TVET CERTIFICATE III in LAND SURVEYING

TTTSR103 FUNDAMENTAL SURVEYING COMPUTATIONS

LSVSC401 Perform Fundamental Surveying Computations

Learning hours: 80
REQF Level: 4
Credits: 8
Sector: Construction and Building services
Sub-sector: Land surveying

Module Note Issue date: September, 2020

Purpose statement

This is a core module which describes the performance outcomes, skills, knowledge
and attitude required to perform Fundamental Surveying Computations.

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Table of Contents

Elements of competence and performance criteria Page

Learning Unit Performance Criteria No.
1. Apply Principles of 1.1. Adequate identification of measurements in 3
measurement accordance with their types.
1.2. Adequate identification of errors in accordance
with their sources.
1.3. Adequate assessment of accuracy and precision
according to the indices of precision.
2. Perform linear 2.1. Proper identification of unit for distance 9
measurements measurement with respect to the unit systems.
2.2. Proper identification of linear measurement
types according to their making methods.
2.3. Adequate application methods of distance
measurement according to the measurement
types.
3. Perform angular 3.1. Proper identification unit of angular 25
measurements measurement with respect to their units
conversion.
3.2. Adequate identification of angles according to
their types.
3.3. Adequate application methods of angular
measurement according to the nature of terrain.
4. Perform earthwork 4.1. Proper computation of area according to the 39
volume computation regular figures.
4.2. Correct computation of area according to
irregular figures.
4.3. Correct computation of volume according to
their rules and methods.

Total Number of Pages: 65

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Learning Unit 1 – Apply principles of measurement

LO 1.1 –Identify Surveying measurements

● Topic 1: Horizontal measurement

Horizontal angles
Horizontal angle is an angle formed by the directions to two (2) objects in a horizontal plane. They are
used to determine bearings and directions in control surveys, for locating detail when mapping and
for setting out all types of structure. Horizontal angles are the basic observations needed for
determining bearings and azimuths.

Horizontal distances

Horizontal distances are determined in various ways depending on the accuracy desired. Among the
available methods, the common and practical ones in use are pacing, taping, and the stadia method.
The tasks of determining the horizontal distances between two (2) existing points and of setting a
new point at a specified distance from some other fixed position are fundamental surveying
operations. The surveyor must select the appropriate equipment and apply suitable field procedures
(methods) in order to determine or set and mark distances with the required degree of accuracy.
Depending on the specific application and the required accuracy, one of several methods may be
used to determine horizontal distance.

● Content/Topic 2: Vertical measurement

Vertical angles
A vertical angle is difference in direction formed by two (2) intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one
of these lines horizontal. Vertical angles are used when determining the heights of points and to
calculate slope corrections. Vertical angles are measured in the vertical plane either above or below
the horizontal plane of the instrument. They are used in trigonometric leveling, stadia and for
reducing slope distances to horizontal.

Vertical distances

It is the distance measured refer to Elevation of any point above or below a reference datum. This
distance is measured with appropriately selected instrument.

LO 1.2 – Identify Errors

● Content/Topic 1: Types of errors in measurement

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Systematic error
Systematic errors or cumulative errors are predictable (detectable) errors and, they are often due to
the instrumental defects as noted previously under the heading Instrumental Errors, observation
methods, and certain environmental factors. In most cases, systematic errors are caused by physical
and natural conditions that vary in accordance with known mathematical or physical laws.
Systematic errors are caused by:
Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observations.
Not applying curvature and refraction constants.
Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.
Using an incorrect prism offset.
Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.

Random error
A random error is an error that does not occur with a predictable pattern. They are due mainly to
environmental conditions but may also be due to normal differences and imperfections between
individual observers with regard to their sight and touch (example, reading scales and pointing to
targets).
Mistakes/ blunders

Gross errors are mistakes on the part of the observer, due to carelessness, fatigue, ignorance,
stupidity, or the inexperience of the surveyor (or observer). Examples of mistakes (blunder errors)
are: blunder in reading, recording or calculating a value. In few words they are caused by the
misunderstanding of the problem, carelessness or poor judgment of the observer.

● Content/Topic 2: Sources of errors in measurement:

Natural errors
Natural errors are errors caused by environmental conditions or significant changes in
environmental conditions. Wind speed, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, gravity,
earth curvature, and atmospheric refraction are examples of natural error sources. For example, the
length of a steel tape varies with changes temperature.

Instrumental errors
Instrumental errors are errors caused by imperfectly constructed, adjusted, or calibrated surveying
equipment. The incorrect graduations of a steel tape and the improper adjustment of the plane levels
of a transit are few examples. Instrument errors can be further minimized by periodically calibrating
surveying instruments, prisms, rods, and tribraches.

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Personal errors

Human (Personal) errors: are errors caused by physical limitations and inconsistent setup and
observation habits of the surveyor. These arise from the limitations of the human senses such as
sight, touch and bearing. For example, improper bisecting of the object by fixing the line of sight of a
transit while measuring angles is personal error. Another example, minor errors result from
misaligning the telescope crosshairs on the target or not holding the target rod perfectly plumb.
These errors will always be present to some degree in every observation.

LO 1.3 – Assess accuracy and precision

● Content/Topic 1: Indices of precision
Standard deviation
Variance
Standard error of the mean
Weight
Outliers
Mean/Most probable value
Different conditions under which the measurements are made, cause variations in
measurments and, therefore, no measured quantity is completely detrminable.
A fixed value of a quantity may be conceived as its true value.
The difference between the measured quantity and its true value τ is known as error
ε, i.e., ε = x−τ

Since the true value of a measured quantity cannot be determined, the exact value of
ε can never be found out.
It has been stated earlier that in physical observations, the true value of any quantity is never known.
However, its most probable value can be calculated if redundant observations have been made.
Redundant observations are measurements in excess of the minimum needed to determine a
quantity. For a single unknown, such as a line length that has been directly and independently
observed a number of times using the same equipment and procedures, 1 the first observation
establishes a value for the quantity and all additional observations are redundant. The most probable
value in this case is simply the arithmetic mean, or

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Where is the most probable value of the quantity, the sum of the individual measurements M,
and n the total number of observations. Equation can be derived using the principle of least squares,
which is based on the theory of probability.
Residuals
Having determined the most probable value of a quantity, it is possible to calculate residuals. A
residual is simply the difference between the most probable value and any observed value of a
quantity, which in equation form is

Where v is the residual in any observation M, and is the most probable value for the quantity.
Residuals are theoretically identical to errors, with the exception that residuals can be calculated
whereas errors cannot because true values are never known. Thus, residuals rather than errors are
the values actually used in the analysis and adjustment of survey data.
Measures of precision
Standard deviation also called the root-mean square (R.M.S.) error, is a measure of spread of a
distribution and for the population, assuming the observations are of equal reliability it is expressed
as

Where  is the standard deviation of the group of observation of the same quantity,  is the residual
of an individual observation, 2 the sum of squares of the individual residuals and n the number of
observations.
Variance:
The variance is equal to 2, the square of the standard deviation. Standard deviation and variance are
statistical terms used to express the precision of the group of observation.
Measures of accuracy
The standard error of mean σm is used to determine accuracy in observation/
measurement and is given by

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  The precision of the mean is enhanced with respect to that of a single observation. There are
n deviations (or residuals) from the mean of the sample and their sum will be zero. Thus,
knowing (n – 1) deviations the surveyor could deduce the remaining deviation and it may be
said that there are (n – 1) degrees of freedom. This number is used when estimating the
population standard deviation.

