CHAPTER SIX

MECHANICS OF RIGID BODIES

INTRODUCTION
A rigid body is one in which all interparticle distances are fixed by internal forces of constraints.
Examples of such bodies include: a bullet, a stone, a bullet, etc. The concept of a rigid body is an
idealization which neglects elastic and plastic deformations to which any real body is
susceptible. Unlike the case of a point mass which can only exhibit translational motion, the
motion of a rigid body could be translational and rotational motion.

6.1. Moment of a vector

The moment of a line vector about a point O is the vector product of the magnitude of and
the perpendicular distance of O from the direction od With reference to the figure below, the
moment of is defined as

Moment = * perpendicular distance from axis (6.1)

Fig. 1: Moment of about O

If the vector is a force, its moment is referred to as a torque. The moment about the origin, of a
force F which passes through a point with position vector r, is given by the vector product
τ = r X F = rFSin θ (6.2)
where θ is the angle between r and F. Torque is measured in Nm.
The moment about the origin, of a momentum, p, which passes through a point with position
vector, r, is given as
L=rXp (6.3)
Where L is referred to as angular momentum measured in Kgm2s-1.

6.2. Couples and torque

Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do not coincide are said to constitute couple
in mechanics. The two forces always have a turning effect, or moment, called a torque which is
defined by equation 6.2 in the preceding section.
There are many examples in practice where two forces, acting together, exert a moment or
turning effect on some objects. For instance, let us consider two strings tied at X and Y, and two
equal and opposite forces, F, are exerted tangentially to the wheel as shown in the figure below.
It the wheel is pivoted at its center, O, it begins to rotate about O in an anticlockwise direction.

X Y
O

Fig. 6.2: Couple and torque

Moment of the couple acting on the wheel in the above figure is = F * XY = F * diameter of the
wheel.
6.3: Mechanical equilibrium
→
A rigid body is said to be in translational equilibrium if the resultant force acting on it is zero, F =0,
that is, the body remains either at rest or in motion with constant velocity. This statement is referred to as
condition for translational equilibrium.
For a body in rotational equilibrium, the sum of torques acting on an object about any point is
zero,   = 0 That is, the sum of clockwise moment equals the sum of anticlockwise moment
about a chosen pivot. In this case, the object is rotationally at rest or rotates with a constant
angular velocity. For example, the figure 6.3, if the body is in equilibrium, we have:
W1d1 = W2d2 (6.5)

Fig. 6.3: Principle of moments

A body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when the conditions for both rotational and
→
translational equilibrium are satisfied i.e.  F = 0 &   = 0 . These are called conditions for
equilibrium.
The following are basic steps for solving problems involving static equilibrium:
(i) Determine all external forces;
(ii) Select a pivot;
(iii) Find the moments of all the forces about the pivot i.e determine all external torques;
(iv) Set net force to zero i.e equate the upward and downward forces;
(v) Set equal the sum of clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments i.e. set the net
torque to zero;
(vi) Determine the unknown.
6.4 Rotation of rigid bodies
In order to describe the type of motion for rigid bodies, we shall apply the definition of angular
displacement, θ; angular speed, ω and angular acceleration, α. For a rotational motion about a
fixed axis when the angular acceleration is constant, the following equation of motion holds:
 = 0 +  t (6.6)

1
 = 0 + 0t +  t 2 (6.7)
2

 2 = 02 + 2 ( +  0 ) (6.8)

And

1
 − 0 = (0 +  ) t (6.9)
2
where
s
= (radians) is the angular position of the reference line
r

ave = (in radians per second) is the angular velocity
t
 d
lim =
t →0 t dt
2 − 1 
 ave = = (in rad. Per sec2)
t2 − t1 t

 d
 = lim =
t →0 t dt

Fig. 6.4: Rotational variables

Analogy between translational motion and rotational motion is given below:
Translational motion Rotational motion
x θ
v ω
a α
v = v0 + at ω = ω0 + αt
x = x0 + v0t + 0.5at2 θ = θ0 + ω0t + 0.5α t2

v2 = v02 + 2a( x − x0 )  = 02 + 2 ( − 0 )

6.5 Relation between angular velocity and speed

In order to find the relation between angular velocity and angular speed, let consider a point, P,
on a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis as shown below.

