Geography Form One TIE - DR KHALIYLOULLAH

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Geography for Secondary Schools
Geography
for Secondary Schools
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Student’s Book
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Form One
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Tanzania Institute of Education
Student’s Book Form One i

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Geography Form One EDITED.indd 1 28/03/2020 10:31
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© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019
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Published 2019
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ISBN 978 - 9987 - 09 - 033 - 4
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P. O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam
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Telephone: + 255 - 22 - 2773005 / + 255 - 22 - 2771358
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Fax: + 255 -22 -2 774420

Email: director.general@tie.go.tz
Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Tanzania Institute of

Education.
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Preface
This book, Geography for Secondary Schools, is written specifically for Form One
students in the United Republic of Tanzania. The book is prepared according to the
2005 Geography Syllabus for Ordinary Secondary Education Form I-IV, issued by the
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Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
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The book is divided into five chapters, which are: The concept of Geography, The solar
system, Major features of the earth’s surface, Weather and climate, and Map work. Each
chapter comprises illustrations, activities and exercises. Learners are encouraged to do
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all the activities and answer all the questions. This will enhance their understanding
and promote acquisition of the intended skills and competencies for this level.
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Acknowledgments
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions
of all organizations and individuals who participated in the design and development of
this textbook.
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Writers: Ms Beatrice S. Rulenguka, Ms Adela S. Karawa, Mr Chande B.
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Mapunda, Mr Bonaventura A. Gowele & Ms Aikande Urasa.
Editors: Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Michael Andindilile, Mr Samson
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Kyando & Dr Wilhelm Kiwango (Chairman of the panel)
Designer: Mr Frank Maridadi
Illustrators: Mr Fikiri Msimbe & Alama Art and Media Production Co. Ltd.
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Cartographer: Ms Sauda A. Kileo
Coordinator: Ms Beatrice S. Rulenguka U

TIE also extends its sincere gratitude to the secondary school teachers who participated
in the trial phase of the manuscript.
Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and
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Technology for facilitating the writing of this textbook.
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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
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Table of contents
Preface ................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. iv
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List of figures ....................................................................................................... vii
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List of tables ....................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: The concept of Geography ........................................................ 1
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The meaning of Geography ........................................................................... 1
The branches of Geography ............................................................................. 2
The interrelationship between geographical phenomena ................................. 3
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The importance of studying Geography ......................................................... 3
Chapter Two: The solar system ......................................................................... 7

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The concept of the solar system .................................................................... 7
The components of the solar system and their importance ............................ 9
The sun .......................................................................................................... 9
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The solar energy ............................................................................................. 9
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The planets ...................................................................................................... 12

Other bodies in the solar system .................................................................... 13
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The earth ......................................................................................................... 16

The earth’s movement ..................................................................................... 20
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Parallels and meridians ................................................................................... 30
Chapter Three: Major features of the earth’s surface ..................................... 39

The earth’s surface ........................................................................................ 39
Continents ...................................................................................................... 40
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Water bodies .................................................................................................... 46

The ocean floor and its features ...................................................................... 48
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Chapter Four: Weather and climate ............................................................... 52

Meaning of weather ..................................................................................... 52
Importance of weather ................................................................................. 52
Elements of weather ..................................................................................... 53
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Measuring and recording weather ................................................................. 71
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Climate .......................................................................................................... 88
Chapter Five: Map work ................................................................................. 96
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The concept of a map .................................................................................. 96
Components of a map .................................................................................. 98
Quantitative information on maps ...............................................................
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104
Locating positions on a map ........................................................................ 111
Uses of maps ............................................................................................... 116
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Glossary ...................................................................................................... 123
Bibliography ................................................................................................ 128

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List of figures
Figure 1.1 Major branches of Geography 2

Figure 2.1 The solar system 8
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Figure 2.2 Solar panels for electricity generation 10
Figure 2.3 A solar oven 10
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Figure 2.4 A solar cooker 10
Figure 2.5 A comet 14
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Figure 2.6 Asteroids 14
Figure 2.7 The meteorite in Mbozi, Songwe, Tanzania 14
Figure 2.8 The great meteor depression in Arizona, USA 15
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Figure 2.9 Size and shape of the earth 17
Figure 2.10 (a &b) Sunrise on the spherical earth and the flat earth 17
Figure 2.11 Circumnavigation of the earth 18
Figure 2.12
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An aerial photograph of the earth 18
Figure 2.13 (a&b) Ship’s visibility on the spherical earth and on a flat earth 19
Figure 2.14 Lunar eclipse 20
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Figure 2.15 The earth’s curved horizon 20
Figure 2.16 The earth’s rotation 21
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Figure 2.17 Day and night 22

Figure 2.18 (a) Deflection of winds due to the earth’s rotation 23
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Figure 2.18 (b) Deflection of ocean currents 23

Figure 2.19 Low and high tide levels of the ocean water 24
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Figure 2.20 The four seasons of the year 25

Figure 2.21 Perihelion and aphelion 26
Figure 2.22 Eclipse of the moon 26
Figure 2.23 Eclipse of the sun 27
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Figure 2.24 Changes in the latitude of the overhead sun 27

Figure 2.25 Latitudes 30
Figure 2.26 Longitudes 31
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Figure 2.27 (a & b) Determining latitudes 31

Figure 2.28 Determining longitudes 32
Figure 2.29 Great circles 32
Figure 2.30 The standard time zones of the world 36
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Figure 2.31 The International Date Line 36
Figure 3.1 Distribution of continents 40
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Figure 3.2 (a) A fold mountain 43
Figure 3.2 (b) The Himalaya fold mountains 43
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Figure 3. 3 A block mountain 43
Figure 3.4 (a) Volcanic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in Italy 44
Figure 3.4 (b) The Kilimanjaro mountain 44
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Figure 3. 5 A Residual mountain 44
Figure 3.6 A rift valley 44
Figure 3.7 The Great African Rift Valley 45
Figure 3.8
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Major relief features of the continents 46
Figure 3.9 Lake Victoria basin in East Africa 47
Figure 3.10 Ocean, seas, major lakes and rivers of the world 48
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Figure 3.11 Features of the ocean floor 48
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Figure 4.1 Temperature differences in relation to altitude 54

Figure 4.2 Effects of latitude on temperature 56
Figure 4.3 Precipitation 58
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Figure 4.4 Rainfall formation 58

Figure 4.5 Convectional rainfall 59
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Figure 4.6 Relief rainfall 60

Figure 4.7 Cyclonic rainfall 60
Figure 4.8 Warm and cold ocean currents 61
Figure 4.9 Sea breeze 64
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Figure 4.10 Land breeze 64

Figure 4.11 Wind systems 65
Figure 4.12 Relationship between pressure and altitude 66
Figure 4.13 Wind pressure belts 67
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Figure 4.14 Types of clouds 68

Figure 4. 15 A weather station 71
Figure 4.16 A Stevenson screen 72
Figure 4. 17 Maximum thermometer 73
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Figure 4.18 Minimum thermometer 74
Figure 4.19 Six’s thermometer 74
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Figure 4.20 Isotherm showing mean temperature (oC) for July 76
Figure 4.21 Mean Monthly temperatures in Dar es Salaam, 2016 76
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Figure 4.22 Hygrometer 79
Figure 4.23 Rain gauge 80
Figure 4.24 Rainfall distribution for station X 81
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Figure 4.25 Isohyets 82
Figure 4.26 Monthly temperature and rainfall 82
Figure 4.27 Barometers 83
Figure 4.28
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Isobars 84
Figure 4.29 A wind vane 84
Figure 4.30 Anemometer 84
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Figure 4.31 Campbell-Stocks sunshine recorder 85
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Figure 4.32 Weather map symbols showing amount of cloud cover 85

Figure 5.1 Topographical map 97
Figure 5.2 World rainfall distribution 97
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Figure 5.3 (a) Some of the symbols used on maps 98

Figure 5.3(b) Some of the signs used on maps 99
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Figure 5.4 Distribution of continents 100

Figure 5.5 Administrative unit of Dodoma district 100
Figure 5.6 A map of a school 101
Figure 5.7 A linear scale 102
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Figure 5.8 A linear scale to measure 2 cm to 1 km 103

Figure 5.9 Straight line joining points A and B 104
Figure 5.10 Line AB and a folded piece of paper 104
Figure 5.11 A linear scale and a line AB measuring 2 km 105
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Figure 5.12 A curved length to be measured 105

Figure 5.13 A curved length to be measured and a pair of dividers 106
Figure 5.14 A ruler and a pair of dividers 106
Figure 5.15 A piece of paper with a straight edge 107
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Figure 5.16 A square 107
Figure 5.17 A rectangle 108
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Figure 5.18 A triangle 108
Figure 5.19 Square method for an irregular shape 109
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Figure 5.20 Geometrical figure 111
Figure 5.21 Strip figure 111
Figure 5.22 Compass bearing of A from C and B from C 112
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Figure 5.23 Location of points A and B 112
Figure 5.24 Joining points A and B 112
Figure 5.25 Measuring an angle by using a protractor 113
Figure 5.26
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Cardinal points of a compass 113
Figure 5.27 Eight compass directions 113
Figure 5.28 Sixteen compass directions 113
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Figure 5.29 North direction 114
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Figure 5.30 A compass 114

Figure 5.31 Gridlines showing the north direction 114
Figure 5.32 The trend of the road 115
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Figure 5.33 Grid references 115

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List of tables
Table 2.1 Some characteristics of the planets 12
Table 3.1 Relative sizes of the world’s major oceans 47
Table 4.1 Mean Monthly temperatures of Dar es Salaam in 2016 77
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Table 4.2 Rainfall data for station X 81
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Table 4.3 Temperature and rainfall distribution 82
Table 4.4 Mean monthly temperature in town Y 87
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Table 4.5 Hypothetical data for an equtorial climate 90
Table 4.6 Hypothetical data for tropical or savannah climate 91
Table 4.7 Hypothetical data for desert climate 92
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Table 4.8 Hypothetical data for mediteranean climate 93
Table 4.9 Hypothetical data for tundra climate
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Chapter Two
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xii Student’s Book Form One

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Chapter
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The concept of
One
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Geography
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Introduction
The world we live in comprises natural and man-made features. Geography describes
the earth, the relationships between people and the environment, and the distribution
of natural and man-made features. In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning of
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Geography, branches of Geography, interrelationships between different geographical
phenomena, and the importance of studying Geography.
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The meaning of Geography refers to the world and its surroundings
where people, plants and animals live.
The word “geography” comes from two
Greek words “geo” which means “The earth”, The earth includes land, water bodies and
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and “graphien” or “grapho” which means air where human beings carry out their
“to draw”, “describe” or “write”. The two daily activities. Various activities including
fishing, swimming and sailing take place on
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words formed the word “geographien” which

was later accepted into the English language water bodies. Cultivation, livestock keeping,
as “Geography”. Therefore, Geography lumbering, construction of infrastructure
such as buildings, roads, railways and playing
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is the science that describes the earth. It

started as a study concerned with the simple grounds take place on the land. Drilling wells
description of the earth in words, using maps and some mining activities take place in the
interior of the earth. Aviation takes place in
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and statistics. The description involved both

the physical earth and everything found in the atmosphere.
it such as plants, animals, people, and water Geography describes how human beings
bodies. interact with the environment and how
different natural features are formed and
Thus, “Geography” can be defined as the distributed. It also explains the distribution
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study of the interrelationship between human of human activities on the earth’s surface.
beings and the enviroment over time and Therefore, Geography focuses on the study
space. Geography helps us to understand of the earth as the home to people where
the relationship between human activities they establish settlements and utilize space
and the environment. The word environment and resources.
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The branches of Geography on the distribution of people, settlements

and human activities such as agriculture,
Geography as a subject has two major mining, manufacturing, transport and
branches, namely: physical geography communication. Furthermore, it studies
and human geography. human population aspects such as population
structure and composition, distribution, and
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Physical geography studies natural features growth.
of the earth. It focuses on the structure of
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Each branch of Geography has a practical
the earth, atmospheric processes and the
formation and distribution of landforms aspect. Practical geography enables
such as mountains, valleys, rivers and learners to acquire practical skills that
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plateaus. It also studies the distribution enhance their ability for interpreting both
of plants and animals (flora and fauna) as physical and human geography. Practical
well as weather and climate. geography includes map work (reading
and interpretation), quantitative methods,
Human geography studies man-made research techniques, surveying and
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features found on the earth’s surface. It photography. Figure 1.1 is a diagrammatic
also studies the interaction between human representation of the major branches of
beings and the environment. It focuses Geography.
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GEOGRAPHY
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
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lNatural features of the earth lMan-made features

l Structure of the earth l Population growth and
l Formation and distribution of distribution
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landforms l Human activities

l Distribution of plants and
animals
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PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
lMap work
l Quantitative methods
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l Research techniques
l Surveying
Figure 1.1 Major branches of Geography
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The interrelationship between between the climate of a place and the

geographical phenomena type of food and cash crops grown. For
Our planet Earth consists of natural and example, drought-tolerant crops are grown
man-made features. Features that support in areas with little rainfall, whereas trees
life on earth include water, air, light and some root crops grow well in areas
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and soil. Human beings, animals and with plenty of rainfall.
plants depend on these features for their
Likewise, the temperature of a place
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survival. Therefore, there exist interactions
and interrelationships between these influences the way people dress. For
geographical phenomena. The centre of example, in cold areas such as Arusha,
Iringa, Njombe and Mbeya, people put
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the interrelationship is a human being who,
to a large extent, uses the environment for on heavy jackets unlike those of Dar
his or her basic needs. es Salaam and Tanga who put on light
clothes.
The phrase geographical phenomena refers
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to features, events or situations observed in Activity 1.1
the environment whose cause or explanation
Visit an area nearby your school
is of geographical interest. For example,
and list down five human activities
drought, soil erosion, water pollution, floods
and forest fire, are some of the negative
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geographical phenomena. The climate
of an area influences the type of soil, the
The importance of studying Geography
crops grown, livestock keeping, population
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distribution and settlements. Studying Geography has the following
importance:
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Human beings obtain their needs from

nature. In so doing, they change the (a) It increases awareness of our country,
environment through, for example, land its boundaries and resources as our
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reclamation, deforestation and building national heritage.

activities. These activities impact on the
environment. For example, extensive (b) It promotes proper use of the available
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deforestation and overgrazing expose the resources. Studying Geography helps

land to agents of erosion. In turn, eroded people develop skills and capabilities
land becomes unproductive for agriculture, that will help them make informed
which may lead to food shortage. decisions on the use, management and
protection of natural resources, thus
The environment provides a habitat for
improving their standard of living.
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living things. Seas, oceans, lakes and

rivers are home to aquatic species. Land (c) It develops methods and skills of
provides the soil for growing plants. These observing, measuring, recording and
plants are food for animals and human interpreting various geographical
beings. There is also a strong relationship phenomena. These skills help us to

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generate scientific knowledge that (b) Work in pairs and discuss the
enables us to predict outcomes of relationship between the features
different processes and activities for you have identified.
appropriate decision-making.
(d) It helps us understand social and
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Exercise 1. 1
economic relations between countries
and share ideas and experiences in
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Answer the following questions:
solving related problems. This
understanding is achieved by studying 1. Tick (√) the phenomena that require
a specific geographical knowledge.
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a variety of resources, economic
activities, technology, and trade, as (a) Weather forecasting
well as their interactions.
(b) Map-making and interpretation
(e) It equips us with skills for environmental (c) Planning for the location of
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conservation. These skills are for agricultural activities
appropriate use of environmental (d) Quarrying
resources, and methods for managing
(e) Mountain climbing
associated problems for the wellbeing
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of the present and future generations. (f) Preaching
(f) It equips us with practical skills (g) Environmental impact

and knowledge that are relevant for assessment for a development
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employment in various fields, for project
instance map making (cartography), (h) Reading books
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teaching and research, surveying,

(i) Caring for HIV patients
land use planning, natural resources
management, conducting environmental
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2. Mention four job opportunities

impact assessments (EIAs), aviation,
navigation, surface transport and that can be obtained after studying
Geography.
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tourism industry.
3. (a) Pictures (a) to (f)

Activity 1.2 represent different activities
that require geographical
(a) Walk around your school or
knowledge and skills. Write
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home environment. Identify and

the correct letter of the picture
list down any four geographical
features. against its corresponding
activity.