Weight
 This quantity  is known as weight of the measurement indicates the reliability of a quantity.
It is inversely proportional to the variance (2) of the observation, and can be expressed as

 Where k is a constant of proportionality. If the weights and the standard errors for
observations x1, x2, ,….., etc., are respectively 1 , 2 ω ,….., etc., and 1 , 2 ,….., etc., and u
is the standard error for the observation having unit weight then we have

The weights are applied to the individual measurements of unequal reliability to reduce them to one
standard. The most probable value is then the weighted mean xm of the measurements. Thus

and standard error of the weighted mean

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The standard deviation of an observation of unit weight is given by

and the standard deviation of an observation of weight n is given by

● Content/Topic 2: Error adjustment

Least square
It is simply a method where equations are written for each observation in terms of the unknown
parameters. These equations are weighted according to the precisions of the observations in order to
return the errors back to their sources.
Simple adjustment using weight
Sampling weights, also known as survey weights, are positive values associated with the observations
(rows) in your dataset (sample), used to ensure that metrics derived from a data set are representative
of the population (the set of observations). ... Ideally, a sample is perfectly reflective of the population.

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Learning Unit 2 –Perform linear measurements
LO 2.1 –Identify unit for distance measurement.
● Content/Topic 1: English unit
Inch
Foot
Yard
Mile

British Units (English unit)

12 inches = 1 foot

3 feet = 1 yard

51/2 yards = 1 rod, pole or perch

4 poles = 1 chain (66 feet)

10 chains = 1 furlong

8 furlongs = 1 mile

100 links = 1 chain

= 66 feet

6 feet = 1 fathom

120 fathoms = 1 cable length

6080 feet = 1 nautical mile

● Content /Topic 2: Metric unit

Centimeter
Decimeter
Meter
Decameter
Kilometer

Metric Units
10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
10 decimetres = 1 metre
10 metres = 1 decametre
10 decametres = 1 hectometre
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre
1852 metres = 1 nautical mile
(International)

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 Content /Topic 2: Unit conversion
Metric unit to English unit

Metres Yards Feet Inches

1 1.0936 3.2808 39.3701

0.9144 1 3 36
0.3048 0.3333 1 12
0.0254 0.0278 0.0833 1

English unit to Metric unit

LO 2.2 – Identify linear measurement types.

● Content/Topic 1: Types of linear measurement:
Horizontal distance

In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If the points are
at different elevations, then the distance is the horizontal length between plumb lines at the points.

Vertical distance

Vertical distance or vertical separation is the distance between two vertical positions.

Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing vertical position: depth, height, altitude, elevation, etc.
Each quantity may be expressed in various units: metres, feet, etc.

● Content/Topic 2: Methods of making linear measurements:

Direct method

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Distances are actually measured on the surface of the earth using chain or tape measurements or
Ranging.
Indirect method

In indirect measurement, we can find:

Measurements by optical means: Observations are taken through a telescope and distances
are determined by calculation as in tacheometer and in triangulation.
Electronic means: Distances are measured with instruments that rely on propagation,
reflection and subsequent reception of either radio or light waves.

LO 2.3 – Apply methods of distance measurement.

 Content/Topic 1: Methods of horizontal distance measurement:
Taping
Taping also known as chain surveying: the traditional surveying method for horizontal distance
measurement in which applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a line a number of
times. It requires manual skill on the part of the surveyors.

Odometer
An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of known circumference to a distance.

Chaining
Chain surveying is the branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the field.
This is suitable for the survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is fairly flat.
Stadia
The stadia method, is a technique of measuring distances with a telescopic instrument.

● Content/Topic 2. Errors correction

Standard
The standard error (SE) of a statistic (usually an estimate of a parameter) is the standard deviation of
its sampling distribution or an estimate of that.
Temperature
It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its temperature is
raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small.  If the tape is used at a field
temperature different from the standardization temperature then the temperature correction to the
measured length is given by the formula:
                       
Ct = a (Tm – To) L

In which Ct = the correction due to temperature to be applied to a distance measured, in m;

               a = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material;
              Tm = the mean field temperature during measurement; temperature of
Tape at time of measurement in ◦c

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              To = the temperature at which the tape is standardized
(Standardization temperature normally 20◦c);
               L = the measure length of line in m.
The sign of the correction takes the sign of (Tm- T0). or
The sign of the correction is plus or minus according as Tm is greater or less than To. 
The coefficient of expansion for steel varies from 10.6 x 10 -6 to 12.2 x 10-6 per degree
centigrade and that for invar from 5.4 x 10-7 to 7.2 x 10-7. 
If the coefficient of expansion of a tape is not known, an average value of 11.4 x 10 -6 for steel
and 6.3 x 10-7 for invar may be assumed. 
For very precise work, the coefficient of expansion for the tape in question must be carefully
determined.
Sag
When a tape is stretched over points of support, it takes the form of a catenary.   In actual practice,
however, the catenary curve is assumed to be a parabola.  The correction for sag (or sag correction) is
the difference in length between the arc and the subtending chord (i.e., the difference between the
horizontal distance between supports and the length measured along the curve). It is required only
when the tape is suspended during measurement.  Since the effect of the set on the tapes is to make
the measured length too great this correction is always subtractive. 

For very accurate measurements the tape can be allowed to hang in catenary between two supports
(Fig.a). In the case of long tape, intermediate supports as shown in Fig. b, can be used to reduce the
magnitude of correction.

 Sag correction is necessary when the band (tape) is suspended between tripod heads i.e hung
on the catenary rather than being laid on the ground.
 The correction for the sag must be applied if the tape has been standardized on a flat.

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The sign of this correction is always negative.
If both the ends of the tape are not at the same level, a further correction due to slope is required. It
is given by:

Where: α= the angle of slope between the end supports.

Tension
If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standardization pull, the pull
correction is to be applied to the measured length. Or
The correction is necessary when the pull used during measurement is different from that at
which the tape is standardized.  It is given by the formula:
Cp = (P-Po) L / AE

Where Cp = the correction for pull in metres.

           P = the pull applied during measurement/field tension in newtons (N).
           Po= the pull under which the tape is standardized/standard pull
or tension in newtons (N).
           L = the measured length in metres.
           A = the cross-sectional area of the tape, in sq.cm.
           E = the modulus of elasticity of steel/ Young’s modulus for the tape
material.
The value of E for steel may be taken as 19.3 to 20.7 x 10 10 N/m2 and that for invar 13.8 to
15.2 x 1010 N/m2. 
For every precise work its value must be ascertained.  The sign of the correction is plus, as the
effect of the pull is to increase the length of the tape and consequently, to decrease the
measured length of the line. Or
The sign of the correction is the same as that of (P-Po).

Slope correction
It is already indicated that whenever slope distances are measured, they must be reduced to
horizontal plane.
This can be done by computation from measured slope angle,  or measured difference in
elevation, h of the two points in consideration.
If the length L is measured on the slope as shown in Fig. below, it must be reduced to its
horizontal equivalent L Cos θ. The required slope correction is

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 ❑
√(L2−h2 )
The correction can be given by:

Where:
 = the angle of the slope, and
h = the difference in elevation of the ends of the tape.
The sign of this correction is always negative.

Total error

Total error and total allowable error are useful when choosing the SPC rule(s) to apply to a test. For
example, SPC rules can identify a test exceeding a quality specification (TE a). Total error for a test
includes both bias and imprecision at a 99% confidence interval. Use the following formula to
calculate the TE:

TEa specifications are available from several sources as described in "Determine Quality Requirements
for the Test." After choosing a TEa, calculate the TE budget. Use the following formula to calculate the
TE budget:

With the optional Westgard Advisor™ online, choose a TEa and the program suggests SPC rules based
on test data and Unity™ Interlaboratory Program information.