Fig. 6.5: Relation between angular speed and velocity

The arc length, s, and the angle, θ, are connected by the following equation:
s=rθ
The speed of point P is:
ds d
v= =r
dt dt (6.10)
= r
The period, T of revolution is is given as
2 r 2
T= = (6.11)
v 
 1
But, T =   = 2 f (6.12)
f

The magnitude of acceleration is

| a |= ar2 + at2 (6.13)

where

v2
ar = =  2 r is the radial acceleration
r
at =  r is the tangential acceleration

Note:
(i) The redial acceleration is ar

(ii) The tangential acceleration is at

6.6 Center of mass and center of gravity

Center of mass may be defined as a point which locates the resultant mass of a system or body.
Generally, its location is the same as the center of gravity. In order to determine the center of
mass (CM) of system of particles with masses m1, m2, …mn, located at (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2),
…, (xn, yn, zn) respectively as displayed n the figure below. Mathematically, the center of mass
of the system is the point with coordinates (xcm, ycm, zcm) and is given as:
mt x1 + m2 x2 + ... + mn xn
xcm = (6.13)
m1 + m2 + ... + mn

mt y1 + m2 y2 + ... + mn yn
ycm = (6.14)
m1 + m2 + ... + mn

and

mt z1 + m2 z2 + ... + mn zn
zcm = (6.15)
m1 + m2 + ... + mn
Fig. 6.6: Center of mass
Also, the position vector, rcm, is given by:
We define center of gravity, G, as a point which locates the resultant weight of a system of
particles or body. It is a geometric property of any object. One can describe the motion of any
object completely through space in terms of translational motion of the center of gravity of the
object from one place to another and the rotation of the object about its center of gravity if it is
free to rotate.
The following are the steps to determine the center of gravity of any general shaped object:
(i) By balancing the object using a string or an edge. The point at which the object is
balanced is the center of gravity.
(ii) By hanging the object from any point and dropping a weighted string from the same
point. Then, draw a line on the object along the string.
(iii) Repeat the above procedure (ii) from another point on the object. Now, one will have
two lines on the object which intersect each other. The center of gravity is the point at
which the lines intersect. Note that procedures (B) & (C) are mainly used for an
irregular object.

Fig. 6.7: Determination of centre of gravity

6.7 Moment of inertia
Suppose a rigid body is rotating about a fixed point, O, with masses m1, m2, …. At a
perpendicular distances r1, r2, … from the axis of rotation. From the figure below, the velocity, v1
of A is r1ω, where r1 = OA.

Hence, kinetic energy of A is 1

2 m1v12 = 12 m1r12 2 . Similarly, the kinetic energy of another particle
of the body is m2 r22 2 where r2 is its distance from O and m2 is its mass. The kinetic energy of
1
2

the entire object is:

k .e =  2 ( m1r12 + m2 r22 + ...)

1
2
(6.16)
=  2  ( mi ri 2 )
1
2 i

The magnitude m r
i
i i
2
is referred to as “moment of inertia” of the body/object about the axis

concerned. We generally denote the moment of inertia with symbol I measured in Kgm2 i.e.