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(a) (d)
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(b) (e)
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(c) (f)
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Picture A if the statement refers to physical

Activity letter geography, B if it refers to human
(i) Aircraft piloting geography, and C if it refers to prac-
(ii) Tree planting tical geography:
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(iii) Scuba diving (a) My uncle studies the behaviour
(iv) Land surveying of stars in the sky.
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(v) Mountain climbing
(b) Soon we will begin
(vi) Cartography
manufacturing cement.
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(b) List any other four human
activities that require (c) An engineering company is
geographical knowledge and constructing a railway line.
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skills.
(d) People migrate to urban
4. For each of the following statements, areas because of poor living
write letter T for a correct statement conditions in rural areas.
and letter F for a false one:
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(e) Nowadays people are more
(a) Geography deals with the way
involved in trade than in
human beings interact with the
livestock-keeping as it used to
environment in the course of
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be in the nineteenth century.
their development.
(f) The last volcanic eruption
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(b) Movements of people from one

location to another do not involve created a crater on top of the
geographical knowledge. mountain.
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(c) The earth’s surface consists of (g) People clear forests for wheat
land, water and the atmosphere. production.
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(d) Physical geography is a study (h) Drawing a map to show the

of man-made features on the distribution of natural features
earth’s surface. in Tanzania.
(e) Drilling water and oil from (i) Depths of valleys change
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underground is not considered overtime.

as human interaction with the
earth’s surface. 6. In four points, explain the
importance of studying Geography.
5. Beside each statement, write letter

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Chapter
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Two The solar system
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Introduction
The solar system comprises planets and other solid objects. The sun is at the center
of the solar system. All planets and other solid objects revolve around the sun. The
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sun is the main source of all energy on earth. In this chapter, you will learn about the
concept of the solar system, the sun, the solar energy, the planets and other bodies
around the system. You will also learn about the shape and size of the earth, the
earth’s movement, and the parallels and meridians.
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The concept of the solar system the solar system are the sun, the moon,
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the stars, the earth and other planets.
During the day, the sun shines and Other components of the solar system
gives light to the planet Earth, which is
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include asteroids, meteors, comets and

important to sustaining life. Looking natural satellites.
at the sky at night, you will see stars
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twinkling and at times bright objects All these objects found in space form
moving. All that we see in the sky forms an arrangement in relation to their
part of the solar system. The word “solar” positions from the sun and revolve
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comes from a Greek word “sol”, which around the sun (Figure 2.1). As they
means the sun. The solar system refers revolve, they are kept in their orbits by
to the arrangement of planets and other the sun’s powerful force of gravity. An
solid objects in space in relation to their orbit is an elliptical path through which
positions from the sun. Components of heavenly bodies revolve around the sun.
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Mercury
Venus
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Sun
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Earth
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Jupiter Mars
Saturn
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Uranus
Neptune
Figure 2.1 The solar system U

There are eight planets in the solar system. 2. Which of the following planets is
These are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, closest to the sun?
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The
(a) Earth (b) Jupiter (c) Mars
Earth has one moon which revolves around
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it. Some planets also have moons which (d) Mercury (e) Neptune
revolve around them. Moons are natural
3. Which of the following planets is
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satellites. All the planets revolve around

furthest from the sun?
the sun, each following its own path known
as an orbit. Orbits are not true circles but (a) Neptune (b) Venus (c) Mars
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imaginary paths of elliptical shapes. They (d) Earth (e) Mercury

are arranged in such a way that no orbit
4. What is the position of the earth
crosses the path of another.
from the sun?
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Exercise 2.1 (a) second (b) third (c) fourth

(d) last (e) the last but one
A: Study Figure 2.1 and then choose
the most appropriate answer: B: Describe the following terms:
1. How many planets are in the 1. Planet
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solar system? 2. Sun

(a) seven (b) eight (c) nine 3. Orbit
(d) ten (e) three 4. Solar system

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C: Why are planets not colliding Asteroids are the source of meteorites,
with one another as they revolve and therefore a source of surface deposits
around the sun? of metals such as iron and nickel.
D: Draw a well-labelled diagram of The sun

The sun is at the centre of our solar
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the solar system.
system. It looks bigger because it is
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closer to the earth than other stars. The
The components of the solar system
sun is larger than the earth. Its diameter
and their importance
is about 1.4 million kilometres and its
The solar system is made up of several
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mass is about 330,000 times greater than
components. The main ones are the sun,
that of the earth. The sun is composed of
planets, satellites, asteroids, meteors,
about 75 percent hydrogen and 23 percent
comets, and inter-planetary dust and
helium. The remaining 2 percent consists
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gases.
of carbon, oxygen, silicon, iron and other
The sun is the main source of energy, chemical elements.
which is called solar energy. The energy
from the sun generates heat and light that The sun is so hot that nearly all the molecules
are essential for living organisms. It is
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are mixed into a single hot gas. Its average
also responsible for the earth’s weather
surface temperature is about 6000 °C. It is
and climatic conditions.
hotter in the interior where its temperature
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Meteors are small solid objects from is about 15000000 °C. The sun is the main
outer space. They are seen as bright light source of all light and heat that the planets
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crossing the sky at night at a high speed. receive.

At times, they fall to the earth surface and
become meteorites which attract tourists. The solar energy
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Examples include the Mbozi Meteorite in Solar energy refers to the radiant light and
Songwe region in Tanzania and the Great heat from the sun. The sun is the main
Meteorite in Arizona, United States of source of energy on the earth. Sun rays
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transfer energy from the sun to the earth’s

America (USA).
surface through a process called radiation.
The earth is the only planet known This energy can be harnessed using
to support life. It has the necessary technologies such as solar heating, thermal
requirements such as water and air for energy and photovoltaics (conversion of
light into electricity).
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animals and plants to survive.

The moon is a natural satellite which Uses of solar energy
reflects the sun’s light to the earth during Solar energy is used in the following
the night. The moon’s gravitational pull ways:
affects life on earth by creating tides in (i) Drying clothes, grains, fruits and
the oceans. meat.

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(ii) It is the source of heat and light which (vii) Solar energy can be used for
are essential for seed germination. domestic and industrial purposes.
In Tanzania, solar energy is
(iii) Plants use energy from the sun to increasingly being used as a source
manufacture their own food through of electricity, particularly in areas
the process known as photosynthesis. with no access to other sources
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In this process, green plants and of energy. In the United States of
certain other organisms convert light America (USA), China and Japan,
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energy into chemical energy that can solar energy is used for cooking,
later be released to provide energy lighting and heating. For example,
for the organism’s activities. solar ovens and solar cookers are
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used for heating and cooking (see
(iv) Human bodies absorb solar energy
Figures 2.3 and 2.4).
and convert it into Vitamin D which
is useful for human health.
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(v) Solar energy is important in the Solar energy
formation of rainfall. It evaporates
water from water bodies which rises,
Insulation
cools and condenses to form clouds
and eventually rainfall.
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food
(vi) Solar energy is an alternative source
of energy to fossil fuels that are
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harmful to the environment. It is Glass
also an alternative to hydroelectric
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power (HEP) that is not reliable and

requires a lot of money to produce. Figure 2.3 A solar oven
Figure 2.2 shows some solar panels
that are used to trap solar energy to
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generate electricity.
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Figure 2.2 Solar panels for electricity

generation Figure 2.4 A solar cooker
Source: https://www.amazon.in/Sun-Mitra-Square-Shape-Cooker-
source: www.rgsenergy.com/how-solar-panels-work 525X525mm/dp/B06Y5P8LBV

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Solar energy and environmental environmental conservation as it reduces

conservation environmental degradation.
The majority of people in Tanzania
Contribution of solar energy to the
depend on firewood and charcoal as their
emancipation of women
main sources of energy for domestic use.
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These sources are widely used because In Tanzania, especially in rural areas, the
they are readily available and affordable main source of fuel is firewood. Fetching
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to many people. However, their continued firewood is mainly carried out by women
use contributes to the degradation of and girls. They usually fetch the firewood
the environment through air pollution
far from home, which is a tedious task. The
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and deforestation. Solar energy is more
use of solar energy for domestic purposes
environmentally-friendly than charcoal
contributes to women’s emancipation.
and firewood because it does not
pollute the environment or contribute to Women emancipation is a process that frees
women from social, political, economic
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deforestation.
and technological limitations. The use
The use of solar energy minimises the use of solar energy contributes to women’s
of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, emancipation in the following ways:
diesel and kerosene, thus reducing
environmental pollution via, for example,
U (i) it reduces the time spent on fetching
the emission of greenhouse gases from firewood. This means that women
burning fuel. Consequently, the use of would have more time to take part
solar energy minimises the impact of in other activities; in addition young
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climate change in the long-term. girls will get time for study.
in
Solar energy is renewable because it

(ii) It reduces health risks associated
can be used several times without being
with the use of fuel-wood. Fuel-
exhausted compared to firewood and
wood emits smoke during cooking,
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charcoal which become depleted with use.

which may cause problems in their
Furthermore, Tanzania is located within
respiratory system.
the tropics where solar energy can be
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harnessed easily and is readily available

(iii) It reduces the risk of being attacked
throughout the year.
by wild animals while collecting
Increased use of solar energy instead of firewood in forests.
fossil fuels, charcoal and firewood will
(iv) It reduces the financial burden of
increase the availability of clean air
the ever-increasing oil prices. For
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and water, food, fertile soils, medicines

example, women and girls can
and recreational services from the
save money intended for kerosene
environment. The situation will also
to buy other essential household
help in pollination, honey production,
items.
and pest and disease control. The use of
solar energy, therefore, contributes to (v) It reduces the risk of violence against

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women such as sexual harassment four planets from the sun are inner planets
associated with walking over long whereas the remaining four are outer
planets because they are located further
distances to collect firewood.
away from the sun. These planets have
specific positions in the solar system. As
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Exercise 2.2 they revolve around the sun, they appear
to move among the stars. That is why the
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(a) Using recommended sources (for Greeks called them planets, which means
example books), find out why “wandering stars”.
people need solar energy.
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All planets revolve around the sun on the
(b) Discuss six advantages of using
same plane and direction, each following
solar energy.
its own orbit. The time it takes for a planet
to complete orbiting the sun depends on
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The planets
its distance from the sun (Table 2.1). Light
Planets are bodies that revolve around and heat on the planet come from the sun.
the sun. The planets of our solar system Hence, the temperature on the planets
are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, depends on their relative distances from
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The first
U the sun.
Table 2.1 Some characteristics of the planets

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Approximate Number
Surface area
distance of moons Average
No Planet Period per orbit of each planet
in
from the sun per Temperature

in km2
(million km) planet
1 Mercury 58 0 430 °C 88 days 74.8 mill

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2 Venus 108 0 462 °C 225 days 460.2 mill.

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3 Earth 150 1 15 °C 365 days (1 year) 510.1 mill.
4 Mars 228 2 -63 °C 1 year and 322 days 144.8 mill.
5 Jupiter 778.5 79 -145 °C 12 years 61.42 bill.

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6 Saturn 1434 62 -178 °C 29 years 42.7 bill.
7 Uranus 2871 27 -216 °C 84 years 8.038 bill.
8 Neptune 4495 14 -214 °C 165years 7.618 bill.

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Mercury helium gases. It is the largest planet in the

Mercury revolves at a distance of about 58 solar system. It has 79 natural satellites.
million kilometres from the sun. It is the
Saturn
closest planet to the sun and the smallest
This planet revolves at a distance of
planet in our solar system. Its average
about 1,434 million kilometres from the
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surface temperature is 430 oC. It is called
sun. It is distinguished by its extensive
a boiling planet because of its closeness
ring system and has 62 natural satellites.
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to the sun which is extremely hot. This
The ring system is composed of solid
planet has no natural satellite.
materials such as dust. The ring system is
a distinctive feature of the planet.
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Venus
Venus revolves at a distance of about Uranus
108 million kilometres from the sun. Its Uranus revolves at a distance of about
size is close to that of the planet Earth. 2,871 million kilometres from the sun.
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It is the second planet from the sun. This Its atmosphere is mainly composed of
planet has no natural satellites. It is the hydrogen, helium, and methane. It has
hottest planet, with an average surface 27 natural satellites.
temperature of 462 oC, most likely because
of the high amount of greenhouse gases in
U Neptune
its atmosphere. This planet revolves at a distance of about
4,495 million kilometres from the sun. It
Earth
is composed of hydrogen and helium. It
The planet Earth revolves at a distance
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also contains small amount of water and
of about 150 million kilometres from the
methane. It has 14 natural satellites.
sun. It has an average surface temperature
in
of 15 oC. It is the only planet in the universe Other bodies in the solar system
known to have geological and biological Apart from the sun, moon and planets,
activities. Therefore, the earth is the only other bodies exist in the solar system.
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planet which supports life. The earth has They are smaller than the planets. These
one natural satellite known as the moon. include comets, asteroids, meteors and
satellites.
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Mars
Comets
Mars revolves at a distance of about
228 million kilometres from the sun. It A comet is a mass of ice, frozen gases,
is smaller than the earth and venus. Its rock particles and dusts, which moves
atmosphere is mainly composed of carbon around the sun. It looks like a bright star
with a tail. Comets are visible in the sky
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dioxide and it has two natural satellites.

as moving objects with leading heads and
Jupiter bright tails. Comets go around the sun far
This planet revolves at a distance of about beyond the limit of Neptune (Figure 2.5).
778.5 million kilometres from the sun. Its They become visible from the earth only
atmosphere is composed of hydrogen and when they come near the sun.

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a result of friction
Comet with the atmosphere.
head However, some do
not burn completely
and reach the earth’s
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surface. When they
Comet
reach the earth’s
tail
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surface, they are
Figure 2.5 A comet known as meteorites.
Source: http://medium.com/starts-with-a-bang/this-is-why-comets-grow-an-eerie-green-color-61b7128e2f01 There are two
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Asteroids meteorites in Tanzania. One is found in
Asteroids are solid heavenly bodies in the Ndolezi Village, Mbozi District in Songwe
solar system revolving around the sun. Region, about 65 kilometres south-west of
They are also called Planetoids because Mbeya City (Figure 2.7). This meteorite
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they look like planets. An asteroid belt was officially discovered in the 1930s.
is found between Mars and Jupiter. Previously, it was only known to the local
The largest asteroids are called Ceres. people.
They have a diameter of less than 800
kilometres. Asteroids are only visible via
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a telescope because they are very far away
from the earth (Figure 2.6).
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in
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Figure 2.7 The meteorite in Mbozi, Songwe

Tanzania
Source: http://ourproudlytanzania.blogspot.com/2016/06/kifahamu-kwa-kina-
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kimondo.html
The other less spectacular site of meteorite

is found in Malampaka, Maswa District
Figure 2.6 Asteroids in Simiyu Region. This meteorite fell
Source:https://news.wsu.edu/2019/07/16/speeding-science-near-earth-asteroids/ at Malampaka in 1930. When meteors
strike the earth’s surface, they may
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Meteors cause depressions. An example of such

Meteors are pieces of rocks falling depressions in the world is the Great Meteor
from outer space. They become visible Depression in Arizona in the United States
between 110 and 145 kilometres from of America which is 150 metres deep and
the earth’s surface. These rocks burn as about one kilometre wide (Figure 2.8).

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Exercise 2.3
A: Choose the correct answer and

circle its letter:
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1. Which of the following bodies is at
the centre of the solar system?
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(a) Sun (b) Earth (c) Moon
(d) Meteor (e) Planet
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2. Which of the following is not true
about the uses of solar energy?
(a) Solar energy is used for heating
homes.
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(b) Solar energy is used for drying
clothes and grains.
Figure 2.8 The great meteor depression in
Arizona, USA (c) Solar energy is used in heavy
U
Source:https://www.space.com/834-mystery-arizona-meteor-crater-solved.html industries.
(d) Solar energy is used as a source
Satellites
of light.
e
A satellite is a body that moves around a
(e) Solar energy is used to drive carts.
planet or any other body larger than itself.
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There are natural and artificial satellites.

3. Which of the following statement is
There are about 185 known natural
true regarding satellites?
satellites in the solar system. The moon
(a) All satellites are bigger than the
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is the largest known natural satellite of

the planets. Currently, only six planets are earth.
known to have natural satellites. These (b) All planets have satellites.
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planets and their number of satellites are (c) Some planets have satellites,
Earth (1), Mars (2), Jupiter (79), Saturn some do not.
(62), Uranus (27), and Neptune (14).
The artificial or man-made satellites which (d) The moon is a satellite that
produces its own light.
revolve around the earth are mainly for
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weather forecasting, taking photographs, (e) Saturn has no natural satellite.

collecting data for map making and for
telecommunication. Satellite dishes used 4. Which of the following is true
at home receive and transmit information regarding the earth?
from communication satellites.

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(a) It is the third largest planet in the Column A Column B

solar system.
1. Composed (a) The solar
(b) It is the only planet that is known of the sun, system
to support life. planets
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and other (b) Comets
(c) It revolves around the sun once in
bodies
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every 364 days.
2. Located at (c) The sun
(d) It revolves on an orbit that crosses the centre
orbits of other planets. (d) The earth
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of the solar
system
(e) It has an average temperature of (e) Neptune
about 100 °C. 3. The furthest
planet from
(f) Venus
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5. Which of the following is true the sun
regarding planets?
4. Objects (g) Mercury
(a) All planets revolve around the with lead-
sun. ing heads
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(b) They take 364 days to complete
one revolution. tails in the
sky
(c) All planets revolve around the
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5. The closest
sun on the same orbit.
planet to
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(d) The temperature of the planets the sun

increases with increasing distance
from the sun.
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The earth
(e) All planets rotate around the sun.
The earth is the third furthest planet
from the sun and ranks fifth in size. The
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B: Answer the following questions:

distance of the earth from the sun is about
1. Differentiate between meteorites 150 million kilometres. The earth is made
and asteroids. up of the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere
2. List four domestic uses of solar (water bodies), lithosphere (solid and
energy. molten materials), and the biosphere
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(living things). About three quarters of

C: Match each statement in Column the earth’s surface is covered by water.
A with its corresponding item in Currently, the earth is the only planet in
Column B:
the solar system with water bodies. The
earth is the planet on which we live.

