G11 Mathematics Analysis & Approaches HL Unit 1: Proof & Conjecture

Proof converts conjectures into theorems and its acceptance is dependent on mathematical communication and
collaboration
Students develop a deeper understanding of the nature and types of proof. They explore existing proofs and create conjectures
themselves through investigation, going on to prove these. The history of proof is considered, as well as discussion about the future
of proof in an increasingly technological world where mathematical knowledge is so vast that some new proofs may be understood
by only a few people in our world, and the challenges this places on our understanding of when a conjecture can be considered to
have been proven. Students will learn about arithmetic and geometric sequences, as well as the rules of logarithms and Partial
Fractions during the unit. Methods of proof that will be considered include: Visual proof; Direct Proof (including LHS=RHS proofs);
Proof by Contradiction; Proof by Exhaustion; Proof by Mathematical Induction; Proof by contradiction and the use of
counterexamples to prove a conjecture false. Mathematics as an international language and the importance of collaboration and
open communication to development in this area of knowledge will be a focus.

Summative Assessments: Proof & Conjecture Examination Paper 1 (non-calculator) and Proof & Conjecture
Examination Paper 2 (Graphic Display Calculator required
Two 1h closed book examinations, on content and skills from the entire Proof & Conjecture unit. Both the examinations
include problem solving in both familiar and unfamiliar contexts; prior learning is assumed knowledge in all assessments.

Students will Know:

• a sequence is an ordered list of values, separated by commas
• sequence notation 𝑈" is the nth term, or general term in a sequence (note: if a second sequence is also to be considered we
often use 𝑉" to represent the general term of the second sequence, although any variable name can be used)
• implication (if…then…) and its notation ⇒ ; equivalence (if and only if; which can be abbreviated to iff), and its notation ⟺
• converse of a proposition; the converse of the proposition 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 is 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎
• general term/nth term; 𝑈" is the nth term, or general term in a sequence
• parameters (as used to define general sequences)
• recursive sequences/ recurrence formulae; a recursive sequence has terms defined in terms of other terms in the
sequence, for example in a FIbonacci sequence 𝑈" = 𝑈")* + 𝑈"),
• Pascal's Triangle
• triangle numbers; 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, …, the nth triangle number is the sum of the first n integers, i.e. ∑"/0, 𝑟
• Fibonacci sequences; in a Fibonacci sequence there are two starting terms and the remaining terms are found using the
sum of the two previous terms 𝑈" = 𝑈")* + 𝑈"),
• for a polynomial sequence of degree n the nth difference between terms is constant; e.g if the difference between the
terms of a sequence is constant the sequence is linear (arithmetic), if the second difference is constant the sequence is
quadratic, if the third difference is constant the sequence is cubic, etc.
• a series is the sum of the terms of a sequence, it is an ordered list of terms separated by addition symbols
• for a polynomial series of degree n the sum of the series is a polynomial of degree n+1; e.g the sum of the terms in a linear
sequence is a quadratic and the sum of the terms in a quadratic sequence is a cubic
• an arithmetic sequence/arithmetic progression/AP is a sequence with a common difference between the terms; an
arithmetic sequence is another name for a linear sequence (to get the next term in an arithmetic sequence we add the
common difference)
• 𝑈" = 𝑢, + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 is the general term of an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 𝑑
• a geometric sequence/geometric progression/GP is a sequence with a common ratio between the terms; geometric
sequences are exponential sequences (to get to the next term in a geometric sequence we multiply by the common ratio 𝑟)
• 𝑈" = 𝑈, 𝑟 "), is the general term of a geometric sequence with a common ratio of 𝑟
• the sum of the first n terms in a sequence/series is 𝑆" , where 𝑆" = 𝑈, + 𝑈* + 𝑈9 + ⋯ + 𝑈" = ∑"/0, 𝑈/
• finite and infinite series; a finite series has a fixed number of terms that are summed, an infinite series has an infinite
number of terms that are summed
" "
• the sum of the first n terms in an arithmetic sequence is found using 𝑆" = * (𝑈, + 𝑈" ) = * (2𝑈, + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
<= (,)/> )
• the sum of the first n terms in an geometric sequence is found using 𝑆" = ,𝑟 ≠ 1
,)/
• a convergent sequence has terms that get closer to a specific value as the sequence continues, a divergent sequence has
terms that do not converge on a specific value; a constant sequence has terms that are all equal;
• an infinite geometric series converges if |𝒓| < 𝟏, i.e. −1 < 𝑟 < 1
<=
• the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric series is found using 𝑆E = ,)/ , |𝑟| < 1; this is the sum of all the terms in the
infinite series
• sigma notation is used to concisely write the sum of a series; 𝑆" = 𝑈, + 𝑈* + 𝑈9 + ⋯ + 𝑈" = ∑"/0, 𝑈/ the summation
symbol is the Greek capital letter sigma, hence the name (note that a new variable must be introduced to allow for the
notation to be used, the term is written using the new variable)
• exponential/geometric sequences/functions can be used to model growth and decay, which are proportional increases or
decreases in a variable e.g. population growth may be modeled based on a percentage increase of the existing population
• compound interest is interest based on a percentage of the current value of an investment/loan; the value of an
investment/loan subject to compound interest can be modeled using a geometric sequence
• Euler's constant is an irrational number 𝑒 = 2.718 …
= >
O> , > P
• rules of exponents/indices; 𝑎 " 𝑎K = 𝑎 "LK ; = 𝑎 ")K ; (𝑎 " )K = 𝑎 "K ; 𝑎 )" = ; 𝑎 > = √𝑎; 𝑎 R = 1; 𝑎 P = √𝑎 "
OP O>
• the relationship between exponents/indices and logarithms; 𝑎 " = 𝑚 ⟺ 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑚 = 𝑛
• the natural logarithm is the logarithm to base e, Euler’s constant; 𝑙𝑜𝑔W 𝑥 = ln 𝑥
\ " \ "
• the limit of the terms in the sequence [1 + "] as 𝑛 tends to infinity is 𝑒 \ ; which can be written as lim [1 + "] = 𝑒 \
"→E
• the GDC can evaluate logarithms to, but to evaluate logarithms for bases other than base 10 and base e the change of base
rule is usually applied
"
• rules of logarithms; 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑛 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔O (𝑛𝑚); 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔O [K] ; 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑛K = 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑛; 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑎 = 1
bcd "
• the change of base rule of logarithms is 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑛 ≡ bcde O
e

