inter-governmental agencies, and more than 400 inter-governmental and non-governmental
organizations.
It is widely recognized as the beginning of modern political and public awareness of global
environmental problems.
The participants adopted a series of principles for sound management of the environment
including the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment and several
resolutions.
The Stockholm Declaration, which contained 26 principles, placed environmental issues at the
forefront of international concerns and marked the start of a dialogue between industrialized and
developing countries on the link between economic growth, the pollution of the air, water, and
oceans and the well-being of people around the world. 
The Action Plan contained three main categories: a) Global Environmental Assessment Program
(watch plan); b) Environmental management activities; (c) International measures to support
assessment and management activities carried out at the national and international levels. In
addition, these categories were broken down into 109 recommendations.
One of the major results of the Stockholm conference was the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
Principles of the Stockholm Declaration:
3. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned
4. Natural resources must be safeguarded
5. The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained
6. Wildlife must be safeguarded
7. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted
8. Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
9. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented
10. Development is needed to improve the environment
11. Developing countries therefore need assistance
12. Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out environmental
management
13. Environment policy must not hamper development
14. Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards
15. Integrated development planning is needed
16. Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and development
17. Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems
18. Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies
19. National institutions must plan development of states' natural resources
20. Science and technology must be used to improve the environment
21. Environmental education is essential
22. Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing countries
23. States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others
24. Compensation is due to states thus endangered
 25. Each nation must establish its own standards
26. There must be cooperation on international issues
27. International organizations should help to improve the environment
28. Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated
Achievements:
The Stockholm Conference motivated countries around the world to monitor environmental
conditions as well as to create environmental ministries and agencies. Despite these institutional
accomplishments, including the establishment of UNEP, the failure to implement most of its
action programme has prompted the UN to have follow-up conferences. The succeeding United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development convened in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the
Rio Earth Summit), the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg and
the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) all take their starting
point in the declaration of the Stockholm Conference.
Some argue that this conference, and more importantly the scientific conferences preceding it,
had a real impact on the environmental policies of the European Community (that later became
the European Union). For example, in 1973, the EU created the Environmental and Consumer
Protection Directorate, and composed the first Environmental Action Program. Such increased
interest and research collaboration arguably paved the way for further understanding of global
warming, which has led to such agreements as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, and
has given a foundation of modern environmentalism.
World Commission on Environment and Development:
Introduction:
The World Commission on Environment and Development, popularly known as the
Brundtland Commission, was established by the UN General Assembly in 1983. The 1983
General Assembly passed Resolution 38/161 "Process of preparation of the Environmental
Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond", establishing the Commission. The mission of the
Commission was to unite countries to pursue sustainable development together.
The Chairman of the Commission was Gro Harlem Brundtland, the former Prime Minister of
Norway and and Mansour Khalid was the Vice-Chairman. Members of the commission
represent 21 different nations (both developed and developing countries). The UN decided to
establish the Brundtland Commission to rally countries to work and pursue sustainable
development together.
History:
Ten years after the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, a number of
global environmental challenges had clearly not been adequately addressed. In several ways,
these challenges had grown. Particularly, the underlying problem of how to reduce poverty in
low-income countries through more productive and industrialized economy without,
exacerbating the global and local environmental remained unresolved. Neither high-income
countries in the North nor low-income countries in the South were willing to give up an
economic development based on growth, but environmental threats, ranging from pollution, acid
rain, deforestation and desertification, the destruction of the ozone layer, to early signs of climate
change, were impossible to overlook and increasingly unacceptable. There was a tangible need
for a developmental concept that would allow reconciling economic development
with environmental protection.
In December 1983, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, asked
the former Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlem Brundtland, to create an organization
independent of the UN to focus on environmental and developmental problems and solutions
after an affirmation by the General Assembly resolution in the fall of 1983. This new
organization was the Brundtland Commission, or more formally, the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED). The Brundtland Commission was first headed by Gro
Harlem Brundtland as Chairman and Mansour Khalid as Vice-Chairman.
The organization aimed to create a united international community with shared sustainability
goals by identifying sustainability problems worldwide, raising awareness about them, and
suggesting the implementation of solutions. In 1987, the Brundtland Commission published the
first volume of “Our Common Future,” the organization's main report. “Our Common Future”
strongly influenced the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 and the third UN
Conference on Environment and Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002. 
Achievement:
The Commission released a benchmark report Our Common Future, also known as the
Brundtland Report in October 1987. After releasing the report, the Brundtland Commission
officially dissolved in December 1987. The report coined and defined the meaning of the term
"Sustainable Development“, which is considered as the authentic definition of sustainable to
date. An organization Center for Our Common Future was established in April 1988 to take the
place of the Commission.
Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search for a sustainable
development path. The report sought to recapture the spirit of the Stockholm Conference which
had introduced environmental concerns to the formal political development sphere. Our Common
Future placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda; it aimed to discuss the
environment and development as one single issue.
The term sustainable development was coined in the paper Our Common Future, released by the
Brundtland Commission. Sustainable development is the kind of development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. The two key concepts of sustainable development are:
• the concept of "needs" in particular the essential needs of the world's poorest people, to which
they should be given dominant priority;
• the idea of limitations which is imposed by the state of technology and social organization on
the environment's ability to meet both present and future needs.
The Brundtland Commission's mandate was to:

1. “Re-examine the critical issues of environment and development and to formulate

innovative, concrete, and realistic action proposals to deal with them;
2. strengthen international cooperation on environment and development and to
assess and propose new forms of cooperation that can break out of existing
patterns and influence policies and events in the direction of needed change; and
3. raise the level of understanding and commitment to action on the part of
individuals, voluntary organizations, businesses, institutes, and governments”
(1987: 347). “The Commission focused its attention in the areas of population,
food security, the loss of species and genetic resources, energy, industry, and
 human settlements - realizing that all of these are connected and cannot be treated
in isolation one from another”
The Brundtland Commission Report recognised that human resource development in the form of
poverty reduction, gender equity, and wealth redistribution was crucial to formulating strategies
for environmental conservation, and it also recognised that environmental-limits to economic
growth in industrialised and industrialising societies existed. The Brundtland Report claimed that
poverty reduces sustainability and accelerates environmental pressures – creating a need for the
balancing between economy and ecology.
The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the World Commission on Environment
and Development laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit and the
adoption of Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on
Sustainable Development.
The Earth Summit-1992
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the
'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global conference,
held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment Conference in
Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists,
representatives of the media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for
a massive effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment.
There were 7,000 diplomats and their staff. It was called "mother of all summits" because it was
"the biggest gathering of world leaders ever held“.
The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and environmental
factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how success in one sector requires action in
other sectors to be sustained over time. The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to
produce a broad agenda and a new blueprint for international action on environmental and
development issues that would help guide international cooperation and development policy in
the twenty-first century.
The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development was an attainable goal
for all the people of the world, regardless of whether they were at the local, national, regional or
international level. It also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and
environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet and
that such an integrated approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating and
balancing economic, social and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the way
we produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make decisions.
This concept was revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively debate within governments
and between governments and their citizens on how to ensure sustainability for development.
The issues addressed included:
systematic study of patterns of production — particularly the production of toxic components,
such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals
alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which delegates linked to
global climate change
new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in
cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke
the growing usage and limited supply of water
Achievements:
 1. Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United
Nations with regard to sustainable development. Agenda 21 is grouped
into 4 sections:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially
in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more
sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric
protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological
diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology,
and radioactive wastes.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth,
women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role
of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology
transfer, education, international institutions, and financial mechanisms.
2. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: It consisted 27
principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development. 
3. An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on
the Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto
Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Another agreement was to "not to carry
out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples that would
cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally
inappropriate".
4. Moreover, important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were
opened for signature:
Convention on Biological Diversity
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
5. Forest Principles
6. The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission on
Sustainable Development
World Summit on Sustainable Development:
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) or Earth Summit 2002 was held in
Johannesburg, South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. The World Summit on
Sustainable Development was also known as Earth Summit II or Rio +10 which was organised
after 10 years of the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro to develop consensus on the sustainable
development by the United Nations. It was convened to discuss sustainable development by the
United Nations. It was organized10 years after the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.

The summit focused the world's attention toward meeting difficult challenges, including
improving people's lives and conserving natural resources, with ever-increasing demands for
food, water, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services and economic security.
Outcomes of World Summit on Sustainable Development:
1. The Summit set the priorities for the detailing of the implementation plan and actions for the
countries on way of sustainability.
2. The Summit gives a political statement in the form of a "Johannesburg Declaration", to be
agreed by world leaders, reaffirming their commitment to work towards sustainable
development.
3. The Summit will serve as a platform for the launch of new partnership initiatives known as
"Type 2" outcomes -- by and between governments, NGOs and businesses, to tackle specific
problems and achieve measurable results.
The Earth Summit II or Rio +10 made the commitment to be one of the largest and important
global meetings ever held on the integration of economic, environmental and social decision-
making. It will focus on building a commitment at the highest levels of government and society
to better implement Agenda 21, the roadmap for achieving sustainable development adopted at
the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development -- the "Earth Summit" --
held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Rio +20
Overview
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) was held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil on 20 to 22 June 2012. It resulted in a focused political outcome document which
contains clear and practical measures for implementing sustainable development.
In Rio, Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals and converge with the
post 2015 development agenda. Rio+20 was one of the biggest international gatherings of 2012,
and the largest event in the history of the United Nations. It presented an opportunity to re-direct
and re-energise political commitment to the three dimensions of sustainable development:
economic growth, social improvement and environmental protection.
Objectives (3)
1. Securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development.
2. Assessing the progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.
3. Addressing new and emerging challenges.

Rio+20 focused on two themes:

1. A Green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication
2. The institutional framework for sustainable development
The main outcome of this conference was the adaptation of The Future We Want document.
Outcomes
Two highlights of Rio+20 were an agreement to develop a set of global sustainable development
goals (SDGs) and to establish a high-level political forum on sustainable development. The
outcomes document discusses how the green economy can be used as a tool to achieve
sustainable development; strengthens the United Nations Environment Programme, promotes
corporate sustainability reporting measures and takes steps to go beyond gross domestic product
to assess the well-being of a country.
The Future We Want also focuses on improving gender equity and recognises the important role
Indigenous knowledge plays in sustainable development. The document calls for countries to
strive to achieve a 'land degradation neutral' world (which will be implemented through the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification), to integrate planning and build
sustainable cities and urban settlements (through assistance to local authorities), to strengthen
risk assessments and to develop tools to reduce the risk of disasters.
The Conference also adopted ground-breaking guidelines on green economy policies.
Governments also agreed to strengthen the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) on
several fronts with action to be taken during the 67th session of the General Assembly.
Governments also adopted the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption
and production patterns.
The Conference also took forward-looking decisions on a number of thematic areas, including
energy, food security, oceans, cities, and decided to convene a Third International Conference on
SIDS in 2014.

Kyoto Protocol:
Kyoto Protocol is a global Agreement that set targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into
force in 2005. Kyoto Protocol aimed at combating global warming. The Kyoto Protocol is a
agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of
greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets
binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The
Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide
(CO2), Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
The Protocol operationalised the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC). 192 nations committed to reducing their emissions by an average of 5.2% by 2012,

which would represent about 29% of the world’s total emissions. Countries that ratified the

Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for specific periods and

participated in carbon credit trading. If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it

would receive a lower emissions limit in the following period.

Developed vs Developing Nations

Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current levels of GHG

emissions as a result of more than 150 years of unmitigated industrial activity, the Protocol

placed a heavier burden on them. 37 industrialised nations plus the EU were mandated to cut

their GHG emissions, while developing countries were asked to voluntarily comply; more than

100 developing countries, including China and India, were exempted from the treaty.
The Protocol separated countries into two groups: Annex I contained developed nations, and

Non-Annex I contained developing countries. Emission limits were placed on Annex I countries

only. Non-Annex I countries could invest in projects to lower emissions in their countries. For

these projects, developing countries earned carbon credits that they could trade or sell to

developed countries, allowing the developing nations a higher level of maximum carbon

emissions for that period. This effectively allowed developed countries to continue emitting

GHGs.

The Protocol established a monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance

system to ensure transparency and hold parties accountable. All countries’ emissions had to be

monitored and precise records of the trades kept through registry systems.

The Kyoto Mechanisms:

One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market
mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries
must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers
them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:
1. The Emissions trading - known as the carbon market it is envisaged as the key tool to
reduce GHG emissions at global level. According to the UNFCCC Secretariat it
was worth 30 billion USD in 2006 and keeps growing.

2. The Clean development mechanism, CDM – it is a project-based mechanism that

feeds the carbon market and involves investment in sustainable development
projects that reduce emissions in developing countries.

3. The Joint implementation, JI – it is a project-based mechanism that feeds the

carbon market and helps stimulate green investment by encouraging industrialised
countries to carry out joint implementation projects with other developed countries.
International Emissions Trading: Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto
Protocol, allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not
"used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets. Thus, a new
commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is
the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked
and traded like any other commodity. This is known as the "carbon market." More than actual
emissions units can be traded and sold under the Kyoto Protocols emissions trading scheme.
The other units which may be transferred under the scheme, each equal to one tonne of CO2,
may be in the form of:

 A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry
(LULUCF) activities such as reforestation
  An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project
 A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development
mechanismproject activity

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):  The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined
in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country to implement an emission-reduction project in
developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits,
each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. The
mechanism is seen by many as a pioneer. It is the first global, environmental investment and
credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs. A CDM
project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or
the installation of more energy-efficient boilers. The mechanism stimulates sustainable
development and emission reductions. A CDM project must provide emission reductions. The
projects must qualify through a rigorous and public registration and issuance process. 
Joint implementation (JI)
The mechanism known as "joint implementation", defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol,
allows a country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or
emission removal project in another developing countries, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2,
which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target. Joint implementation offers Parties a
flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host
Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer. A JI project must provide a
reduction in emissions by sources, or an enhancement of removals by sinks.

The Kyoto mechanisms:

 Stimulate sustainable development through technology transfer and investment
 Help countries with Kyoto commitments to meet their targets by reducing emissions or
removing carbon from the atmosphere in other countries in a cost-effective way
 Encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction
efforts
CDM and JI are the two project-based mechanisms which feed the carbon market. The CDM
involves investment in emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in developing
countries that contribute to their sustainable development, while JI enables developed countries
to carry out emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in other developed countries.

The Doha Amendment

After the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol ended in December 2012, parties to the

Protocol met in Doha, Qatar, to discuss an amendment to the original Kyoto agreement. The

Doha Amendment added new targets for the second commitment period, 2012-2020, for

participating countries, during which time parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at

least 18% below 1990 levels 

This was short-lived; in 2015, all UNFCCC participants signed another pact, the Paris Climate

Agreement, which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol.

Monitoring emission targets

The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review, compliance system and
verification system.  to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol,
countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades
carried out.

Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN
Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to
verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports
under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet
their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the
adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies
that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in
developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the
Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in
2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and
joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.

Carrying Capacity:
Can be defined as:

The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that specific

environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. 

The maximal population size of a given species that an area can support without reducing its
ability to support the same species in the future.

Carrying capacity is never static. It varies over time in response to gradual environmental
changes, perhaps associated with climatic change or the successional development of
ecosystems. More rapid changes in carrying capacity may be caused by disturbances of the
habitat occurring because of a fire or windstorm, or because of a human influence such as timber
harvesting, pollution, or the introduction of a non-native competitor, predator, or disease.
Carrying capacity can also be damaged by overpopulation, which leads to excessive exploitation
of resources and a degradation of the habitat’s ability to support the species. 
In the standard ecological algebra, carrying capacity is represented by the constant K:
dN
dt
=rN 1−
[ ] N
K
Where;
 N = population size, 
r= maximum growth rate, 
K= carrying capacity of the local environment, and 
dN/dt=rate of change in population with time.

Carrying capacity is a function of characteristics of both the area and the organism.

Types of Carrying Capacity:

Bio-Physical Carrying Capacity: The maximal population size that could be sustained
biophysically under given technological capabilities. When the population is at carrying capacity,
there is no fluctuation in the birth or death rates. But when there is an increase in the population size
above the carrying capacity, there is an overutilization of natural resources such as water, land, etc.

Also, there tends to be an increase in pollution-causing many environmental problems. Furthermore,

this increase leads to the spread of many diseases. These diseases cause health problems. It
increases death rates in comparison to birth rates.

Thus, the carrying capacity now becomes more as there is less consumption due to fewer births.
This causes the population to increase again. The cycle goes on and once at carrying capacity, stops
changing.