I =  mi ri 2 (6.17)
i

Now we need to compute moment of inertia about a given axis of some uniform bodies.
6.7.1: Moment of inertia of a uniform rod
For a rod of length, l, one can compute the moment of inertia about the axis through: (i) the
middle and (ii) about the axis through one end, A
First, we will compute the moment of inertia about the axis through the middle of the rod shown
below:

Fig. 6.8: Moment of inertia of a uniform rod of small element δx about an axis XO through its
center O perpendicular to the length, L is obtained from
dm dx
=
M L (6.18)
dx
 dm = M
L
where dm is the mass of a thin slice, with thickness dx and M is the total mass of the rod. Now,
applying the definition of the moment of inertia, I, we obtain, I for a uniform rod as follow:
L−h
M 2
I =  dmx 2 =  x dx
−h
L
L−h
(6.19)
M x  3
= M ( L2 − 3Lh + 3h 2 )
1
= 
 L 3 −h 3

NOTES
(I) The equation in (6.19) describes the moment of inertia when the axis is through one end.
(II) If the axis is through the middle, (i.e L = 2h) , then the moment of inertia becomes:
 L L
2
 dx  2M  x3  2
I = 2  M  x 2 =
0
L  L  3  0 (6.20)
2
ML
=
12
(III) If the axis is at the left end of the rod,

1
I = ML2 (6.21)
3
(IV) Moments of inertia of other objects are listed below:
A. Rectangular plate with axis through its center

M ( a 2 + b2 )
1
I= (6.22)
12

B. Circular disc with axis through its center

Ma 2
I= (6.23)
2

C. Thin rectangular plate with axis along the edge

 1
I= Ma 2 (6.23)
12

D. Solid sphere with axis through the center

2
I= MR 2 (6.24)
5

E. Hollow cylinder

M ( R12 + R22 )
1
I= (6.25)
2
 F. Solid cylinder
1
I= MR 2 (6.26)
2

6.8 The parallel axis theorem

This theorem explains the relationship between the moment of inertia, Icm, of a body of mass, M,
about an axis through its center of mass and the moment of inertia. I, about any other axis
parallel to the original one, at a distance, d, from it. This theorem can be expressed as:

I = I cm + Md 2 (6.27)

Using the figure below, d is the perpendicular distance between the axes z and z′.
The parallel axis theorem can be applied with other rules such as the stretch
rule and perpendicular axis theorem to find moments of inertia for a variety of shapes.

6.9 Kinetic energy of rotation

The rotational kinetic energy of rotation, Krot, of a body is given by
1 2
K rot = I (6.28)
2
where I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body and ω is the angular velocity in radian per
second.
The kinetic energy of a rigid body consists of translational and rotational part because the motion
of a rigid body consists of two parts, that is
1 1
K= I cm 2 + Mvcm
2
(6.29)
2 2

6.10 Work and power in rotational motion

The second law of motion for rotational motion states that the total external torque, τ, equals the
product of the moment of inertia, I, and the angular acceleration, α, i.e.
 = I (6.30)
The total work done by the torque during an angular displacement θ1 to θ2 is given as
2
W =   d (6.31)
1

If the torque remains constant, then the work done becomes:

2
W =   d =  ( 2 − 1 ) (6.32)
1

When a torque does work on a rotating rigid body, the change in rotating kinetic energy of the
rigid body equals to the work done by forces exerted from outside the body. By substituting
(6.33) into (6.35), we have:
2 2 
dw 2
d
W =  I d =  I d =  I
1 1 dt 1 dt

d
But =  , hence
dt
2

 Id = 2 I ( − 22 )
1
W= 2
1 (6.33)
1
The power associated with work done by a torque acting on a rotating body is given by:
dW  d
P= = =  (6.34)
dt dt

6.11 Conservative and Non-conservative forces

A force is said to be conservative if the work done by the force on an object moving from one
point to the other depends only on the initial and final points/path taken. Examples of such force
include gravitational force, electrical force and spring force.
A force field, F, defined everywhere is called a conservative force if it meets any of the
following conditions:
→
(i.) The curl of F is the zero vector i.e XF = 0
(ii.)The net work done by F in moving a particle around a closed path is zero i.e.
→
W=  F .d r = 0 (6.34)

(iii.) The force, F, can be written as the negative gradient of a potential, φ i.e.
F = − (6.35)

If the work done in taking an object round a closed path to its original position is not zero, the
forces are said to be non-conservative. If friction is present, the work done depends not only on
the starting and end points, but also on the path taken. Examples of non-conservative forces
include frictional force, air resistance, push or pull by a person, tension in a string etc.