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The shape and size of the earth was flat, the whole world would
have sunrise and sunset at the same
The shape of the earth is a flattened sphere. time (Figure 2.10 (b)).
A flattened sphere is known as an oblate
spheroid (geoid). The flattening of the
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earth is very slight as the measurements
in the north-south and east-west distance
nl
indicate. The distance through the centre
from the North Pole to the South Pole is
12,713 kilometres whereas the distance
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through the centre of the earth at the equator
is 12,757 kilometres. The circumference
of the earth at the equator is about 40,000
kilometres (Figure 2.9).
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U (a) Spherical earth
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in
Figure 2.9 Size and shape of the earth

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Evidence of the earth’s shape

There is enough evidence to show that the
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earth is spherical. The evidence includes

(b) Flat earth
the following:
(i) Sunrise and sunset Figure 2.10 (a & b) Sun rise on the
The sun rises and sets at different spherical earth and the flat earth
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times in different places of the (ii) Circumnavigation of the earth

earth. People in the east see the sun If you travel from a certain point on
earlier than those in the west due the earth by going straight around
to the earth’s rotation from west to the earth, you will eventually
east (Figure 2.10(a)). If the earth come back to the point of origin.

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This concept was proved by the first navigator Ferdinand Magellan who sailed
around the world from 1519 to 1522. Magellan in his voyage did not encounter
any abrupt edge on earth’s surface over which he would fall. This journey around
the earth is called circumnavigation (Figure 2.11).
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Figure. 2.11 Circumnavigation of the earth
(iii) Aerial photograph of the earth

U
A photograph taken by airplane or images captured by artificial satellites from
the air show that the earth is curved (Figure 2.12).
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Figure 2.12 An aerial photograph of the earth

Source: https://fineartamerica.com/featured/earth-from-space-africa-view-johan-swanepoel.html
(iv) Ship’s visibility

The visibility of an arriving ship which is far away starts with the flag, then the
mast and eventually the whole ship as it nears the coast. When the ship moves

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away, it gradually disappears starting with the ship, then the mast and finally
the flag (Figure 2.13a). If the earth were flat, the whole ship would appear or
disappear at once (Figure 2.13b).
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O
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(a) Spherical earth
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(b) Flat earth
Figure 2.13 (a &b) Ship’s visibility on the spherical earth and on a flat earth
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(v) Lunar eclipse

When light from the sun is obstructed, a circular shadow is observable. For
example, during the eclipse of the moon, the shadow of the earth on the moon
appears spherical (Figure 2.14)

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Figure 2.14 Lunar eclipse
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(i) The earth’s curved horizon
The earth appears to have a curved horizon when viewed from a high cliff, a
plane or a high building. The earth’s curved horizon widens as the observer’s
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altitude increases until it becomes circular (Figure 2.15).
U The sky
A curved
horizon
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The earth
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Source: www.photosearch.com
Figure 2.15 The earth’s curved horizon

The earth’s movement line joining the North and South poles
The earth is in motion all the time. The through the centre of the earth. The earth
earth has two movements, namely rotation rotates on its axis in an anticlockwise
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and revolution. direction, from West to East through 360o

in 24 hours (Figure 2.16). This means that
Rotation of the earth the earth takes one hour to rotate through
The term rotation means the spinning of a 15o, which is equal to 4 minutes for every
body on its axis. An axis is an imaginary 1o.

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The North Pole This observation is similar to the

movement of the earth in relation
to the sun. Just like the individual
moving in the bus, it is the earth
West to East and not the sun that rotates.
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The earth’s rotation changes
from no movement to very rapid
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Axis movement although we do not feel
the motion because we move with
The South Pole
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it. At the equator, every point of the
earth’s surface moves eastwards at
Figure 2.16 The earth’s rotation
about 1,600 kilometres per hour.
At latitude 40°, the speed is about
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Evidence of the earth’s rotation
1,280 kilometres per hour. In the
(i) The phenomenon that the sun meantime, at the poles, the speed
moves from the east to the west is 0 kilometre per hour.
is absolutely not true because the
sun as the central body of solar
U Effects of the earth’s rotation
system is stationary. Instead, what When the earth rotates, the following
moves is the earth, which rotates happen:
from the west to the east. It is this
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(i) Day and night
movement which explains why
The change between day and night
the sun appears to rise from the
in
is caused by the rotation of the

east in the morning and set in the
earth on its axis. The side that
west during the evening. Therefore,
faces the sun experiences the light
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the earth rotates on its axis from the

from the sun (day) whereas the
west to the east.
side that is not facing the sun at
that time is in darkness (night).
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(ii) At night, most of the stars appear

to move across the sky from the Therefore, as the earth rotates,
east to the west. This proves that its two parts alternate between
light and darkness, respectively,
the earth is rotating from the west
hence the day and night sessions
to the east.
they experience in turns. As such,
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(iii) When travelling in a fast-moving different places on the earth’s

vehicle, we notice that trees surface experience sunrise, noon
and other objects appear to be and sunset at different times in a
moving in the opposite direction. day (Figure 2.17).

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axis The International Date line (IDL) is

an imaginary line that was established
Sun rays in 1884. This line follows the
meridian of 180° longitude except
where it crosses land surface. It is
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NIGHT DAY located halfway round the world
from the prime meridian (the zero
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degree longitude) established in
Greenwich, England, in 1852. When
travelling from the west to the east
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Figure 2.17 Day and night and you cross the IDL, you gain a
day. Conversely, when you cross this
(ii) Differences in time between
line from the east to the west you
places located at different
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longitudes lose a day (see Figure 2.31 in page
The earth’s rotation results in 36). For example, if it is Thursday
different times for different locations. 3rd August 2:00 pm at 165o W, it
The difference in time is determined will be Friday 4th August 2:00 am
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by longitudinal differences between
at 165o E.
two or more places. We have learned (iv) Deflection of winds and ocean
that the earth rotates from the west currents
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to the east making a circle of 360o. The earth’s rotation causes
Then, how long will it take to turn deflection of planetary winds and
in
10? ocean currents. This means that

they do not blow and flow in the
To find the answer to this question, intended direction. The planetary
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we must divide 24 hours by 3600. winds and ocean currents are

But first, we will change the hours deflected to the right in the
into minutes: 24 x 60= 1440. Thus, northern hemisphere and to the
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the earth goes through 3600 in left in the southern hemisphere

1,440 minutes. To find how long it (Figures 2.18a & 2.18b). This is
takes 1o to rotate, we divide 1,440 summarised by Ferrel’s Law which
minutes by 360o. Therefore, the states that freely moving bodies
earth takes 4 minutes to turn 10. As are deflected to their right in the
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there are 60 minutes in 1hour, the northern hemisphere and to their

earth will turn 150 in 1 hour. left in the southern hemisphere
(iii) Gain or loss of a day when from their point of origin. This is
crossing the International Date evident in the deflection of winds
Line and ocean currents.

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Figure 2.18 (a) Deflection of winds due to the earth’s rotation
The ocean currents
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Current Warm Current Cold Current
E.Greenland
Labrador
Alaska
N.Pacific
N.Atlantic
Draft
U Oyashio
N.Pacific
Gulf Stream Canary
California N.Equatorial Kuroshio
North Equatorial Equ
ator N.Equatorial
e
ial C
ount
er Equatorial Counter
Equatorial Counter
S.Equatorial South
South Equatorial Equatorial
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Benguela
W.Australia
E.Australia
Brazil Mozambique
South Pacific South Indian
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South Atlantic Antarctic Circumpolar

Antarctic Circumpolar
Antarctic Subpolar
Antarctic Subpolar
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Figure 2.18 (b) Deflection of ocean currents
(v) The daily rising and falling of tides

The ocean tide is the rising and falling of the water level in the ocean (Figure
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2.19). This is caused by gravitational attraction exerted by the sun and largely
by the moon upon the rotating earth. When the sun, the moon and the earth are
in a straight line, the ocean tide rises and when the sun, the moon and the earth
are not in a straight line, the ocean tide falls. Tides are experienced at different
times of the day and in different places on the earth’s surface.

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Figure 2. 19 Low and high tide levels of the ocean water
Revolution of the earth the earth’s revolution around the

sun. The earth’s axis is tilted at an
The earth’s revolution refers to the
U angle of 66½o to the earth’s orbital
movement of the earth around the sun
following its orbit. The speed of revolution plane and it is always pointing to
the same direction in space. In its
is about 29.6 kilometres per second.
revolution around the sun, one
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The earth revolves around the sun for
of the hemispheres is inclined
approximately 365 days a year. A normal
towards the sun at one period of the
in
year has 365 days. The fraction days are

year and away from it at another
not counted every year but is added once
period of the year. For example, in
in 4 years to make a leap year of 366 days.
June, July and August, the northern
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The leap year occurs once in every four

hemisphere tilts towards the sun,
years, when February has 29 days instead
thus, it is Summer time. The same
of 28.
months in the southern hemisphere,
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Effects of the earth’s revolution it is Winter because the southern

The revolution of the earth around the sun hemisphere tilts away from the
and tilting on its axis have the following sun. Spring and Autumn are short
effects: seasonal transitions between
Summer and Winter, respectively.
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(i) Seasons
A season is the main period of Generally, there are four seasons
the year with a particular type of in a year that are differentiated
weather. Seasons are caused by the by temperature and rainfall
inclination of the earth’s axis and characteristics. These seasons

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are Summer, Autumn, February. Autumn occurs in March, April and

Winter and Spring. The May. The Winter season occurs in June, July and
four seasons are more August whereas spring months are September,
pronounced in areas October and November (Figure 2.20). However,
found between 23½ and
o
due to the presence of relief and oceans, these
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66½ of latitude north
o
seasons do not occur in this sequence.
and south of the equator.
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Around 0o to 5o north NP
March 21 st
and south of the equator, Spring Equinox
there would be no season
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June 21 st
because it experiences Summer SP

Solstice
high temperature and NP Sun at Tropic of NP
rainfall throughout Cancer
Sun at Tropic of
the year and the sun
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Capricorn
Sun at the
SP Dec 22 nd
Equaror
is almost overhead at Winter
Solstice
those places throughout NP
the year. However, due
to variations in relief,
U SP
September 23
Autumn Equinox
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seasonal variations are

experienced. The area Figure 2.20 The four seasons of the year
between 5 and 23½
o o
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north and south of the equator are (ii) Aphelion and perihelion
characterised by hot-wet and cold-
The earth revolves around the sun
in
dry seasons. At the North Pole (NP)

in an elliptical orbit. Due to the
and the South Pole (SP), it is very
cold throughout the year and the elliptical shape of the earth’s orbit,
nl
seasons cannot be distinguished the sun is closer to the earth at one

easily. point of the year than at another
(Figure 2.21). The furthest position
In the northern hemisphere, summer
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from the sun in the orbit of the

months are June, July and August. earth is called aphelion. The earth
th
Autumn months are September, is at aphelion each year on 4 July
October and November. The winter when it is 152 million kilometres
season occurs in December, January from the sun. Perihelion occurs
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and February whereas Spring months when the earth is nearest to the sun
are March, April and May. In the about 147 million kilometres from
southern hemisphere, the summer the sun. The earth is at perihelion
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months are December, January and each year on the 3 of January.

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Figure 2.21 Perihelion and aphelion
(iii) Eclipses
An eclipse is a total or partial obstruction of light from the sun by either the earth
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or the moon. This occurs when the earth or the moon intercepts the light from
the sun. There are two types of eclipses: the lunar and solar eclipse. The lunar
eclipse is also known as the eclipse of the moon. It occurs when the earth passes
between the moon and the sun, thus casting its shadow on the moon (Figure
e
2.22).
in
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Figure 2.22 Eclipse of the moon
The solar eclipse is also known as the eclipse of the sun. It occurs when the
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moon passes between the earth and the sun. The moon throws its shadow over the
earth (Figure 2.23). An eclipse of the sun is partial when only part of the earth is
obscured by the shadow of the moon. The portion of the shadow that results when
the light from the sun is partially blocked is called Penumbra. Moreover, when
the light from the sun is completely blocked it forms the shadow called Umbra.

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On 23 October 1976, parts of Tanzania witnessed a total eclipse of the sun. In
addition, partial eclipses occurred on 19th April 1977 and 14th October 2000.
On 1st September, 2016, a total solar eclipse was witnessed in Rujewa, Mbarali
District in Mbeya Region.
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Umbra
Moon
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SUN Earth
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Penumbra
Figure 2.23 Eclipse of the sun
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(iv) Changes in the latitude of the overhead sun
The overhead sun appears to move northwards and southwards between latitudes
23½o N and 23½o S, that is, between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. As a
result, places between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn experience overhead
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sun at different times of the year. The places south of the Tropic of Capricorn and
north of the Tropic of Cancer never experience overhead sun at any time of the
year (Figure 2.24).
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NP
in
March. 21st
Spring Equinox
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June 21st
Summer
Solstice NP
NP
Sun at Tropic
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of Cancer
SUN
Sun at Tropic
of Capricorn
SP
Dec. 22nd
NP
Winter solstice
Fo
Sept. 23rd
Autumn Equinox
SP
Figure 2.24 Changes in the latitude of the overhead sun

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Solstice and equinox the tilting of the earth’s axis, there

are only two times of the year
The tilting nature of the earth’s axis when the sun is directly overhead
causes parts of its surface to receive at noon along the equator. This
different amount of sunlight at results in equal distribution of
different times of the year. This
y
sun rays between the southern
situation results to seasons of the and northern hemispheres. The
year and two phenomena which
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equinox occurs around March 21st
are solstice and equinox. and September 23rd of every year.
Solstice comes from the Latin The March equinox is referred to
O
word solstitium which contains as vernal equinox in the northern
two words: Sol means sun and hemisphere and autumnal equinox
sistere which means stand still. in the southern hemisphere. On the
The solstice, therefore, literally other hand, the September equinox
se
means “sun-stand still”. Solstice is known as autumnal equinox
is a phenomenon that occurs in the northern hemisphere and
when the earth poles are mostly vernal equinox in the southern
inclined towards or away from the hemisphere (Figure 2.24)
sun, causing the earth pole which
U (v) Varying lengths of day and night
is inclined to the sun to receive at different times of the year
maximum sunlight. This makes
The lengths of day and night are not
the most inclined pole towards
the same across the world because
e
the sun to experience the longest
the earth’s axis is inclined to its
day in the year. During this time,
plane at an angle of 66½0. Had
in
the sun is vertically overhead in

the earth’s axis been vertical to its
respective tropic on specific dates.
orbital plane, all the parts of the
The southern hemisphere gets the
earth would have the same duration
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maximum intensity of the sun’s

of days and nights throughout the
rays on December 22nd which is
year.
the Summer Solstice in the tropic
Places along the equator experience
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of capricorn. At the same time, it

equal day and night throughout
is the Winter Solstice in the tropic
the year, but northwards or
of cancer. The northern hemisphere
southwards toward the poles, the
solstice occurs on June 21st commonly
lengths of day and night vary with
known as the Summer Solstice in the
latitude. For instance, when the
Fo
tropic of cancer. At the same time,

overhead sun is in the northern
it is winter solstice in the tropic of
hemisphere, the days are longer
capricorn.
than the nights in that hemisphere.
The equinox simply refers to equal However, at latitude 66½° N (the
lengths of days and nights. Due to Arctic Circle) and beyond, the sun

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does not set. At the North Pole,

diameter of the earth at the
daylight is experienced for six equator
months without sunset. During
that period, the polar regions south (d) An east-west axis.
of the Antarctic Circle (66½oS) (e) Two seasons: cold and wet
y
experience prolonged six months
of darkness and, vice-versa; they 4. Spinning of a body on its axis is
known as:
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receive six months of day light
as the North Pole experiences (a) Revolution
darkness. (b) Rotation
O
(c) Axis
Exercise 2.4
(d) Tilt
Choose and circle the letter of the (e) Orbit
phrase which completes the statement
se
correctly: 5. The path used by the earth and other
planets when going around the sun
1. Day and night are caused by: is called:
(a) Earth’s rotation (a) Revolution
(b) Earth’s revolution
U (b) Rotation
(c) Distance of the earth from the (c) Orbit
moon
(d) Distance of the earth from the sun (d) Axis
e
(e) Eclipse of the moon (e) Equinox
2. Places on the East of Greenwich
6. Seasons of the year are caused by:
in
experience sunrise before places on

the west because the earth: (a) The earth’s tilted axis and
rotation
(a) Rotates from east to west
(b) The earth’s tilted axis and
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(b) Rotates from the west to the east revolution

(c) Revolves around the sun (c) Horizon of the earth
(d) Solar eclipse
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(d) Is very far from the sun

(e) Lunar eclipse
(e) Is very close to the sun
7. When the moon’s shadow is cast over
3. The earth has: the earth’s surface the phenomenon
is known as:
(a) Two poles, namely the north pole
Fo
and the south pole. (a) Lunar eclipse

(b) Solar eclipse
(b) Four poles, namely east, west, (c) Equinoxes
south, and north.
(d) Summer solstice
(c) An axis which is as long as the (e) Winter solstice

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angular measurement. The North Pole has

8. Which of the following is evidence o
that the earth is a spherical? a latitude of 90 North and the South Pole
o
has a latitude of 90 South. The equator
(a) The ship comes from far away. divides the earth into two equal parts,
(b) The ship sails on the surface namely the northern hemisphere and the
y
of a round Earth. southern hemisphere (Figure 2.25). The
most common parallels are the Equator
(c) The ocean water conceals the o
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(0o), the Tropic of Cancer (23½ N), the
ship. o
Tropic of Capricorn (23½ S), the Arctic
o
(d) The earth revolves around the Circle (66½ N) and the Antarctic Circle
o
sun.
O
(66½oS), and the Horse latitudes (30 N
o
(e) The ship’s visibility in the and 30 S)
ocean changes with distance 900N
66½0N
Arctic Circle
9. Equal length of day and night when
se
the sun is overhead at the equator is
known as: Tropical Cancer 23½0N
(a) Solstice
(b) Equinox
U 00 Equator 00
(c) Summer
(d) Aphelion Tropical Capricorn 23½0S
e
(e) Perihelion
Antarctic Circle
66½0S
in
10. When the earth’s shadow is cast over 90 S

0
the moon’s surface, the phenomenon Figure 2.25 Latitudes

is known as:
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(a) Lunar eclipse Longitudes or meridians

(b) Solar eclipse Longitudes or Meridians are imaginary
lines which run from the North Pole to the
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(c) Equinoxes South Pole east or west of the Greenwich

meridian (0o). The Greenwich meridian is
(d) Summer solstice
the prime meridian which passes through
(e) Day and night the Greenwich Observatory Station near
London where it derives its name. In
Fo
Africa, it passes through Accra in Ghana.