Thus, the importance of such a regulating factor in the carrying capacity can be assessed. Thus,
there should be an adequate use of natural resources, proper treatment of sewage, proper disposal of
waste.
 Social Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that could be sustained under a specified
social system and its associated pattern of resource consumption. Social dimensions of carrying
capacity include lifestyle aspirations, epidemiological factors, and patterns of socially controlled
resource distribution, the disparity between private and social costs, the difficulty in formulating
rational policy in the face of uncertainty, and various other features of human sociopolitical and
economic organization.

Sustainability and Carrying Capacity:

A sustainable condition, process, or activity is one that can be maintained without interruption,
weakening, or loss of valued qualities. Sustainability is thus a necessary and sufficient condition
for a population to be at or below carrying capacity. The wide appeal of sustainability as a
societal condition or goal reflects the moral conviction that the current generation should pass on
its inheritance of natural wealth–not unchanged but undiminished in potential–to support future
generations.

Carrying capacity and sustainability is a relative concept. Also, both are interrelated. Thus, the
conservation of ecology, biodiversity and other important aspects require the proper monitoring of
this concept. This must be done at respective intervals so that human beings are able to survive and
develop in an eco-friendly manner.

Environmental Myths:

Myth 1: Packaging is bad. Because of state-of-the-art packaging, the United States wastes less
food than any part of the world except Africa.

Myth 2: Plastics are bad. Without the use of plastics, total use of packaging materials
(measured by weight) would increase four-fold, energy consumption would double and the garbage
disposal would increase more than double.

Myth 3: Disposables are bad. Careful studies show that disposables are not necessarily worse
than reusable or recyclable products. For example, aseptic juice boxes (which are usually disposed
of, rather than recycled) have a clear edge over their alternatives by most measures. Consumers who
care mainly about landfills may choose cloth diapers. But consumers who care more about air and
water pollution and conserving water and energy might choose disposables, which may also be
preferable on the grounds of health and convenience. 

Myth 4: Recycling is always good. Recycling itself can cause environmental harm, e.g., more
fuel consumption and more air pollution. As a result, the environmental costs of recycling may
exceed any possible environmental benefits. 
 Myth 5: Recycling paper saves trees. Since most of the trees used to make paper are grown
explicitly for that purpose, if we use less paper, fewer trees will be planted and grown by
commercial harvesters. Recycling paper doesn't save trees, it reduces incentives to plant them. 

Myth 6: We cannot safely dispose of solid waste. This was a valid concern in the past. In
fact, 22 percent of Superfund sites (hazardous waste disposal areas) are former municipal landfills.
But things are different today. Government regulations and new technology permit the safe
disposal of solid waste -- in landfills or by waste-to-energy incineration --- without threat to
human health or the environment. Even without new improvements, the Environmental Protection
Agency estimates that the aggregate risk from all operating municipal solid waste landfills in the
United States is one cancer death every 23 years. 

Myth 7: We are running out of resources. Although all resources are finite, technology and
markets make it possible to use resources without exhausting them. That's why the international
price of virtually every raw material went down (reflecting abundance), not up (reflect ing scarcity)
over the past decade. 
Myth 8: Forests are in rapid decline.
Myth 9: Air quality is getting worse.
Myth 10: The Kyoto Protocol will successfully reduce levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Myth 11: All environmentalists are motivated by altruistic concern for the planet.
Myth 6: All environmentalists are peace loving and engage in traditional forms of civil
disobedience.
Myth 7: Businesses are not hurt by onerous environmental regulations.
Myth 8: Oil can easily be replaced by renewable energy.
Myth 9: Genetically modified (GM) crops are "bad."
Myth 10: We are running out of freshwater

Development Narrative:
Author Key conclusions and implications for development aid
and
narrative

Collier, P. Focus on those living in countries where the potential for growth is
The trapped. Engage a broader sweep of instruments beyond aid.
Bottom
Billion

Sachs, Development aid should be large, focused, and integrated. Governance

J. The and institutions will develop as growth occurs.
End of
Poverty

Easterly, W. Weak accountability means that the interventions of top-down planners

The White tend to fail.
 Man’s Be humble. Look for opportunities to support home-grown initiatives. Be
Burden better at listening in- country. Support real accountability – for yourselves
and for others.

Sachs, W. Climate change signals the biophysical limits of growth.

Global Link Northern domestic and Northern development efforts much
Challenges: more closely.
Climate There needs to be a convergence in resource use per unit of growth –
Chaos and the in North and South.
Future of Northern countries have to be prepared to act unilaterally on climate
Development change if necessary.

Chang, H-J. Rich countries want poor countries to do as they say, not as they did.
Bad Poor countries need selective, strategic integration with world economy.
Samaritans Tilt the playing field in favour of developing countries. Give them freer
access to open markets and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

Stiglitz, J. Fulfil G8 commitments; fairer trade; more open IPR; developed country
Making leadership on climate change; more responsible governance in North of
Globalization financial services, arms, narcotics.
Work Be more supportive of civil society to put more pressure on developed and
developing countries to make globalisation more inclusive.

Population, Environmental Impact and Natural Resources:

The impact (I) of any population can be expressed as a product of three characteristics: the
population's size (P), its affluence or per-capita consumption (A), and the environmental damage
(T) inflicted by the technologies used to supply each unit of consumption (Ehrlich and Ehrlich
1990, Ehrlich and Holdren 1971, Holdren and Ehrlich 1974).

I = PAT

These factors are not independent. For example, T varies as a nonlinear function of P, A, and
rates of change in both of these. This dependence is evident in the influence of population
density and economic activity on the choice of local and regional energy supply technologies
(Holdren 1991a) and on land management practices. Per-capita impact is generally higher in very
poor as well as in affluent societies.

In the I=PAT equation, the variable P represents the population of an area, such as the world.
Since the rise of industrial societies, human population has been increasing exponentially. This
has caused Thomas Malthus, Paul Ehrlich and many others to postulate that this growth would
continue until checked by widespread hunger and famine
The United Nations project that world population will increase from 7.7 billion today (2019) to
9.8 billion in 2050 and about 11.2 billion in 2100. These projections take into consideration that
population growth has slowed in recent years as women are having fewer children. This
phenomenon is the result of demographic transition all over the world. Although the UN projects
that human population may stabilize at around 11.2 billion in 2100, the I=PAT equation will
continue to be relevant for the increasing human impact on the environment in the short to mid-
term future.
Environmental impacts of population
Increased population increases humans' environmental impact in many ways, which include but
are not limited to:

 Increased land use - Results in habitat loss for other species

 Increased resource use - Results in changes in land cover
 Increased pollution - Can cause sickness and damages ecosystems
 Increased climate change
 Increased biodiversity loss
Affluence
The variable A in the I=PAT equation stands for affluence. It represents the average
consumption of each person in the population. As the consumption of each person increases, the
total environmental impact increases as well. A common proxy for measuring consumption is
through GDP per capita. While GDP per capita measures production, it is often assumed that
consumption increases when production increases. GDP per capita has been rising steadily over
the last few centuries and is driving up human impact in the I=PAT equation.
Environmental impacts of affluence
Increased consumption significantly increases human environmental impact. This is because
each product consumed has wide-ranging effects on the environment. For example, the
construction of a car has the following environmental impacts:

 605,664 gallons of water for parts and tires;

 682 lbs. of pollution at a mine for the lead battery;
 2178 lbs. of discharge into water supply for the 22 lbs. of copper contained in the car.
The more cars per capita, the greater the impact. Ecological impacts of each product are far-
reaching; increases in consumption quickly result in large impacts on the environment through
direct and indirect sources.
Technology
The T variable in the I=PAT equation represents how resource intensive the production of
affluence is; how much environmental impact is involved in creating, transporting and disposing
of the goods, services and amenities used. Improvements in efficiency can reduce resource
intensiveness, reducing the T multiplier. Since technology can affect environmental impact in
many different ways, the unit for T is often tailored for the situation to which I=PAT is being
applied. For example, for a situation where the human impact on climate change is being
measured, an appropriate unit for T might be greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP.
Environmental impacts of technology
Increases in efficiency from technologies can reduce specific environmental impacts, but due to
increasing prosperity these technologies yield for the people and businesses that adopt them,
technologies actually end up generating greater overall growth into the resources that sustain us.

Through out history, and especially during the twentieth century, environmental degradation has
primarily been a product of our efforts to secure improved standards of food, clothing, shelter,
comfort, and recreation for growing numbers of people. The magnitude of the threat to the
ecosystem is linked to human population size and resource use per person. Resource use, waste
production and environmental degradation are accelerated by population growth. They are
further exacerbated by consumption habits, certain technological developments, and particular
patterns of social organization and resource management.

As human numbers further increase, the potential for irreversible changes of far reaching
magnitude also increases. Indicators of severe environmental stress include the growing loss of
biodiversity, increasing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing deforestation worldwide,
stratospheric ozone depletion, acid rain, loss of topsoil, and shortages of water, food, and fuel-
wood in many parts of the world.
While both developed and developing countries have contributed to global environmental
problems, developed countries with 85% percent of the gross world product and 23% of its
population account for the largest part of mineral and fossil-fuel consumption, resulting in
significant environmental impacts. With current technologies, present levels of consumption by
the developed world are likely to lead to serious negative consequences for all countries. This is
especially apparent with the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and trace gases that have
accompanied industrialization, which have the potential for changing global climate and raising
sea level.
In both rich and poor countries, local environmental problems arise from direct pollution from
energy use and other industrial activities, inappropriate agricultural practices, population
concentration, inadequate environmental management, and inattention to environmental goals.
When current economic production has been the overriding priority and inadequate attention has
been given to environmental protection, local environmental damage has led to serious negative
impacts on health and major impediments to future economic growth. Restoring the
environment, even where still possible, is far more expensive and time consuming than
managing it wisely in the first place; even rich countries have difficulty in affording extensive
environmental remediation efforts.
The relationships between human population, economic development, and the natural
environment are complex. Examination of local and regional case studies reveals the influence
and interaction of many variables. For example, environmental and economic impacts vary with
population composition and distribution, and with rural-urban and international migrations.
Furthermore, poverty and lack of economic opportunities stimulate faster population growth and
increase incentives for environmental degradation by encouraging exploitation of marginal
resources.
Both developed and developing countries face a great dilemma in reorienting their productive
activities in the direction of a more harmonious interaction with nature. This challenge is
accentuated by the uneven stages of development. If all people of the world consumed fossil
fuels and other natural resources at the rate now characteristic of developed countries (and with
current technologies), this would greatly intensify our already unsustainable demands on the
biosphere. Yet development is a legitimate expectation of less developed and transitional
countries. This can be achieved, provided we are willing to undertake the requisite social change.
Given time, political will, and intelligent use of science and technology, human ingenuity can
remove many constraints on improving human welfare worldwide, finding substitutes for
wasteful practices, and protecting the natural environment.
Debates on Population Growth and Resource Scarcity:
Concerns about the balance between population and natural resources have existed ever since the
beginning of modern industrial expansion when, in 1798, they were articulately formulated by T.
R. Malthus (1766–1834) in the first edition of his An Essay on the Principle of
Population. Malthus's pessimistic conclusions–that "the power of population is indefinitely
greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man" and that "this natural
inequality … appears impossible in the way to the perfectability of society"–have been surely
among the most cited sentences of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. 
The economist David Ricardo (1772–1823) raised another concern regarding agricultural
resources in The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, published in 1817. He argued
that the new land brought into cultivation as population grows will be steadily less fertile, and
thus its produce increasingly costly.

Environmental Politics:

Environmental politics is an academic field of study focused on three core components:

1. The study of political theories and ideas related to the environment.

2. The examination of the political parties and environmental social movements.
3. The analysis of public policy-making and implementation affecting the environment.

Carrying Capacity:

Can be defined as:

The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that specific

environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. 

The maximal population size of a given species that an area can support without reducing its
ability to support the same species in the future.

Carrying capacity is never static. It varies over time in response to gradual environmental
changes, perhaps associated with climatic change or the successional development of
ecosystems. More rapid changes in carrying capacity may be caused by disturbances of the
habitat occurring because of a fire or windstorm, or because of a human influence such as timber
harvesting, pollution, or the introduction of a non-native competitor, predator, or disease.
Carrying capacity can also be damaged by overpopulation, which leads to excessive exploitation
of resources and a degradation of the habitat’s ability to support the species. 
In the standard ecological algebra, carrying capacity is represented by the constant K:
dN
dt
=rN 1−
[ ]N
K
Where;
 N = population size, 
r= maximum growth rate, 
K= carrying capacity of the local environment, and 
dN/dt=rate of change in population with time.

Carrying capacity is a function of characteristics of both the area and the organism.

Types of Carrying Capacity:

Bio-Physical Carrying Capacity: The maximal population size that could be sustained
biophysically under given technological capabilities. When the population is at carrying capacity,
there is no fluctuation in the birth or death rates. But when there is an increase in the population size
above the carrying capacity, there is an overutilization of natural resources such as water, land, etc.

Also, there tends to be an increase in pollution-causing many environmental problems. Furthermore,

this increase leads to the spread of many diseases. These diseases cause health problems. It
increases death rates in comparison to birth rates.

Thus, the carrying capacity now becomes more as there is less consumption due to fewer births.
This causes the population to increase again. The cycle goes on and once at carrying capacity, stops
changing.

Thus, the importance of such a regulating factor in the carrying capacity can be assessed. Thus,
there should be an adequate use of natural resources, proper treatment of sewage, proper disposal of
waste.

Social Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that could be sustained under a specified
social system and its associated pattern of resource consumption. Social dimensions of carrying
capacity include lifestyle aspirations, epidemiological factors, and patterns of socially controlled
resource distribution, the disparity between private and social costs, the difficulty in formulating
rational policy in the face of uncertainty, and various other features of human sociopolitical and
economic organization.

Sustainability and Carrying Capacity:

A sustainable condition, process, or activity is one that can be maintained without interruption,
weakening, or loss of valued qualities. Sustainability is thus a necessary and sufficient condition
for a population to be at or below carrying capacity. The wide appeal of sustainability as a
societal condition or goal reflects the moral conviction that the current generation should pass on
its inheritance of natural wealth–not unchanged but undiminished in potential–to support future
generations.

Carrying capacity and sustainability is a relative concept. Also, both are interrelated. Thus, the
conservation of ecology, biodiversity and other important aspects require the proper monitoring of
this concept. This must be done at respective intervals so that human beings are able to survive and
develop in an eco-friendly manner.

What are Natural Resources?

Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions.
Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of humankind.These are the
resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the intervention of
humans. Common examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water, soil, stone, plants,
animals and fossil fuels.
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be useful
under conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the
earth, supplies such as food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water and
geothermal power. For a long time, natural resources were the domain of the natural sciences.
Different Cultural Views about Nature:
 Our view of nature and the environment are culturally bound
Western View of the Environment
Man as superior to other creatures.
God gave man dominion over plants and animals
Garden of Eden story
Implicit theory of stewardship but freedom to use nature to improve life
Non-Western View of the Environment
Man seen as part of nature, not separate from it or superior to it
Nature viewed in spiritual terms
Man shouldn’t seek to control nature but work with it, preserve it
Gods or spirits may inhabit nature
See change a cyclical rather than linear
Social responsibilities more important
Educated elites frequently share a more western view of the environment
Hindus worship various natural components as God, such as Surya Deva (Sun), Chandra Deva
(Moon), Jal Devata or Barun (water), Pipal tree, Tulsi (as the lord Bishnu), etc.
Various creatures are also worshipped in the Hindu tradition: Nag Devata (snake), Gau Mata
(cow as mother).
There is respectable place for various animals: dog, crow, ox, cow etc are treated with respect in
various Hindu festivals.
 What are the Different Types of Natural Resources?
Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:

1. Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly
are called renewable resources. Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some
of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their
quantities are not noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable
resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to
depletion by over-use. Resources from a human use perspective are classified as
renewable so long as the rate of replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of
consumption. They replenish easily compared to non-renewable resources. Example:
Forest, wind, water, etc.
2. Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable
nature and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable
resources. on-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the
environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this category. From the
human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds
the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in
this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of
years), meaning they are considered non-renewable. Some resources naturally deplete in
amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active
elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic
minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot
be recycled. Once they are completely used they take millions of years to
replenish.Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.Difference between Renewable and
Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed due to

infinite quantity limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

1. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to survive on this planet.
So, it is necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
2. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater. Initiative
to educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
3. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow.
 4. Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weapons, transportation and
buildings
5. Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and construction projects
also increases. Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the world.

Cross Cultural Perspective on the Environment:

 The term ‘cross-cultural’ refers to comparing or dealing with two or more different
cultures.
 Cultural values influence attitudes to environment.
 Culture is an inescapable aspect of any human phenomenon, including how people shape
environments, use them and interact with them.
 There is relationship between culture and nature as reflected in the traditions of a variety
of places.
 Different cultures attach meanings to environment or nature in different ways.
 Humans through their various actions have dramatically changed the Earth, and our
attitudes towards Nature, formed at least in part through acceptance of certain pieces of
religious doctrine, are largely responsible.

