POWER ELECTRONIC /BREAKDOWN DEVICES

- this refers to a family of 4 layered solid-state devices externally controlled by either a

voltage or a current
- they are also referred to as voltage breakdown devices because they work depending on
Avalanche breakdown
- thyristors have two states only i.e. the ON and OFF states
SCR - Silicon controlled rectifier
- it is a 4 -layer P – N junction device with 3 terminals anode, cathode and gate
- It is a rectifier with a control mechanism. It is used as a switching device in power
applications

Construction and Symbol

Biasing
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing

During forward bias J1 and J3 are forward biased whilst J2 is reverse biased
During reverse bias J1 and J3 are reverse biased whilst J2 is reverse biased
Operation
- When V is increased to a certain critical value called forward break over voltage VBO, J2
breaks down and SCR conducts.
- When conducting it offers very little resistance 0.01Ω to 1Ω and voltage across it drops to
about 1V.
- Current would be limited by supply and load resistor.
- Current keeps flowing indefinitely until the circuit is opened briefly
Static Characteristics

IIL = latching current

IH = holding current
- in both the forward and reverse directions current does not flow until the voltage across the
thyristor has an excess of the breakdown or break over
- forward voltage at which the device starts to conduct can be reduced by a gate current
- when VBC has not been reached there is a small leakage current passing until when VBO
has been reached and the thyristor will be “ON” and maximum current starts to flow
- J1 and J2 are reverse biased , when V is increased zener breakdown will finally occur and
may destroy the SCR.

SCR TURN ON METHODS

1) apply gate triggering voltage (VGT) which cause IGT to flow
(VGT) has the range 2 – 10V, IGT 100μA to 1500mA
The higher the gate triggering current, the shorter the turn on time
SCR turn off methods
- Poses more problems than SCR turn on because once the device is ON, the gate loses all
control
i) anode current interruption to reduce anode current below holding current
ii) forced commutation, uses capacitor in parallel with the SCR

Turning off the thyristor

- forward current is reduced below holding current (IH)
- reduce the anode to cathode voltage
- Reversing the polarity of the anode voltage. A thyristor is connected to ac mains; reversal of
polarity (voltage) every half cycle
- if dc is used VA (anode voltage) is reversed using a commutating capacitor
- latching current is the minimum current that must flow thru a thyristor so as to remain ON
just after the gate is removed
- holding current is the minimum current that can keep the thyristor on its „ON‟ state after it
has been turned on
The Two transistor equivalent

the SCR is split into three layer transistors which are interconnected as shown
- Suppose A is positive and C negative and T2 starts conducting current. IE increases and Ic1
also increases since Ic1 = IB2, IB2 also increases hence Ic2 increases
Ic = βIB = hFEIB
- since Ic2 = IB1, IB1 increases consequently both Ic1 and IE1 increases and the process
repeats itself
- The regenerative action is limited by external resistance. Typical turn on times of a SCR are
0.12 to 1μs
Firing and triggering an SCR
SCR is operated with an anode voltage slightly less than the forward breakover voltage and is
triggered into conduction by a low power gate pulse or gate current
- Once switched on gate has no further control on the device current
- When S is closed momentarily a positive voltage is applied to the gate which forward biases
J2 and SCR conducts and the lamp lights up.
- SCR will remain in the conducting state until the supply voltage is removed or reversed
Gate signals can be dc or ac

Application
1. switches
2. invertors
3. motor controls
4. regulated power supplies
5. phase control etc

- when SCR is „OFF‟ its current is negligible and when „ON‟ the drop across it is low (1V)
so no appreciable power is lost when it is in use

Advantages
- SCR require only 150mA to control a load of 2500A
- Can control power up to 10MW with individual ratings of 2000A at 1.8KV
- Can work at 50KHz

Transient effects in SCR

- the rate of change of anode current is due to a high initial rate of rise of anode current when
SCR is just switched ON
- This results in the formation of a local hot spot heating near the gate connection.
- holes injected into the P – region concentrated on J2 and cause spot heating which can
damage the SCR
- The rate of change of voltage causes the SCR to turn „ON‟ without a gate pulse.
- This is due to a large capacitance at J2, when the rate of rise of the applied anode voltage
dv/dt is very high, the capacitive charging current may become high enough to initiate switch
on even in the absence of external gate current.
Phase control

Gate current is derived from the supply. R limits the gate current during the positive cycles
- if R is adjusted to a low value SCR will trigger immediately at the commencement of the
positive half cycle of input
- by adjusting R between the two extremes SCR can be made to switch ON somewhere
between 0˚ and 90˚
- if IG is not enough to trigger the SCR at 90˚, then the device will not trigger
- the purpose of D is to protect the SCR from negative voltage during the negative half cycle
- from the diagram

the load is always in series with the anode

- typical gate signals (1.5V, 30mA)
- commercially available SCRs have break over voltages from 50V to 500V
Advantages of SCR over Electro mechanical or mechanical switches
1. no arching
2. no moving parts so no noise
3. high efficiency
4. switching speed of 109 per second
5. permits control over large currents
6. small size