Parallels and meridians
Latitudes or parallels The prime meridian divides the earth into
East and West. Since there are 360º in the
Latitudes are imaginary lines parallel to sphere, meridians of 0º to 180º lie east of
the equator joining all the places at an equal the Greenwich meridian and the other 0º

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to 180° west of Greenwich. Figure 2.26

90°
shows how the meridians look like from
the side of the South Pole or North Pole.
North Pole 23½°N 23½°N
y
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23½° 23½°
O
Fig. 2. 27 (a) Determining latitudes
North pole
se
South Pole
Figure 2.26 Longitudes
45°
Determining latitudes
U
A latitude is the distance measured in
angles of any point north or south of the 45°
equator at which a perpendicular line is 0°
e
established from the centre of the earth
towards the North Pole or the South Pole 45°
in
(90 ). Any angular measurement from the

o
earth’s centre to its surface represents a 45°S

certain latitude (Figure 2.27 (a) and (b)).
nl
For example, the tropic of cancer is drawn

South pole
on the surface of the earth with an angu-
lar line of 23½º N measured anticlockwise Figure 2.27 (b) Determining latitudes
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from the equator. On the earth’s surface,

1o of latitude is equal to 111 kilometres.
Determining longitudes
Since the distance from the North Pole to
the South Pole is about 20,000 kilometres A longitude is the distance measured in
and there are 180º (half a circle) between angles of any point east or west of the
them, the distance in kilometres between prime meridian. The angle of longitude
Fo
one latitude and the next must be is determined by measuring the angle
from the centre of the earth along the
20,000 equatorial plane, east or west of the prime
= 111 km
180 meridian. Since the world is about 40,000
kilometres round at the equator and there

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3600 in a circle, the distance between each south pole. Add more circles parallel
degree of longitude at the equator must be
to the north and south of the equator.
These lines are known as latitudes
40,000 =111 kilometres. or parallels. Using the same ball that
360 indicates latitudes, the equator and
y
hemispheres, draw lines that join the
Since longitude lines meet at the poles, the two poles indicated on the ball, the
nl
distance between degrees of longitudes north and south. Each line can be
becomes progressively less towards the called a meridian or longitude. This
poles (Figure 2.28). logic applies to meridians on the
O
spherical Earth.
North Pole
450E
se
Great circles
A great circle is any circle that divides
00 450E
the earth into two equal spheres (Figure
2.29). The equator and the Greenwich
450E
U Meridian together with Meridian 180º
are all great circles. Other great circles
are the Meridian 10º E and 170º W and
20º E and 160º W. In other words, all the
e
meridians are great circles. The equator,
450E
on the other hand, is the only latitude
in
South Pole that is a great circle. The number of

great circles is limitless.
Figure 2.28 Determining longitudes A
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E
Activity 2.1
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Take a ball and mark two points on

it. These points should be opposite to C D
each other. Draw a line at the centre of
the two points all around the ball. This
line can be called the equator. Note that
Fo
the line divides the ball into two halves. F

Since the ball is a sphere, each half of
the ball can be called a hemisphere. The B
Great Circles Globe
point marked at the north can be called
a north pole and the one at the south, a Figure 2.29 Great circles

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Importance of great circles west to east once after every twenty-

four hours (one day). This means that
Great circles are used in water navigation the earth turns through 360° in 24 hours
(by ships) and aviation (by airplanes). or 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
They are used to plot routes for ships All the places along the same longitude
crossing the oceans to save fuel and time.
y
experience mid-day at the same time.
In aviation, pilots use great circles to mark For example, if it is 12:00 noon in Addis
the shortest path. In general, great circles
nl
Ababa (39°E), it will also be 12 noon
are the shortest routes between any two in Dar es Salaam as it is also located
places far apart on the earth’s surface. at 39°E. On the contrary, places along
O
different longitudes experience different
Importance of latitudes and longitudes
times. For example, when it is 12 noon
The usefulness of latitudes and longitudes at places along the Greenwich meridian
are as follows: (0°), like Accra in Ghana or London in
se
England, it will be 1.00 pm at all places
(i) Latitudes determine climatic along longitude 15°E or 11:00 am along
variations. For example, the longtude 150W. The time recorded along
temperature decreases from the the same longitude is known as Local
equator towards the poles.
U Mean Time (LMT).
(ii) Longitudes are used to calculate How to calculate local time
local time of different places on the Example 1
earth’s surface. o
e
The local time at Tunis 10 E is 3:00
(iii) Longitudes are used to determine pm. What is the local time of Mombasa,
o
Kenya 40 E?
in
days and dates in the world with

reference to the International Date Solution
Line. (i) The difference in degrees of
nl
longitude between Tunis and

(iv) Both show the location of a place
Mombasa will be:
on the earth’s surface.
40º - 10º = 30º
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(v) Both help to identify routes for

aviation and navigation. (ii) The difference in time between
Tunis and Mombasa will be
Both help to determine distances calculated as follows:
between places on the earth’s
If 15º = 1 hour
surface.
Fo
Then 30º = ?
Calculation of local time using So, 30º x 1 hour
longitudes
15º
The earth rotates on its own axis from = 2 hours

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(iii) Since Mombasa is found in the when the local time at Tunis 10º E is 2:20
East of Tunis, Mombasa’s time pm.
will be ahead of that of Tunis by 2 Solution
hours (3.00 pm + 2 hours = 5 pm). (i) The difference in time between
Therefore, the time in Mombasa Tunis and Mogadishu is given by
y
will be 5.00 pm. 4:40 – 2:20 = 2.20 hours.
Example 2
nl
o (ii) Convert the time into minutes.
The local time at Washington, D.C. (96 W)
2 hours 20 minutes = 140 minutes.
is 05:00 pm. Friday. Find the time and day
o
at Zanzibar (39 E.)
O
(iii) Use the minutes to calculate the
Solution difference in degrees of longitude
between Tunis and Mogadishu.
(i) The difference in degrees between
Washington, D.C and Zanzibar Since the earth rotates 1° in 4
se
will be: minutes, how many degrees will
o o o
it take to rotate 140 minutes?
96 + 39 = 135 Difference in longitude
(ii) The difference in time between
Tunis and Mombasa will be
U =
calculated as follows: = 35°
If 15 = 1 hour
0

0 (iv) Since the time of Tunis is
e
Then 135 = ? behind that of Mogadishu, then
= 135º × 1hour Mogadishu must be located East
in
15º of Tunis. Therefore, the

longitudinal position of
= 9 hours Mogadishu will be
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(iii) Since Zanzibar is to the east of 10° E + 35° = 45° E.

Washington, D.C, time will be
ahead of that of Washington, Example 2
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D.C by 9 hours. Thus, 5.00 pm What is the longitude of Lindi whose local
+ 9 hours = 02:00 am Saturday. time is 8:24 pm when the local time in
Therefore, the time in Zanzibar Montevideo (Uruguay) 56º W is 02:00 pm?
will be 02:00 am Saturday. Solution
Calculating the longitude of a place (i) The difference in time between
Fo
using local time Lindi and Montevideo will be:

08:24 – 02:00 = 6:24 hours
Example 1
(ii) Convert the time into minutes
Find the longitudinal position of 6 hours and 24 minutes = 384
Mogadishu whose local time is 4:40 pm. minutes

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(iii) Use the minutes to calculate its own local time, there would be a
the difference in degrees of difference of 16 minutes between the
longitude between Lindi and two towns. There would be confusion
Montevideo. The earth rotates in railway and airways timetables or in
o
y
1 in 4 minutes. How many radio programmes if they had to show
degree will it take to rotate 384 different times, each referring to its
nl
minutes? local area.
Difference in longitude
To avoid time confusion, different
O
384min.×1 o stretches of land take their time from
= agreed meridians. The time adopted
4min.
is known as standard time. In East
= 96o Africa, standard time is taken from
se
the meridian of 45°E. When the whole
(iv)
Since the time of Lindi is stretch of land keeps the same standard
ahead of that of Montevideo, time and that stretch forms a time zone.
Lindi must be located east of The Greenwich Meridian is the starting
Montevideo. Therefore, the
U point for dividing the globe into 24
longitude position of Lindi will time zones. The standard time for
be: Greenwich is known as the Greenwich
o
96 – 56 = 40 E.
o o
Mean Time (GMT).
e
Time zones Variation of standard time in a single
in
A time zone refers to a stretch of land country

where the standard time is accepted
o Countries with large stretches of
throughout the longitudinal zone of 15
land, for example, Russia, the United
nl
in width. There would be problems in

States of America, Canada and China
telling time if every place had its own
have several standard time zones for
time set according to the local mean
practical purposes (Figure 2.30).
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time.
Essence of time and time zones

The essence of time and time zones
resulted from difficulties in identifying
time for a particular area. If each place
Fo
across a country followed its own

time, it would create confusion. For
o
example, Dodoma is about 35 E and
o
Tanga is about 39 E. If each followed

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1650 1500 1350 1200 1050 900 750 600 450 300 150 00 150 3 00 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800
750
600
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
y
PRIME MERIDIAN
450
nl
300
150
00
O
150
300
450
Key
se
Nonstandard time
1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 2.30 The standard time zones of the world

U 1500 1650 1800 1650 1500
The International date Line
The International Date Line Siberia Alaska

(IDL) is an imaginary line
e
following the meridian/or 750
longitude 180o W (or E) whereby

in
the date changes by one day 600
when it is crossed (Figure OCTOBER 25 OCTOBER 26
2.31). The line is internationally

nl
450
agreed upon. However, the IDL

International Date line
is not straight for the purpose of 300
avoiding crossing land masses

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which would cause a country to 150
have two different days at the

same time.
00
GAIN A DAY 150

Fo
300
LOSE A DAY
Figure 2.31 The International Date Line

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Activity 2.2 and the earth.

Draw a world map and locate the (b) A solar eclipse occurs when the
international date line. earth casts its shadow on the
moon.
y
Excerise 2.5 (c) A solar eclipse occurs when the
moon casts its shadow on the
nl
A: Circle the letter of the correct earth.
statement: (d) A lunar eclipse occurs when
the sun is between the moon
O
1. (a) The earth rotates around the sun
and the earth.
in 364 days.
(e) A solar eclipse occurs when the
(b) The earth rotates on its axis in sun casts its shadow on earth
twenty-four hours.
se
B: Choose and circle the correct
(c) The earth revolves around the answer:
sun in 364 days.
4. What is the time in Bujumbura
at 29°E when it is noon in
(d) The earth revolves around the
U Brazzaville at 14°E?
sun in twenty-four hours.
(a) 1:00 pm (b) 11:00 am
(e) The sun rotates around the (c) 11:00 pm (d) 1:00 am
earth in one year.
e
(e) 10:00 am
2. (a) Days and nights are caused by 5. What is the approximate
in
the rotation of the earth. difference in meridian time

between Mwanza (33°E) and
(b) Days and nights are caused by
Colombo (80°E)?
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the revolution of the earth.

(a) 3:08 hours (b) 4 hours
(c) Days and nights are caused by (c) 2 hours (d) 5 hours
the gravity of the sun and the (e) 6 hours
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moon.
6. Which of the following places
(d) Days and nights are caused by will experience sunrise earliest
the apparent movement of the on any day?
sun. (a) Kasese (30°E)
Fo
(e) Days and nights are caused by (b) Tanga (39°E)

the movement of the moon. (c) Kitale (35°E
(d) Iringa (35°E)
3. (a) A lunar eclipse occurs when the
moon passes between the sun (e) Nakuru (35°E)

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C: Complete the following table:

Seasons
Months
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
(a) June, July and August Summer ...................................
y
(b) September, October
.................................... ...................................
and November
nl
(c) December, January
..................................... Summer
and February
O
(d) March, April and May ..................................... ..................................
D: Answer the following questions: town located at:

(a) 50°E
7. Name the parallels with the
se
(b) 65°E
following degrees:
(c) 75°E
o o
(a) 23½ N (b) 66½ S (d) 90°E
o o 11. It is 10:00 am along meridian
(c) 66½ N (d) 23½ S
U 40°E. Calculate the time along the
following meridians:
8. Name the two most common great
circles. (a) 55°W (b) 10°W
e
(c) 60°W (d) 0°
9. Draw an outline of a globe and 12. It is 3:30 pm at the Greenwich
mark on it the Equator and the
in
Meridian. Calculate the longitude

Greenwich meridian. of the following recorded time:
10. It is 4:15 am in a town located at (a) 5:30 pm (b) 5:30 am
nl
20°E. Calculate the local time of a (c) 12:00 noon (d) 3:45 pm
E: Match each statement from Column A with its corresponding item in Column B:
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Column A Column B
(i) The imaginary line on the earth’s (a) International Date Line
surface that divides it into northern (b) Local mean time
hemisphere and southern hemisphere
(c) The equator
Fo
(ii) Determine local time at different (d) Greenwich Meridians and aphelion
places on the earth’s surface
(e) Parallels and Meridians
(iii) Time recorded along the same lon- (f) Standard time
gitude (g) Time zone
(iv) The line where calendar day begins (h) Great circles

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Chapter
y
Three Major features of the
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earth’s surface
O
Introduction
Geography as a discipline deals with the description of both natural and man-made
features. In this chapter, you will learn about the continents, major features found on
se
the continents, and water bodies such as oceans, seas and lakes. You will also learn
about the major features of the ocean floor.
The earth’s surface

U as a strait. Examples of straits are the
Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco), Luzon
The earth is the only known planet that
Strait (Taiwan) and Makassar Strait
supports life. Its surface is made up
(Indonesia).
of land and water bodies. The earth is
e
surrounded by a layer of gases called A piece of land entering the sea or
the atmosphere. Land occupies about ocean is referred to as a cape. Examples
in
29 percent of the earth’s surface which of capes are the Cape of Good Hope
forms the continents. Water bodies, also in South Africa, Cape Horn in Chile
called hydrosphere, occupy about 71 and Cape Leeuwin in Australia. A part
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percent of the earth’s surface. of land entering the ocean and sea is
called a peninsula. This part is usually
Land and water bodies interact. This surrounded by water for most of its
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interaction results in the formation border. Examples of peninsulas are

of different features. The part of the Msasani in Tanzania, Arabian, Alaskan
ocean that penetrates land is called a and Indo-China. A narrow land stretch
gulf. Examples of gulfs are the Persian that joins two major land masses is
Gulf (Western Asia), The Gulf of called isthmus. Examples of isthmus
Mexico, The Gulf of Bengal and The include the isthmus of Panama between
Fo
Gulf of Guinea. The narrow water path Nicaragua and Colombia and isthmus of
that separates landmasses is known Suez between Africa and Asia.