Poverty and Environment:

Two of the most important global issues today are pervasive poverty and problems related to
environmental degradation. The causal factors are complex. Since the 1970s it has been almost
universally agreed that poverty and environmental degradation are inextricably linked. Holmberg
(1991) pointed out that the relationship between the environment and poverty is not so straight
forward. Insufficient attention had been paid to some spontaneous and field experience and 
that there was even a possibility of conflict between the goals of poverty alleviation and
environmental protection.
The environment-poverty nexus is a two-way relationship. Environment affects poverty
situations in three distinct dimensions:
i. by taking sources of livelihoods of poor people,
ii. by affecting their health and
iii. by influencing their vulnerability.
On the other hand, poverty also affects environment in various ways:
i. by forcing poor people to degrade environment,
ii. by encouraging countries to promote economic growth at the expense of environment,
and
iii. by inducing societies to downgrade environmental concerns, including failing to channel
resources to address such concerns. 

Effect of Poverty on Environment:

Internationally, there is a known correlation between poverty and environmental degradation.
Because of lack of money, education, and concern, poor families disregard the environment to
uphold a “survival mentality". Poor countries do not see the environment as priority because of
all the other problems happening within the society, so nothing is done to conserve.
The World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) wrote
(1987): "Poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore
futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that
encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality.” The links
between poverty and environment were also seen to be self-enforcing. The Commission also
wrote: “Many parts of the world are caught in a vicious downwards spiral: poor people are
forced to overuse environmental resources to survive from day to day, and their impoverishment
of their environment further impoverishes them, making their survival ever more difficult and
uncertain.” 
Poverty impacts the environment negatively. The definition of poverty is being unable to
meet one’s basic needs. Such needs include food, water, shelter, healthcare and education.
Roughly half the world’s people live in such conditions. Their focus is on obtaining the basic
needs for short-term survival. Many of these people are forced to deplete or degrade forests,
rivers, fields, and soil. These groups don’t have the privilege to be concerned about
environmental impact. Many poor people throughout the world die very prematurely from health
problems as a result of environmental degradation.

One such problem is a lack of access to properly sanitized facilities. More than a third of
the world’s population does not have adequate bathrooms. They have no choice other than to use
outdoor fields and streams for elimination. The result is that over a billion people obtain water
from sources that are contaminated from human and animal waste. A second problem would be
malnutrition. People living in poverty stricken environments do not receive sufficient amount of
nutrients for proper health. Many of these people die at a young age from normally treatable
illnesses. The third most common problem is respiratory illness. In poorer areas people rely on
burning wood or coal within their own homes as a means of cooking or just staying warm. Such
actions lead them to breathe in high concentrations of indoor air pollutants. The World Health
Organization states that about seven million people die each year from these conditions. About
two thirds of these people are children under the age of five.

Poverty among people puts stress on the environment whereas environmental problems cause
severe suffering to the poor. People, whether they be rich or poor, consume water, food, and
natural resources in order to remain alive. All economic activities are directly, indirectly or
remotely based on natural resources and any pressure on natural resources can cause
environmental stress. Environmental damage can prevent people, especially the poor, from
having good and hygienic living standards. As poor people rely more directly on the
environment than the rich for their survival, they are mostly on the receiving end of
environmental problems
Poverty often causes people to put relatively more pressure on the environment which results in
larger families (due to high death rates and insecurity), improper human waste disposal leading
to unhealthy living conditions, more pressure on fragile land to meet their needs,
overexploitation of natural resources and more deforestation. Insufficient knowledge about
agricultural practices can also lead to a decline in crop yield and productivity etc.
One of the biggest ways that the environment is affected by poverty is through deforestation.
Forests provide the world with clean air, in addition to working as “sink holes” that help reduce
the drastic climate changes seen in the world today. With the increasing level of deforestation
taking place, the environment is taking a heavy blow and finding it difficult to recover.
Impoverished communities, unaware of the errant, harmful ways in which they use natural
resources, such as forest wood and soil, are continuing the destructive cycle that spirals the
environment further downward.

Air pollution is another way in which poverty contributes to environmental degradation. As

mentioned above, poor communities lack the proper knowledge when it comes to production
techniques. Thus, the ways in which they use resources to help them survive are harmful to the
resources around them, and ultimately the world at large. Air pollution is one of the major
consequences of poor production techniques while water pollution is a result of poor water
management, once again due to lack of knowledge. Water pollution affects so many things
beyond the poor community itself. Water pollution deprives soil of nourishing elements, kills off
fish, and is extremely harmful to human health.

Because extreme poverty doesn’t always lend to widespread birth education, many poor women
lack the resources necessary to engage in birth control. Therefore, it is common for poor women
to continue having children well after they would have liked because of little to no access to
resources and education.

The more the global population grows, the more weight is placed on the environment. Every
human being consumes their share of resources from the environment, and with so many births
originating from poor communities, the burdens placed on the environment grow heavier and
heavier each day.
Effect of Environment on Poverty (Poor People)
On the other hand environmental problems add more to the miseries of poor people.
Environmental problems cause more suffering among them as environmental damage increases
the impact of floods and other environmental catastrophes. Soil erosion, land degradation and
deforestation lead to a decline in food production along with a shortage of wood for fuel
contribute to inflation. In short, the worst consequences of environmental deterioration, whether
they be economical, social, or related to mental or physical wellbeing, are experienced by poor
people.
A number of studies have been carried out on how both poverty and wealth have impacted on the
environment, resulting in a number of environmental threats such as degradation of the soil,
water and marine resources which are essential for life supporting systems, pollution which is
becoming health threatening, loss of biodiversity and global climatic changes which jeopardize
the very existence of life on the planet. 
Effect of Affluence on the Environment:           

Affluence affects the environment both positively and negatively. However, the negative effects
of affluence on the environment are far greater than those caused by poverty. People who live in
well-developed areas such Europe, Canada, and the US, or rapidly developing areas such as
China and India exist in high consumer societies. Such a lifestyle leads to unnecessary depletion
of resources. Such affluence has terrible consequences for the environment. G. Tyler Miller and
Scott E. Spoolman give us a more specific example of this disparity. “While the United States
has far fewer people than India, the average American consumes about 30 times as much as the
average citizen of India and 100 times as much as the average person in the world’s poorest
countries.” The environmental impact caused by one person in the US is far greater the average
environmental impact caused by someone in an undeveloped country.

            The flip side is that affluence can also be a source of help for the environment. People
living in well-developed societies have the luxury to be more concerned about environmental
impact. Affluent societies have the financial means to invest in technological research that can
reduce pollution and other forms of consumer waste. Wealthier nations tend to have cleaner air
and water. The food supplies are also better sanitized which leads to longer life spans. Money
has the power to improve environmental status since it can finance scientific research. Wealthier
societies also generally have higher levels of education, which encourages people to demand that
governments and corporations be more environmentally friendly. 

Gender Aspect of Food Security in Nepal

Food Security

Food security is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is
considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. The World
Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all times have access
to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life".

Commonly, the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic
access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences. Household
food security exists when all members have access to enough food for an active, healthy life.
Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or unavailability of
critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel
shortages, economic instability, and wars.

Pillars of Food Security:

The WHO states that there are three pillars that determine food security: food availability, food
access, and food use and misuse. In 2009, the World Summit on Food Security stated that the
"four pillars of food security are availability, access, utilization, and stability".
1. Availability
Food availability relates to the supply of food through production, distribution, and exchange. 
a. Food production: It is determined by a variety of factors including land ownership and
use; soil management; crop selection, breeding, and management; livestock breeding and
management; and harvesting. It can be affected by changes in rainfall and
temperatures. The use of land, water, and energy to grow food often competes with other
uses can affect food production. It is not required for a country to achieve food security.
 Nations don't have to have the natural resources required to produce crops in order to
achieve food security, as seen in the examples of Japan and Singapore.]
b. Food distribution: It involves the storage, processing, transport, packaging, and marketing
of food. Food-chain infrastructure and storage technologies on farms can also affect the
amount of food wasted in the distribution process. Poor transport infrastructure can
increase the price of supplying water and fertilizer as well as the price of moving food to
national and global markets. Around the world, few individuals or households are
continuously self-reliant for food. This creates the need for a bartering, exchange, or cash
economy to acquire food.
c. Exchange of Food: It requires efficient trading systems and market institutions, which
can affect food security. Per capita world food supplies are more than adequate to provide
food security to all, and thus food accessibility is a greater barrier to achieving food
security.
2. Access
Food access refers to the affordability and allocation of food, as well as the preferences of
individuals and households. The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights noted
that the causes of hunger and malnutrition are often not a scarcity of food but an inability to
access available food, usually due to poverty. Poverty can limit access to food, and can also
increase how vulnerable an individual or household is to food price spikes. Access depends on
whether the household has enough income to purchase food at prevailing prices or has sufficient
land and other resources to grow its own food. Households with enough resources can
overcome unstable harvests and local food shortages and maintain their access to food. There are
two distinct types of access to food:
a. Direct access: A household produces food using human and material resources.
b. Economic access: A household purchases food produced elsewhere. 

Location can affect access to food and which type of access a family will rely on. The
assets of a household, including income, land, products of labor, inheritances, and gifts
can also determine a household's access to food.
3. Utilization
It refers to the metabolism of food by individuals. Once food is obtained by a household, a
variety of factors affect the quantity and quality of food that reaches members of the household.
In order to achieve food security, the food ingested must be safe and must be enough to meet the
physiological requirements of each individual.
4. Stability
Food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over time. Food insecurity can be transitory,
seasonal, or chronic.
a. Transitory food insecurity: In this food insecurity food may be unavailable during certain
periods of time. At the food production level, natural disasters and drought result in crop
failure and decreased food availability. Civil conflicts can also decrease access to food.
Instability in markets resulting in food-price spikes can cause transitory food insecurity.
Other factors that can temporarily cause food insecurity are loss of employment or
productivity, which can be caused by illness.
 b.  Seasonal food: This insecurity can result from the regular pattern of growing seasons in
food production.
c. Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity: It is defined as the long-term, persistent lack of
adequate food. In this case, households are constantly at risk of being unable to acquire
food to meet the needs of all members. Chronic and transitory food insecurity are linked,
since the reoccurrence of transitory food security can make households more vulnerable
to chronic food insecurity.
Gender inequalities, patriarchal norms, low social status, and lack of access to resources leads to
lower access to food and nutrition security among girls and women. Similarly, children, pregnant
women, lactating and nursing mothers will have specialised needs for food and nutrition. This is
not explicitly addressed while discussing food and nutrition security.
Traditionally, women are relegated to the role of caregiver and food manager in a household.
Women often allocate meals to others before themselves, hampering their own food intake. An
increase in family members owing to reverse migration from urban to rural or foreign migrants
has added the fear of placing lesser food on women’s plates given the fixed size of food
availability. 
Women in agriculture comprise 57.2 percent of the total labour employed. But the contribution
of women in food production and security is hardly recognised due to the predominance of the
patriarchal norms, inequalities in land ownership, access and control of livelihood assets and
poor decision-making status. The situation has worsened now because the extension of the
lockdown during peak harvesting season resulted in the shortage of seeds, fertilisers and
agricultural inputs which may hinder agriculture production domestically.
Apart from this, children, pregnant women and lactating and nursing mothers who have
specialised needs for food and nutrition will suffer the most given the present situation.
According to 2016’s demographic and health survey, 17 percent of women of reproductive age
are thin or undernourished. If the women of reproductive age or lactating mothers and their
children do not get adequate nutrition, cases of malnutrition will increase. The scarring effects of
malnutrition will remain for a more extended period in life, and reversing the impact of
malnutrition can be very costly, if not impossible. Similarly, female-headed households are
generally food insecure due to disadvantages regarding access to land, labour market, access to
credit, discriminating cultural norms, restricted mobility and ‘double day burden’ on their heads.
Women’s access to adequate food security, both for themselves and their families is dependent,
not only on their economic status, but on their own health, education and social status within the
family and in society. Women with low status tend to have weaker control over household
resources, tighter time constraints, less access to information and health services, poorer mental
health and lower self esteem. These factors are thought to be closely tied to woman’s own
nutritional status and the quality of care they receive and in turn to children’s birth weights and
the quality of care they receive
Gender inequality is one of the drivers of food insecurity, as the consistent social and economic
marginalization of women and girls results in lower access to food and less autonomy to make
the right choices regarding feeding and care giving practices. Women in Nepal have on average
less access to education and employment opportunities, and less control over productive
resources than do men. In addition, women’s ownership of key resources like land and housing,
and their decision-making power within the household has traditionally been limited. Though
officially outlawed and punishable by fines and imprisonment, practices such as chhaupadi, the
physical isolation of women and girls during menstruation, persist in parts of the country. These
practices also deny women and girls a nutritious diet during this period, exacerbating nutrition-
related health issues. There has been some gradual progress made in evening out this gender
imbalance. The gender gaps in education, health and in political representation have improved
over time. Women’s ownership of fixed assets increased to about 20 % from 10.8 % in 2001.
These advances have signaled a lowering of gender inequalities, although stark regional
disparities still exist.
The present situation of food insecurity is the manifestation of the structural inequalities and
discrimination faced by women. The intersectionality of women and caste, class and
geographical locations further intensifies problems faced by women. Hence, addressing women’s
food insecurity should be seen from the perspective of gender empowerment. To address the
food insecurity arising from the current pandemic, targeted nutritional and food stamps should be
provided to pregnant and lactating women, widows, and single women. Similarly, priority
women at local level employment programmes and a smooth supply of essential foods can be
some areas where between different levels of government coordinate with each other. It is
imperative to have universal as well as targeted policies and programmes to address gender-
specific food insecurity.

Gender Aspect of Natural Resource Management:

Natural resources are fundamental to sustaining the human population because they serve as the
basis for many of the goods and services on which humans depend including food, energy,
clothes, manufacturing, medicine and sanitation. Across the world, the rural poor have the
greatest dependence on natural resources; there are over 1.3 billion subsistence farmers, hunters
and gatherers, waged farm labourers and fishers that require access to land, water and
plant/animal species for their livelihoods1 . Approximately 60 million indigenous people rely
fully on forests for survival; in developing countries, roughly 1.2 billion people depend upon
agroforestry farming systems to increase agricultural yields and make a living. The condition of
natural resources relates closely to the sustainability and quality of human livelihoods,
particularly within the developing world and for individuals living in harsh environmental
conditions.
As competition for natural resources grows, it is likely that the rural poor – particularly women –
will be hit the hardest.
Gender Inequalities in Natural Resource Management:
■ Typically, women and men have different roles and responsibilities when it comes to the use
and management of natural resources, such as land, water, forests, trees, biomass (fuelwood,
dung, etc.), livestock and fisheries.
Women and girls tend to have responsibility for sourcing, collecting and transporting natural
resources for domestic purposes. In the majority of developing countries, men are more prone to
use natural resources for commercial purposes (agriculture, fishing, timber). For example:
In crop production, it is common for men to prioritise (market-orientated) cash crops for export,
whereas women agriculturalists tend to focus more on food crops for the household and
community (FAO et al., 2009; IFAD 2010).
In developing countries, national food security often rests upon women's production of food
crops (Open Society Foundations, 2014).
In nearly all developing countries, women and girls are the main individuals responsible for
collecting, transporting and managing water for domestic use (drinking, cleaning, etc.) (IFAD,
2012). Men and boys are likely to have other roles and priorities in relation to water supply and
sanitation, such as watering livestock and undertaking irrigated agriculture
■ Often, the domestic responsibilities of women and girls in relation to natural resources
management result in significant time burdens for them, undermining their ability to undertake
productive activities, such as education, decision-making and entrepreneurship.
Women spend up to 3-4 hours each day collecting household fuel . On average, women in many
developing countries are estimated to walk 6 km daily in order to collect water (UNFPA, 2002).
Women in women-headed households have highlighted water and fuelwood collection as one of
their most time-intensive responsibilities. (FAO/IFAD 2003, cited in FAO et al., 2009).
■ Women and men do not have the same rights and ability to access natural resources (land,
trees, water, animals, etc.). Although the situation differs, women generally do not have as many
ownership rights as men (SIDA, n.d.). Despite their role as food producers, women do not
normally own the land that they cultivate or have stable control (e.g. long-term lease) (ibid.). For
example, women may have land-use rights rather than ownership rights, or may be more
dependent on communal property (relative to men). These circumstances undermine women's
ability to influence the control of the land and its products, as well as to produce food,
accumulate income, gain access to agricultural credit and have expectations of long-term
stability.
■ Limited access to secure land tenure has a knock-on effect on women's ability to access other
natural resources, such as water and trees (IFAD, 2012; CIFOR, 2013). For instance, tree rights
are often linked to land rights. Due to having fewer formal land rights, women may have to
travel long distances to collect fuel, despite having local trees closer to their homes (on private
land). Alternatively, they may have to collect other types of fuel, such as dung and stalks.
■ Biodiversity loss and the growing competition over natural resources is likely to hit the rural
poor hardest, particularly women.
More than three-quarters (76%) of the world's extreme poor live in rural areas (World Bank and
IMF, 2013). Poor rural households in developing countries are often those that depend the most
upon local ecosystems – including the genetic diversity of natural resources – for their
livelihoods. Many lack the productive resources to cope with rapid changes to ecosystems (IFAD
2010). Gender-based inequalities in access to land, credit, information, markets and other
productive resources put women on the frontline of these risks. For instance, in the division of
resources, women are often left with the most instable, marginal lands, which are particularly
susceptible to environmental shocks. Land degradation and deforestation also impacts upon
common property, on which many poor rural women rely for natural resources such as fuelwood,
fodder and food. In general, land and water degradation increase food scarcity, malnutrition and
instability (all of which affect the pool of natural resources).
■ Reduced access to natural resources can lead to significant rises in women's labour, such as the
distances they must travel and the amount of time they must spend collecting household food,
water and fuel (UNEP/CBD, 2010). Lower access to resources can also heighten risks to
women's health and security (for example, longer journeys can increase women's susceptibility to
gender-based violence; degradation of water can bring greater likelihood of contracting
waterborne diseases – such as cholera and diarrhea – during the process of collection). Land
degradation can bring additional social costs, such as the migration of men from rural
communities, leaving women to take on the traditional 'male responsibilities', but without the
same ability as men to access supporting resources (for example, financial services, technology,
social networks) (Lambrou and Laub 2004).
■ There are signs that natural disasters, to which women are particularly vulnerable, are
becoming more common. Long-term climate changes are expected to increase the incidence of
extreme weather events, such as droughts, heat waves and tropical cyclones (IPCC, 2007). There
are some signs to suggest that women are more vulnerable to these than men, largely due to
social norms influencing the construction of gender roles and overrepresentation of women
amongst vulnerable groups in society (e.g. the poor, the elderly) (Neumayer and Plümper, 2007).
These events also have an impact upon the pool of available natural resources.
Several Structural and Cultural factors causing gender inequalities in Natural Resource
Management
■ Legal systems (both formal and customary) of land ownership can discriminate against
women:
■ Women may face institutional barriers when seeking to exercise influence and control over
natural resources.
■ Socio-cultural norms and practices may undermine women's access to secure natural resources.
For example, in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, the bonojibi community traditionally believe that
the forest Goddess does not permit women to enter the forest, due to their impurity. Such
practices undermine women's power to collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) (wild honey,
essential oils, etc.), which can be an important source of extra income for them (UNREDD et al.,
2013). Traditional practices can also undermine women's rights to water and land. For instance,
women farmers are often allocated the most marginal and vulnerable lands.
■ Social norms may also impact upon women's ability take full advantage of markets. Relative
to men, women may have trouble in taking full advantage of markets, for example due to lower
rates of literacy and limited access to private transport, information and commercial networks. In
some areas, women are more like to sell domestic crops in local markets, whereas men more
likely to focus on national/international markets.
Ways to address gender inequalities in Natural Resource Management:
■ Make use and create demand for sex-disaggregated data, for example on land tenure and the
membership of forest user groups and water user associations.
■ Ensure that women’s needs and priorities are voiced, understood and addressed.
■ Avoid reinforcing gender inequalities, by ignoring the existing gender relations and power
disparities between women and men.
■ Plan gender-specific actions, to address problems relating more particularly to one or the other
gender, either as separate initiatives or as part of larger programmes. For instance, women-
focused enterprises and cooperatives can be an important way of strengthening women's position
in the market, especially their bargaining power (UNREDD et al., 2013).
■ Adopt longer term “transformative” perspectives, supporting women’s participation in
decision-making and changing prevalent negative attitudes on women’s leadership capacities and
social roles
■ Engage men, creating awareness on gender disparities and proving the benefits of gender
equality for communities.
Gender aspects of climate change
Global climate change is expected to have serious impacts on the world’s natural resources and
the livelihoods of those who depend on them. Climate related disasters and increasing climate
variability force people to adapt. Gender is an important factor in climate change debates and
particularly in adaptation to climate change. The relation between gender and climate change can
in simple terms be described as follows: 1. The poor are most vulnerable to climatic changes and
have the least capacity to adapt. As 70% of the poor is female, women will suffer
disproportionally. 2. Women are disproportionally affected by diseases and disasters, both as
persons as well as in their capacity as caretakers of family members; Climate change will have
major impacts on subsistence agriculture, because it has a relatively high dependence on natural
endowments; Climate change will have a major impact on water availability. Since domestic
water use does not tend to get priority (yet) over others forms of water use (irrigation, large scale
hydro, etc.), women will be disproportionally affected; Climate change will cause an increase in
malaria, and women are particularly vulnerable to malaria. Also, pregnant women are more
vulnerable to diseases in general, and climate change will increase the occurrence of diseases;
The same goes for disasters: women tend to be less protected, and therefore will suffer more
from the predicted increase in weather-related disasters. 3. Women play a much more important
role in domestic water provision, subsistence agriculture, post-disaster management. They have a
lot of practical knowledge about sustainable, small-scale land and water use, as well as of
disaster management. This presents and opportunity as well as a risk: Women have knowledge
that has not been explored yet, and not translated into policies. This knowledge is a non
recognised source of innovative ideas that will potentially increase adaptive capacities on local
as well as national levels; Current policy processes lack participation by women. Therefore,
these processes neglect a potential source of innovative knowledge. At the same time, by not
taking the potential and needs of women into account, they threaten to increase women’s
vulnerability to climate change, and decrease their adaptive capacities, e.g. by focusing on large-
scale, high-tech and centralised ‘solutions’ that do not allow female participation in management
and implementation.
Social Impact Assessment:
Social Impact Assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and managing the
intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of planned
interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects) and any social change processes invoked by
those interventions. Goldman and Baum (2000:7) define Social Impact Assessment (SIA) as a
method of analyzing what impacts actions may have on the social aspects of the environment.
Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human
environment.
Advantages of SIA:

 Identifying Affected Groups: SIA helps in identifying people and groups who affect or
are affected by the project
 Allying Fears and Winning Trust: SIA can help allay fears of affected groups and
build a basis of trust and cooperation which is so essential for successful project
implementation
 Avoiding Adverse Impacts: SIA provides the basis for preparing mitigation measures
to avoid, reduce or manage adverse impacts
 Enhancing Positive Impacts: SIA preparation also helps identify measures to
maximize/share project benefits
 Reducing Costs: Addressing social impacts at an early stage helps to avoid costly
errors in future
 Getting Approval Faster: A well prepared SIA demonstrates that social impacts are
taken seriously and helps in getting project clearance faster
Stages in Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
A social impact assessment process, as WCD (2000) envisaged, should be built on three
elements:

 A detailed assessment of the socio-economic conditions of the people who may be

negatively affected (Cernea’s risk assessment model can be useful);
 A detailed study of the impacts in terms of the extent of displacement, the loss of
livelihoods, the second-order impacts as a result of submergence, construction mitigation
measures, downstream impacts, and host communities; and
 A detailed plan to mitigate these impacts and an assessment of the costs of such
measures.

40 This chapter outlines the steps involved in carrying out the Social Impact Assessment
process, and includes suggestions on how to follow them. (IOCPGSIA 1994)

Step 1: Define the Impact Area

The first step is to define the Area of Impact. The size of the area varies according to a project. A
dam submerges a large, contiguous geographic area affecting several villages. The impact from a
highway and other linear projects occurs along the corridor as small strips of land on either side
of the road. The SIA team must get a map showing clearly demarcated area that will be affected
by the project (both directly and indirectly).
In addition, field visit to the area needs to be undertaken to have a better understanding of the
geographic limits of the area and the people living there.

Step 2: Identify Information/Data Requirements and their Sources

Review the existing data on impacts likely to follow from the project to see if that could be used
for assessment purposes. This may provide disaggregated data according to caste, religion, sex
and other administrative categories, such as persons below poverty line. The secondary should be
checked as much for its adequacy as for its reliability.
This review will also help identify the need for collection of additional primary data through
surveys and participatory methods.

Step 3: Involve All Affected Stakeholders

Share information and consult with all stakeholders. Stakeholders are people, groups, or
institutions which are likely to be affected by a proposed intervention (either negatively or
positively), or those which can affect the outcome of the intervention. Develop and implement an
effective public involvement plan to involve all interested and affected stakeholders. The first
step in developing plans for consultation and participation is to identify stakeholders who will be
involved in the consultative processes. The basic questions to consider in identifying
stakeholders include:

 Who will be directly or indirectly and positively and negatively affected?

 Who are the most vulnerable groups?
 Who might have an interest or feel that they are affected?
  Who supports or opposes the changes that the project will produce?
 Whose opposition could be detrimental to the success of the project?
 Whose cooperation, expertise, or influence would be helpful to the success of the
project?

Step 4: Conduct Screening

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) process begins with screening. Screening is undertaken in the
very beginning stages of project development. The purpose of screening is to screen out “no
significant impacts” from those with significant impacts and get a broad picture of the nature,
scale and magnitude of the issues.
This helps in determining the scope of detailed SIA that would be subsequently carried out.

Step 5: Carry Out Scoping in the Field

The next step is scoping. Essentially, this involves visit to the project site, and consultation with
all stakeholders. It is important to confirm their understanding of key issues. On-site appreciation
of impacts is indispensable for projects that cause displacement on a large scale. The local
knowledge can be invaluable in finding alternatives that help avoid or at least reduce the
magnitude and severity of adverse impacts.
This is an initial assessment of likely impacts and not meant to determine the level of impact. It
should only identify all of the issues and affected groups to get ‘all the cards on the table’
The next step is undertaking Social Impact Assessment and the following are the major
activities:

Step 6: Prepare a Socioeconomic Profile of Baseline Condition

To assess the extent of social impacts, it is necessary to assess the socio-economic conditions of
the affected people. This assessment generally involves conducting a socioeconomic survey and
a broad based consultation with all affected groups.
The socioeconomic profiling should not be restricted to adversely affected population. The
survey should include those who benefit from the employment and other economic opportunities
generated by the project.

Step 7: Survey of Host Population

This survey is carried out to see that in the host area enough land, income earning opportunities
and other resources exist to sustain additional population from the affected area, and that this
influx does not put pressure on local resources that the host population may resent. The other
important thing to see is that the people being relocated and the hosts are socially from a similar
socio-cultural background. The similarity in background helps greatly reduce social/ethnic
frictions.

Step 8: Identify and Assess the Impacts

Once the range of impacts that are predictable has been identified, the next step is to determine
their significance (that is, whether they are acceptable, require mitigation, or are unacceptable).
Since many impacts are not quantifiable, it is impossible to rank them objectively. The
community perceptions of an impact and those of the SIA team are not necessarily the same. The
affected people should therefore be consulted in ranking impacts.
If impacts are found unacceptable, the SIA must clearly state that giving reasons. Generally, the
Social Impact Assessment is expected to result in specific mitigation plans to address relevant
social/resettlement issues and potential impacts.

Step 9: Develop a Mitigation Plan

Develop a mitigation plan to firstly avoid displacement, secondly to minimize it, and thirdly to
compensate for adverse impacts. The major contribution of a SIA study is to help plan for,
manage, and then mitigate any negative impacts (or enhance any positive ones) that may arise
due to a proposed project.

Step 10: Monitoring

After the mitigation plan has been implemented, it should be monitored. A monitoring
programme should be developed that is capable of identifying deviations from the proposed
action and any important unanticipated impacts. This should track project and program
development and compare real impacts with projected ones. It should spell out (to the degree
possible) the nature and extent of additional steps that should take place when unanticipated
impacts or those larger than the projections occur.

Principles of SIA:
(1): Involve the Diverse Public

It is important to first identify all potentially affected groups and individuals, and involve
them throughout the SIA process. This involvement must reach out to groups that are routinely
excluded from decision making due to cultural, linguistic and economic barriers (lower caste and
tribal groups, minorities and poor people). The involvement should be truly interactive, with
communication flowing both ways between the agency and affected groups. This engagement
will ensure that stakeholder groups understand what the project is about and the possible ways it
might affect them, both positive and negative.

(2): Analyze Impact Equity

Projects affect different groups differently. Impacts should therefore be specified

differentially for affected groups, not just measured in the aggregate. Identification of all groups
likely to be affected is central to the concept of impact equity. There will always be winners and
losers as a result of the decision to build a dam or undertake some other development work. SIA
should identify who will win and who will lose, but no groups and individuals that are
considered vulnerable due to race, ethnicity, caste, gender, occupation, age or other factors
should have to bear the brunt of adverse social impacts.

(3): Focus the Assessment

 Often, time and resources available for doing social impact assessment are very limited.
In such circumstances, the best course is to focus on the most significant social impacts, giving
high priority to impacts identified by the people themselves. It is well known that some groups
low in power do not usually participate in project preparation stage, but SIA must ensure that
their concerns are fully addressed. At the same time, the role of SIA practitioners in impact
analysis and assessment remains important. They have the expertise to help prioritize issues, and
are able to identify impacts often missed out by the people themselves.

In addition to impacts on households, an accurate assessment of loss to the community

assets also needs to be carried out. This impact assessment should include the following: (a)
Common property resources, (b) Public structures, (c) Cultural property, and (d) Infrastructure

(4): Identify Methods and Assumptions and Define Significance

SIA should use easily understood methods and assumptions that are transparent and
replicable. The methods and assumptions used in the SIA should be made publicly available. A
brief summary should clearly describe the methods used, the assumptions made, and the
significance of impacts determined. This will allow decision makers as well as affected people to
evaluate the assessment process.

(5): Provide Feedback on Social Impacts to Project Planners

The SIA findings are inputs for designing a project to mitigate negative impacts and
enhance positive impacts. The project design process must ensure that all affected and interested
persons get an opportunity to comment on the draft before it is given a final shape.

(6): Use SIA Practitioners

Trained social scientists using social science research methods alone will get the best
results. An experienced SIA practitioner will know what data to look for. His familiarity with
impacts that have occurred elsewhere under similar settings will be an asset. It will be easier for
him to identify the full range of impacts and then select procedures appropriate for their
measurement. The presence of a social scientist in the interdisciplinary team will reduce the
probability of any major social impact remaining uncounted.

It is extremely important that the SIA practitioner be an independent social scientist, not a
part of the regulatory authority sponsoring the SIA study.

(7): Establish Monitoring and Mitigation Programmes

The monitoring of important social impact variables and the mitigation programmes is
critical to the SIA process. The monitoring and mitigation should be a joint responsibility of the
project and the affected community.
 A social impact assessment not only predicts the likely impacts, it should also identify
means to mitigate those adverse impacts. Mitigation includes: avoiding the impact by not
undertaking the project; or undertaking it with a modified design that reduce the impact; or by
compensating for unavoidable and/or irreducible impacts.

(8): Identify Data Sources

Generally, SIAs draw on the following three sources of information: (a) Published
scientific literature, (b) Secondary data sources including various government documents and
official reports, and (c) Primary data from the affected area. All these three sources are
important, but not all projects may need them in equal measure. Some SIAs may require more
primary data from the affected area than the published materials from journals or books, for
example.

The SIA can usefully consult previously published social science books, journal articles
that document knowledge of impacts and case studies from similar projects. The best secondary
data sources include census, compendium of statistics, land records data, and several government
planning and development reports. Survey research, informant interviews, and participant
observation are among the important primary data sources that can be used to verify data
collected from other sources. Often, project area people are quite knowledgeable about the local
socioeconomic situation and can provide a better understanding of the broader range of likely
impacts.

(9): Plan for Gaps in Data

Often, data relevant and necessary to carry out an assessment is not available yet the SIA
is to be carried out. In circumstances when information is incomplete or unavailable, it should be
made abundantly clear that assessment has been made in the absence of relevant and necessary
data, explaining why this could not be obtained.