• exponential functions and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other, hence, 𝑎 bcdf g = 𝑥 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔O 𝑎 g = 𝑥
• if a value or expression is divisible by a value it is a multiple of that value
• For integers; odd x odd = odd; odd x even = even; even x even = even e.g 𝑘 ∈ ℤ ⇒ 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑘 * (𝑘 + 7) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 etc.
• To show a value or expression is divisible by 10 we can show it is even and divisible by 5 etc.
• a conjecture/proposition is a mathematical statement that is believed to be true but which has not yet been proven
• a theorem is a mathematical statement that has been proven
• Counterexample is a technique used to prove a conjecture is false
• visual proof uses diagrams to demonstrate the validity of a proposition/conjecture
• direct Proof (algebraic proof)
• proof by contradiction is an indirect form of proof that begins by assuming the opposite of what is to be proven and
demonstrates that the assumption leads to a contradiction
• proof by exhaustion is a method of proof that requires all individual cases of the proposition to be proven
• proof by mathematical induction requires a base case to be proven, followed by an assumption that the proposition is true
for some specific but unknown case, which is used to prove the proposition for the next case, followed by a closing
argument that demonstrates the proposition is true for all cases
Students will be able to:
• describe a sequence using sequence notation (including a recursive sequence)
• calculate terms in a Fibonacci sequence
• use differencing to identify polynomial sequence
• find the general term of a polynomial sequence (using differencing and systems of equations to evaluate parameters)
• Find the general term in a sequence of fractions by considering the general terms for the numerators and denominators
independently
• identify and justify that a sequence is arithmetic; to prove that a sequence is arithmetic we must show that the difference
between any two consecutive general terms is a constant, usually this is done using 𝑈"L, − 𝑈" = 𝑑
• identify and justify that a sequence is geometric; to prove that a sequence is geometric we must show that the ratio
<
between any two consecutive general terms is a constant, this is usually done using <>n= = 𝑟
>