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Continents
A continent is a major landmass rising from the ocean floor. Continents are usually
surrounded by a large mass of water bodies such as oceans and seas. Islands adjacent
to continents are part of them because they contain the same rock structure. In general,
there are seven continents on the earth. These are Asia, Africa, South America, North
y
America, Australia, Europe and Antarctica (Figure 3.1). There is more land surface in
the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere. With the exception of the
nl
continents of Europe and Asia that are separated by the Ural mountains, other continents
are separated by oceans and seas.
O
se
U
e
in
Figure 3.1 Distribution of continents

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Asia
Asia is the largest continent. It covers Red Sea. The Ural mountains form the
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more than one third of the land surface of boundary between Asia and Europe.
the earth. It is about one-and-a-half times
the size of Africa. Its total area is 44.6 Africa
million square kilometres. The continent
Africa is the second largest continent in
of Asia stretches from 10° S to 78°N and
from 30°E to about 180°E. The continent size with an area of about 30.3 million
Fo
is bordered to the North by the Arctic square kilometres. Africa extends from
Ocean, to the East by the Pacific Ocean 35°S to 37°N and from 15°W to 50°E.
and to the South by the Indian Ocean. About three quarters of the area lies in
To the South West, it is bordered by the the tropics. The continent is crossed by
continent of Africa and is separated by the the Equator, the Tropic of Cancer and the

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Tropic of Capricorn. In fact, Africa is the Pole and almost all of it lies within latitude
only continent crossed by both tropics. 66°S. It is surrounded by the Southern
Africa is bordered by the Mediterranean Ocean. It is not inhabited by human beings
Sea to the North, the Atlantic Ocean to because of the extreme low temperature
the West, the Indian Ocean to the East below freezing point throughout the year.
y
and the Southern Ocean to the South. It is in darkness for about six months in a
Islands such as Madagascar, Seychelles, year.
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Comoro, Zanzibar, Mafia, Mauritius and
the Canaries are part of the continent. The Europe
Sahara Desert, the largest hot desert in the Europe is the sixth largest continent in
O
world, is found in Africa. Other deserts in size and it is about two-fifth the size of
Africa include the Kalahari and the Namib Africa. It has an area of 10.1 million square
deserts. kilometres. Europe lies between 40°N and
the Arctic Circle and between 10°W and
60°E. It lies to the West of Asia. The Ural
se
North America
North America is the third largest continent mountains separate Europe from Asia.
in size with an area of about 24.7 million To the North, it is bordered by the Arctic
square kilometres. It extends from 10°N Ocean, to the West by the Atlantic Ocean
to 80°N and from 60°W to 160°W. The and to the South by the Mediterranean Sea.
U
continent is bordered by the Pacific Ocean
to the West, the Atlantic Ocean to the East Australia
and by the Arctic Ocean to the North. In Australia is the smallest continent and it
the South, it is bordered by the continent is about a quarter of the size of Africa.
e
of South America. It is about 8.5 million square kilometres.
Australia lies approximately between
in
South America 10°S and 40°S and 115°E and 150°E.

South America is the fourth largest The islands of New Zealand, which lie
continent in size about half the size of Southeast of Australia, are part of this
nl
Africa. Its area is about 17.8 million continent. The continent is bordered by
square kilometres. It lies between 10°N the Indian Ocean in the West and in the
and 50°S and between 35°W and 80°W. North by the Pacific Ocean. In the East
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The Atlantic Ocean borders this continent and South, it is bordered by the Southern
to the East and the Pacific Ocean to the Ocean.
West. It is separated from the continent of
North America by the Panama Isthmus.
Activity 3.1
Fo
Antarctica
Draw a world map and on it locate and
Antarctica is the fifth largest continent in name the following:
size and it is about one-third the size of (i) All the seven continents
Africa. Its area is about 14 million square (ii) Gulfs on each continent
kilometres. It is situated around the South

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called tectonic plateaus.

(iii) Capes on each continent
(iv) Peninsulas on each continent When an uplifted area slopes down to

sloping lower land, it is called table land.
(v) Isthmuses and Straits on each South African, Arabian and Spanish
continent plateaus are examples of table lands. Some
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plateaus are formed following successive
flow of lava erupting from the interior
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Major features of continents of the earth resulting in the growth of a
lava platform. Such plateaus are known
The surface of any continent is not regular as lava plateaus. Examples include the
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in shape and elevation. The height above Deccan plateau in India, Columbia and
the sea level (altitude) and slope (degree of Snake plateau in the United States of
steepness of the land) give rise to different America. Plateaus, which are surrounded
relief features. Plains, plateaus, mountains by a higher land adjoining mountain, are
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and basins form the major relief features called intermontane plateaus. Examples
of continents. Other features include hills of intermontane plateaus are Bolivian
and valleys. plateau that lies between fold mountain
ranges of the Andes and Tibetian plateau
Plains
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Plains are continuous stretches of that lies between Kunlun Shan and the
comparatively flat lands that do not Himalayas.
change much in elevation. For example,
Mountains
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the Serengeti plains of Tanzania, Siberia
in Asia, North European plains, Indo- A mountain is part of the earth’s surface
Gangetic plains in India and the Great that rises abruptly to a greater height,
in
Central plains of North America. Many usually above 300 metres from the
extensive plains result from down warping surrounding level. There are four major
of the earth’s crust. Plains that are found types of mountains. These are fold
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along coastal areas are known as coastal mountains, block mountains, volcanic
plains. These include the coastal plains of mountains and residual mountains. These
mountains are named according to the
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Tanzania, Kenya and Mozambique.

way they were formed.
Plateaus
(a) Fold mountains
A plateau is an extensive high altitude
area with more or less uniform summit Fold Mountains are mountains formed
level. Plateaus significantly rise above the mainly by the process of folding or
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surrounding area with one or two sides wrinkling of the upper parts of the earth’s
with steep slopes. Plateaus are formed crust due to compressional forces (Figure
when forces from within the earth uplift a 3.2 (a)). Major fold mountains in the world
large land area. Uplifted areas of level or include the Himalayas in Asia (Figure
undulating land form plateaus, sometimes 3.2(b)), the Rockies and Appalachians in

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North America and the Andes in South Horst

America. Others are the Alps in Europe,
the Atlas in North Africa and Cape ranges
in South Africa.
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Figure 3.3 A block mountain
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(c) Volcanic mountains
Volcanic mountains are cone-shaped
mountains formed from the cooling and
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Figure 3.2(a) A fold mountain solidification of hot molten material
(lava) from the interior of the earth during
a volcanic eruption. There are three main
types of volcanic mountains depending on
U the frequency of eruption.

Active volcanic mountains are mountains
that experience periodic eruptions, for
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example, Oldonyo Lengai in Tanzania,
Vesuvius in Italy (3.4a), Nyiragongo in
in
the Democratic Republic of Congo, and

Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Figure 3.2(b) The Himalaya fold mountains
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Source: https://misunriseside.com/interesting-facts-about-himalayas/
Volcanic mountains which erupted only
(b) Block mountains once in historical times and are no longer
active are refered to as dormant. Examples
A block mountain (horst) is an upland
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include the Kilimanjaro mountain in

area with a table-like structure bordered
Tanzania (3.4b), Mount Ararat in Turkey,
by faults on one or both sides. They are
Fuji and Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Volcanic
formed when tensional or compressional
mountains which have not erupted for a
forces in the crust force layers of crustal
rocks to break causing the central part to very long time and have not shown any
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be uplifted (Figure 3.3). Examples of block sign of erupting are known as extinct
mountains are the Uluguru, Usambara and or dead volcanic mountains. Examples
Ruwenzori in East Africa, the Vosges and include Mount Rungwe in Tanzania,
Black Forest Mountains in Europe and Mount Kulal in Kenya, and Mount
Mount Sinai in Asia. Chimborazo in Ecuador.

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Figure 3.5 A Residual mountain
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Source: https://www.google.com search?q=residual +mountains &rlz
=1C5CHFA
Figure 3.4(a) Volcanic eruption of
Mt. Vesuvius in Italy
Source:https://www.hindleygreensacredheart.co.uk/the-nicole-
Rift valleys (Grabens)
interview-vicious-volcanoes/
A rift valley is a long narrow deep and steep-
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sided depression between parallel faults
on the earth’s surface. They are formed
through tensional or compressional forces
when the ground between two sets of
U faults sinks (Figure 3.6). The walls of rift
valleys form escarpments. An escarpment
is an elongated steep slope at the edge of
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an upland area and gentle slope on the
other side.
Rift Valley
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Figure 3.4(b) The Kilimanjaro mountain

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Source: Kilimanjaro National Park
(d) Residual or denudation mountains

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Residual mountains are formed as a result

of weathering and erosion of weaker Figure 3.6 A rift valley
rocks of the already existing mountains
leaving behind resistant rocks (Figure The Great African Rift Valley is the longest
3.5). The remaining resistant rocks valley in the world. It stretches from
are known as residual mountains or Jordan, through the Red sea, Ethiopia,
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mountains of denudation. Examples of Kenya and Tanzania to lower Zambezi in

residual mountains include the Sekenke Mozambique. In East Africa, the Great
Hills of Singida in Tanzania, the Ahaggar African Rift Valley has two arms, namely
Mountains of Central Sahara and the the eastern and western. The eastern arm
Adamawa Mountains of Eastern Nigeria. is occupied by lakes Turkana, Magadi,

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Eyasi, Natron and Manyara. The western arm is occupied by lakes Nyasa, Rukwa,
Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert and Edward (Figure 3.7). Another rift valley is the Rhine. It
is found between the Vosges and Black Forest mountains in Germany.
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in
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Figure 3.7 The Great African Rift Valley
Basins basins) or in seas (sea basins) or in lakes

A basin is a natural depression or bowl- (lake basins). Other basins are found
shaped hollow on the earth’s surface, higher above sea level and surrounded by
formed when part of the land sinks due mountains. These river basins include the
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to the earth movements. These basins Congo Basin in Africa and the Amazon
vary in size, with some occupied by Basin in South America. Lakes such as
water. Basins collect water and sediments Victoria and Kyoga are examples of basins
from surrounding land surfaces. Some occupied by water. Figure 3.8 shows
of the basins are found in oceans (ocean major relief features of the continents.

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Arctic Ocean
Europe
North America
Alps Asia
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Appalachian
Rockies
Atlas Himalayas
Atlantic Ocean
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Niger Nile Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean Africa
Congo #
Indian Ocean
AndesSouth America
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Great Dividing Range
Australia
Drakensberg
Key
Kilimanjaro Mountain Southern Ocean
Great African Rift Valley
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African Basins
Antarcti
Ethiopian Highlands Antarctica
Km
World Great Mountains 0 1,250 2,500 5,000
Figure 3.8 Major relief features of the continents. U

Water bodies Africa include the Nile River (6,650 km
A water body is an area on the earth’s long), and Congo River (4,700 km long).
surface where water has accumulated. River Nile originates from Lake Victoria
Water bodies can be salty or fresh, large basin and discharges its water into the
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or small. Water occupies about 71 percent Mediterranean Sea. Other major rivers in
of the earth’s surface. There is more water the world are the Amazon River (South
in
surface in the southern hemisphere than America) 6,400 km long, the Mississippi
in the northern hemisphere. Some of the River (North America) 6,275 km long,
major water bodies are rivers, lakes, seas and Yangtse River (Asia) 6,385 km long.
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and oceans.
Lakes
Rivers A lake is a hollow or depression in the
A river is a mass of fresh water flowing
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earth’s surface that contains fresh or salty

by gravity into a definite channel from water (Figure 3.9). Example of lakes in
the source to the mouth. The source of a Tanzania are Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa,
river may be a watershed, a natural spring, Rukwa, Manyara and Eyasi. Some lakes
a melting glacier or a marshland. The are so large that they are called seas.
river’s mouth is a point where the river Examples of such lakes are the Caspian
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discharges its water into the ocean, sea, Sea, Dead Sea and the Aral Sea. Although
lake or swampy area. most lakes are permanent, few of them
In Tanzania, the major rivers are Rufiji, are temporary depending on climatic
Ruvuma, Kagera, Pangani, Malagarasi, variations. Some lakes are natural whereas
Ruaha, Wami and Ruvu. Major rivers in others are man-made, for example, dams.

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high evaporation and

very little fresh water
that enters them.
The Baltic Sea in

Europe has a very
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low salinity because
several large rivers
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discharge into it,
evaporation is low,
and fresh water is
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added by melting ice
and snow. The seas
around the poles,
generally have low
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Figure 3.9 Lake Victoria basin in East Africa salinity because of
Source:http://www.howitworksdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Topography_of_Lake_Victoria_PD.jpg
low evaporation and
The Caspian Sea is the largest lake in the addition of water from melting ice.
World. It is referred to as a sea because of
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its size and its salty water. Lake Superior in Oceans
North America is the world’s largest fresh An ocean is a large body of salty water
water lake followed by Lake Victoria in surrounding the landmass of the earth. The
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East Africa. Lake Baikal in Russia (1,642 major oceans of the world are the Pacific,
metres) is the deepest fresh water lake in the Atlantic, the Indian, the Southern
the world followed by Lake Tanganyika
in
Ocean and the Arctic (Figure 3.10). The

(1,470 metres) found in Tanzania. oceans of the world with their relative
Seas sizes are shown in Table 3.1. The Pacific
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A sea is a large body of salty water that is Ocean is the largest in size whereas the
surrounded in whole or in part by land. Arctic is the smallest ocean in size.
Examples include the South China Sea,
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Sea of Japan, Red Sea, Mediterranean Table 3.1 Relative sizes of the world’s
Sea and Yellow Sea. The salinity of a major oceans
sea depends on the temperature and the
Size
amount of fresh water from rivers and SN Ocean
(Million Km2)
melting of ice that is discharged into it. 1 Pacific Ocean 168.7
High temperature causes high evaporation
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2 Atlantic Ocean 85.1

that increases the salinity, whereas the
3 Indian Ocean 70.5
addition of fresh water decreases salinity
due to dilution. Very high salinity occurs in 4 Southern Ocean 22.0
inland seas such as the Dead Sea because of 5 Arctic Ocean 15.6

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Land
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Water bodies
Figure 3.10 Oceans, seas, major lakes, and rivers of the world
The ocean floor and its features (i) Continental shelf

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Ocean floor (sea-bed) refers to a landscape found at the
A continental shelf
is a gently sloping
bottom of the ocean. These features are irregular. The margin of a continent
major features of the ocean floor include a continental which is occupied
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shelf, a continental slope, oceanic ridges, deep sea by shallow waters
plain, ocean deep (trench), ocean plain, oceanic island, that extend from
and submarine plateaus (Figure 3.11).
in
the coastline to a
depth of about 200
Ocean deep (trench) Continental Continental metres towards the
rise slope
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Sea level
continental slope.
Oceanic Abyssal Some continental
Continental
Mid Island plain shelf
Ocean Abyssal land
shelves provide
ridge excellent fishing
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hill
grounds in the world
because they are
shallow and thus
provide suitable light
and temperature for
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growth of planktons
on which fish feed.
(ii) Continental slope
Figure 3.11 Features of the ocean floor A continental slope
is found at the point

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where the continental shelf forms a islands, oceanic islands and coral
steep slope towards the ocean basin. islands.
(iii) Mid-ocean ridge (a) Continental islands

A continental island is a large
A mid-ocean ridge is a raised part
unbroken landmass similar
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of the ocean floor. Some of these
to a continental landmass
ridges appear above the surface of the rising from a continental shelf.
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ocean as oceanic islands. Examples Examples of continental islands
of the mid-oceanic ridges are the Mid- include Mafia, Pemba and
Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean Unguja, Philippines, Indonesian,
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and the Mid-Indian Ridge in the Indian Greenland and Sri Lanka.
Ocean.
(b) Oceanic islands
(iv) Deep sea plain (Abyssal plain) Oceanic Islands rise direct from
Deep sea plains are extensive the ocean floor. Some of the
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undulating areas of the ocean floor. oceanic islands are the tops of
Large parts of these plains are covered oceanic ridges, plateaus and
with thin layers of sediments of both ocean floor volcanoes. Examples
organic and inorganic materials. of oceanic islands are Hawaii,
U Cape Verde, Iceland, Canary and
(vi) Abyssal hill Seychelles.
Are small sharp hills raising from
abyssal plain surface. (c) Coral islands
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A coral island is an island, which
(v) Ocean deep or trench is built up from a limestone
in
An ocean deep or trench is a long rock made of skeletons of very

narrow steep sided depression small marine organisms called
plunging from the deep sea plain to coral polyps. Examples of
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the depths of 10,000 metres or more. coral islands are the Maldives,
The deepest known ocean trench in Al dabara, Bermuda and St.
the world is Mariana Trench (10,994 Martines Islands.
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metres) of the Island of Guam in the

Pacific Ocean. Activity 3.2
(vii) Islands Obtain a physical map of the world and:

An island is a piece of land surrounded (a) Identify and locate the major water
by water. Islands may occur in oceans, bodies.
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seas, lakes or rivers. A group of islands

is called archipelago. Examples (b) Identify the countries through
of archipelago include Islands of which the river Nile, the Congo
Zanzibar and the Comoros. There and the Amazon rivers drain their
are three types of islands: continental waters.

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Exercise 3 (c) continue to erupt occasionally

A: For each of the item (i) to (x) (d) erupt only when there is an
choose and circle the most correct earthquake
answer from the options given: (e) erupt every year
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5. Fold mountains are formed by:
1. Which one among the following is
(a) Faulting of the mountain
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an example of a major fold mountain
in the world? (b) Outflow and spread of lava
(a) The Himalayas in Asia over the land
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(c) Wrinkling of the layers of the
(b) Ruwenzori in East Africa
earth’s crust
(c) Vosges and Black Forest in Europe (d) Sinking of the earth’s crust
(d) Sekenke in Tanzania (e) Prolonged erosion
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(e) Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
B: Answers the following qestions:
2. From the following pairs of 1. List the continents of the earth and
mountains, which one represent indicate the size of each.
block mountains:
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2. Differentiate between the following
(a) Himalaya and Vosges
terms:
(b) Alps and Usambara
(a) Lakes and Rivers
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(c) Alps and Andes
(b) Plains and plateaus
(d) Uluguru and Usambara
(c) Continental shelf and continental
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(e) Kilimanjaro and Vesuvius

slope
3. Which of the following is a an 3. Give two examples of residual
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example of residual mountains? mountains.