Social Impacts:
Social Impacts are the changes that occur in communities or to individuals as a result of an
externally-induced change. IOCPGSIA (2003: 231) defines social impacts as “the consequences
to human populations of any pubic or private actions that alter the ways in which people live,
work, play, relate to one another, organize to meet their needs, and generally cope as members of
society. The term also includes cultural impacts involving changes to the norms, values, and
beliefs that guide and rationalize their cognition of themselves and their society.” Social Impacts
are both positive and negative.
Changes may effect: employment, income, production, way of life, culture, community, political
systems, environment, health and well-being, personal and property rights, and fears and
aspirations. These impacts can be positive or negative. In short, a social impact is a significant
improvement or deterioration in people’s well-being.
Examples of projects with significant social impacts include: dams and reservoirs (disruption due
to relocation), power and industrial plants (influx of work force, pressure on infrastructure),
roads and linear projects (dislocation of activity networks), and landfill and hazardous waste
disposal sites (seen as health risks).
Social/Cultural
 Break-up of community cohesion
 Disintegration of social support systems
 Disruption of women’s economic activities
 Loss of time-honoured sacred places of worship
 Loss of archeological sites and other cultural property
Economic
 Loss of agricultural lands, tress, wells
 Loss of dwellings and other farm buildings
 Loss of access to common property resources
 Loss of shops, commercial buildings
 Loss of businesses/jobs
 Overall reduction in income due to above losses

Public Infrastructure and services

 Government office buildings
 School buildings
 Hospitals
 Roads
 Street lighting

Religon ad Environment
There is a close relationship between religion and environment. Religion has had major positive
influences on the natural environment. For example, under animism a spiritual link is made
between humans and nature. Many traditional approaches to conservation are based on various
kinds of animism, and traditional beliefs have led to the founding of sacred sites. For eg: The
Baha'i faith teaches that the grandeur and diversity of the natural world are purposeful reflections
of God. Buddhism teaches that respect for life in the natural world is essential for underpinning
the interconnectedness of all that exists.

Christianity teaches that all creation is a loving act of God and that humanity may not destroy
biological diversity or destroy God's creations without the risk of destroying itself. There are
passages in the Bible on the conservation of wildlife (Deuteronomy, chapter 2, verses 6 and 7,
and Genesis, chapter 9), agricultural lands (Leviticus, chapter 25, verses 2 to 4) and the
preservation of fruit trees (Deuteronomy, chapter 20, verse 19, and Genesis, chapter 19, verses
23 to 25).  Christianity has a strong tendency toward anthropocentrism. Major Christian
denominations endorse the Biblical calling of our stewardship of God's creation and our
responsibility for its care.

Beginning with the Genesis 1:26–28, God instructs humanity to manage the creation in particular
ways.
"And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the
earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and
over every living thing that moveth upon the earth." 
Adam's early purpose was to give care to the Garden of Eden:
"And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep
it." (Genesis 2:15)
Green Christians point out that the biblical emphasis is on stewardship, not ownership—that the
earth remains the Lord's (Psalms 24:1) and does not belong to its human
inhabitants. Leviticus 25:23 states:
"The land must not be sold permanently, because the land is mine and you are but aliens and my
tenants."
As a result of the doctrine of stewardship, Christian environmentalists oppose policies and
practices that threaten the health or survival of the planet. 

Islam teaches that the role of people on earth is that of khalifa, or trustee of God, whereby
humans are entrusted with the safe keeping of Earth and its variety of life. The Koran states:
"There is not an animal (that lives) on the Earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms
part of) communities like you" (Sura 13 Aya 15). The prophet Mohammed is quoted as saying:
"There is a reward in doing good to every living thing". The first Global Environmental Forum
from an Islamic Perspective, held from 23 to 25 October 2000 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, with
UNEP as a partner, adopted the Jeddah Declaration on the Environment from an Islamic
Perspective. That Declaration notes that sustainable development from an Islamic perspective is
the development and rehabilitation of the Earth in a manner that does not disrupt the equilibrium
established by God for everything in this universe. It further notes that environmental protection
is an integral part of sustainable development and cannot be considered separately. States should
increasingly endeavour to achieve economic development, while conserving the environment in
a way that does not prejudice the safe and dignified life of future generations. The promotion of
consumption patterns characterized by over-exploitation and wastage of resources is noted as
costly and harmful to health and to the environment; similarly, Islam strongly encourages the
careful conservation of water. Furthermore, the concept of protected areas, haram, is intrinsic to
Islam.

149. Jainism, one of the oldest living religions, teaches ahimsa (non-violence) towards human
beings and all of nature. It believes in the mutual dependence of all aspects of nature belonging
together and bound in an intricate relationship.

150. In Judaism, the Torah outlines a series of ethical obligations including several relevant to
the conservation of nature. The Torah says: "When God created Adam, he showed him all the
trees of the Garden of Eden and said to him: 'See my works, how lovely they are, how fine they
are. All I have created, I created for you. Take care not to corrupt and destroy my universe, for if
you destroy it, no one will come after you to put it right'" (Ecclesiastes, Rabbah 7).

151. All Buddhist teaching revolves around the notion of dharma, which means truth and the
path of truth. It teaches that people are responsible for their actions and go through a cycle of
rebirths before finally reaching Nirvana. Right actions lead to progress towards Nirvana, and bad
actions, such as killing animals, cause regression from that goal. Buddhism cares for wildlife and
teaches that the protection of biological diversity is respect for nature and that living in harmony
with it is essential.
152. Followers of Hinduism believe in the forces of nature and its interconnectedness with life
itself. Certain rivers and mountains are sacred, as they give and sustain life. All plants and
animals have souls, and people must serve penance for killing plants and animals for food. The
teachings of Hinduism, as expressed in the Bhagavad Gita, present a clear description of ecology
and the interdependence of all life forms, from bacteria to birds.

153. Sikhism teaches that all forms in the universe exist under God's command and that, having
brought a life form into being, God will protect it. The teachings of Sikhism are based on a
premise of life liberated from conspicuous consumption.

154. Shinto, the system of indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan, is strongly rooted
in rural agricultural practices with ceremonies and practices that guide the relationship between
people and nature. Thus, societies with declining biodiversity are seen as being in decline
themselves.

Extra Contents for Pollution from Unit I

Pollution:

Pollution is the presence of a substance that tends to affect directly or indirectly the environment
or changes, degrades or spoils the environment. Pollution can be categorized into air pollution,
water pollution, land pollution and noise pollution.

Pollution

Pollution is the presence of a substance that tends to affect directly or indirectly the environment
or changes, degrades or spoils the environment. Pollution can be categorized into following
types:

1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Soil Pollution
4. Noise Pollution

Air Pollution

An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air is called

pollution. The substances which pollute the air called pollutants. Air pollution causes heart
diseases, eye problem, cancer etc. Apart from it, air carries the bacteria and virus from one place
to another place and transmits different diseases such as tuberculosis, polio, diphtheria and acute
respiratory tract infections.

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to

the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.
There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (such as ammonia, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both
organic and inorganic), and biological molecules. Air pollution may cause diseases, allergies and
even death to humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food
crops, and may damage the natural environment (for example, climate change, ozone
depletion or habitat degradation) or built environment (for example, acid rain). Both human
activity and natural processes can generate air pollution.
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases,
including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The human health
effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system
and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of
pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and
genetics. Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's
worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places
report. Outdoor air pollution alone causes 2.1 to 4.21 million deaths annually. Overall, air
pollution causes the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year, and is the world's
largest single environmental health risk. The scope of the air pollution crisis is enormous: 90% of
the world's population breathes dirty air to some degree. Although the health consequences are
extensive, the way the problem is handled is often haphazard

Causes of air pollution

The following are the main causes of air pollution:

 The dust particles and harmful materials blown out by the wind gets mixed in the air and
pollutes it.
 Natural gases that come from inside the earth's surface also pollutes the air.
 Harmful gases released from different factories, industries and vehicles pollutes the air.
 Gases that comes from burnt materials,rotten and decayed materials also pollutes the air.
 Poisonous gases spreading out in the fields, rooms and houses are also the causes for air
pollution.

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources

These are mostly related to the burning of fuel.

 Stationary sources include smoke stacks of fossil fuel power stations (see for
example environmental impact of the coal industry), manufacturing facilities
(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the
major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and
dung.
 Mobile sources include motor vehicles, trains (particularly diesel
locomotives and DMUs), marine vessels and aircraft.
  Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or
prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming,
prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest
and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled
burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the
forest.
There are also sources from processes other than combustion

 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. These can

be substantial; emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half
of pollution from volatile organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.
 Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable
and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may
displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the
oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
 Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
 Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.
Natural source

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little vegetation or no
vegetation
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless,
odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of
radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can
accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is
the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of active wildfires,
smoke from uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up almost 75% of all air
pollution by concentration.
 Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary
anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon
compounds — to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Black gum,
poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant
VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight
times higher than the low-impact tree species.
 Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Effects of air pollution

The following are the effects of air pollution:

  Air pollution causes respiratory tract infection (RTI) and asthma.
 It deteriorates the cultural heritage and trees.
 It brings various skin and eye allergy.
 It is the main cause of global warming. that affects all the creatures of the world.

The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing,
coughing, asthma] and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects
can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more
hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far
reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.
Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the
degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. The most common sources of
air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less
than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of
total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.
The World Health Organization estimated in 2014 that every year air pollution causes the
premature death of some 7 million people worldwide. Studies published in March 2019 indicated
that the number may be around 8.8 million.
India has the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than
any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution
was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year. There is a positive correlation
between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions. In India in
2014, it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and ground level ozone had reduced crop
yields in the most affected areas by almost half in 2011 when compared to 1980 levels

Preventive measures of air pollution

The preventive measures of air pollution are as follows:

 The air pollutants should be controlled as the point source by using electrostatic
precipitator or filter in the industries.
 The use of cheap fuel with higher sulphur content should be avoided. Use of
disulphurized coal should be used.
 Alternate sources of energy should be used in place of coal, wood, oil etc.
 Population growth rate should be controlled.
 Strip plantation should be done everywhere on the road side.
 Strict check of car exhaust should be maintained.
 Public awareness programme about the effects of pollution should be managed.

Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution. At its
most basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure
planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy,
ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well
as to protect the environment.
Because a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil,
the reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to
clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't cause air
pollution. Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many
developing countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as
cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string
trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use
of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to electric vehicles.

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and
transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream
before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

 Particulate control
o Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
o Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or
electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes
particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient
filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the
device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke
from the air stream.
o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists
of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or
dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize
disposable filters to remove the dust).
o Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control
technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants
from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the
polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by
spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by
some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
 Scrubbers
o Baffle spray scrubber
o Cyclonic spray scrubber
o Ejector venturi scrubber
o Mechanically aided scrubber
o Spray tower
o Wet scrubber
 NOx control
o Low NOx burners
o Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
 o Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
o NOx scrubbers
o Exhaust gas recirculation
o Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
 VOC abatement
o Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed
Concentrator
o Flares
o Thermal oxidizers
o Catalytic converters
o Biofilters
o Absorption (scrubbing)
o Cryogenic condensers
o Vapor recovery systems
 Acid Gas/SO2 control
o Wet scrubbers
o Dry scrubbers
o Flue-gas desulfurization
 Mercury control
o Sorbent Injection Technology
o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
o K-Fuel
 Dioxin and furan control
 Miscellaneous associated equipment
o Source capturing systems
o Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Water Pollution

Degradation in the quality of water is called water pollution. Water covers over the 3/4th part of
the earth’s surface. It is a very important resource for people and the environment. Water
pollution affects drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the world. In many developing
countries, it is usually a leading cause of death, by people drinking from polluted water sources.
Drainage and wastage from industries, laboratory, hospitals, and homes are the main factors that
causes water pollution.

Causes of water pollution

The following are the main causes of water pollution: -

 Natural calamities like flood, landlides, soil erosion, heavy rain, etc. also pollute the
water.
  Leakage of agro-chemical from agricultural fields mixing with water resource can also
cause water pollution.
 Throwing of dead bodies of animals in water resources also pollutes water.
 Some human activities like washing of clothes and utensils near wells, ponds, streams,
lakes, etc. also pollutes the water sources.

Effects of water pollution

The following are the main effects of water pollution: -

 Water pollution causes water-borne disease like diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera.
 It also brings various skin allergy if taken the bath with polluted water.
 Acid rain deteriorates cultural heritages.
 It has the negative impact on plants.
 Aquatic animals cannot survive in polluted water.

Preventive measures of water pollution

The following are the main preventive measures of water pollution: -

 The dead bodies of animals and other wastes should not be thrown in water resources.
 People should be made aware of the consequences of water pollution and they should be
encouraged to participate in the pollution control programme.
 Production of domestic waste should be reduced as far as possible and it should not be
thrown in and around the water resources like ponds, rivers, lakes, streams etc.\
 Water pollution due to soil erosion, landslides, and floods should be controlled by
minimizing the activities which cause these problems.

Land Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of earth's surface. Land pollution makes the quality of soil low.
It directly affects the plants and indirectly to human beings. Human actions have also caused
many large areas of land to lose or reduce their capacity to support life forms and ecosystems.
This is known as land degradation.

Causes of land pollution

The following are the main causes of land pollution: -

 The accumulation of huge amount of bio-degradable and non-biodegradable waste

materials pollutes land.
 Farmers use chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides in their farms to increase
production. However, it adversely can affect land and water resources in and around
there.
 Soil is polluted by storing of soluble and insolubledirt's on the earth.
  Trekkers and mountaineers carry different types of packed food and other necessary
things with them. After using them, they throw such materials like plastics, tins and other
materials there. This pollutes some of the tourist areas of rural and city parts of Nepal.
 The solid and liquid substance of the industries such as leather, shoe, battery distillery,
paper and metal destroy the land conditions and it pollutes the soil.

Effects of land pollution

The following are the main effects of land pollution:

 Land pollution kills the useful organisms like an earthworm.

 The soil becomes infertile and not suitable for cultivation.
 Agriculture production will decrease.
 Underground water becomes polluted.
 Bad smell spreads from the polluted land and it causes pollution to the surrounding
places.
 It destroys beauty of the environment and the importance of cultural heritages as well.

Preventive measures of land pollution

The following are the preventive measures of land pollution: -

 Bio-degradable materials such as residue of plants, vegetables and other wastes of plants
should be used to make compost.
 Broken machines, vehicles and other materialsshould be re-used.
 Legal provision should be made on the management of solid wastes.
 The solid waste and harmful chemicals from industries, hospitals and laboratories should
be processed and purified to some extent before discharging them to land and water
resources.
 The use of plastic bags and other materials made from plastic should be reducedand must
be re-used in some extent.

Noise Pollution

Noise is considered as environmental pollution, even though it is thought to have less damage to
humans than water, air or land pollution. Noise pollution also disturbs the ecosystem. Noise
pollution does not harm the environment as much as air pollution but if affects the health of the
person negatively. If someone has to stay in a very noisy condition for long time, this will affect
the hearing power (nervous system).

Causes of noise pollution

The following are the main causes of noise pollution:

 Noise is created during construction by machinery.

  Market area, densely populated settlement, industrial area produces much sound that
causes noise pollution.
 Industries like cement factory, flour mill, metal industries, etc. produces loud noise.
 Noise-pollution is caused by construction activities like road construction and building
construction.
 Crowd in urban areas and miking causes sound pollution.
 Playing radio, television and various musical instruments in high volume causes sound
pollution.

Effects of noise pollution

The following are the main effects of noise pollution:

 Sitting in a noisy place for long time damages our hearing capacity.
 It causes imbalance in the production of hormones.
 Frustration, depression, hypertension etc. may cause.
 High-stress level and sleep disturbances may happen.
 A loud noise may break the tympanic membrane of the ear and it leads to diseases.

Preventive measures of noise pollution

The following are the preventive measures of noise pollution:

 Green belts should be created where there is the high level of noises.
 The people who work in noisy places should use earplugs.
 Vehicles which produces loud noise should not be operated near the cities.
 High walls can be built around the factory which helps to check the transmission of noise.
 Machine with silencer should be used as far as possible. Regular servicing of machie is
also helpful to check the sund pollution.

Things to remember

 Pollution is the presence of a substance that tends to affect directly or indirectly the
environment or changes, degrades or spoils the environment.
 Pollution can be categorized into air pollution, water pollution, land pollution and noise
pollution.
 An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air is
called pollution.
 The substances which pollute the air called pollutants.
 Air pollution causes heart diseases, eye problem, cancer etc.
 Land pollution is the degradation of earth's surface. Land pollution makes the quality of
soil low.
 Noise pollution does not harm the environment as much as air pollution but if affects the
health of the person negatively. 

 It includes every relationship which established among the people.

  There can be more than one community in a society. Community smaller than society.
 It is a network of social relationships which cannot see or touched.
 common interests and common objectives are not necessary for society.