6.13 Conservation of mechanical energy

Although energy may be transformed from one form to another (e.g., from mechanical energy to
heat energy, chemical energy to electrical energy etc), the total energy in a closed system is
always constant. For instance, if an electric motor is supplied with 1000 J of energy, 850 J of
mechanical energy, 140 J of heat energy and 10 J of sound energy may be produced. This is
referred to as conservation of energy. It is one of the important principles in science.
In a mathematical form, the work-energy principle can be expressed as

WNet = K = m ( v22 − v12 )

1
(6.37)
2
Since there are conservative and non-conservative forces,
WNet = WC + WN = K (6.38)
Were WNet is the net work done, WC is the work done by conservative forces, WN is the work
done by non-conservative forces and K is the change in kinetic energy.
From the above equation,
WN = K + U = E (Since the conservative work = loss in potential energy) (6.39)

Generalized work-energy principle states that The total non-conservative work done on a
system is equal to the gain in mechanical energy of the system.
Special case:
When WN = 0, E = 0 , i.e. E = constant or Efinal = Einitial This is known as conservation of
mechanical energy.

6.13 Solved problems

(1) Two equal point masses m0 are at the ends of a mass-less thin bar of length, l. Determine the
moment of inertia for an axis perpendicular to the bar through: (a) it’s centre; (b) one of its end.
Solution:
l
(a) For an axis through the Centre, each mass is at a distance from the axis. By applying
2
the formula for moment of inertia, we have

I = mr 2
l2 l2
= m0 + m0
4 4
2
l
= m0
2
(b) For an axis through an end, the mass at that end has r = 0, while the other mass is at distance, l,
hence

I = 0* m0 + m0 * l 2
= m0l 2

2. A grind stone in the form of solid cylinder has a radius of 0.5 m and a mass of 50 Kg. Calculate the
torque that will bring it from rest to and angular velocity of 300 rev/min in 10 s.

Solution

For a solid cylinder,

1 1
I= MR 2 = *50*0.52
2 2
= 6.25 Kgm 2
 300* 2
 = 300rev / min = = 10 rad / s
60
 = 0 +  t
10 = 0 + 10*    =  rad / s 2
Torque is given as

 = I = 6.25* 
= 19.6 Nm
3. The angular velocity of a flywheel increases uniformly from 400 rev/min to 1000 rev/min in 10 s.
Determine the number of revolutions made by the wheel in the 10 s interval.

Solution:

ω0 = 400 rev/min, ω1 = 1000 rev/min, t = 10 s = 10/60 min

By definition

0 + 1 
=
2 t
 +  400 + 1000 1
 =  0 1 t = *
 2  2 12
58.33rev
4. Find the moment of inertia of a rod 4 cm in a diameter and 2 m long, of mass 12 Kg about an axis
perpendicular to the rod and passing through one end.

Solution

By definition,

1 1
I = ML2 = *9* 22
3 3
= 12 Kgm 2

5. A heavy flywheel rotating on its axis is slowing down because of friction on its bearing. At the end of
the first 180 s, its angular velocity is half it’s original value. Calculate its angular velocity at the end of the
second minute.

Solution

After 45 s, its final angular velocity is ω1 = 0.5 ω0. We know that

1 = 0 +  t
0.50 = 0 + 180
  
  =  − 0  rads −2
 360 
At the end of the second minute, the angular frequency becomes:

1 = 0 +  t
 −1 
= 0 +   0 *120
 360 
2
= 0
3

7. A flywheel originally at rest is to reach an angular velocity of 72 rad/s is 6.0 s. (a) What constant
acceleration must it have? (b) What total angle does it turn through is 6.0 s?

Solution

a. The required solution is obtained as follows:

 = 0 +  t
 72 = 0 + 6.0
 = 12rad / s 2

b. From the equation of angular motion

1
 =  0 + 0 t +  t 2
2
1
= *12*6 2
2
 = 216rad