(a) Sekenke hills in Singida 4. Give three examples of fold
(b) Kibo in Kilimanjaro mountains in the world.
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5. Explain why continental shelves are

(c) Uluguru in Morogoro
suitable grounds for fishing.
(d) Usambara in Tanga
(e) Meru in Arusha C: Read carefully the following
statements and write T for a
4. Dormant volcanic mountains are
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TRUE statement and F for a

those which: FALSE statement:
(a) Have never experienced eruptions 1. The Antarctica is the warmest
(b) Have erupted once but are no continent on earth.
longer active

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2. Ocean ridges and residual mountains between the northern and southern
are features of the ocean floor. hemispheres.
3. Ocean floors have relief features such 7. The formation of residual mountains
as plains, ridges, slopes and basins. is associated with the erosion
process.
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4. The Kilimanjaro Mountain is an
8. The Great African Rift Valley is the
example of an extinct volcano.
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longest valley in the world.
5. Block mountains are also known as 9. Zanzibar and the Comoros are
residual mountains. archipelagos.
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6. The ocean water is equally distributed 10. Sea water is saline in nature.
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D. Match the description of land mass given in Column A with its corresponding
responses in Column B.
Column A U Column B
a. Gulf
(i) Plains, plateaus, mountains, basins and valleys
b. Asia
(ii) A continent not inhabited by humans
c. Straits
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(iii) Water inlets to the land
d. South America
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(iv) Good Hope, Horn and Leeuwin

e. Capes
(v) A major landmass rising from the ocean floor
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f. Peninsula
(vi) A tract of land entering into a body of water
g. Continent
(vii) Narrow water paths that separate landmasses
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(viii) The boundary between one drainage and the h. Relief features
next
i. Antarctica
(ix) A continent bordered by the Pacific ocean in the j. Australia
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west and Atlantic ocean in the east

k. Africa
(x) A continent that covers more than one third of
the earth l. Watershed

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Chapter
Four
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Weather and climate
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Introduction
When we say it is hot or cold, sunny or cloudy, windy or calm, we refer to the
weather condition. The description of the condition of a place as hot and wet, or
dry and cool, intends to describe the climate of that area. The two concepts are
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interrelated since prolonged weather patterns of a place lead to climatic conditions.
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning of weather, elements of weather and
how to establish a weather station. You will also learn about the instruments used to
measure elements of weather, and weather forecasting. Furthermore, you will learn
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about climate, weather and climate, and types of climate and their relationship with
human activities.
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Meaning of weather in one way or another. The following
Weather is a condition of the atmosphere, statements explain why weather is important
in
which occurs at a particular place and to us:

time from hour to hour or day to day. It is (a) Rainfall as an element of weather,
usually recorded for a short period of time. determines the distribution of
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The atmosphere is the layer of gases (air) economic activities such as crop
surrounding the earth. A weather condition cultivation and livestock keeping.
involves a state of the elements of weather Lack of rainfall can lead to severe
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such as temperature, sunshine, cloud shortage of food and water for both
cover, precipitation, humidity, atmospheric humans and animals.
pressure and wind. People describe the
weather of a place as good or bad depending (b) Ability to predict weather enables
on the state of the atmosphere at that planning for various human
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particular time. activities such as air, surface and

water transport, crop cultivation,
Importance of weather livestock-keeping and sports
Weather is an important aspect in our (surfing, canoeing, boat racing,
environment. It affects our daily activities football and netball).

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(c) Weather influences the type of Floods destroy crops, cause deaths of
clothes people wear and the type of human beings and livestock, and damage
houses people build. For example, infrastructure. In addition, drought
during the hot season people wear conditions affect food production which
light clothes and during cold weather may result in hunger and malnutrition. In
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people wear heavy clothes. some areas, human activities are limited
to indoors. For instance, drying of crops
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(d) Weather and climatic conditions is carried out indoors when weather is
influence the migration and not favourable. Storms and hurricanes
distribution of people and animals. caused by severe weather prevent human
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For example, pastoral communities activities in oceans and seas, including
in East Africa often move with their navigation and fishing. Hailstone and frost
livestock from one area to another destroy crops and lead to low harvest.
depending on the availability of Furthermore, changes in weather (e.g.
pasture and water. Seasonal rains
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temperature) may lead to migration of
trigger the onset of wildebeest wildlife such as wildebeest, birds and fish,
migration in the Serengeti National thus affecting tourism activities.
Park in Tanzania, and the Maasai
Mara Reserve in Kenya.
U Exercise 4.1
(e) Weather through wind enables 1. Define weather.

pollination of plants. Pollination is 2. Describe the weather of the
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the process of transferring the pollen previous day.
grain from an individual plant to 3. Explain the way weather conditions
in
another or within the same plant. may encourage or discourage the

When wind blows can transfer pollen following:
grain from one plant to another or (a) Types of clothes people wear.
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within the same plant. In so doing (b) Drying of grain and fish.
the plant achieve fertilisation. (c) Out-door games such as
football.
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(f) Weather influences the process of (d) Working in the fields such as
soil formation through breaking tilling the land, planting and
down of rocks, erosion, deposition harvesting.
and decomposition.
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Relationship between weather and Elements of weather

human activities The weather of a place is based on the
conditions of several elements. These
Weather affects human activities in elements are sunshine, temperature,
different ways. For example, when there humidity, precipitation, wind, atmospheric
is heavy rainfall, floods are likely to occur. pressure and cloud cover.

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Sunshine temperature is shown by lines joining all

Sunshine is the light we get from sun rays. places with equal amount of temperature.
There is less light on earth when there are These lines are known as Isotherms.
clouds in the sky. The type of clouds in the Factors affecting temperature
sky determines the amount and duration
Factors that affect temperature include
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of sunshine. When there are no clouds,
altitude, ocean currents, distance from
the intensity of sunshine is high. Sunshine
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the sea, latitude, cloud cover, aspect,
also affects other elements of weather such
length of day and winds.
as temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, and wind speed and direction. (i) Altitude
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Sunshine is important as follows:
Altitude is the height above the
(i) It provides heat for drying clothes sea level. Temperature decreases
and crops. with increasing altitude at the rate
(ii) Morning sunshine is a source of of 0.6 °C for every 100 metres.
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Vitamin D, which is necessary for The decrease in temperature
human health. with increasing altitude is called
lapse rate. Similarly, temperature
(iii) It is used to generate electricity
increases at the same rate with
(called solar power).
U decreasing altitude (Figure 4.1). The
(iv) Plants use sun-light in making effect of altitude on temperature is
food through the process known as well noted in areas of high altitude in
Tanzania. For example, the summit
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photosynthesis.
(v) It facilitates rain formation through of Mount Kilimanjaro which rises
to 5,895 metres above sea level is
in
evaporation and transpiration.

permanently covered with snow for
Temperature
the same reason.
Temperature is the degree
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of hotness or coldness of a Altitude

2000 m 15 °C
body or place. It is measured
using a thermometer and
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is expressed in degree
centigrade (oC) or degree 1000 m 21°C
Fahrenheit (oF) scale.
The temperature of a
place changes over time.
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27 °C
For example, sunny and Sea level LAND
cloudless days experience SEA
high temperatures whereas
at nights the temperature
is low. On a weather map, Figure 4.1 Temperature differences in relation to altitude

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Calculation of temperature of a place in currents are either warm or cold. A

relation to altitude warm current raises the temperature
of winds blowing over them whereas
Two distinctive geographical areas can vary cold currents lower temperatures of
in temperature in relation to altitude. For such winds. Therefore, coastal areas
example, if the temperature of Bagamoyo lying near warm currents tend to
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at 100 m above sea level is 29 °C, what have higher temperatures than those
will be the temperature of Arusha 3,600 m near cold currents, which tend to
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above sea level? have lower temperatures. Examples
of ocean currents include the cold
Procedures: currents of Benguela, Peru, Canaries,
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Oyashio and Western Australia,
(i) Find the difference in altitude
and warm currents of Mozambique,
between Bagamoyo and Arusha.
Brazil, Kuroshio, Gulf Stream and
The difference in altitude between Eastern Australia.
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Bagamoyo and Arusha is:
3,600 m – 100 m = 3,500 m. (iii) Distance from the sea
Land surface warms and cools much
(ii) Calculate the difference in temperature more quickly than the sea surface.
between Bagamoyo and Arusha
U These differences in warming and
If 0.6 °C of temperature decreases cooling capacity have a marked
with altitude of 100 m, then influence on temperature. The
difference can best be observed
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3500 m in higher latitudes with temperate
= x 0.6 oC
100 m climates. In these regions, coastal
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= 35x0.6 oC areas are usually warmer during the

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= 21 C Winter season due to warm air from
the sea. On the other hand, distant
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(iii) Find the temperature of Arusha. (continental) areas from the sea are
Since Arusha is at a higher altitude cooler because they lose temperature
than Bagamoyo, the temperature faster than the sea.
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of Arusha will be lower than the (iv) Latitude

temperature of Bagamoyo.
The amount of heat received at any
Thus 29 C– 21 C= 8 C
o o o place depends on the angle at which
Therefore, the temperature of the sun rays strike the surface of the
earth and the duration of sunshine.
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o
Arusha will be 8 C
At the equator, the sun rays reach the
earth’s surface at almost right angles
(ii) Ocean currents
throughout the year, but the angle
An ocean current is the horizontal decreases as one moves towards
movement of ocean water. Ocean the poles. Therefore, temperatures

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decrease with increase in latitude diurnal (daily) range of temperature

because the sun rays spread over a is large. A cloudless sky allows for
larger area causing its heating effect maximum solar radiation and out-
to decrease (Figure 4.2). going earth radiation compared to a
cloudy sky.
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Atmosphere (vii) Aspect
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Aspect refers to the direction of
600N
300N
Equator a slope. In higher latitudes in the

00 A
30 S
Area warmed by A
900 Equal bands northern hemisphere, south-facing
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of sun’s rays
0
Less than 900
60 S
0 Area warmed by B
B slopes are warmer than north facing
slopes because they receive more
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sun rays. In the southern hemisphere,
north-facing slopes are warmer than
Figure 4.2 Effects of latitude on temperature
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south facing slopes for the same
reason.
(v) Wind (viii) Length of the day time
Longer days have more time to absorb
Winds blows from areas of high
U solar energy than shorter days. Areas
pressure to areas of low pressure. Cold
areas have high pressure whereas with longer day time are warmer than
those with shorter day time because
warm areas have low pressure. Winds
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of differences in the duration of solar
blowing from cold areas have a
radiation.
tendency of lowering the temperature
in
of warmer areas. For example, during Importance of temperature

summer, temperature over the land is
high whereas that of over the ocean is The temperature of a place at any given
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low. Winds blowing from the ocean time is important in the following ways:
will lower the temperature over the
(i) It determines clothing, food and
land.
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human activities of a place. For

(vi) Cloud cover example, clothing at times of low
Cloud cover reduces the amount of (cold) temperature differs from
solar radiation reaching the earth’s the one that arises during times of
surface and the amount of earth high (warm) temperatures.
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radiation leaving the earth’s surface.

In so doing, the temperature of an (ii) It determines the germination
area with heavy cloud cover such of seeds and growth of plants
as the equatorial region remains because different plants require
relatively constant. In areas with no different temperatures for their
or less cloud cover such as deserts the growth.

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(iii) It influences the existence and form water vapour in the atmosphere.
action of bacteria. Most bacteria There are two types of humidity. These are
are not active in very low absolute humidity and relative humidity.
temperature. This explains why
Absolute humidity is the actual amount of
fresh food is stored in refrigerators. water vapour present in a certain volume of
y
(iv) It is important for soil formation air at a given temperature. It is expressed
through breaking of rocks in grams per cubic metre (g/m ).
3
nl
and decomposition of organic Relative humidity is the amount of water
materials. vapour present in a mass of air, expressed
as a percentage of the total amount of
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water vapour that would be present when
Exercise 4.2 that air is saturated at that temperature.
Air is saturated when the atmosphere
1. Explain the factors that affect
cannot hold any more water vapour. This
se
temperature.
condition depends on the temperature and
2. Define the following terms: pressure of the air.
(a) Isotherm Importance of humidity
(b) Warm current
U Humidity is important to weather and living
(c) Lapse rate organisms. The degree of air saturation
(d) Ocean current influences the degree of respiration in
living organisms. The amount of water
e
3. If the temperature of Dar es
Salaam, which is at sea level, is 28 vapour in the air determines the possibility
°C, what will be the temperature of rain formation. For example, when the
in
in the following places? air is saturated, it forms clouds which

eventually fall as rain. Humidity also
(a) Makete at 3,000 m above sea
level helps to regulate temperature in the
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atmosphere because humid air holds more

(b) Meru mountain at 4,600 m
heat than dry air. Likewise, water vapour
above sea level
in the atmosphere absorbs solar radiation,
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4. Differentiate the term aspect from hence helps to regulate evaporation rates
altitude. and heat loss from the earth’s surface.
Precipitation
Humidity
Precipitation refers to the deposition of
Humidity is the amount of water vapour
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moisture from the atmosphere on the

in the atmosphere. It indicates the degree earth’s surface. It is formed when water
of moisture in the air. It is one of the main vapour in the atmosphere condenses
influences of weather. Heat from the sun into tiny water droplets as atmospheric
causes water to evaporate from the surface temperature decreases. It includes snow,
of the oceans and other water bodies to hail, sleet, and rain (Figure 4.3).

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Rainfall
Rain is the most common form of
precipitation. Rainfall refers to
droplets of water falling from the
atmosphere after condensation.
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Condensation is the process
by which water vapour in the
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atmosphere is changed into
liquid. When water vapour rises,
it cools at high altitude until dew
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point is reached. Dew point is
the temperature at which the
atmosphere is saturated with
water vapour.
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Condensation takes place to
Rain Hail Snow form clouds after dew point has
Figure 4.3 Precipitation been reached. Moist air contains
minute particles of matter called
U
Source: https://civilengineersforum.com/9-types-of-precipitation/
nuclei that are made of dust,
Snow
salt, ice and soot. Large water
Snow is frozen water in crystals. Snow is formed droplets join the nuclei to form
when water vapour in the atmosphere turns into
e
raindrops. When rain drops
crystals of ice and reaches the ground before continue to grow, they are unable
melting. to stay in the atmosphere, hence
in
Hail they fall to the ground as rain

(Figure 4.4).
Hail is a form of falling solid precipitation with
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small balls or irregular

lumps of ice. This type Condensation
of precipitation can
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cause considerable
Evaporation from ocean
m
ro rs
damage to plants and Precipitation o nf ve
a t i r i
property. or on m e
ap ati fro lak il
Ev eget on m so
v r ati n fro rom
Sleet ap
o
ati
o nf
Ev p or r a tio
a o
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Sleet is a mixture Ev ap
Ev
of snow and rain. It
is formed when the
temperature of the Ocean
ground is lower than
the temperature above. Figure 4.4 Rainfall formation

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Types of rainfall
There are three main types of rainfall. These are convectional, relief and cyclonic
rainfall.
(i) Convectional rainfall
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Convectional rainfall is formed as a result of differential heating of the earth’s surface
that causes warm moist air currents to rise. As the air current rises vertically to higher
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altitudes, it cools and condenses to form clouds from which rain falls (Figure 4.5). The
convectional rainfall is common in tropical areas.
O
se
4. Condensation results
and cumulonimbus
clouds are formed
U 3. Rising air
cools Condensation level
e
in
2. Warm air
rapidly rises
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1. Air near the surface gets heated

LAND
Figure 4.5 Convectional rainfall

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(ii) Relief or orographic rainfall side of the mountain facing the direction
of the wind is known as a windward side.
Sometimes moist winds from the ocean are This side receives more rainfall. The side
forced to rise over a high mountain. When which faces away from the direction of the
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they reach higher altitudes, the moisture wind is known as a leeward side or a rain
in the wind condenses to form clouds that shadow area. The leeward side gets very
form droplets which eventually fall as little or no rain because the descending
rain. Rain formed this way is called relief winds from windward side are already dry
or orographic rainfall (Figure 4.6). The and cannot form rain.