Water Pollution:
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result
of human activities. Water bodies include for
example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water pollution results
when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. For example, releasing
inadequately treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic
ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for people living downstream. They
may use the same polluted river water for drinking or bathing or irrigation. Water pollution is the
leading worldwide cause of death and disease, e.g. due to water-borne diseases.
Causes and Sources of Water Pollution:
The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum
of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration.
While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring
(calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural
component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring
substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and
grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may
cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of
some fish species.
Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity,
temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical
nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases the primary productivity of the ecosystem.
Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such
as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and
other animal populations.
Pathogens

Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens. Pathogens can produce waterborne

diseases in either human or animal hosts.[23] Coliform bacteria, which are not an actual cause of
disease, are commonly used as a bacterial indicator of water pollution. Other microorganisms
sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human health problems
include:

 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Norovirus and other viruses
  Parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type 
High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines) or
inadequately treated sewage discharges. Older cities with ageing infrastructure may have leaky
sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows.
Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain
storms. Silt (sediment) from sewage discharges also pollutes water bodies.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminants
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Many of the chemical substances
are toxic.
A garbage collection boom to reduce pollution in an urban stream in Auckland, New Zealand.
Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and
grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil)
and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from storm
water runoff[28]
 Volatile organic compounds, such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the
bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
o Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
o Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
 Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, this can
include antidepressant drugs or hormonal medicines such as contraceptive pills.
These molecules can be small and difficult for treatment plants to remove without
expensive upgrades.[29]
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
  Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm
water runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential
use[28] (see nutrient pollution)
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)[28][30] and acid mine
drainage
 Secretion of creosote preservative into the aquatic ecosystem
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or
land clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution – large visible items polluting the water – may be termed "floatables" in
an urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include
such items as:

 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the
ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by
rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters.
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets. See plastic pollution
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

Change in temperature
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by
human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the
physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as
a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease
oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity,
and foster invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in
surface waters.[32]
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of
reservoirs into warmer rivers.
Ways to reduce Water Pollution:
Municipal wastewater treatment
In urban areas of developed countries, municipal wastewater (or sewage) is typically treated by
centralized sewage treatment plants. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary
treatment steps or more advanced treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load
in sewage. Some plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens, but these
more advanced treatment steps get progressively more expensive.
Nature-based solutions are also being used instead of (or in combination with) centralized
treatment plants.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or
more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:
  utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management
capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the
treatment plant
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).
On-site sanitation and safely managed sanitation
Households or businesses not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an
individual septic tank, which pre-treats the wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the soil.
Improperly designed or installed septic systems can cause groundwater pollution.
Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017, according to
an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Lack of access
to sanitation often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of open defecation: during rain
events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground where they were deposited into
surface waters. Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during rain events. The use of safely
managed sanitation services would prevent this type of water pollution.
Industrial wastewater treatment
Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that is similar to domestic sewage and can be
treated by sewage treatment plants. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations
of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic
compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some industries
install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then
discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system. Industries generating
large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own treatment systems. Some industries have
been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants,
through a process called pollution prevention.
To remove heat from wastewater generated by power plants or manufacturing plants the
following technologies are used:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling

by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to
the atmosphere through evaporation or heat transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic or industrial
heating purposes.

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Regarding non-point sources, sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source
of agricultural pollution in the United States. Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce
runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing,
crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. Nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer,
animal manure, or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients
may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric
deposition. Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess
application of nutrients and reduce the potential for nutrient pollution. To minimize pesticide
impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can
include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical
pesticides, and protect water quality.
Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are often point source
dischargers. These facilities are called "concentrated animal feeding operations" or "feedlots" in
the US and are being subject to increasing government regulation.[47][48] Animal slurries are
usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle
application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of
animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high
temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
Erosion and sediment control from construction sites
Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as
overflow controls and diversion berms.
Control of urban runoff (storm water)
Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of storm water, as well
as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of storm water management
techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management
practices for water pollution (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while
others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.
Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green
roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and
pesticides). Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems,
constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that
absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration
basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be
heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.
Noise Pollution:
Noise pollution is the propagation of noise with ranging impacts on the activity of human or
animal life, most of them harmful to a degree. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly
caused by machines, transport, and propagation systems. Poor urban planning may give rise to
noise disintegration or pollution, side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in
noise pollution in the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in residential areas
include loud music, transportation (traffic, rail, airplanes, etc.), lawn care
maintenance, construction, electrical generators, explosions, and people.
Impacts of Noise Pollution:
Health Impacts: Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound (noise) can
damage physiological health. Noise pollution is associated with several health conditions,
including cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep
disturbances, and other harmful and disturbing effects. According to a 2019 review of the
existing literature, noise pollution was associated with faster cognitive decline.
Wildlife: Sound is the primary way many marine organisms learn about their environment. For
example, many species of marine mammals and fish use sound as their primary means of
navigating, communicating, and foraging. Anthropogenic noise can have a detrimental effect on
animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey
detection and avoidance, and interfering with the use of the sounds in communication, especially
in relation to reproduction, and in navigation and echolocation. These effects then may alter
more interactions within a community through indirect ("domino") effects. Acoustic
overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing. Underwater noise pollution
due to human activities is also prevalent in the sea, and given that sound travels faster through
water than through air, is a major source of disruption of marine ecosystems and does significant
harm to sea life, including marine mammals, fish and invertebrates. The principal anthropogenic
noise sources come from merchant ships, naval sonar operations, underwater explosions
(nuclear), and seismic exploration by oil and gas industries. Cargo ships generate high levels of
noise due to propellers and diesel engines. This noise pollution significantly raises the low-
frequency ambient noise levels above those caused by wind. Animals such as whales that depend
on sound for communication can be affected by this noise in various ways. Higher ambient noise
levels also cause animals to vocalize more loudly, which is called the Lombard effect.
Researchers have found that humpback whales' song lengths were longer when low-frequency
sonar was active nearby. Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain species of whales
that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar.
Ways to Control Noise Pollution:
The Hierarchy of Controls concept is often used to reduce noise in the environment or the
workplace. Engineering noise controls can be used to reduce noise propagation and protect
individuals from overexposure. When noise controls are not feasible or adequate, individuals can
also take steps to protect themselves from the harmful effects of noise pollution. If people must
be around loud sounds, they can protect their ears with hearing protection (e.g., ear plugs or ear
muffs). In recent years, Buy Quiet programs and initiatives have arisen in an effort to combat
occupational noise exposures. These programs promote the purchase of quieter tools and
equipment and encourage manufacturers to design quieter equipment.
Noise from roadways and other urban factors can be mitigated by urban planning and better
design of roads. Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle
speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls
that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tire design. An important factor
in applying these strategies is a computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing
local topography, meteorology, traffic operations, and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-
in mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a
roadway project.
Aircraft noise can be reduced by using quieter jet engines. Altering flight paths and time of day
runway has benefited residents near airports.
Soil Pollution:
Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence
of xenobiotics (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is
typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. 
Causes of Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list)

 Microplastics
 Oil spills
 Mining and activities by other heavy industries
 Accidental spills may happen during activities, etc.
 Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the
contents)
 Acid rain
 Intensive farming
 Agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
 Petrochemicals
 Industrial accidents
 Road debris
 Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil
 Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of war
 Waste disposal
o Oil and fuel dumping
o Nuclear wastes
o Direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil
o Discharge of sewage
o Landfill and illegal dumping
o Coal ash
o Electronic waste
o Contaminated by rocks containing large amounts of toxic elements.
o Contaminated by Pb due to vehicle exhaust, Cd, and Zn caused by tire
wear.
o Contamination by strengthening air pollutants by incineration of fossil
raw materials.
The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead,
and other heavy metals.
Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation (erosion, compaction, etc.) may
indirectly worsen the contamination effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious.
Ways to Control Soil Pollution:
Cleanup or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field
measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models (GIS in Environmental
Contamination) for analyzing transport and fate of soil chemicals. Various technologies have
been developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil and sediments There are several
principal strategies for remediation:

 Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or
sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay
muds containing toxins.
 Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air
pollution)
 Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures
sufficiently high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor
extraction. Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-
DSP.
 Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals.
Techniques used in bioremediation
include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with
commercially available microflora.
 Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system,
with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
 Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
 Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals.
 Mycoremediation, or using fungus to metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy
metals.
 Remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing air microbubbles.
 Surfactant leaching
Western Views on Nature:
Creator God is separate from and transcends nature. Religious worship should be directed to the
Creator. Humans are a special creation: they are the only part of creation that are created in
God’s image.  Humans are given “dominion” over nature. God made creation and called it
good (before humans were created).  Creation manifests God’s glory and is alive and
responsive to God. Humans are a creature of God along with all other species. God cares for all
of creation, which is God’s, not the possession of humans. Humans are given the duty of
stewardship, protecting God’s creation.
Four views about Nature:
Nature as inferior: Transcendental dualism
Nature-culture dualism: Culture is associated with mind, males, and the transcendent. Nature is
associated with body, females, and is inferior to culture.  Domestic and tame animals are
superior to wild animals.
•Nature as chaotic & dangerous: Puritanism
A fallen world of nature: when Adam fell from Grace, his world also fell – we lost the Garden of
Eden. Nature is chaotic, disorderly, ever-changing without pattern or predictability, & thus no
intelligible. v Nature as fundamentally dangerous. v We need either to wall out the wilderness, or
conquer and tame it and turn it into a Garden based on human spiritual design and control.
•Nature as orderly & useful: The Enlightenment
A response against medieval faith, “superstition,” religious wars, and witch hunts. Associated
with humanism, rationalism, & science. Optimistic concerning knowledge (reason & science),
society (movement toward democracy & away from monarchy), material well being (allied with
scientific and technological advances). Nature is orderly, acting according to natural “laws,” and
works like a clock (“mechanism”). We can understand natural laws through science and reason,
which are the surest sources of knowledge. The knowledge we gain is not limited to individuals,
particular circumstances, or social groups: it is objective and universal. Our scientific knowledge
enables us to have power over nature and manipulate it for our benefit.
•Nature as sublime: Romanticism
Nature has high value. It is either a direct manifestation of spiritual reality, or has its own
spiritual value. There is a close correspondence between the natural world and human nature.
Reason is suspect. The goal is not abstract knowledge but communion. The world is more
complex and fluid: intuition, emotions, & the contemplation of beauty have particular value. 
The arts are particularly valued as a medium for representing the spiritual dimension of reality
and expressing sensitive experience of it. Social vision: simpler, pastoral lifestyles close to
nature are superior to the nightmare of urban technology. The “Sublime” is prized: the awe-
inspiring majesty of nature, which suggests its spiritual dimension and our place but our
smallness within it.

Attitude towards nature Eastern culture encourages people to live as a part of nature in unity with
nature. While Western culture, assumes that nature as an object which can be mastered and
exploited.
The natural world has long been conceived in Chinese thought as a self-generating, complex
arrangement of elements that are continuously changing and interacting. Chinese philosophy
tends to focus on the relationships between the various elements in nature rather than on what
makes or controls them. According to Daoist beliefs, man is a crucial component of the natural
world and is advised to follow the flow of nature’s rhythms. Daoism also teaches that people
should maintain a close relationship with nature for optimal moral and physical health.