SCR as a half wave rectifier

 The ac supply is supplied by transformer
- The variable resistor r is to control the gate current
NB. PIV < +VBO (in magnitude)

Operation
- During the positive half cycle SCR conducts provided proper gate current is made to flow
- The greater the gate current, the lesser the supply voltage at which the SCR is turned ON
- During the negative half cycle SCR does not conduct regardless of the gate voltage because
anode is negative and cathode is positive
Instantaneous voltage
From diagram V = Vm sin wt
- If the firing angle is θ the SCR will conduct from θ to 180˚

SCR characteristics
- the junction temperature must be kept within recommended limits by the manufacturers
because leakage current is temperature dependent
- If leakage current increases, thyristor resistance falls and turns ON therefore the thyristor
must be mounted on a hat sink to dissipate the heat.

Problems
1 A half wave rectifier circuit employing an SCR is adjusted to have a gate current of 1mA.
The forward breakdown voltage of SCR is 100V, IG = 1mA and RL = 100Ω. If a sinusoidal
voltage of 200V peak is applied find:
i) firing angle
ii) conduction angle
iii) average current

(Answers; θ = 30˚, Φ = 150˚, Iav = 0.5925A)

2. A SCR has a forward breakdown voltage of 150V when a gate current of 1mA flows in the
gate circuit. If a sinusoidal voltage of 400V peak is applied find;
i) Firing angle
ii) Average output voltage
iii) Average current for a load resistance of 200Ω
iv) Power output

3) An ac voltage v = 240sin314t is applied to an SCR. If the SCR has a forward breakdown

voltage of 180V find the time during which SCR remains off (= = 2.7ms)
4 a) explain the construction and working of an SCR
c) draw the transistor equivalent circuit of SCR and explain its operation
d) explain the terms break over voltage , holding current and forward current rating used in
an SCR
e) Draw the V – I characteristics of an SCR, explain the action of an SCR as a switch. What
are the advantages of SCR switch over mechanical or electro – mechanical switch
f) (i) how does SCR differ from an ordinary rectifier
(ii) How does SCR control power fed to the load
(iii) Why is SCR always turned on by gate current?
(iv) Why cannot an SCR be used as a bidirectional switch
THE DIAC
- it is a four layer device that can conduct in both directions ( BILATERAL)
- it ha 2 terminals A1 and A2
- conduction occurs in a DIAC when the breakover voltage is reached with either polarity
across the 2 terminals
Basic construction schematic symbol

Diac characteristic curve

- once break over occurs, current flows in a direction depending on the polarity of the voltage
across the terminals
- Device turns OFF when current drops below holding value
The equivalent circuit

With A1 more positive with respect to A2, Q1 and Q2 are forward biased and Q3 and Q4 are
reverse biased. The device operates on the upper right portion of the characteristic curve
- With A2 more positive with respect to A1, Q3 and Q4 are forward biased and Q1 and Q2
are reverse biased. The device operates over the lower left portion of the characteristic curve
- When A1 is +ve, current flow path is N1, P1, N2, P2, j2, and j4 are forward biased.
- When A2 is positive with respect to A2 the current flow path P2, N2,P1,N1, j1 and j3 are
forward biased.
Application of Diac

i. light dimming
ii. universal motor speed
iii. heat control
Lamp dimmer
the circuit controls ac fed to a lamp
- the control of light output from the lamp is achieved by Rc variable gate voltage
arrangement
- the series R4 – C1 circuit across the triac is designed to limit the rate of voltage rise across
the device during switch off
Operation
- As the input V increases positively of negatively, C1, C2, and C3 charge at a rate
determined by R4, R1, and R2 andR3 respectively.
- When voltage across C3 exceeds the VBO of the Diac, the Diac is fired and thus in turn, the
Diac fires the gate of the Triac
- The Triac is turned „on‟ to pass the ac power to the lamp
- by adjusting the value of R2, the rate of charge of C2, and C3 can be varied and hence the
point at which Triac is triggered can be controlled

Problems
1) explain the construction and working of a diac
2) discuss the applications of a diac
3) explain how a diac can be used as a triggering device

THE TRIAC
- Is like a Diac with a gate terminal. It can be turned on by a pulse at the gate and does not
require a breakover voltage to initiate conduction
- Triac can be equated to two SCRs connected in parallel and opposite directions with a
common gate terminal
- Triac can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered „on‟ depending on the
polarity of the voltage across A1 and A2 terminals
Equivalent circuit