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● Content/Topic 3. Methods of vertical distance measurement:

Rise and fall method

It is the method which gives the difference of elevation between consecutive points by comparing
each point after the first that immediately preceding it. Rise and fall are indicated by the difference in
staff reading. After that RL is found by adding the rise to or subtracting the fall from the reduced level
of the preceding point.
Method to calculate RL
fall (F) = foresight (F.S.) – backsight (B.S.)

fall (F) = intermediate sight (I.S.) – backsight (B.S.)

rise (R) = backsight (B.S.) – foresight (F.S.)

reduced level (R.L.) = precede reduced level + rise (R)

reduced level (R.L.) = precede reduce level – fall (F)

There are 8 columns to the form and as many rows as are necessary for the traverse.

Point/ Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/

Station (BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments

Height of plane of collimation

Height of instrument method deals with obtaining the RL of the line of collimation by adding BS
reading of a point whose RL is known. The RL of line of collimation is called Height of Instrument.
From this, the staff readings of all intermediate stations are subtracted to get the RL at those points.

Method to calculate RL;

height of collimation (H of C) = reduced level (R.L.) + backsight (B.S.)

reduced level (R.L.) = height of collimation (H of C) – foresight (F.S.)

reduced level (R.L.) = height of collimation (H of C) – intermediate sight (I.S.)

Using the readings from the following example:

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From the above information:
The initial Back sight (1.125) and Reduced Level (100.000) for the first staff position are written on
the first row.
The Intermediate Sight (3.260) for the next staff position is written on the second row.
The Intermediate Sight (2.755) is written on the third row.
On the fourth row is written the foresight at the Change Point (1.765) as well as the Back sight at
the same point (1.660) in the following way.

Point/ Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/

Station (BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments
1 1.125 100.00 TBM
2 3.260 IS
3 2.755 IS
4 1.660 1.765 CP

In the same way all of the readings would be entered as follows:

Point/ Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/
Station (BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments
1 1.125 100.00 TBM
2 3.260 IS
3 2.755 IS
4 1.660 1.765 CP
5 0.340 IS
6 0.795 IS
7 0.860 IS
8 1.350 2.570 CP
9 1.455 IS
10 1.876 IS
11 3.765 CP

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The above extract of booking is largely self-explanatory.

Note:

Each reading is booked on a separate line except for the back sight and foresight at change points.
The back sight is booked on the same line as the foresight because it refers to the same point at
which the staff is located. As each line refers to a specific point where the staff is placed, it should be
noted in the comment’s column.

Reducing the Observations to obtain the difference in Heights

After the observations have been correctly booked in the table, as above, the

differences in height are calculated. These are calculated by subtracting each

reading from the reading before it. If the difference is positive it is booked as a rise, if it is negative it
is booked as a fall. The difference is booked on the same line as the second reading.

Poin Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/

t/ (BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments
Station
1 1.125(1A) 100.00 TBM
2 3.260(2A) 2.135 IS
3 2.755(3A) 0.505 IS
4 1.660(1B) 1.765(4A) 0.990 CP
5 0.340(2B) 1.320 IS
6 0.795(3B) 0.455 IS
7 0.860(4B) 0.065 IS
8 1.350(1C) 2.570(5B) 1.710 CP
9 1.455(2C) 0.105 IS
10 1.876(3C) 0.421 IS
11 3.765(4C) 1.889 CP

In the above example initially 2A is subtracted from 1A. The difference is -2.135 and because it is
negative, it is therefore booked in the fall column on the same line as 2A.
Next 3A is subtracted from 2A, with the difference of +0.505, and because it is
positive, it is booked in the rise column on the same line as 3A.
Similarly, 4A is subtracted from 3A and the difference being +0.990 is booked in the Rise column,
because it is positive, on the same line as 4A. That concludes the observations made at instrument
station A.
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The procedure re-commences for the next instrument station, 2B from 1B, 3B from 2B, 4B from 3B
and 5B from 4B, with the differences booked in the same manner.
Similarly, the procedure re-commences for the next instrument station with 2C from 1C, 3C from 2C
and 4C from 3C, with the differences booked in the same manner.
Determination of Heights
The next step is to determine the height of each point along the traverse .

Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/

(BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments
1.125 100.00 (1) TBM
3.260 2.135 (2) 97.865 (3) IS
2.755 0.505 98.370 (5) IS
(4)
1.660 1.765 0.990 99.360 (7) CP
(6)
0.340 1.320 100.680 (9) IS
(8)
0.795 0.455 100.225 (11) IS
(10)
0.860 0.065 100.160 (13) IS
(12)
1.350 2.570 1.710 98.450 (15) CP
(14)
1.455 0.105 98.345 (17) IS
(16)
1.876 0.421 97.924 (19) IS
(18)
3.765 1.889 96.035 (21) CP
(20)

Starting with the initial Reduced Level of 100.000m, indicated by (1), the first difference in
height is added to it algebraically.
This means that a rise is added to the Reduced Level, while a fall is subtracted from the
Reduced Level.
From this (2) is added to (1), 100.000 + (- 2.135), to produce the height (Reduced Level) of the
next point, as indicated by (3).
The next Rise/Fall (4) is then added to this Reduced Level (3) to give the height (Reduced
Level) of the next point, as indicated by (5).
Similarly, (6) is added to (5) to give (7), (8) is added to (7) to give (9) and so on down the Rises
and Falls.
This would produce a final height (Reduced Level) of 96.035m.
This gives us a general formula of: RL new = RL old + Rise/- Fall
This can be shown diagrammatically below.

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Page 19 of 66
Checks
There are three very important checks that must be applied to the above reductions to ensure
that there have not been any mathematical errors.
It is important to remember that these checks will NOT determine errors in observations or
the accuracy of the observations, but only errors in the mathematics. These checks are:
Σ back sights - Σ fore sights = Σ rises - Σ falls = last reduced level - first reduced level.
Intermediate Sights do NOT form part of these checks. The checks are shown in the table below.

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 As can be seen from the table above, if the three numbers at the bottom are the same, then
the mathematics are correct.
Inverted Sights
It is sometimes necessary to obtain the Reduced Level of an overhead object, such as the
underside of a bridge.
In all such exercises, it is the Height of Collimation that is important.
In the diagram below, the Bench Mark has a height of 50.000m and the reading on the staff at
the Bench Mark is 2.240.
Hence, the height of the Line of Collimation - that is, the Line of Sight - is 50.000 + 2.240 =
52.240m.
Once this Height of Collimation is obtained, the staff is inverted and a reading taken.

In this example, the reading is 4.270. This is added to the Height of Collimation, 52.240 +
4.270 = 56.510m.
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 This is the Reduced Level of the underside of the girder.

Since the base of the staff is up on the underside of the girder, the reading taken from the
inverted staff is called an Inverted Reading.

In order to fit this reading into the normal Rise/Fall method of calculating heights, it is booked
as a negative value and treated in exactly the same way as a normal reading. This is shown
below.

Point/ Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/

Station (BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments
1 2.240 (1) 50.000 BM
2 -4.270 (2) 6.510 56.510 Girder

From the method outlined above (1) - (2) = 2.240 - (-4.270) = 2.240 + 4.270 = 6.510

This value then represents a rise of 6.510m and is booked in the rise column to give the height
of the girder at 56.510m.

When an Inverted Staff Reading is in a traverse, it will appear as follows, and is treated
normally.