The Environment and the Concept of “Sustainable Development” People have long been
concerned with the health of the environment. It was not until the 1960s, however, that
conceptual frameworks focusing on the environment and development began to emerge. The
publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962 was a landmark event which has often been
regarded as marking the beginning of the environmental movement. The concept of
“sustainability” was formulated as a result of discussion of the linkage between pesticide use and
widespread pollution, of the effects of pollution on the health of humans and other animals and
plants, and through proposals for managing resources in a way which does not destroy supplies
of resources needed in the future. In the following decades, an increasing awareness of the need
to balance human needs with the well-being of the natural world has grown. Much literature and
discussion has addressed this theme, and a wide variety of social and political policy responses
has been developed. Human perceptions are socially and historically constructed. During
industrialization a world-view of human welfare evolved which was based on materialism and
the pursuit of wealth, achieved primarily through economic development, which is usually
measured in terms of industrial expansion and economic growth. By the mid-twentieth century,
as the industrialized countries looked to ever higher material standards of living and less-
developed countries accelerated industrialization in emulation of their achievements, this world-
view—based on the “conquest” of nature—had been accepted almost universally. The pursuit of
development had become so important that nothing else seemed to matter very much. A country
is considered “developing” when it is experiencing expansion of its productive capacity. The
crudest, and most commonly used, indicator of this is Gross National Product (GNP), and/or
GNP per capita. The well-being of all people depends largely on economic growth, which must
keep pace with population increases: indeed it is difficult to imagine development without
economic growth. As a result, however, nature has been sacrificed in the name of economic
development. The pursuit of wealth and exploitation of the planet had taken place on an
individualistic basis, on a collectivist basis, or a mixture of the two. Environment problems
began to cause increasing concern in growing segments of societies, however, mainly in the
developed countries. The intensification of environmental concerns in the 1960s led to
questioning of the conventional orthodoxies of economic growth. In 1972 the Club of Rome,
composed of prominent political and social figures, published an important report, The Limits to
Growth. This formed part of the critique of the industrial world-view which climaxed in the late
1960s and early 1970s, and hence was known as the “Doomsday” debate. The critique
challenged the conventional pursuit of growth objectives. The Limits to Growth pointed out that
growth cannot be pursued without limit because the world’s resources are finite, and argued that
the accepted model of exponential growth was harmful to the global equilibrium between
population and resources. Such growth could not be sustained, as it would challenge the finite
nature of the world’s endowment of natural resources. The report therefore recommended an end
to existing growth patterns in order to recover an equilibrium. It was followed by calls for “zero-
growth” strategies in some developed countries. The Limits to Growth, in criticizing “growth
fetishism,” prompted a fresh look at the relationship between economic growth and environment.
However, anti-growth sentiments in turn prompted wide criticism. This dialogue was later
partially superceded by suggestions that environmental protection and continuing economic
growth were not in fact mutually exclusive aims, and therefore not necessarily in conflict. From
this debate arose the concept of “sustainable development.” This term was first used at the time
of the Cocoyoc Declaration, adopted by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and
UNCTAD in Cocoyoc, Mexico, in 1974. It entered the public arena in 1980 when the World
Conservation Strategy was presented, in pursuit of the overall aim of achieving sustainable
development through the conservation of living resources.
The argument for sustainable development holds that economic growth at the expense of
uncontrolled depletion of natural resources is, by definition, not “sustainable.” Present ecological
conditions must be protected, in order to support a specific level of human well-being and for the
benefit of future generations. This argument opposes seeking economic growth at any cost, and
emphasizes not only the opportunities but also the constraints that the natural world presents to
human activity. Therefore, sustainability begins with the notion of ecological sustainability, and
calls for a broader view of both economics and ecology. The concept of sustainable development
has left many issues in the relationship between environment and development to be debated
further, however. While many consider—or wish to believe—that the needs of development and
the environment should not be in automatic conflict, even today the two have not been reconciled
into a harmonious relationship. The relationship has been approached from a number of
perspectives, reflecting different world-views of the relationship between humanity and nature.
The basic conflicting world-views may be seen as those of anthropocentrism and of biocentrism.
The anthropocentric tradition maintains that humankind is above nature, and has the right to
subjugate it. It has both religious and secular aspects. Christianity is by far the most
anthropocentric of the major religious traditions, which calls on humankind to impose its will on
the natural world. This tradition has become integrated into the secular world in the form of
industrialism, expressed by the scientific–rationalist concept. This concept has its roots in the
ideas of Bacon, Newton, Descartes, and others who believed that planet earth exists for the
benefit of the human race. The human world is seen as separate from the natural world, and
humankind as superior to the rest of life on earth. It is largely on the basis of this view that social
sciences were established as distinct disciplines independent from natural science. The opposite
view is the biocentric tradition. This tradition opposes the pursuit of wealth as a goal in itself,
and seeks to enhance the non-material dimension of the human experience. It emphasizes quality
of life, which is seen as quite distinct from the quantity of material possessions. The biocentric
view gives greater recognition to the wholeness of the planet, regarding the pursuit of wealth
through industrial expansion and economic growth as ultimately incompatible with the earth’s
finite resource base. This view also takes the position that economic growth at the expense of
natural resources represents consumption of what belongs rightly to future generations. It
promotes the idea of “right livelihood”: in other words, that consumption should be based on
human need rather than human greed. The anthropocentric view gained ground during the era of
industrialization. The development of social sciences most clearly reflected this trend. By the
early twentieth century, social sciences incorporated two important notions that had been very
influential up to that time. The first was that economic growth was essential to the health of
human society, and that this could be achieved on the basis of exploiting natural resources. The
second was a reliance on “non-naturalistic” explanations of the development of human societies.
Contemporary social sciences had tried to break free from biologically grounded social theory,
insisting on the distinctive features of social processes as opposed to evolutionary development
and social Darwinism. In the context of the emerging environmental debate in the 1960s, the
detachment of social sciences from natural science began to be questioned, and the industrial
world-view associated with the anthropocentric tradition was challenged. The new thinking
emphasizes that humankind is part of nature, and that all life forms are interconnected. It follows
that if humankind seeks to “subjugate” the planet this threatens its own existence, potentially
leading to the destruction of humankind together with nature. Tensions between these two
scientific traditions—exemplified by different approaches to relationships between humanity and
nature, or between the environment and development—continue today. It must be recognized
that the anthropocentric position, in its various guises, remains dominant in the mainstream
thinking of national and international societies. On the other hand the influence of the ecological
critique of the industrial world-view, and that of the ecological movement on political decision-
making and social processes, has grown enough to warrant attempts by anthropocentric thinkers
and practitioners to “dilute” the domination theory. As a result, the concept of sustainable
development has become embraced by a growing number of social forces. This has meant wider
acceptance of the idea that some attention must be paid to environmental concerns. A diversity of
perspectives and approaches emerged in relation to this development, as well as a range of policy
options with regard to the environment and development. 1.2. Different Approaches to
Sustainable Development With increasing public acceptance of the concept of sustainable
development, a whole spectrum of perspectives linking anthropocentric and biocentric views has
developed. A ladder-like set of approaches and policy options associated with sustainable
development has been identified. On the top of the “ladder” is the ideal approach to sustainable
development. This position has been termed the “ecological” approach, as represented by the
deep ecology movement. It envisages a form of “pure” sustainable development, in which
humankind puts as much into the world’s ecosystems as it takes out. Because humankind is seen
to be living within finite ecological constraints, economies will have zero growth in quantitative
terms. Instead growth should be measured in qualitative terms, in other words on the basis of
quality of life rather than standard of living. Quantitative growth may occur only in certain areas
—for example, in developing countries and poorer areas of developed countries—but there must
also be negative growth in areas which are already highly developed. This ecological position is
based on the biocentric view, viewing the earth as a home for all life rather than simply for
humans. Non-human life is seen as valuable in its own right, independent from its usefulness to
humans. The underlying conviction is that human beings should live in harmony with other
living beings and processes. Seeking a morally egalitarian understanding of the value of different
forms of life and adopting a holistic attitude towards planet earth, this model apparently offers a
radically new attitude towards nature, to be expressed by radical change in existing social,
economic, and political systems. This ideal model emphasizes the social aspects of development,
and considers the existing systems for measuring development as largely inappropriate. Instead,
it proposes working out a more detailed set of development indicators that focus on quality of
life. Greater account should be taken of production activities outside the formal economic
system: for example, not-for-profit economic activities by community based organizations. Such
activities are important to the improvement of quality of life, and would therefore be encouraged
even though they do not create monetary wealth. The ecological model of sustainable
development has a small following, partly because some of its tenets can easily be dismissed as
eccentric and/or untenable. For example, it is far from obvious to many people that everything
that has life should be valued in the same way as humans. The concept of zero growth as a
solution to the environment problems of our era has also been rejected by many. Nevertheless the
ideal model, and social movements committed to it, can serve as a useful reminder for the
necessity for change in the face of the difficulties of incorporating environmental values within
the existing economic paradigm and system. The next rung down the ladder is occupied by
“strong” sustainable development. This position opposes the claim that economic development is
a precondition of environmental protection, and argues that environmental protection is a
precondition of economic development. This requires a new kind of economic development,
which is more focused on the environmental dimension than has been the case hitherto. Under
“strong” sustainable development, political and economic policies are geared to maintaining the
productive capacity of environmental assets which are either worthy of preservation, such as
tropical forests, or are capable of being improved, such as degraded soils. The accomplishment
of this goal requires not only market regulation and state intervention but also the involvement of
local communities, in such matters as the development of local economies and sustainable
utilization of local environments. This approach puts less emphasis on quantitative growth.
Unlike the ideal model however, which calls for an end to quantitative growth, it advocates a
switch to qualitative growth, while the overall objective of sustaining economic growth remains.
Policy instruments are particularly important to the “strong” approach to sustainable
development. A wide range of tools and mechanisms in legal, economic, fiscal, and
environmental sectors is needed to influence or force changes in economic and social behavior.
Government instruments in the environment sphere would include legal regulation in areas such
as land-use planning; financial incentives and economic measures such as green taxes, pollution
charges, tradable resources, and pollution permits; subsidies and deposit-refund schemes; various
kinds of public expenditure; and encouraging changes in behavior through information,
publicity, and persuasion. Below this lies “weak” sustainable development, which aims to
integrate economic growth with environmental concerns. This position argues that there are two
fundamental dimensions of sustainability: • sustainable development, that is, the sustainable
growth of per capita real incomes over time which is the traditional economic growth objective •
sustainable use of resources and the environment. Under this position, the principle of new
classical economics may be applied to the solution of environmental problems, and the main
objective of policies to promote sustainable development remains economic growth. The
difference from the “traditional” growth model is that environmental costs are taken into
consideration through, for example, new accounting procedures. These procedures reflect the
fact that the environment is considered a measurable resource. “Weak” sustainable development
has had a growing influence on international agencies, including the World Bank and the UN,
and corresponds with what is usually intended by environmental management. Apparently it is
closely associated with the anthropocentric view of nature as providing both material and
environmental wealth to serve humankind. Material wealth creation is viewed as inseparable
from environment wealth creation, which can be achieved through technical manipulation by
enlightened managers equipped with new managerial and administrative tools. These include
environmental impact assessment, cost-benefit analysis that takes account of the nonmarket
aspect of environmental goods and services, and marginal adjustments to market forces using
policy tools such as fees, taxes, and tradable permits. The critique of this approach argues that
the resource accounting method it endorses is highly ethnocentric, and biased in favor of the
view of developed countries in terms of the development process. “Weak” sustainable
development values the environment only in monetary terms, and not for its own sake in cultural
or spiritual terms. As a result it leaves the new classical economic paradigm, with all its
limitations, intact. It reduces environmental problems to managerial problems, which are viewed
as soluble without changing the dominant political and economic system. The main beneficiaries
of this model of development are the present generation, as opposed to future generations.
Furthermore, this “environmental management” approach often takes no account of local
peoples’ relevant experience. Consequently, governments and policy makers run the risk of
importing inappropriate solutions to environmental problems from elsewhere, typically from the
industrial “core” to its “periphery.” At the bottom of the ladder is the “treadmill” approach,
which is represented by multinational companies and the world of high finance. This approach
sees the natural environment solely in terms of its utility to the economic system: sustainable
development becomes synonymous with sustainable economic growth, which is measured in
terms of the expansion of production. Under this approach, conventional methods for the
accounting of wealth remain intact and the focus is on a narrow range of economic indicators
such as income, investment, profit, and exports. Policy tools continue to aim at maximizing
production and economic growth. Because this approach emphasizes the monetary dimension of
economic activity, it often ignores its environmental impact. The “treadmill” approach views
development in terms of the extension of western capitalist development into other areas of the
world. The underlying assumption is that human ingenuity, given full freedom of innovation
(especially expressed through technology), can solve any environmental or technical problem.
According to some adherents to this approach, there is no limit to the capacity for humans to
manipulate environmental systems, because humans’ capacity to understand the world is
unlimited. Essentially this approach, emphasizing the production imperative with little or no
concern for environmental consequences, was the dominant position adopted by industrial
capitalism until the early 1980s, and it is still to a large extent reflected in the industrial world.
For economic activities, such as those in modern enterprises, based on the principle of
maximization of profit the primary aim is to ensure competitiveness in the market. It is not hard
to understand that environmental regulations which may increase production costs are unlikely to
be welcomed. Defining these four approaches may help to understand the policy debate
associated with different approaches towards sustainable development at international, national,
and sub-national levels. Certainly these approaches are not mutually exclusive. They represent a
spectrum of schools of thought which often overlap in various respects. For example, “strong”
sustainable development supports the role of the not-for-profit organizations operating in the
economy, which has also been promoted—albeit more strongly—under the “ideal” model. The
further the approaches diverge from each other, however, the less they agree on the substance of
sustainable development and the most appropriate methods for delivering it. There is little in
common between the extremes of the spectrum. Nevertheless, the four approaches and their
variations represent all possible conceptualizations of the relationship between humankind and
nature, as well as of the solutions to the contemporary environmental crisis.
Relationship between Environment and Development:
Environmental issues are some of the most popular topics for global discussion among the
policymakers. Different countries face different environmental problems; nevertheless, many believe
that a global approach is needed for a balanced solution. In developed countries, the majority of the
problems we face today are the result of the industrialization, increased manufacturing, and other
human activity. Most of the countries of the world cooperate in order to improve the state of the
environment and prevent further damage.

Hite and Seitz (2016) argue, “Development has often harmed the environment, and environmental

harm has in turn adversely affected development” (p. 189). For instance, industrialization led to the

introduction of large-scale manufacturing, thus increasing the chemical pollution of water and air

(Hite & Seitz, 2016). Another technological development, the popularization of cars, led to increased

gas emissions, which in turn contributed to the world climate change (Hite and Seitz).

The first conference on the environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972 by the United

Nations (Hite & Seitz, 2016). As a result of the conference, the governments of many countries began

to cooperate in protecting the environment; developing countries, however, feared that strict anti-
pollution laws would halt their technological development, which could contribute to their economies

and to the reduction of waste, which was the main source of pollution in these regions (Hite & Seitz,

2016). The conference was held by the United States; one of the outcomes of the conference was the

global awareness of the impact of human activity on the environment and the need for collective

action (Hite & Seitz, 2016).

The article by Rinkesh (2017) discusses the fifteen major environmental problems that impact the

contemporary world, most of which are connected to one another. One of the most significant issues is

overpopulation. More and more people are born each minute all over the world. The development of

medical sciences, and the increased quality of life, on the other hand, mean that fewer people die from

natural causes or lack of access to care. The combination of the two factors leads to overpopulation.

The resources of the earth, such as water, fuel, and food, are not sufficient to maintain such a large

population, which creates a significant environmental issue (Rinkesh, 2017).

Overpopulation is also linked to another problem, which is the depletion of natural resources,

particularly of fossil fuel. This causes a rise in energy prices but also contributes to the climate change:

“Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global

warming and climate change” (Rinkesh, 2017, para. 7). Climate change, in turn, results in a rise in

temperature, which causes the melting of polar ice, increase in infectious diseases, and severe weather

conditions, such as floods (Rinkesh, 2017). Another result of the climate change is the loss of

biodiversity. It can also occur due to human activity and leads to the deterioration of ecosystems and

the disruption of natural balance, which may have severe consequences on the future life on Earth

(Rinkesh, 2017).

Finally, another environmental problem that was brought about by humans is deforestation. Trees

consume carbon dioxide and produce oxygen, which helps to combat the adverse effect of air

pollution (Rinkesh, 2017). Nevertheless, people cut down an enormous number of trees per year,
which means that the forests are depleting rapidly, decreasing their positive effect on the environment

and creating another environmental issue.

Overall, it is clear that most environmental issues are tightly connected to one another, as well as to

human activity all over the world. In order to decrease the adverse effect of this factor on the

environment, it is crucial to create an environmental protection plan that would consider the

developmental needs of all the countries, as well as the sources of their contribution to environmental

issues.

Population, Environment and Development

Pollution environment and development
Population, environment and development have very close relationship with each other. The use
of natural resources increases due to population growth. The uses of land, water, etc. increases to
grow food subsistence. Similarly, population growth causes the growth of poverty, hunger,
disease, illiteracy, etc. If the growth of population goes on, the needs of human cannot be
fulfilled from natural resources. The development activities like construction of road, increase in
agricultural production, production of industrial materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are
necessary to be operated in the country for economic development. Such development activities
provide employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It
results the economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard of people
does not change without the developmental activities.
 
Development
Development activities are the pathways for the economic development of people. If
development activities will take place in certain place then the people and the lifestyle of people
will also develop gradually. When there will be road construction in one of the place which is the
part of development then the products that are produced in that place will get market which will
enhance the economic development of people. In such ways development activities enhance the
economic development of the people. Development environment and have very close
relationship with each other. The relationship between development and environment is stated as
under:
1. Use of natural resources
The use of natural resources increases due to population growth. The uses of land, water, etc.
increases to grow food subsistence. Similarly, population growth causes the growth of poverty,
hunger, disease, illiteracy, etc. If the growth of population goes on, the needs of human cannot be
fulfilled from natural resources.
2. Development and construction works
Human beings carry out various kinds of development works to fulfill their needs. Development
activities should operate continuously to fulfill the needs and desires of growing population. The
aspect of environment conservation cannot be abandoned while operating developmental
activities.
3. Economic development
The development activities like construction of road, increase in agricultural production,
production of industrial materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary to be
operated in the country for economic development. Such development activities provide
employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It results the
economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard of people does not
change without the developmental activities.
4. Social and cultural activity
There are social and cultural activities in society. People protect, renovate, construct traditional
rituals, religious places, temples, etc. These activities are development works related to social
and cultural aspects. The protection, promotion and development of such aspects support to raise
the culture of people. The relationship between the activities of development of various aspects
of population and environment should be continuously adjusted and managed. The development
works should fulfill the needs of present generation. Similarly, it is our duty to protect the
environment which is able to fulfill the needs of future generation.
 
Major development activities
The development activity refers to the modernization of the environment. Development is the
positive and structural improvement in the state of the existing physical, human, cultural
situation, etc. Development works help to bring gradual change in existing situation.
Development makes progress in social, economic, cultural field, etc. it helps to fulfill the need of
people and raise the standard of living. When the country is developed then the country will
march to happiness and satisfaction of the people. Development activities are essential for the
development of the society. Development works encourage people to utilize the resources like
land, water, forest, etc. The development helps to make the people self dependent. Economic
status of people will be improved. It brings change in the lifestyle of people. Thus, development
works raise the standard of living.
The development activity of the environment refers to the modernization of the environment.
The conservation activity of environment refers to the preservation of natural habitat with
maximum utilization of the resources without making much harm. Development activities of
environment always focus on the development without letting it harm. Population, environment
and development have very close relationship with each other. The use of natural resources
increases due to population growth. The uses of land, water, etc. increases to grow food
subsistence. Similarly, population growth causes the growth of poverty, hunger, disease,
illiteracy, etc. If the growth of population goes on, the needs of human cannot be fulfilled from
natural resources. The development activities like construction of road, increase in agricultural
production, production of industrial materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary
to be operated in the country for economic development. Such development activities provide
employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It results the
economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard of people does not
change without the developmental activities.
Hence human should pay attentation to their present and future generations to mention balance in
population, environment and development activities. It possible only when the people conduct
development works by using their rights rationally.
 

Economic development of country

Development work is very important for the progress of the country. Development work is
important for the country because development works like agriculture, operation of industry,
production of electricity, tourism, construction of road, etc. help in promoting income generating
activities. From these works economic development can be observed. Such development
activities provide employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work
increases. It results the economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard
of people does not change without the developmental activities. Similarly transportation for
goods from one place to another becomes easier. Basic goods and services are required for
livelihood of people. Food, clothes, shelter, education, health services, drinking water, hygiene,
fuel, entertainment, safety, etc are basic things; the first and primary goal of development is to
fulfill these basic needs of people. Various development and construction works help to fulfill
the basic needs. Each country has its own kind of geographical structure. It affects the
development works. Development activities should be operated in different parts of the country
considering the geographical situation. It helps to distribute facilities in all regions. It helps to
maintain the balance of population distribution. Development activities are essential for the
development of the society. Development works encourage people to utilize the resources like
land, water, forest, etc. The development helps to make the people self dependent. Economic
status of people will be improved. It brings change in the lifestyle of people. Thus, it will help to
protect the environment if the feeling of environment conservation can be aroused in people.
 
Infrastructure of development:
Infrastructure of development refers to the essentials that include physical, economic and human
resources aspects without which the development activities are impossible. Types of
infrastructure development are as follows;
1. Human resources:
Skilled manpower needed to conduct the development works. The human resource related to
different sectors such as education, health, communication, science and technology are to be
developed.
2. Physical aspect:
The road, bridge, canal, drainage, building, electricity and commutation etc. can be taken under
physical-infrastructure. Development works provide facilities to people. Various development
and construction works help to fulfill the basic needs. Development activities are essential for the
development of the society. The development helps to make the people self dependent. It brings
change in the lifestyle of people.
3. Social aspect:
Development activities are essential for the development of the society. Development works
encourage people to utilize the resources like land, water, forest, etc. The development helps to
make the people self dependent. Economic status of people will be improved. It brings change in
the lifestyle of people. Thus, it will help to protect the environment if the feeling of environment
conservation can be aroused in people.
4. Economic aspect:
The development activities like construction of road, increase in agricultural production,
production of industrial materials, export of manufactured goods, etc are necessary to be
operated in the country for economic development. Such development activities provide
employment to people. Skill is developed in them. The level of their work increases. It results the
economic development of a person, society and country. The life standard of people does not
change without the developmental activities.
 