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Clouds
Dr
y
y
wi
nd
s
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Le
ew
ar
ds
d id
e
O
in
ist w e
Mo sid
w ard
nd
Wi
se
Figure 4.6 Relief rainfall
U
A typical example of a rain shadow in Tanzania is found on the western side of mount
Kilimanjaro. Winds blowing from the Indian Ocean in the East are forced by this
e
mountain to rise and drop most of their moisture as rain on the eastern and south-eastern
slopes. When these winds reach the western side of the mountain, they are already
in
relatively dry, so little rain falls on this side. Other examples in Tanzania include the
western sides of Usambara and Pare mountains.
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(iii) Cyclonic or frontal rainfall

Cyclonic rainfall is also known as frontal rainfall. When a large mass of warm and
moist air meets a mass of
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cool and dry air, rain may

occur. The warm, light Clouds
and moist air is forced up A
over the cool and dry air. r
ve
At higher altitudes, the n go nt
s s ri s i
a ss Rain Fro
warm air cools and water tm a rm
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Warm mois ld dry ai

vapour condenses to form C o Cold dry air mass
clouds and eventually
rain (Figure 4.7). Rainfall A
formed in this way is
called cyclonic rainfall. Figure 4.7 Cyclonic rainfall

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Factors affecting rainfall amounts of moisture. For example,

Rainfall variation is a normal phenomenon the warm Mozambique ocean currents
on the earth’s surface, which is influenced cause rainfall along the East coast of
by a number of factors. These factors Southern Africa.
include ocean currents, distance from Since cold ocean currents absorb
y
the equator, prevailing winds, presence moisture from the wind over them, the
of water bodies, nature and shape of the winds that blow over them carry very
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coast, distance from the sea, altitude, little moisture. Hence, they bring very
human activities and forest cover. little or no rain to the adjacent land.
Fog is formed instead of rain. For
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(i) Ocean currents example, the Cold Benguela Ocean
There are two types of ocean currents: Currents on the south-western coast
warm and the cold ocean currents. of Africa and the Canaries Currents
Warm ocean currents cause rainfall on the north-western coast of Africa
over the adjacent land because the cause the adjacent land to be dry
se
winds that cross over them carry large (Figure 4.8).
Key
Warm Mozambique
U ocean currents
AFRICA
Cold Benguela
ocean currents
e
r
in
gasca
Namibia
Onshore winds blowing
over warm Mozambique
Mada
ocean currents
Na
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Onshore winds blowing

South over cold Benguela
Africa
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ocean currents
Figure 4.8 Warm and cold ocean currents
(ii) Distance from the equator When air condenses, it results in

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Areas along the equator receive convectional rainfall. The Congo and
more rain than areas away from it. Amazon basins are few examples of
This is because of the high amount areas that receive much rainfall due
of solar radiation, which causes high to their being positioned near the
evaporation and rising of moist air. equator.

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(iii) Prevailing winds in Tanzania receives more rains than

Winds blowing across large water Dodoma and Singida, which are far
bodies such as oceans, seas and large away from the Ocean.
lakes to the land carry moist air. (vii) Altitude
These moist winds cause rainfall on
y
the land adjacent to the respective Altitude is a factor for uneven
water bodies. On the contrary, winds distribution of rainfall. Highlands
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blowing from the land towards the force the warm and moist air to rise
sea carry little or no moisture causing over them, which later condenses to
little or no rainfall along the coast. form clouds and eventually rainfall.
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(iv) Presence of water bodies At higher altitudes, there are low
temperatures that allow rising warm
Areas with large water bodies such
as those around Lake Victoria receive and moist air to condense unlike
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more rain than areas without water lower altitudes. As a result, higher
bodies such as Dodoma or Singida altitudes receive more rainfall than
in central Tanzania. Water bodies lower altitude areas. Examples of such
increase moisture content in the air areas include the slopes of Mount
passing over them, hence causing rain
U Kilimajaro and Mount Rungwe in
in nearby areas over which they blow. Tanzania.
(v) Nature and shape of the coast

(viii) Human activities
e
Coastal areas that lie parallel to
rainfall-bearing prevailing winds Human activities such as agriculture,
in
receive little or no rainfall. For manufacturing, lumbering and

example, the north-eastern coast development of settlements cause
of Kenya experiences dry weather rainfall variations on the earth
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conditions because it lies parallel surface. Human activities that involve

to the rain bearing winds called the removal of the vegetation cover on
North East Trade Winds. the earth’s surface reduce the surface
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area for evaporation and transpiration,

(vi) Distance from the sea hence affecting the process of
Areas located near the sea or ocean rainfall formation. When the process
experience high rainfall due to winds of evaporation, condensation and
carrying moisture from the sea to precipitation are interrupted, little or
the land, which causes rainfall to no rainfall is formed.
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the coastal areas. Areas that are very

far from the sea receive little or no (ix) Forest cover
rainfall because the onshore winds Trees in the forest absorb moisture
lose their moisture as they travel to the through their roots. The moisture
interior. For example, Dar es Salaam absorbed later on tends to evaporate

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through pores (stomata) in their bridges due to floods.

leaves. This leads to the release
of moisture (water vapour) in the (ii) It may damages crops due to the
effect of hailstones and storms.
atmosphere. When the water vapour
in the atmosphere condenses, it falls (iii) It increases property maintenance
y
as rain, hail or snow. The area with no costs through repairs and
forest cover will receive little amount reconstruction after damages caused
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of rain compared to areas with by precipitation e.g. snow ploughing
forest cover. Forest may contribute on roads, railways, airports and
bursting of dams.
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90 percent of the moisture in the
atmosphere derived from the land (iv) It may lead to the outbreak of water-
surface. borne diseases such as cholera,
typhoid, dysentery, bilharzia and
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The importance of precipitation diarrhoea.
Precipitation is important to human life
and the environment because it: Wind
U
(i) Facilitates the functioning of the Wind is the air in motion that blows from
hydrological cycle. the area of high-pressure belt to low-
(ii) Helps agricultural activities in most pressure belt. Wind can be grouped into
developing countries. two main types, namely local wind and
e
(iii) Provides water for domestic and planetary wind. Local winds are those
which occur regularly or periodically, and
in
industrial use.
blow for a short time and affect a small
(iv) Creates scenery for sports and area of the earth’s surface. Examples
recreation activities such as skiing
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of local winds include land breeze, sea

and ice-skating.
breeze, mountain wind and valley wind.
(v) Leads to the formation of water
bodies such as lakes, rivers, dams Sea breeze
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and swamps.
Sea breeze refers to the wind that blows
(vi) Provides a resource for the generation
from the sea to the land during the day.
of electricity (hydroelectric power).
During the day the land heats up quickly
(vii) Facilitate soil formation than the sea and becomes warmer than
Fo
the sea, and the air pressure on the land

Precipitation can have negative effects as
is lower than that of the sea. Therefore,
follows:
wind blows from the sea to the land
(i) It may leads to loss of life and
(Figure 4.9).
property such as houses, roads and

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Sun
Descending cool air ascending warm air
y
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Sea breeze Low pressure
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High pressure
Land
Sea
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Figure. 4.9 Sea breeze
Land breeze
Land breeze refers to the wind blowing from the land to the sea during the night. During
U
the night, the land cools quickly than the sea and therefore low pressure develops on the
sea. Therefore, winds blow from land to the sea (Figure 4.10).
e
in
Descending cool air

Rising warm air
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Land breeze High pressure

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Low pressure
Land
Sea
Figure 4.10 Land breeze

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Planetary wind
Planetary wind refers to the winds which affect the large part of the earth’s surface.
They are sometimes called prevailing winds. Planetary wind can be grouped as Trade
Winds, Mid-latitude Westerlies and Polar easterlies (Figure 4.11)

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(i) Trade winds

NP
These are winds that blow from
Polar Winds
sub-tropical high pressure belts
30° North and South towards Westerlies (S.W.Winds)
the equatorial low pressure belt. North East trade winds
y
In the northern hemisphere, the
Equatorial Low Pressure System
trade winds blow from North-East South East trade winds
nl
while in the southern hemisphere Westerlies (N.W.Winds)
they blow from the South-East.
Therefore, the North-East trade Polar Winds
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winds and South East trade winds SP
converge or meet along the zone

of low pressure belt known as the Figure 4.11 Wind systems
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone
se
(ITCZ or Doldrums). This zone of Importance of wind
low pressure lies near and almost
Wind is important in our daily lives
parallel to the equator. The seasonal
because it:
movement of the equatorial low
pressure system causes a similar
U (i) Helps fishermen and traders to sail
movement of the intertropical using dhows and canoes.
convergence zone.
(ii) Promotes water sports.
e
(ii) Mid-latitude Westerlies
(iii) Distributes moisture in the world
These refer to the type of prevailing
which is important in rain formation.
in
winds which blow from the sub-

tropical high pressure belt 30° north (iv) Enables pollination of plants.
and south of the equator towards
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the sub-polar low pressure belt. In (v) Distributes temperature in the world
the northern hemisphere the wind for precipitation.
blows from south west while in the (vi) Facilitates the generation of power
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southern hemisphere wind blows that enables the generation of

from north west due to the influence electricity and pumping of water
of earth’s rotation. (Wind energy).
(iii) Polar Easterlies
These are dry, cold prevailing winds Atmospheric pressure
Fo
that blow around the high pressure The air surrounding the earth’s surface
areas of the polar highs at the North forms the atmosphere. The atmosphere
and South poles. Cold air subsides has weight. The force with which the
at the poles creating high pressure weight of the atmosphere presses down
zones. per unit area is called atmospheric

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pressure. The atmospheric in pressure with the increasing altitude.

pressure is exerted equally in
all directions. It is measured
using an instrument called a 4000 m 600 mb
barometer.
y
The atmospheric pressure is
measured in millibars (mb).
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2000 m 800 mb
Lines drawn on a weather
map joining areas with equal
amount of atmospheric
O
pressure are known as Isobars. 1000 m
Factors affecting
atmospheric pressure
se
Pressure varies on the earth’s
surface. The major factors that
affect atmospheric pressure Figure 4.12 Relationship between pressure and altitude
are altitude, temperature and
rotation of the earth.
U
(ii) Temperature
(i) Altitude Temperature differences determine variations

Atmospheric pressure in pressure over the earth’s surface. When air is
e
decreases with an heated, it expands, causing the molecules to spread
increase in the height over a large area. This lowers the atmospheric
in
above the sea level. At pressure of a particular area. Thus, areas with high
the sea level, atmospheric temperature are characterised by low atmospheric
pressure is higher. As the pressure whereas areas with low temperature
nl
altitude increases the have high atmospheric pressure. For example, the
atmospheric pressure equatorial region has low atmospheric pressure
decreases. For example, (Doldrums) due to high temperature.
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Figure 4.12 shows that at

4,000 m above sea level (iii) Rotation of the earth
the atmospheric pressure The earth’s rotation causes air to move away from
is 600 mb. On the other the poles. This air crosses the parallels towards
hand, at 2,000 m above the 60°N and 60°S. As it moves, the air expands
sea level the atmospheric so that its atmospheric pressure falls. That is why
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pressure is 800 mb. When 60°N and 60°S have low atmospheric pressure.
climbing mountains such
as Mount Kilimanjaro and Atmospheric pressure systems
Mount Everest, climbers Refers to the area of earth’s atmosphere that has a
experience the decrease particularly high or low pressure compared to the

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air around. In each hemisphere, there are of the rotation of the earth. The polar high-
three belts of pressure systems. These pressure belt is located between 90° north
are Equatorial low pressure (doldrums), and south of the equator. It is a belt of low
sub-tropical high-pressure belt (Horse temperature throughout the year because
Latitude), The sub-polar low-pressure belt, the cool air sinks down due to its high
and Polar high pressure. The equatorial
y
density, sinking of cold air results into
low pressure (doldrums) is common in all high pressure in the polar region.
hemispheres (Figure 4.13).
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900N Importance of pressure
Polar high pressure belt
600N Sub polar low pressure belt Atmospheric pressure is
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important to human lives.
Humans experience two
300N Sub tropical high pressure belt Horse Latitude
types of pressure: external
and internal pressure.
se
00-50(N and S) Equatorial low pressure belt Doldrums
When external and internal
pressure balance, they
help normal breathing.
300S Sub tropical high pressure belt Horse Latitude When pressure exceeds or
U decreases, it may lead to
difficulties in breathing. For
600S Sub polar low pressure belt
Polar high pressure belt
example, when climbing
900S higher altitudes such as on
e
Mount Kilimanjaro one
Figure 4.13 Wind pressure belts may experience difficulties
in
The equatorial low-pressure belt in breathing as the altitude increases.

(Doldrums) is located between 5° North Pressure does influence the speed and
and South of the equator. It is a belt of direction of winds and, therefore, the
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low pressure because of high temperature formation of clouds and rainfall.

that causes the moist air to rise in great
convection current. The sub-tropical high- Cloud cover
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pressure belt (Horse Latitude) lies 30°

Clouds cover refers to the section of the
North and South of the equator. It is a belt
sky that is covered/obscured by clouds
of low temperature because of the rising
when observed from a specific location. A
air which spreads out and moves toward
cloud is a mass of small water droplets or
the poles which cools and sinks to form
Fo
ice crystals formed by the condensation of

high pressure belt.
water vapour floating in the atmosphere.
The sub-polar low-pressure belt is located Lines drawn on a weather map joining
between 60° North and South of the areas with the same amount of cloud cover
equator. It is a belt of low pressure because are known as Isonephs.

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Types of clouds globular masses or rolls.
There are different types of (iii) Low clouds extend below 2,100 m above the sea
clouds depending on their level. Example of low clouds are Stratus which are
appearance, shape and individual cloudlet, larger than those in altocumulus;
height in the sky. The four Stratocumulus which are composed of large dark,
y
types of clouds (Figure rounded masses, usually in groups, lines or wavy
4.14) based on shape and
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patterns; and Nimbostratus which appear dark, grey,
heights are:
and shapeless, usually, they are rainy-looking and
more often they produce a continuous rain or snow.
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(i ) High clouds are clouds
located between 6,000 (iv) Clouds of great vertical extent, range from 1,500 m
m to 12,000 m above to 9,000 m above the sea level. They are formed at
the sea level. Example all levels. Example of clouds of great vertical extent
se
of these clouds are are Cumulonimbus which are anvil shaped and have
Cirrocumulus which a great vertical extent and Cumulus which have low
are small rounded white top and a flat base with a white grey globular mass
ice crystal cloudlet like pieces of floating cotton.
which appear in long
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rows; Cirrostratus
which are composed
10000 m (10 km)
of a thin transparent
e
sheet of ice crystals;
Cirrus
and Cirrus which are Cirroculumus
in
composed of thin and

fine ropes. Cirrostratus Cumulonimbus
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(ii) Middle clouds are 6000m (6 km)
found between 2,100 Altostratus

m to 6,000 m above
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the sea level. Example

of these clouds are Altoculumus
Altostratus which
are grey or blue-gray 2000m (2 km)
Stratocumulus
clouds composed of
Cumulus
water droplets in layers;
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and Altocumulus Stratus

Nimbostratus
which are composed
of water droplets in
Figure 4.14 Types of clouds

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Importance of clouds
distance from the sea
(i) Clouds are important in the (b) Altitude, ocean current, distance
formation of precipitation. from the sea, latitude, wind,
(ii) Clouds help to regulate the earth’s cloud cover, aspect, length of
temperature by reflecting and a day
y
scattering solar radiation and by (c) Altitude, temperature, rotation
of the earth
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absorbing heat energy emitted from
the earth. (d) Humidity, absolute humidity,
relative humidity, sleet
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Activity 4.1 (e) Dew, mist, fog, rain, hail and
snow
To show how atmospheric pressure
exerts equally in all directions: 2. Solid precipitation falling down
with small balls or irregular humps
se
Procedure
of ice is referred to as:
1. Fill in a glass with clean water up
to the top. (a) Snow (d) Rainfall
(b) Hail (e) Frost
2. Cover the top of the glass with a
piece of manila paper.
U (c) Sleet
3. If the temperature for Dar es Salaam

3. While holding the piece of paper
firmly on the glass, turn the glass at 100 m above the sea level is 30 oC
e
upside-down. what is the temperature for Moshi at
3,200 m above the sea level?
in
4. Stop pressing the piece of paper on

(a) 19.2 oC (d) 29 oC
the glass and observe. Is the water
(b) 11.4 oC (e) 30 oC
spilling? Give reasons for your
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answer? (c) 10.8 oC
4. Planetary winds refer to:

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(a) Wind blowing from the land to

Exercise 4.3 the sea
A: Choose and circle the most (b) Wind which occur regularly
correct answer among the
given alternatives: (c) Wind that affect the large part of
the earth’s surface
Fo
1. One of the following is a set of

factors that affect temperature: (d) Wind blowing for a short time
(a) Ocean current, distance from 5. Lines drawn on a weather map
the equator, prevailing wind, joining areas with the same amount
altitude, water bodies and of cloud cover are known as:

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(a) Isonephs. (c) Isobars 3. Mist is a mixture of snow and rain.

(b) Isotherms (d) Isohyets 4. Dew point is the temperature at
which the atmosphere is saturated
6. .............. is a result of rise and
with water vapour.
condensation of water vapour into a
y
liquid droplet 5. The side of the mountain facing
(a) Hail (c) Rainfall the direction of the winds is called
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leeward.
(b) Snow (d) dew
C: Answer the following questions:
7. The temperature at which the
O
atmosphere is saturated with water 1. Outline the importance of
vapour refers to as: temperature to human and plant life.
(a) Condensation
2. Describe the problems which may
se
(b) Dew point be caused by heavy rainfall.
(c) Nuclei
3. Differentiate between sea breeze
(d) Relative humidity
and land breeze.
(e) Absolute humidity
U 4. Describe the formation of cyclonic
8. The decrease in temperature with rainfall.
the increase in altitude is called:
5. Specify with reasons what type of
(a) Lapse rate
e
rainfall is most common along the
(b) Isotherms coasts of Tanzania.
in
(c) Temperature inversion

(d) Latitudinal
(e) Sunshine
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B: Read the following statements

and then write T for a TRUE
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statement and F for a FALSE

one:
1. Humidity refers to the deposition of

moisture from the atmosphere onto
the earth’s surface.
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2. Prolonged lack of rain may result in

drought conditions that may lead to
shortage of food.