Point/ Backsight Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Remarks/

Station (BS) Sight (IS) (FS) (+) (-) Level (RL) Comments
1 2.240 (1) 50.000 BM
2 -4.270 (2) 6.510 56.510 Girder
3 0.897 (3) 5.167 51.343 Pt A
4 3.879 (4) 2.982 48.361 BM 2

Using the normal method:

(1) − (2) = 2.240 − (-4.270) = 2.240 + 4.270 = 6.510
Height of girder = 50.000 + 6.510 = 56.510 m
(2) − (3) = - 4.270 − 0.897 = -5.167
Height of Pt a = 56.510 − 5.167 = 51.343 m
(3) − (4) = 0.897 − 3.879 = -2.982
Height of BM2 = 51.343 -2.982 = 48.361 m

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For Height of plane of collimation

The Height of Collimation Method is not particularly suited to Level Traverses, but rather is suited
where there is a large number of Intermediate Sights such as the centre line and cross sections of
a road.
In this method Height of Instrument (H.I.) is calculated for each setting of the instrument by
adding the back sight (B.S.) to the elevation of B.M.
Height of instrument (H.I.) = R.L. of the plane of collimation = R.L. of B.M.+B.S.
RL of a point = H.I. – FS Or
= H.I. – IS
After every back sight, there may be many intermediate sights but there must be only one
foresight.
The B.S. & F.S. form the two ends of one stage in levelling.
Levelling should always commence from a permanent B.M. and end on a permanent B.M.
The Height of Collimation Method works by calculating the height of the instrument, and then
subtracting each of the Intermediate Sights from that height.
From Figure below for the first instrument station the line of sight is 1.125 metres above the
bench mark, that is, RL of line of sight = 100.000 + 1.125 metres; therefore, the RL of instrument =
101.125 metres.

Then RL of intermediate points for this set up of the instrument will be the height of the
instrument less the staff reading.

Point Height of Instrument Staff Reading Reduced Level

IP 1 101.125 - 3.260 = 97.865 m
IP 1 101.125 - 2.755 = 98.370 m
CP 101.125 - 1.765 = 99.360 m
The levels recorded are set out diagrammatically in Figure above.
The position of the instrument is now changed and so the height of the instrument is changed.
RL (CP 1) + BS = HI
99.360 + 1.660 = 101.020 m and so HI – IS = RL
100.020 - 0.340 = 100.680 m and so on to the end of line.

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Note:
As with the Rise and Fall method, there are checks that can be applied for the Height of
Collimation method.
Several versions of checking exist, and the following is perhaps the most Straight forward.
Treat BS and FS observations as one entity, and IS observations as another.
Σ (BS) – Σ (FS) should equal Last RL - First RL.
For each instrument station:

 The sum of IS observations plus the sum of their corresponding RLs, divided by n (the
number of IS readings), should equal the collimation height.

 Referring to the example above and applying this check:

This agrees with the height of collimation, shown as 101.125 for the first instrument station.
This is repeated for each instrument station.

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 The complete check is a little tedious and it is doubtful if it is used at all in low accuracy work.
Important work is always reduced by the Rise and Fall method.
The Height of Collimation method is often used where the number of intermediate sights is large.
Comparison of Rise and Fall Method with Height of Collimation Method

Collimation method Rise and Fall method

 Reduced Level (RL) of a point
 RL =H.I-I.S on the point
 RL=H.I-F.S on the point
 Easier and faster computation
 Advantageous in ‘longitudinal
sectioning and cross sectioning
 Checking of computation
 B.S-F.S=Rises-Falls=Last R.L-1st R.L
 Checks all the computation of B.S and
F.S and cannot check the error in I.S
computation
 Reduced Level (RL) of a point
 RL=RL of the previous point + Rise
 RL=RL of the previous point - Fall
 Computation is laborious and time
consuming
 Advantageous where rise and fall
computations are of interest
 Checking of computation
 B.S-F.S =Last R.L-1st R.L
 Checks all the computations involving
B.S;IS and F.S

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Learning Unit 3 – Perform Angular Measurements

LO 3.1 – Identify unit of angular measurement.

● Content/Topic 1: Units of angular measurement:
Radians
Radian describes the plane angle subtended by a circular arc, as the length of the arc divided by
the radius of the arc. One radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc that is
equal in length to the radius of the circle. This means that in any circle, there are 2 PI radians.
Therefore 360º = 2 PI radians. Therefore 180º = PI radians. So, one radian = 180/ PI degrees and
one degree = PI /180 radians.

Degrees
A degree (in full, a degree of arc, arc degree, or arc degree), usually denoted by ° (the degree
symbol), is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees.
Grads.

Grade, is a unit of measurement of an angle, defined as one hundredth of the right angle (in other
words, there are 100 gradians in 90 degrees). It is equivalent to 1400 of a turn, 910 of a degree, or
π200 of a radian.

● Content/Topic 2: Conversion of angular units:

Degrees to radians

Degrees to grads

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 Radians to grads

LO 3.2 – Identify types of angles.

● Content/Topic 1: Identify types of angles.
Azimuth
The azimuth is the angle between a celestial body (sun, moon) and the North, measured
clockwise around the observer's horizon. It determines the direction of the celestial body. For
example, a celestial body due North has an azimuth of 0º, one due East 90º, one due South 180º
and one due West 270º
Bearing
The bearing to a point is the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north line.

● Content/Topic 2: Vertical angles:

Zenith angles
 Used as a reference for measuring vertical angles, are defined as 0° directly overhead and
90° at the horizontal plane. This is an angle between the sun and the vertical and it
is measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal. The zenith angle is calculated
as follows:

Depression angle
If a person stands and looks down at an object, the angle of depression is the angle between
the horizontal line of sight and the object. The angle of depression is the angle between a
horizontal line from the observer and the line of sight to an object that is below the horizontal line.

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Elevation angle

If a person stands and looks up at an object, the angle of elevation is the angle between the
horizontal line of sight and the object. The angle of elevation is the angle between a
horizontal line from the observer and the line of sight to an object that is above the horizontal
line.

Performing the exercises

01. From the top of a vertical cliff 40 m high, the angle of depression of an object

that is level with the base of the cliff is 34º.  How far is the object from the base

of the cliff?

Solution:

Let x m be the distance of the object from the base of the cliff.

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 So, the object is 59.30 m from the base of the cliff

02. A man who is 2 m tall stands on horizontal ground 30 m from a tree. The angle of elevation of the
top of the tree from his eyes is 28˚. Estimate the height of the tree.

Solution:

Let the height of the tree be h. Sketch a diagram to represent the situation.

tan 28˚ = 

h – 2 = 30 tan 28˚
h = (30 ´ 0.5317) + 2 ← tan 28˚ = 0.5317
= 17.951

The height of the tree is approximately 17.95 m.

03. An observer standing on top of a vertical spots a house in the adjacent valley at an angle of
depression of 12°. The cliff is 60m tall. How far is the house from the base of the cliff?

04. Buildings A and B are across the street from each other, 35m apart. From a point on the roof of
Building A the angle of elevation at the top of Building B is 24°, and the angle of depression of the
base of Building B is 34°. How tall is each building?

05. A boat is 500 meters from the base of a cliff. Jackie, who is sitting in the boat, notices that the
angle of elevation to the top of the cliff is 32°15'. How high is the cliff? (Give your answer to the
nearest meter).

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LO 3.3 – Apply methods of angular measurement.
● Content/Topic 1: Theodolite method:
Bearing computation
Bearings of lines may be calculated if bearing of one of the lines and the included angles
measured clockwise between the various lines are given. Bearing of a line = given bearing +
included angle.
A bearing is an angle, measured clockwise from the north direction. Below, the bearing of B from
A is 025 degrees (note 3 figures are always given). The bearing of A from B is 205 degrees.