Urbanization:
The process of changing remote village areas into a place with various facilities is called
urbanization. People who are living the life of misery even without basic facilities have thought
for few facilities to make their life very comfortable one. So people when started getting few
facilities thought for more and more because it is the nature of human to demand more and more.
No human can stay satisfied. So due to the nature of human they started to carry out
developmental activities for their benefit. They started making the remote places full of facilities.
However in context of Nepal due to unplanned urbanization various difficulties have aroused in
different places. In such way urbanization started taking place.
Unmanaged urbanization has main effects like, Lack of facilities, Unhealthy Resistance, Adverse
effect on health, improper distribution of population, Social disorders, and Environmental
degradation. Unmanaged urbanization is controlled by sustainable development. Sustainable
development is also termed as meaningful development. Due to sustainable development of the
places there have been very smooth running of life in various countries of the world. So
sustainable development should be initiated in order to achieve long term development from
which different generations can be benefitted.
It is very necessary and in a way compulsory to integrate the principles of sustainable
development with the development activities because of the following reasons. The principles of
sustainable development are as follows:
1. Conservation of ecosystem,
2. Sustainable development of society,
3. Conservation of biodiversity,
4. Control of population,
5. Development of human resource,
6. Increase in public participation,
7. Conservation of cultural heritage,
8. Limit of development under the carrying capacity of earth
Any four of them are described as follows:
Conservation of ecosystem;
The main objective of sustainable development is to protect the earth. It is to keep retaining it.
Various ecosystems like water and land ecosystem should be protected to retain the earth.
Sustainable development of society:
Social development works should be operated for sustainable development. These development
works should be sustainable. Life standard of people should be improved for this. Sustainable
development of the society can be enhanced by providing education, health, employment,
security, etc. Similarly, various communities existing in the society should be involved in
environment conservation works. The altitude of respect toward all kinds of living beings in
earth should be developed in people.
Conservation of biodiversity:
It is necessary to protect all living things in the earth for sustainable development. Human should
learn to protect natural resources which help to protect animals. National and international
programmes should be undertaken to protect them. It is essential to maintain coordination
between such programmes.
Control of population:
Human survives utilizing limited means and resources existing in the earth but with the growth
of population, human needs like food, habitat, facilities, etc are also increasing. The means and
resources existing in the earth not are increased according to the need of people. Therefore,
control and management of population is essential for sustainable development which supports to
maintain balance in the environment.
 
Sustainable development
Developmental activities should be in accordance with the bearing capacity of environmental
sources. Natural resources in environment should not be used excessively to fulfill the needs of
increased population. Excessive use of sources affects environment adversely and it will be
difficult for animals to live. The concept of sustainable development has been developed to
prevent these problems. Problems that arise in the process of development can be solved during
the same period if the objectives of sustainable development programmes followed. It is very
necessary and in a way compulsory to integrate the principles of sustainable development with
the development activities because of the following reasons. The importances of sustainable
development are as follows:
1. Proper use of resources
Sustainable development suggests common people that there should be minimum use of any
resources as far as possible. This will definitely lead towards the proper use of natural resources.
2. Feeling of responsibility
Sustainable development changes the knowledge, skill and vision of people. It makes us feel the
responsibility of utilization and conservation of natural resources. In this way the feeling of
responsibility gradually increases.
3. Development of basic aspects
Sustainable development emphasizes the development of essential aspects of human life like
health, education, agriculture, tourism, social improvement, etc. These aspects should be
developed in integration with protection and promotion of environment.
4. Participation in development
Public participation is one of the most important principles of sustainable development. Priority
should be given to public for the achievement of targets of any development work. This will
increase the participation of people in development.
5. Demarcation of development activities
Limited but effective means and resources are enough to fulfill basic requirement of human
beings but they begin to perform more development activities inspired by greed. The means and
resources which are not renewable go on finishing by their excessive use. 
6. Long term vision
Sustainable development forwards the vision of social and economic development without
destroying the means and resources available on the earth. It attempts to develop the concept in
all people about the preservation and retention of present works and resources for the future
generations too. Therefore, sustainable development contributes to the conservation of
environment by developing long term thought.
Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture:
Agricultural systems are currently undergoing rapid shifts owing to socioeconomic development,
technological change, population growth, economic opportunity, evolving demand for
commodities, and the need for sustainability amid global environmental change.1 It is not
sufficient to maintain current harvest levels; rather, there is a need to rapidly increase production
in light of a population growing to nearly 10 billion by mid-century and to more than 11 billion
by 2100 (FAO, 2016; UN, 2017; Popkin et al., 2012). Current and future agricultural systems are
additionally burdened by human-caused climate change, the result of accumulating greenhouse
gas and aerosol emissions, ecological destruction, and land use changes that have altered the
chemical composition of Earth’s atmosphere and trapped energy in the Earth system (IPCC,
2013; Porter et al., 2014).
Climate change impacts on agriculture must be understood in the context of the intertwined
systems that affect food security and agricultural trade, including biological, socioeconomic, and
political processes. Rapid gains in socioeconomic development around the world may give the
mistaken impression that climate change is not detrimental, but in many of these regions climate
change impacts act as an additional burden holding back the pace of development. In addition to
the biological impact of changing climate conditions on farms, future agricultural production will
be affected by economic and policy incentives across a wide variety of stakeholders and actors
both locally and interacting through global markets (Valdivia et al., 2015).
Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture:
Direct impacts of climate, including atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, on
agricultural systems include effects on plant development, grain productivity, and mortality.
Notably, direct climate impacts include both damage and benefits as well as opportunities for
farm-level adaptations. In assessing vulnerabilities and opportunities of farming systems, it is
also important to recognize that C3 plants (e.g., wheat, rice, soy, potato, and peanut) generally
react more strongly than C4 plants (e.g., maize, sugarcane, sorghum) to both increases in
temperature and CO2. Characteristics of direct climate impacts have been investigated using a
variety of chamber and field experiment approaches, although published studies have focused
more on mid-latitude and high-input cereals while direct impacts on tropical cropping systems,
perennials, fruits, and vegetables have persistent uncertainties (Porter et al., 2014; Long et al.,
2006; Tubiello et al., 2007a,b; Ainsworth et al., 2008; Boote et al., 2010). Interactions between
soils and climate changes are crucial, as the full benefits of higher CO2 cannot be achieved by
farms experiencing nitrogen stress. Panel regressions and other statistical methods have also
identified statistically significant climate signals within reported yields (Lobell and Burke, 2008;
Schlenker and Roberts, 2009), with resulting models suggesting that climate changes have
already led to decreases in wheat and maize production since 1980 (Lobell et al., 2011).
Biophysical
Climate Overview of direct impact on
driver mechanism agriculture

Warmer temperatures cause plants to

Increased Accelerated develop at
an accelerated pace, leading to an
mean maturity earlier
temperatures maturity before sufficient biomass
 has been
gained and therefore reducing overall
yields.
Shifts in Warmer temperatures generally
Increased suitable extend the
growing growing season in areas that are
mean seasons currently limited
by cold temperatures while
temperatures restricting growing
seasons in regions limited by high
temperatures.
Extremely hot temperatures cause
Extreme Heat stress, plants to
reduce photosynthetic activity, with
temperatures leaf loss, and prolonged
exposure leading to leaf loss and
mortality potentially full
crop failure (Asseng et al., 2015).
Pollen The impacts of heat waves depend on
Heat wave sterility a plant’s
during developmental stage; heat waves
flowering during
flowering (anthesis) can cause pollen
stage to be
sterile, leading to reproductive failure
and low
grain numbers.
Elevated Higher CO2 concentrations benefit
CO2 Enhanced photo-
synthesis, resulting in higher
primary productivity
productivity (Rosenzweig et al., 2014).
Elevated More Plants in high-CO2 environments
CO2 efficient have more
efficient stomatal gas exchanges,
water use which reduce
transpiration and improve water
retention
(Deryng et al., 2016).
Elevated Yield from crops in CO2-rich
CO2 Reduction in conditions contains
a lower percentage of key nutrients
nutritional including
protein, iron, and zinc (Müller et al.,
content 2014;
Myers et al., 2014; Medek et al.,
 2017).
Excessive transpiration demand
Decreased Increase in causes plants to
water stress reduce gas exchanges for
precipitation and photosynthesis,
conserving water at the expense of
mortality primary
production. Plant water loss can lead
to wilting
and mortality.
Areas that regularly experience
Increased Reduction in drought
conditions likely stand to benefit
precipitation water stress should mean
precipitation increase.
High winds and hail can knock
More severe Plant damage down, break, or
uproot crops, leading to potentially
storms severe losses.

Indirect affect of Climate Change on Agriculture

Climate change impacts on other biophysical systems are likely to have indirect impacts on
agricultural systems. These include the following:
 Sea-level rise: Glacial melting and thermal expansion of the oceans could lead to sea-level rise
of up to a meter or more by 2100 (Church et al., 2013), potentially inundating low-lying coastal
regions with saltwater in a process exacerbated by extreme storms. Mega-deltas (e.g., the
Ganges-Brahmaputra in Bangladesh, Nile in Egypt, or Mekong/Red in Vietnam) are particularly
vulnerable and contain some of the world’s most productive breadbaskets as well as high
densities of smallholder farmers.
 Inland flooding: Inland freshwater flooding may also be exacerbated by mean precipitation
increases, more severe storms, and a higher proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than
snow (Dettinger and Cayan, 1995). Higher rainfall totals could also increase the occurrence of
waterlogging and field conditions that are too wet for the use of heavy farm equipment.
 Water resources: Water resources for irrigation are projected to face increased stress owing to
long-term reductions in mountain snowpack that reduce the natural reservoir capacity of a river
basin for irrigation; this effect could be particularly challenging for semi-arid areas irrigated by
surface water in snow-fed river systems (Döll, 2002; Mote et al., 2005).
 Pests: Shifting climate zones will also affect agro-ecological zones (Fischer et al., 2002) and
alter the potential extent and timing of damaging agricultural pests, diseases, and weeds (Ziska
and Runion, 2006; Rosenzweig and Tubiello, 2007).
Direct and indirect agro-climatic effects can be long-term and widespread (e.g., elevated
temperatures, CO2 effects, water resources supply) or temporally and regionally acute (e.g.,
drought, heat wave, coastal and inland flooding, pests). Climate change may also indirectly
affect agriculture and food systems through economic and political disruption. Prominent
examples include a consistent and extended decline in sea ice that would allow for transportation
of agricultural commodities through the Northwest Passage, more frequent disruption of major
trading ports due to sea-level rise and more intense hurricanes, and the potential for social unrest
and migration following extended agricultural droughts.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors:

Biotic and abiotic are the two essential factors responsible for shaping the ecosystem. The biotic factors refer
to all the living beings present in an ecosystem, and the abiotic factors refer to all the non-living components
like physical conditions (temperature, pH, humidity, salinity, sunlight, etc.) and chemical agents (different
gases and mineral nutrients present in the air, water, soil, etc.) in an ecosystem. Therefore, both the abiotic and
biotic resources affect survival and reproduction process.
Furthermore, both these components are reliant on each other. Suppose if one of the factors is removed or
altered, its repercussions will be faced by the entire ecosystem. Without a doubt, abiotic factors directly affect
the survival of organisms. Read on to explore what role do abiotic and biotic resources play in the ecosystem.

The significance of biotic factors

 Anything that has life is categorized as biotic, from the word itself, bio means life. Of all
biotic factors, humans are the most important.
 They greatly affect the condition of the environment as well as the survival of other
organisms. As the world continues to evolve and technological advancements flourish,
changes in the global ecosystem were noticed.
 The natural balance in the ecosystem is altered causing changes in climate and other
natural occurrences.
A perfect example is the carbon cycle as a result of the growing numbers of industries,
factories, and automobiles.

 They emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which are harmful to
the environment.
 They significantly affect the quality of the air we breath in. Other biotic activities such as
deforestation and urbanization have caused drastic changes in the ecosystem, particularly
in the bodies of water and land.
 These changes contribute to climate change and resulted in the mass extinction of
different forms of life. this goes to show that although humans are the important parts of
the ecosystem, they are also the most potent one. They can make or break the chain. (7, 8, and
9)

The first-ever biotic factor that exists on earth

Don’t you know that humans are not the first living organisms that exist on earth?

The first living organism that ever exists on earth is cyanobacteria. They are a single-
celled autotrophic organism that has a major role to play in the development of the global
ecosystem.
They are the ones in charge of storing solar energy to be used for the conversion of
inorganic carbon compounds into organic.

They also play a vital role in the production of oxygen from carbon dioxide. The release
of oxygen has paved the way for the existence of other organisms. (9, 10)

The significance of abiotic factors

 There are different forms of abiotic factors and each has an important role to play in the
ecosystem.
 Temperature, in particular, determine the rate of metabolic reaction, which has a direct
impact on the survival of biotic factors.
 One should keep in mind that as the temperature rises, the enzyme-catalyzed reaction rate
also rises and will eventually cause the enzyme to denature. Such a process can halt
different chemical reactions thereby affecting the different types of living organisms in
the ecosystem.
 The temperature can also cause changes in the type of organism that could survive in the
ecosystem.
 Another component of the abiotic factor is light. The presence of light has something to
do with the rate of photosynthesis in producers.
 It also directly affects the breeding cycles of animals. However, the presence of sunlight
has something to do with other environmental factors such as the water cycle and rainfall.
 Any alteration in one of the components of the abiotic factor can have a drastic effect on
the living organisms (biotic factor) as well as the entire components of the ecosystem. 
 I. Biotic Meaning
The term “biotic” is formed by the combination of two terms, “bio” meaning life and “ic” meaning like. Thus,
the term means life-like and is related to all the living entities present in an ecosystem.

Biotic Factors
Biotic factors relate to all the living things in the ecosystem. Their presence and their biological by-products
affect the composition of an ecosystem. Biotic factors refer to all living organisms from animals and humans,
to plants, fungi, and bacteria. The interactions between various biotic factors are necessary for the reproduction
of each species and to fulfil essential requirements like food, etc.

Examples of Biotic Factors

Examples of biotic resources include all the living components present in an ecosystem. These include
producers, consumers, decomposers and detritivores.

II. Abiotic Meaning

The term abiotic refers to all the non-living factors present in an ecosystem. Sunlight, water, land, all constitute
the abiotic factors.

Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors refer to all the non-living, i.e. chemical and physical factors present in the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Sunlight, air, precipitation, minerals, and soil are some examples of abiotic
factors. These factors have a significant impact on the survival and reproduction of species in an ecosystem.
For instance, without an adequate amount of sunlight, autotrophic organisms may not be able to survive. When
these organisms eventually die, it will create a shortage of food for primary consumers. This effect cascades up
the food chain, affecting every organism. Consequently, it leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem.

Examples of Abiotic Factors

Abiotic examples typically depend on the type of ecosystem. For instance, abiotic components in a terrestrial
ecosystem include air, weather, water, temperature, humidity, altitude, the pH level of soil, type of soil and
more. Abiotic examples in an aquatic ecosystem include water salinity, oxygen levels, pH levels, water flow
rate, water depth and temperature.

Difference between Abiotic and Biotic Resources

Following are the important difference between abiotic and biotic factors:

Difference Between Biotic Resources and Abiotic Resources

Biotic Resources Abiotic Resources

Definition

Abiotic factors refer to all the non-living, i.e.

Biotic factors include all the living components
physical conditions and chemical factors that
present in an ecosystem
influence an ecosystem

Examples

Examples of abiotic factors include sunlight, water,

air, humidity, pH, temperature, salinity, 
Examples of biotic resources include all flora and
precipitation, altitude, type of soil, minerals, wind,
fauna
dissolved oxygen, mineral nutrients present in the
soil, air and water, etc.

Dependence

Biotic factors depend on abiotic factors for survival Abiotic factors are completely independent of biotic
and reproduction factors

Origin

Abiotic components originate from the lithosphere,

Biotic components originate from the biosphere
hydrosphere and atmosphere

Relationship between Biotic factors and Abiotic factors:

Biotic and abiotic factors both influence each other.  The abiotic factors will determine what
kinds of biotic factors will be present.  Particular organisms and plant forms are suited for
particular types of environments.  For example, frigid climates will not support lizards and other
cold-blooded animals.  Instead, large, blubbery mammals like whales and polar bears are much
better suited to this type of environment.  At the same time, the biotic factors will influence the
abiotic factors.  Microbes and plant life in a lake will determine what the different factors of the
water will be (sunlight levels, acidity, murkiness, etc.).  So both types of factors will influence
each other to determine the ecosystem.