• identify patterns in sequences and continue them

• use a spreadsheet to explore and identify patterns in sequences
• form conjectures for the general term of a sequence based on patterns seen in the sequence
• use differencing to form conjectures about the general term in a polynomial sequence
• find an expression for the sum to n terms of a polynomial series, when given the general term of the series
• find the general term of an arithmetic sequence; by using the formula 𝑈" = 𝑈, + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 or by using terms in the
sequence to form an equation e.g. 𝑢9 = 7 and 𝑢o = 15 ⇒ 𝑈o = 𝑈9 + 2𝑑 ⇒ 15 = 7 + 2𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 4, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑈" = 4𝑛 − 5
(remember that the common difference will be the coefficient of n and the constant terms can be found using either of the
terms)
• find the general term of a geometric sequence; by using the formula 𝑈" = 𝑈, 𝑟 " or by using the terms in the sequence to
,u *
form an equation e.g. 𝑢9 = 2 and 𝑢o = 18 ⇒ 𝑈o = 𝑈9 𝑟 * ⇒ * = 𝑟 * = 9 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3 ∴ 𝑈" = 9x (3"), ) = 2(3")9 )
• use the general term of a sequence to find any specific term in the sequence, by substituting the value of n
• use a GDC to generate a list of terms in a sequence when given the general term; insert the general term as a function to
draw a graph and view the table of values, starting from 𝑥 = 1 to see the terms in the sequence
• apply formulae for geometric sequences to situations involving compound interest
• use sigma notation to define a series
" "
• find the sum of a finite arithmetic sequence; 𝑆" = (𝑈, + 𝑈" ) = (2𝑈, + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
* *
• use the sum of a finite arithmetic series to find a formula to generate triangle numbers; the nth triangle number is the sum
of the first n positive integers
<= (,)/> )
• find the sum of a finite geometric series, 𝑆" = ,)/
,𝑟 ≠ 1
• determine and justify whether an infinite geometric series converges; it will converge if |𝑟| < 1
<=
• calculate the sum to infinity of a convergent infinite geometric series, 𝑆E = ,)/ , |𝑟| < 1
• use a GDC to determine the term number for which the term in a sequence exceeds the value of the term in a second
sequence; insert the general terms for the two sequences as functions to be graphed and use the table of values to compare
the terms in the sequence
• apply the rules of exponents/indices to simplify numerical and algebraic expressions
• apply the rules of exponents/indices to factorise numerical and algebraic expressions
• solve exponential equations (including those quadratic in exponential terms)
• convert between expressions involving exponents/indices and expressions involving logarithms
• change the base in a logarithmic expression
• find the sum/difference of logarithms
• solve logarithmic equations (including those involving exponential growth/decay)
 • separate an algebraic fraction into partial fractions
• use a visual proof to justify formulae for the sum of the first n odd numbers, or the first n even numbers
, , ,
• use a visual proof to show that the sum of the infinite geometric series * + y + u + ⋯ is 1
• use direct proof to prove rules for the sum/difference of logarithms and for the sum of the first n terms in an arithmetic or
geometric sequence.
• Use the LHS=RHS form of direct proof to prove conjectures and to show that identities are valid
• use proof by contradiction to prove the irrationality of the square root of 2
• use proof by contradiction to show that there are infinitely many primes
• use proof by contradiction to prove propositions
• use direct proof to prove propositions
• construct a proof using the principle of mathematical induction - proof by mathematical induction
• construct a divisibility proof using proof by mathematical induction
• construct a sequences/series proof using proof by mathematical induction
• construct an inequalities proof using proof by mathematical induction
• use a counterexample to prove a propositions is false