Example
A, B and C are three ships. The bearing of A from B is 045º. The bearing of C from A is 135º. If
AB= 8km and AC= 6km, what is the bearing of B from C?

tanC = 8/6, so C = 53.13º

y = 180º - 135º = 45º (interior angles)
x = 360º - 53.13º - 45º (angles round a point)
= 262º (to the nearest whole number)

Azimuth computation

An azimuth is the direction of a line as given by an angle measured clockwise (usually) from the north
end of a meridian and azimuth range in magnitude from 0° to 360º.

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Designation of Magnetic bearings

The common systems of notation of magnetic bearings are:

(a) The whole circle bearing system (WCB) or Azimuthal system

(b) The quadrantal bearing (QB) or Reduced Bearing (R.B.) system.

(a)The whole circle bearing (W.C.B.) system or Azimuthal system

In this system the bearing of a line is measured with magnetic north (or south) in clockwise direction.
The value of the bearing varies from 0 0 to 360o. Prismatic compass is graduated on this system. In
figure below, the WCB of AB is θ1; of AC is θ2; of AD is θ3 and of AF is θ4.

(b)The quadrantal bearing (QB); Reduced Bearing (R.B.) system.

In this system, the bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north or south,
whichever is nearer. Thus, both north and south are used as reference meridians and the directions
can be either clockwise or anticlockwise depending on the position of the line. In this system the
quadrant in which the lines lie will have to be mentioned.

A bearing is a direction of a line as given by the acute angle between the line and a meridian. The
bearing angle, which can be measured clockwise or counter clockwise from the north or south end of
meridian, is always accompanied by letters that locate the quadrant in which the line falls. (NE, NW,
SE or SW).

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Referring to fig. above, the QB of the line AB is α. It is written as NαE; the bearing measured with
reference to North meridian (since it is nearer), towards East. The bearing of AC is β and is written as
SβE, it is measured with reference of south and in anticlockwise direction towards
East. Similarly, the bearings of AD and AF are SθW and NΦW respectively. The Q.B. of a line varies
from 0o to 90o. The bearings of this system are known as Reduced bearings (R.B.).

Reduced bearing system

Comparison of azimuths and quadrantal bearings

Azimuths/Whole Circle Bearing (WCB) Quadrantal Bearings

 Vary from 0 to 360°  Vary from 0 to 90°
 Require only a numerical value  Require two (2) letters and a numerical
value
 May be geodetic, astronomic, magnetic,  The same as azimuths
grid, assumed, forward or back
 Are measured clockwise only  Are measured clockwise and
counterclockwise
 Are measured either from north only, or  Are measured from north and south
from south only on a particular survey

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Conversion of Bearings from one system to the other
The bearing of a line can be easily converted from one system to other, with the aid of a diagram.
Referring to the figure below, the conversion of W.C.B. into R.B can be expressed as follows:

Conversion of W.C.B. into R.B.

Similarly, referring to fig. above, the conversion of R.B. into W.C.B. can be expressed into the
following table:

 Content/Topic 2: Traverse method:

Fore bearing and Back bearing

The bearing of line, whether expressed in W.C.B. system or in Q.B. system, differs according as the
observation is made from one end of the line or from the other.
If the bearing of a line AB is measured from A towards B, it is known as Forward bearing or Fore
bearing (F.B).

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If the bearing of the line AB is measured from B towards A, it is known as Backward or Back bearing
(B.B) since it is measured in backward direction.
Considering the W.C.B. system

(a) The fore bearing of line AB is θ and back bearing of AB is Φ, evidently Φ= θ+180o. Similarly, from
fig. (b)
(b) The fore bearing of line CD is θ and the back bearing of CD is Φ. Hence Φ= θ-180o.
Thus it can be stated that B.B. =F.B±180o, using plus (+) sign when F.B. is less than 180o and minus (-)
sign when F.B. is greater than 180o.
Again, considering the Q.B system and referring to fig. (a) & (b), the fore bearing of the line AB is NθE
and the Back bearing is equal to SθW, The fore bearing of the line CD is SθW and the Back bearing is
equal to NθE

Thus, it can be stated that to convert the fore bearing to back bearing is only necessary to change the
cardinal points by substituting N for S, and E for W and vice versa, the numerical value of bearing
remain the same.

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Calculation of angles from bearings
Knowing the bearing of two lines, the angle between the lines can be determined with the help of a
diagram.

Refer to fig. (a), the included angle α between the lines AC and AB = θ2-θ1=F.B. of one line – F.B. of
the other line both measured from a common point A. Refer to fig.(b), the angle α=(180o+θ1)-θ2=
B.B. of previous line- FB of next line.
Let us consider the quadrantal bearing. Referring to fig. (a) in which both the bearings have been
measured to the same meridian, the included angle α=θ2-θ1.

In Fig. (b) both the bearings have been measured to the opposite sides of the meridian, and the
included angle α=θ1+θ2.
In Fig. (c) both the bearings have been measured to the same side of the meridian, and the included
angle α=180o-(θ2+θ1).
In Fig. (d) both the bearings have been measured to the opposite sides of different meridians, and
the included angle α=180o-(θ1-θ2).
Calculation of bearings from angles
In case of a traverse in which included angles between successive lines have been measured, the
bearings of the line can be calculated provided that the bearing of line is also measured.

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Refer to fig. a bove; let α, β, γ, δ be the included angles measured clockwise from back stations and
θ1 be the measured bearing of line AB.
The bearing of the next line BC=θ2=θ1+α-180o
The bearing of the next line CD=θ3=θ2+β-180o
The bearing of the next line DE=θ4=θ3+γ-180o
The bearing of the next line EF=θ5=θ4+δ+180o
As is evident from a bove figure, (θ1+α), (θ2+β), and (θ3+δ) are more than 180o While (θ4+δ) is less
than 180o. Add the measured clockwise angles to the bearing of the previous line. If the sum is more
than 180o, deduct 180o. If the sum is less than 180o, add 180o.
Examples on angles and bearings
Q1. a) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings:
(i) 22o 30’ (ii) 170 o 12’
(iii) 21 1o54’ (iv) 327 o 24'
b) Convert the following quadrantal bearing to whole circle bearings:
(i) N12o 24’E (ii) S31o36’E
(iii) S68o 6’W (iv) N5o 42’W
Solution
a.(i)R.B=22o 30’=W.C.B.=22o30’=N22o 30’E
(ii)R.B.=180o -W.C.B.=180o -170o 12’=S9o 48’E
(iii)R.B.=W.C.B.-180o =211o 54’-180o
=S31o54’ W
(iv)R.B.=360 o -W.C.B.=360o -327o 24’
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 =N32o36’W
b.(i)WCB=RB=12o 24’
(ii)WCB=180 o -RB=180 o - 31o 36’ = 148 o 24’
(iii)WCB= 180 o +RB=180 o +68 o 6’=248 o 6’
(iv)WCB=360 o -RB=360 o -5 o 42’=354 o 18’
Q2. The following are the fore bearings of the lines: i) AB 12 o 24’ ii) BC119 o 48’ iii) CD 266 o 30’ iv) DE
354 o 18’ v) PQ N18 o 0’E vi) QR S12 o 24’E vii) RS S59 o 18’W viii) ST N86 o 12’W
Find their back bearing
Solution
BB=FB±180 o, using plus sign when FB is less than 180 o and minus sign when it is more than 180 o
(i)BB of AB= 12 o 24’+180 o =192 o 24’
(ii)BB of BC=119 o 48’+180 o =299 o 48’
(iii)BB of CD=266 o 30’-180 o =86 o 30’
(iv)BB of DE=354 o 18’-180 o =174 o 18’
(v)BB of PQ=S18 o 0’W
(vi)BB of QR=N12 o 24’W
(vii)BB of RS=N59 o 18’E
(viii)BB of ST=S86 o 12’E
Q3. The following bearings were observed with a compass. Calculate the interior
angles.