- with A1 positive , Q1 and Q2 are „on‟, current flows in the direction

- with a A2 positive Q3 and Q4 are „ON‟, current flows in the opposite direction
Triac operation

with switch open, IG = 0 and Triac is cut - off

- Even when there is no IG , the Triac can be turned „ON‟ provided the supply voltage
becomes equal to the break over voltage of the Triac
- The normal way to turn „On‟ a Triac is by introducing a proper IG
- With switch closed, IG flows thus breaking voltage of the Triac can be varied by making
proper IG to flow. IG is usually in mA
Applications
1. as a static switch to turn on ac power „OFF‟ and „ON‟
2. for light control
3. motor speed control
Triac as a power control device

The Triac is used to control ac power to a load by switching „ON‟ and „OFF‟ during the
positive and negative cycles
In the positive half cycle, D1 conducts, gate is positive with respect to A2. R is adjusted and
the point at which conduction commences can be varied
Light dimming

Circuit controls ac fed to a lamp, this controls light output for the lamp.
- The series R4 –C1 circuit across the Triac is designed to limit the rate of Voltage across the
device during switch off
Operation
- As the input V increases positively of negatively, C1, C2, and C3 charge at a rate
determined by R4, R1, and R2 andR3 respectively.
- When voltage across C3 exceeds the VBO of the Diac, the Diac is fired and thus in turn, the
Diac fires the gate of the Triac
- The Triac is turned „on‟ to pass the ac power to the lamp
- by adjusting the value of R2, the rate of charge of C2, and C3 can be varied and hence the
point at which Triac is triggered can be controlled

Problems
1. explain the construction and working of a triac
2. sketch the V – I characteristics of a triac
3. describe some important applications of a triac
4. explain how a triac can be used as a switch
5. what are the advantages of a triac over an SCR
6. why is a diac used to trigger a triac

THE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR

- consists of a lightly doped bar of n- type silicon that has a small piece of heavily doped p
type formed on of its sides
- smaller p type region is called the emitter
- because it is lightly doped, the n type bar has relatively high resistance R called the
interbase resistance, RBB
- at the ends of the n type, two terminals are connected, these are known as the base 1 and
base 2 terminals

Construction of the UJT/ Symbol

UJT equivalent
Intrinsic stand off ratio
UJT applications
- The unique property of UJT is that it can be triggered by or an output can be taken from any
one of its 3 terminals.
- Once triggered, the emitter current IE of the UJT increases regenerative until it reaches a
limiting value determined by the external power supply
- So it can be used for
1) phase control
2) Switching
3) Pulse generation
4) Sine wave generation
5) Saw tooth generator

Example 1
A given Si UJT has an interbase resistance of 10K. it has RB1 = 6K with IE = 0 find
a) UJT current if VBB = 20V and VE = is less than Vp
b) η and VB1
c) Peak point voltage Vp
Relaxation oscillator

UJT is often used as a trigger device for SCRs and Triacs

- other application include non sinusoidal oscillators, generators, phase control and firing
circuits
- when dc power is applied, C charges exponentially through R1 until it reaches the peak
point voltage Vp
- at this point, the pn junction becomes forward biased and the emitter characteristics goes
into negative R region (VE deceases and IE increases)
- the capacitor then quickly discharges through the forward biased RB and R2
- when the capacitor voltage increases to the valley point voltage ,Vv, the UJT turns off, the
capacitor begins to charge again and the cycle is repeated
- during the discharge time of the capacitor, the UJT is conducting and a V is developed
across R2
The inclusion of external resistance R2 and R1 in series with B2 and B1 provides spike
waveforms.
- When the UJT fires the sudden surge of current through B1 causes a drop across R1 which
produces the going spikes
Also at the time of firing, fall of VEB1 causes I2 to increases rapidly which generates
negative going spikes across R2.
- Frequency of the output waveform can be changed by changing the capacitances
Example
Determine the value of R1 that will ensure turn off of the UJT. Characteristics of the UJT
exhibit the following values

Theft alarm
The circuit is used to protect a car tape deck or a radio receiver from theft
- S is located at some concealed point in the car and is kept closed
- Gate is grounded through the tape deck
- The SCR is off and the alarm silent
- If tape is removed G is no longer grounded, it is connected to the car battery through R
- As a result, the horn starts blowing and continuous to do so until S is opened
Slew rate
- is the max rate in V/μsec at which the output of an op amp is capable of changing
- When a signal at a given frequency is applied to an op amp the max permissible output
voltage is determined by the slew rate.
- Should a greater output voltage be developed , the signal waveform will be distorted