Page 37 of 66
Solution

In the process of computation if the included angle is negative then 360 o is added to it, as has been
done in this above example.
Q4. The following interior angles were measured with a sextant in a closed traverse. The bearing of
the line AB was measured as 60o with prismatic compass. Calculate the bearing of all other line
if<A=140o10’, <B=90o8’, <C=60o 22’, <D=69 o 20’

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Solution
To find the bearing of a line add the measured clockwise angle to the bearing of the previous line. If
the sum is more than 180o deduct 180o if the sum is less 180o add 180o.
Clockwise angles will be obtained if we proceed in the anticlockwise direction round the traverse.
Starting with A and proceed toward D, C, B etc. We have:

Page 39 of 66
Learning Unit 4 – Perform Earthwork Computation

LO 4.1 – Compute area for regular figures.

● Content/Topic 1: Types of geometrical figures:
Triangle

Rectangle

Square

Trapezium

Ellipse

Circle

Page 40 of 66
● Content/Topic 2: Computation of area:
Area is defined as the size of plane shapes surface and can be computed from different shapes like:
triangle, square, rectangle, trapezium, ellipse and circle.

LO 4.2 – Compute area for irregular figures.

● Content/Topic 1: Middle area methods:
Mid-ordinate rule

Total area= d x [Sum of mid- ordinates]

Page 41 of 66
Working example: By referring to the figure and table below, calculate the area using mid- ordinate
rule.
Distanc 0 8 16 24 32 40
e (m)
Offset 0 1.5 2. 2. 2. 1.
(m) 2 0 1 1

Answer:
Let divide the equal distance between ordinates (offsets) into the mid- ordinates.

Total area= d x [Sum of mid- ordinates]

A= 8 x [((0+1.5)/2+ (1.5+2.2)/2+ (2.2+2.0)/2+ (2.0+2.1)/2+ (2.1+1.1)/2)]
A= 8 x [0.75+ 1.85+ 2.10+ 2.05+ 1.60]
A= 8 x 8.35
A= 66.8 m2
Average ordinate rule
The rule states that (to the average of all the ordinates taken at each of the division of equal length
multiplies by baseline length divided by number of ordinates).

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Trapezoidal rule
This rule assumes that the short lengths of boundary between the ordinates are straight lines so that
the area is divided into a series of trapezoids.

The total area = d x [(F+L)/2+ other ordinates] or

= d/2 x [(F+L) + 2(other ordinates)] or
= d/2 x [(O1+On+2(O3+O4+……. +On-1)]
Where: D = Equal distance between ordinates;
F = First ordinate;
L = Last ordinate;
O1 = First offset;
On = Last offset

Working example1: By referring to the figure and table below, calculate the area using
trapezoidal rule
Distance (m) 0 8 16 24 32 40
Offset (m) 0 1.5 2.2 2.0 2.1 1.1

Answer:
A= d/2 x [(O1+O6) +2(O2+O3+O4+O5)]
A= 8/2 x [(0+1.1) +2(1.5+2.2+2.0+2.1)]
A= 4 x (1.1+15.6)
A= 4 x 16.7
A= 66.8 m2

Simpson’s rule

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The total area = 1/3 d x [F + L+ 4(Es) + 2 (Os)]

= d/3 x [O1+ O7+ 4 (O2+ O4+ O6) + 2 (O3+O5)]

Where: D= Equal distance between ordinates;

F= First ordinate;

L= Last ordinate;

E= Even numbered ordinate;

O= Odd numbered ordinate.

Working example: By referring to the figure and table below, calculate the area using Simpson rule.

Distance (m) 0 8 16 24 32 40

Offset (m) 0 1.5 2.2 2.0 2.1 1.1

Answer:

A= d/3 x [O1+ O6+ 4 (O2+ O4) + 2 (O3+O5)]

A= 8/3 x [0+ 1.1+ 4 (1.5+ 2.0) + 2 (2.2+2.1)]

A= 8/3 x 23.7

A= 63.2 m2

● Content/Topic 2: Cross-sectional area method:

Crsoss sectional means sections by "Cut" or “Fill”.

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 Cut means an excavation of the earth and Fill means the filling or raising of the original ground
surface.
One level section
In this case the ground is level transversely.
Here, b= 10 m, s= 1.5, interval= 20 m

The cross- sectional area are calculated by equation:

Area= (b+ sh)h
Two level section
In this case, the ground is sloping transversely, but the slope of the ground does not intersect the
formation level.

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Side-Hill Two-Level Section (Fig. 12.3):
In this case the ground is sloping transversely, but the slope of the ground intersects the formation
level such that one portion of the area is in cutting and the other in filling (part cut and part fill).

Note:
When filling extends beyond the centre line i.e. when the area in filling is greater than that in cutting,
the equations 12.3 and 12.4 are used for finding the areas in filling and cutting respectively.

Three level section

In this case, the transverse slope of the ground is not uniform.

Page 46 of 66
● Content/Topic 3: Other computation Methods:
Area from coordinate
If the coordinates of the points A, B, C, etc., for a closed traverse of n sides shown in Figure below,
are known, the area enclosed by the traverse can be calculated from the following expression.

Page 47 of 66
The area can also be computed by arranging the coordinates in the determinant form as given below.

The products of the coordinates along full lines is taken positive (+) and along dashed lines negative
(─). Thus the area is:

Area from planimeter

Planimeter is an instrument used in surveying to compute the area of any given plan. Planimeter only

needs plan drawn on the sheet to calculate area. Generally, it is very difficult to determine the area of
irregular plot. So, by using planimeter we can easily calculate the area of any shape.

LO 4.3 – Compute volume.

● Content/Topic 1: Rules for earth work volume calculation:
Trapezoidal rules
Trapezoidal Rule is a rule that evaluates the area under the curves by dividing the total area into
smaller trapezoids rather than using rectangles. This integration works by approximating the region
under the graph of a function as a trapezoid, and it calculates the area.
Vol= D/2 x {(A1+An) +2(A2+A3+……An-1)}

Prismoid rules

The "prismoidal formula" is applicable when there are odd numbers of sections. If the number of
sections is even, the end section is treated separately and the area is calculated according to the
trapezoidal rule. The volume of the remaining section is calculated in the usual manner by the
prismoidal formula. Then both the result is added to obtain the total volume.

Vol= D/3 x (A1+An +4ΣEven Areas+ 2ΣOdd Areas)

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Working example : Calculate, using the mean areas; end areas; and formula, the cubic contents of an
embankment of which the cross sectional areas at 15 m intervals are as follows:

Distance (m) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Area (m2) 11 42 64 72 160 180 220

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7

Answer:

Mean areas method

Vol= {[A1+A2+A3+……An-1+An]/n} x L

Vol= {(11+42+64+72+160+180+220)/7} x 90

Vol= 9630 m3

End areas method

Vol= D/2 x {(A1+An) +2(A2+A3+ A4+A5+A6)}

Vol= 15/2x {(11+220) +2(42 +64 +72 +160 +180)}

Vol= 9502.5 m3

Prismoidal method

Vol= D/3 x (A1+An +4ΣEven Areas+ 2ΣOdd Areas)

Vol= D/3 x (A1+A7 +4Σ (A2+ A4+A6) 2Σ (A3+ A5)

Vol= 15/3 x (11+220 +4(42+ 72+180) 2(64+ 160)

Vol= 5x 231+ 1176+448

Vol= 9275 m3

Working example : An embankment of width 10 m and side slope 1 1/2:1 is required to be made on a
ground which is level in a direction traverse to centre line. The central height at 20 m intervals are as
follows: 0.8, 1.2, 2.25, 2.6, 1.9, 1.4, and 0.9.

Calculate the volume of earth work according to the trapezoidal formula and prismoidal formula.

Answer:

Level Section: Ground is level along the traverse direction

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 Here, b= 10 m, s= 1.5, interval= 20 m

The cross- sectional area are calculated by equation:

Area= (b+ sh)h

A1= (10+ 1.5x 0.8) x 0.8= 8.96 m2

A2= (10+ 1.5x 1.2) x 1.2= 14.16 m2

A3= (10+ 1.5x 2.25) x 2.25= 30.09 m2

A4= (10+ 1.5x 2.6) x 2.6= 36.14 m2

A5= (10+ 1.5x 1.9) x 1.9= 24.42 m2

A6= (10+ 1.5x 1.4) x 1.4= 16.94 m2

A7= (10+ 1.5x 0.9) x 0.9= 10.22 m2

Volume according to trapezoidal rule:

V= 20/2x [8.96+ 10.22+ 2(14.16+ 30.09+ 36.14+ 24.42+ 16.94)]

V= 10x [ 19.18+ 242.10]

V= 2612.80 m3

Volume according to prismoidal formula:

V= 20/3x [8.96+ 10.22+ 4(14.16+ 36.14+ 16.94)+ 2(30.09+ 24.42)]

V= 20/3x (19.18+ 268.96+ 109.02)

V= 2647.73 m3

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 Content/Topic 2: Other methods:
Volume from contour
The "volume" can be estimated by either end area method or prismoidal method. The distance D is
the contour interval, and for accuracy this should be as small as possible. If required, the prismoidal
formula can be used by treating alternate areas as mid area.

Capacity of reservoir
The plane containing any contour represents a horizontal plane and the area bounded by a contour is
treated as the area of the cross-section. The contour interval is the vertical distance between any two
adjacent cross-sectional bounded by the contours. The area bounded by the contour is measured by
a planimeter. Reservoirs are made for water supply, irrigation, hydropower, etc. A contour map is
very useful to study the possible location of a reservoir and the volume of water of water to be
confined. All the contours are closed lines within the reservoir area.

The area A1, A2, A3,…….. An between successive contour lines can be determined by a "planimeter"
and if h is the contour interval, the capacity of the reservoir can be estimated either by the prismoidal
formula or by the trapezoidal formula. In practice, the capacity of a reservoir is measured in terms of
volume of water stored up to full reservoir level (FRL) which is the level of water at its full capacity.

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Working example: From a contour plan of a proposed reservoir area, the following data were found:

Contour (m) 100 105 110 115 120 125

Area of contour (ha) 3 8 13 17 23 29

Determine: The capacity of the reservoir if the FRL is 12.5 m. The volume below the
contour of 100 may be ignored.
Answer:

 "Prismoidal formula" can be used when odd number of section are there so, the volume
up to the contour 120 m is:

 V120= d/3x[(A1+A5)+ 4(A2+A4)+ 2(A3)]

= 5/3x[(3+23)+ 4(8+17)+ (2x13)]
= 5/3x[26+100+26]
= 255.33 ha.m

 And by "trapezoidal formula", the volume between 120 and 125 m is:

 V120-125= h x (A5+A6)/2
=5x (23+29)/2
= 130 ha.m

 Total Volume(V)= V120+V120-125

= 253.33+130
= 383.33 ha.m
Working example : The areas within the underwater contour lines of a reservoir are
as follows:

Contour (m) 184 182 180 178 176 174 172

Areas (m2) 3125 2454 1630 890 223 110 69

Calculate the volume of water in the reservoir between 172 m and 184m contours.
Answer:
End area method:
V= 2/2 x [3125+ 69+ 2(110+ 223+ 890+ 1630+ 2454)]
= 13808 m2
Volume from spot height
This method is useful in the determination of volumes of large open excavations for tanks,
basements, borrow pits, and for ground leveling operations such as playing fields and building sites.
Having located the outline of the sites, divide the area into squares or rectangles or triangles.
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Marking the corner points and then determine the reduced level. By subtracting from the observed
levels the corresponding formation levels, a series of heights can be found.
The volume per square= {[ha+ hb+ hc+ hd]/4}ℓ x b

Where: ha, hb, hc, and hd are the side spot height and ℓ and b are the side dimensions.
Working example - Square method:
The figure below shows a rectangular plot of size (25.5m x 30m), which is to be
excavated to the given reduced levels. Assuming area is subdivided into rectangle method, calculate
the volume of the earth to be excavated if excavated level=10.00m.

`36Answer:
Table illustrating the product of depth to be excavated (he) and number of rectangles (n).

Station Reduced Level Excavated Level Depth to be N0 of rectangles Product

(m) (m) Excavated (he)
(n) (he x n)

A 16.54 10.00 6.54 1 6.54

B 17.25 10.00 7.25 2 14.50

C 15.40 10.00 5.40 1 5.40

D 16.32 10.00 6.32 2 12.64

E 12.95 10.00 2.95 4 11.80

F 15.55 10.00 5.55 2 11.10

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G 16.17 10.00 6.17 1 6.17

H 15.84 10.00 5.84 2 11.68

I 13.38 10.00 3.38 1 3.38

Total 16 83.21

 Average excavated depth= (Σhe x n)/Σn

= 83.21/16
= 5.2 m

 Base area= ℓ x L
= 25.5 x 30.0
= 765 m2

 Volume to be excavated= Base area x average excavated depth

= 765 m2 x 5.2 m
= 3978 m3
Working example - Triangle method:
The figure below shows a rectangular plot of size (25.5m x 30m), which is to be excavated to the
given reduced level. Assuming area is subdivided into triangle method, calculate the volume of the
earth to be excavated if excavated level=10.00m.
Answer:

Station Reduced Level Excavated Level Depth to be N0 of triangles Product

(m) (m) Excavated (he)
(n) (he x n)

A 16.54 10.00 6.54 2 13.08

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B 17.25 10.00 7.25 3 21.75

C 15.40 10.00 5.40 1 5.40

D 16.32 10.00 6.32 3 18.96

E 12.95 10.00 2.95 6 17.70

F 15.55 10.00 5.55 3 16.65

G 16.17 10.00 6.17 1 6.17

H 15.84 10.00 5.84 3 17.52

I 13.38 10.00 3.38 2 6.76

Total 24 123.99

 Average excavated depth= (Σhe x n)/Σn

= 123.99/24
= 5.17 m

 Base area= ℓ x L
= 25.5 x 30.0
= 765 m2

 Volume to be excavated= Base area x average excavated depth

= 765 m2 x 5.17 m
= 3955.05 m3

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PERFORM THE FOLLOWING EXERCISES
01. Calculate the area enclosed by the straight boundaries of tract of land
ABCDE which has the coordinates as indicated in the table below:

Point/Corner Easting (m) Northing (m)

A 674.345 364.392

B 715.825 526.937

C 562.826 682.910

D 328.426 561.039

E 351.813 385.491

02. KARENZI, a people of Ryabizige cell, Cyanzarwe Sector in RUBAVU District

has a land parcel as it is indicated in the figure below. Calculate its area in
square meter (m2).

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03. MUKAMWIZA has bought the tract of land as given below. How many meter
square (m2) has she bought?

04. A parent wants to give his son Jimmy a land parcel reserved for residential
as indicated in figure below. How many meter square (m2) has given to
Jimmy?

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05. (a) Give the expression used to compute area by coordinate cross- multiplication.
(b) Given the following points ABCDE as corner coordinates of a plot of
land.

Determine the area of the plot ABCDE.

06. The following offsets were taken from a chain-line to a hedge.

Distance (m) 0 6 12 18 24 36 48 60 72 81 90

Offset (m) 3.8 3.3 2.4 1.8 0.9 1.5 1.8 2.2 3 3.3 3.6

Calculate the area enclosed between the chain-line, the hedge and the end-offsets by Simposon’s
rule and Trapezoidal rule.
07. The following reduced levels were obtained along the centre line of a
proposed road between two-point A and B.

Chainage (m) Reduced level (m) Chainage (m) Reduced level (m)

A 0 83.50 50 82.45

10 83.84 60 82.20

20 84.06 70 82.41

30 83.66 80 82.70

40 83.30 B 90 83.05

The roadway is to be constructed so that there is one regular gradient between points A and B.
a) Draw a longitudinal section along the centre line at horizontal scale of 1:1000 and a vertical
scale of 1:100.
b) Determine from the section the depth of cutting or height of fill required at each chainage
point to form a new roadway.

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08. The figure below shows a rectangular plot, which is to be excavated to the given
reduced level. Assuming the area is subdivided into square method. Calculate
the volume of the earth to be excavated at 20m of intervals, (excavated level is
10.00m).

09. The areas enclosed by the contour in a reservoir are as follows:

Contour (m) 175 180 185 190 195

Area (m2) 460 750 2500 3500 3950

The top water level is 195m and the lowest point in the reservoir is 175m. Find the volume of water
(reservoir capacity) between 175m and 195m by:
(i) Trapezoidal formula
(ii) Prismoidal formula
10. Cross-sections were drawn from a level survey at 25m intervals along a proposed
road. From station 1 at chainage 00m to station 9 at chainage 200m, the
cross-section areas of cut were found to be:

00 m = 30 m2 75 m = 48 m2 150 m = 31 m2
25 m = 35 m2 100 m = 53 m2 175 m = 26 m2
50 m = 42 m2 125 m = 42 m2 200 m = 18 m2
Calculate the volume of cut in cubic metres.

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11. The figure below illustrates a concrete object which is divided into a number of
sections, like slices of bread in a loaf. Calculate the volume of that object.

12. The areas within contour lines at the site of a reservoir and along the face
of the proposed dam are as follows.

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Contour (m) Area (m2) Contour (m) Area (m2)

300 738 780 290 98 480

298 708 870 288 50 010

296 693 900 286 31 680

294 506 880 284 400

292 241 500

13. A 10 metre grid was set out over an excavation site and levels taken.
Formation RL is to be 12 metres. Compute the volume of earth to be removed.

14. The car park is to be leveled. A surveyor pegged the car park and obtained the
following RLs. At what RL will cut equal fill?

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15. From a topographic map, the areas of enclosed by contour lines for a proposed
dam are given below. Find the volume of impounded water using trapezoidal
formula.

Contour (m) Area enclosed (hectares)

500 20

505 100

510 400

515 900

520 1100

16. A road at a formation level is 6 m wide and has a side slope of 2:1. The road is to
have a constant R.L. of 200m. The ground is level across the center line of the
road. The following observations were made:

Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Surface level (m) 204.6 203.0 200.8 201.6 202.0 200.2

Depth of cutting (m)

After filling the uncompleted row in the given table estimate the volume of
earthwork by: (a) Trapezoidal and
(b) Prismoidal rule.

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17. The figure below shows a 10 m square grid with the depth of cut marked at
each grid intersection.

Given that the plane area of each grid square is constant and the surface slope assumed to be
constant between grid intersections,
(a) Compute the volume contained by:
(i) h1h2h6h5 (ii) h7h3h4h8 (iii) h5h6h10h9 (iv) h6h7h11h10 (v) h2h6h7h3
(b) What is the grid of large volume?
(c) What is the total volume to be excavated if the plane area remaining flat terrain?
(d) What budget is required to move all the soil to a damping site 2km away if the
loading and transport cost of 1m3 is 1500 FRW?
18. Calculate, using the prismoidal formula, the cubic contents of an embankment
of which the cross-sectional areas at 15m intervals are as follows:

Distance (m) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Area (m2) 11 42 64 72 160 180 220

19. A tract of land has three straight boundaries AB, BC, and CD. The fourth
boundary DA is irregular. The measured lengths are as under: AB=135m,
BC=191m, CD=126m, BD=255m.
The offset measured outside the boundary DA to the irregular boundary at a
regular interval of 30m from D, are as below:

Distance from D (m) 0.0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Offsets (m) 0.0 3.7 4.9 4.2 2.8 3.6 0.0

Determine the area of the tract. The figure of the plot is represented as follows:

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20. Calculate the area of cross-section that has breadth of formation as 10m, center
height as 3.2 m and side slopes as 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
21. Compute the area of cross-section if the formation width is 12 m, side slopes are
I to I, average height along the center line is 5 m, and the transverse slope of the
ground is 10 to 1.
22. The width of a certain road at formation level is 9.50 m with side slopes in 1 for
cut and 1 in 2 for filling. The original ground has a cross-fall of 1 in 5. If the
depth of excavation at the center line of the section is 0.4 m, calculate the areas
of the cross-section in cut and fill.
23. A new road is to be constructed with formation width of 20 m, side slopes of 1
vertical to 2.5 horizontal. The heights of fill at the center line of three successive
cross-sections, 50 m apart, are 3.3 m, 4.1 m, and 4.9 m, respectively. The
existing ground has a cross-fall of 1 in 10. Calculate the volume of the fill.
24. The figure below shows the distribution of 12 spot heights with a regular 20 m
spacing covering a rectangular area which is to be graded to form a horizontal
plane having an elevation of 10.00 m. Calculate the volume of the earth.

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25. A proposed service road way, 5.5m wide, is to be built along a center line XY. The embankment is
to have side slopes of 1to 2. Given the following data, calculate the volume of material required to
construct the embankment using Prismoidal’s rule. (5marks)

Chainage (m) 40 60 80 100 120 140

Ground level m) 10.00 9.60 9.50 10.40 7.30 10.40

Formation level (m) 11.00 11.10 11.20 11.30 11.40 11.50

26. A road at a formation level is 6 m wide and has a side slope of 2:1. The
road is to have a constant R.L. of 200m. The ground is level across the
center line of the road. The following observations were made:

Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Surface level (m) 204.6 203.0 200.8 201.6 202.0 200.2

Depth of cutting (m)

After filling the uncompleted row in the given table estimate the volume of
earthwork by: (a) Trapezoidal and
(b) Prismoidal rule.

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Reference(s):
1. Amezene Reda & Bekele Bedada, 2012, Accuracy analysis and Calibration of Total
Station based on the Reflectorless Distance Measurement, School of Architecture and
the Built Environment Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) Stockholm, Sweden
December 2012
2. Elliott D. Kaplan, Christopher Hegarty; 2006; Understanding GPS principles and
applications, Archtect House INC
3. McDonald, J. M., M. B. Gregory, J. W. Riley, and E. N. Starkey. 2018. Setting up and
configuring a total station—Version 1.0. Southeast Coast Network Standard Operating
Procedure NPS/SECN/SOP—1.2.17. Southeast Coast Network, Athens, Georgia.
4. Satheesh Gopi, N. Madhu, R. Sathikuma (2018)Advanced Surveying - Total Station,
GPS, GIS and Remote Sensing, Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt.
Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128,
5. STEPHEN V. ESTOPINAL, 2009, A Guide to understanding Land Surveys, Third Edition
6. Van Sickle Jay, 2015, GPS for land surveyors, CRC Press

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