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Measuring and recording weather has several instruments for measuring the
Weather station elements of weather. These instruments
A weather station is an established area are like the thermometer, the rain gauge,
for measuring and recording weather the hygrometer, the barometer, the wind
elements (Figure 4.15). It is also called a vane/windsock, the anemometer and the
y
meteorological station. A weather station Campbell-Stokes recorder
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O
se
U
e
Figure 4.15 A weather station
Source. https://www.123rf.com/photo_20275752_the-weather-station-in-the-forest html?fromid=cGJMQVdud2k3VWJ4Y1dXQnVtMVFQdz09
in
Establishing a weather station weather station is located should be

short.
To establish a weather station, the
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following factors should be considered: (iv) The ground should not retain water
(i) The station should be kept in an open during and after rains and should be
space where there is free flow of air free from floods.
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to obtain the required measurements

of weather elements. (v) The station should be kept in a fence
with a gate to avoid interference
(ii) The area should be away from from people and animals.
buildings, trees and any other
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highest structures such as telephone (vi) The station must have a compass
towers and electric poles. This is to with all four cardinal points clearly
avoid interference with recordings marked.
of weather elements.
(vii) The land surface should be level or
(iii) The grass on the ground where the with very gentle slope

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The Stevenson screen The louvers and the roof provide shade
Every standard weather station has a for the thermometers. Shade is important
Stevenson screen. It is a wooden box to avoid direct solar radiation and ensure
in which some of the instruments for correct temperature readings. The
measuring weather elements are kept Stevenson screen is mounted on a stand
y
121 cm above the ground to prevent
(Figure 4.16). The instruments kept
it from the heat effects radiated by the
in the Stevenson screen are maximum
nl
earth’s surface.
thermometer, minimum thermometer,
Wet bulb thermometer and Dry bulb Types of Stevenson screens
thermometer.
O
There are two types of Stevenson screens
based on their size:

a) Small Stevenson screen. This type
has various instruments such as
se
wet bulb thermometer and dry bulb
thermometer.
b) Large Stevenson screen. This

U contains maximum and minimum
thermometers, wet and dry bulbs, a
hygrothermograph, barometer and
a dewcell.
e
Activity 4.2
in
1. Visit a weather station near your

school and study its main features.
nl
2. Go around your school compound

and locate a suitable site for
establishing a weather station.
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Give reasons for your choice.

Figure. 4.16 A Stevenson screen
Source: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/cdo/about/airtemp-
measure.shtml
Instruments that measure the elements
of weather
A Stevenson screen is a wooden white-
Fo
painted box mounted on four stands. There are different instruments used to
This box has louvered sides to allow free measure the elements of weather such as
circulation of air. It is white painted to the thermometer, hygrometer, rain gauge,
reflect solar radiation. Its roof is insulated barometer, wind vane, anemometer and
to prevent the sun’s heat to reach inside. the sunshine recorder.

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Thermometers cause the alcohol column to contract and

A themometer is an instrument for the meniscus (the curved upper surface
measuring temperature. There are several of the alcohol column) will pull the index
types of thermometers. These are maximum back along the tube. Whenever temperature
thermometer, minimum thermometer, wet rises, the alcohol will expand and flow
y
bulb thermometer, dry bulb thermometer freely past the metal index without pushing
and the six’s thermometer. it up. Therefore, the metal index is always
nl
left as a record of the lowest temperature
(i) Maximum thermometer reached between the readings. The part of
The maximum thermometer is used to the metal index away from the bulb will
O
measure the highest temperatures between indicate the lowest temperature reached.
the readings. It has a metal index. It is
made of glass and it contains mercury in Vacuum
a bulb. A mercury column extends from
se
a bulb at one end of the thermometer
inside a capillary tube to the metal index.
Capillary
The length of the mercury column shows
changes in temperature (Figure 4.17).
When temperature rises, the mercury
U
expands and the length of the column Metal index
increases, pushing along the metal index.
The maximum temperature is read from
e
the side of the metal index nearest to the Glass tube
mercury. When the temperature falls the
in
mercury column falls, leaving behind the

metal index still indicating the maximum
temperature reached. After recording the
nl
maximum temperature, a magnet is used

to bring back the metal index into contact
with the mercury.
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(ii) Minimum thermometer

The minimum thermometer is used to Mercury
measure the lowest temperature reached
between the readings. It is made of glass,
Fo
but it contains alcohol instead of mercury.

Alcohol is used because it has lower Bulb
freezing point than mercury (Figure 4.18).
The minimum thermometer also has a
metal index. Any fall in temperature will
Figure 4.17 Maximum thermometer

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Maximum temperature is read from the

bottom end of metal index (A). When the
temperature falls, the alcohol in the bulb
contracts. This causes the mercury to push
metal index (B) towards the bulb. The
y
minimum temperature is read from the
part of metal index (B) from the mercury
nl
Minimum Maximum
Bulb Vacuum
O
Reading
Metal
index
Alcohol
se
Metal
index
A
U
Alcohol
Mercury
e
Metal
index
in
B
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Figure 4.18 Minimum thermometer

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(iii) The six’s thermometer Figure. 4.19 Six’s thermometer

The Six’s thermometer can be used
for measuring both maximum and Measuring and recording temperature
minimum temperatures (Figure 4.19). This Temperature readings are taken every
thermometer consists of a “U” shaped day at regular and fixed intervals. The
Fo
glass tube. The side with a bulb records the intervals can be four hours, six hours
minimum temperature and the other side or even twenty-four hours. In some
records the maximum temperature. When meteorological stations, a self-recording
the temperature rises, the alcohol in the bulb instrument called thermograph records
expands and pushes the mercury in the tube. temperatures continuously. In each

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measurement, minimum and maximum temperatures recorded in Dar es Salaam

temperatures are recorded. The minimum on May 23rd 2014 were 23.5 °C and 32.5
and maximum temperature recorded are °C, respectively. Therefore, the mean
used to calculate the following: daily temperature is calculated as follows:
(i) The daily range of temperature
Mean Daily Temp
y
(ii) The mean daily temperature
(iii) The monthly range of temperature Daily max. Temp + Daily Mini. Temp
nl
=
(iv) The mean monthly temperature 2
(v) The annual range of temperature o
32.5 C + 23.5 Co
=
(vi) The mean annual temperature 2
O
o
56 C
The daily range of temperature = = 28 o C
2
The daily range of temperature is the
se
difference between the maximum and Therefore, the mean daily temperature
minimum temperatures recorded in a was 28.0 °C.
day. The daily range of temperature is
recorded daily throughout the year. For Alternatively, sum up all the observations
example, the minimum and maximum in a day then divide by 24 hours.
U
temperatures recorded in Dar es Salaam on
May 23rd 2014 were 23.5 °C and 32.5 °C,
The monthly range of temperature
respectively. Therefore, the daily range ofThe monthly range of temperature is the
difference between the highest mean daily
e
temperature is calculated as follows:
temperature and the lowest mean daily
Temperature Range temperature in a month. For example, if
in
the highest mean daily temperature for

= Daily Max. Temp. - Daily Min. Temp.
the month of July 2014 in Dar es Salaam
= 32.5 °C – 23.5 °C was 29.5 °C recorded on 8th July and the
nl
lowest was 17.0 °C recorded on 23rd July,

= 9.0 °C then the monthly range of temperature for
Therefore, the range of temperature in Dar the month of July is calculated as follows:
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es Salaam for that day was 9.0 °C. Monthly Range Temp.
The mean daily temperature = Monthly Max. mean Temp. - Monthly
The mean daily temperature is the Min. mean Temp.
average of the maximum and minimum
Fo
temperatures recorded or the average of the = 29.5 °C - 17.0 °C.

total number of observations or recordings = 12.5 °C
in a day. Mean daily temperatures are
recorded daily throughout the year. For Therefore, the monthly range of
example, the minimum and maximum temperature was 12.5 °C.

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The mean monthly temperature
To obtain the mean temperature for a month of a particular year, add the mean daily
temperatures and divide the total by the number of days in that month. When mean
monthly temperatures for a given month are obtained for many places, they can be
shown on a weather map using isotherms (Figure 4.20). Isotherms are lines drawn on
y
weather maps to connect places with the same mean monthly temperatures.
nl
O
O C
10
21.1O C
se
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
21.1O C
U
Tropic of Capricorn
Key:
Cool
Cool 000CoCtoto
1010C oC
e
0
Warm
Warm 10100CCto to
o
21021
C C
o
10OC Hot
Hot21
210 CCtoto2929
o 0C oC
Very
VeryHot
Hot over
over 29290CoC
in
Figure 4.20 Isotherms showing mean temperature (°C) for July

nl
45 45
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40 40
A graph is used to
35 35
present temperature
Temperature (oC)
30 30
data of a place (Figure
25 25
4.21). Mean monthly
20 20
temperature records for
15 15
a year are plotted on
Fo
10 10
the graph and points are
5 5
joined by a smooth line.
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
Figure 4.21 Mean Monthly temperatures in
Dar es Salaam, 2016

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Annual range of temperature

The annual range of temperature refers to the difference between the highest monthly
temperature and the lowest monthly temperature in a year. For example, the temperature
recorded in Dar es Salaam in 2016 is shown in Table 4.1
y
Table 4.1 Mean Monthly temperature of Dar es Salaam in 2016
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
nl
Temperature °C 28 27 28 24 27 28 29 28 28 29 30 30
The annual range of temperature = highest monthly temperature minus lowest monthly
O
temperature
= 30 °C – 24 °C
= 6 °C.
se
Therefore, the annual range of temperature for Dar es salaam in 2016 was 6 °C.
The mean annual temperature

The mean annual temperature of a particular year is obtained by adding the monthly
U
temperatures of a year and dividing it with the number of months in a year. For example,
using data in Table 4.1 the mean annual temperature of Dar es Salaam is calculated as
follows:
e
in

o
C
nl
336 oC
Mean Annual Temp. =
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12
Mean Annual Temp.= 27.75 oC
Therefore, the mean annual temperature of Dar es Salaam in 2016 was 28 oC.
Temperature conversion
Fo
The measurement of temperature can be converted from one scale to another, for
example, from degree Centigrade (oC) to degree Fahrenheit (oF) or from degree
Fahrenheit to degree Centigrade (oC ). The formulae used for conversions are:

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(a) Degree Centigrade into degree Exercise 4.4

Fahrenheit:
Answer the following questions
9 or
°F = °C +32 1. After recording the maximum
5
°F = 1.8 °C + 32 temperature in the minimum and
y
maximum thermometer, which
(b) Degree Fahrenheit into Degree instrument is used to bring back
nl
the metal index?
Centigrade:
(a) Thermometer
5
O
o
C = ( o F − 32) or (b) Hygrometer
9
(c) Magnet
o
C = 0.6 ( o F − 32)
(d) mercury
2. The minimum and maximum
se
Example 1: Convert 33 oC into degree
temperature recorded are used to
Fahrenheit. calculate:
9 (a) Daily range of temperature
If °F = °C +32 (a) Annual temperature
5
U
(a) Monthly temperature
(a) Alcohol temperature
9
Then °F = x 33+32 (a) Relative temperature
e
5
3. Explain how you can calculate the
297
= + 32 following:
in
5 (a) The mean annual range of

= 59.4 + 32 temperature.
Therefore 33 o C = 91.4 o F (b) The mean annual temperature.
nl
4. Convert each of the following

o
Example 2: Convert 41 Fahrenheit into temperatures expressed in
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degree Centigrade. degrees Centigrade into degrees

Fahrenheit.
o 5 (a) 55 oC (c) 24.3 oC
If C = ( o F 32)
9 (b) 18 oC (d) 30 oC
5 5. Convert each of the following
Then o C = (41 32)
Fo
9 temperatures expressed in

5 degrees Fahrenheit into degree
= x9 Centigrade:
9
Therefore, 41 o F = 5 oC (a) 45 oF (c) 98.42 oF
(b) 62 oF (d) 180 oF

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6. Study carefully the temperature Wet bulb themometer

data for Station X, then answer
the questions that follow
MONTHS TEMP (°C)
y
J 33
32
nl
F
M 30
A 26
O
M 24
J 22
J 23
se
A 31 Muslin
S 29
Container
O 31
28 Water
N
U
D 34
Dry bulb themometer
(a) Calculate the annual range
of temperature for Station
e
X.
in
(b) Calculate the mean annual

temperature for Station X.
(c) Find the total annual
nl
temperature for Station X.

(d) Which month is the coldest?
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(e) Which month is the hottest?
The hygrometer
The hygrometer is an instrument used to
Fo
measure humidity. It consists of wet and

dry bulb thermometers (Figures 4.22).
The wet bulb thermometer is kept moist
(wet) by wrapping it in a muslin, which is
then dipped in a container of water.
Figure 4.22 Hygrometer

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When the air is not saturated, water

evaporates from the muslin and cools
the wet bulb. The cooling effect causes
the mercury to contract. The dry bulb
is not affected in the same way as the
y
wet bulb because the mercury in the
capillary is supposed to expand due to
nl
the temperature in the environment.
So, when the air is not saturated, the
two thermometers show different
O
readings. When the air is saturated,
the two thermometers show the same
readings. Therefore, when there is a
large difference in readings between
se
the two thermometers humidity is low
in the atmosphere and when there is a
small difference, humidity is high.
U
Rain gauge
A rain gauge is an instrument used to

e
measure the amount of rainfall (Figure
4.23). The rain gauge consists of an
in
outer case, a copper-receiving vessel,

a funnel whose diameter is normally
13 cm, a clear glass jar or bottle and
nl
a graduated measuring cylinder. The

outer case is sunk into the ground
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so that the rim is 30 cm above the

ground. The rain gauge is placed in an
open and level area with short grasses.
The measuring cylinder is graduated
so that it measures the depth of rain
Fo
that has fallen over an area equal to Fig. 4.23 Rain gauge
the area of the top of the funnel. Measuring and recoding rainfall
Normally, readings of daily total rainfall
are obtained once every 24 hours. The
total monthly rainfall for a given station

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is usually realised by taking the sum of construct a histogram.

all amount of rainfall recorded for all the Table 4.2 Rainfall data for station X.
days in a given month. Mean monthly Month Rainfall (mm)
rainfall for a certain area is usually
J 150
obtained by summing all the rainfall
records of a particular month and divided F 175
y
by the number of days of that month. The M 250
total annual rainfall is obtained by taking 378
nl
A
the sum of the total monthly rainfall M 325
received in a year. The mean annual J 75
rainfall is obtained by summing all the 50
O
J
monthly rainfall for all the months of the A 100
year divided by the number of months in S 130
the year. A bar graph known as histogram O 40
is used to present rainfall data (Figure
se
N 60
4.24). Assume that the following data is
D 190
for station X (Table 4.2). Use the data to
400
U
350
300
e
Rainfall (mm)
250
in
200
150
nl
100
50
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0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
Figure 4.24 Rainfall distribution for station X

Fo
The total annual rainfall of area can be calculated as follows:

150 + 175 + 250 + 378 + 325 + 75 + 50 + 100 + 130 + 40 + 60 + 190 = 1923 mm
The mean annual rainfall can be calculated as follows:
The total amount of rainfall divided by 12 months of the year

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Table 4.3 Temperature and rainfall

Total annual rainfall
= distribution
12 months
Months Temp °C Rainfall (mm)
1923
= J 22 8
12
y
F 23 8
= 160.25 mm M 22 17
nl
A 19 43
Places with the same amount of rainfall on M 16 124
a weather map are joined by smooth lines J 13 167
O
called Isohyets (Figure 4.25). J 12 162
A 13 142
S 14 83
O 16 53
se
N 18 20
D 22 15
U
e
in
Figure 4.25 Isohyets

nl
A climograph is a graphical representation

of basic climatic variables that is monthly
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average temperature and precipitation at

a certain location. It is used for a quick
view of the climate of a place in terms of
the relationship between temperature and Figure 4.26 Monthly temperature and
rainfall patterns. The climograph is drawn rainfall
Fo
by combining temperature and rainfall The barometer

data in bar and line graph. Usually bars
A barometer is an instrument for measuring
represent rainfall and a line represents
atmospheric pressure. There are two types
temperature (Figure 4.26). of barometers: mercury barometer and

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aneroid barometer (Figure 4.27(a) and of the mercury column gives the reading
(b)). A mercury barometer is an apparatus of the atmospheric pressure. Mercury
consisting of a glass tube of about 9.2 cm barometers should remain in the same set
long and a bowl filled with mercury. The up during its operation.
glass tube is filled with mercury and set An aneroid barometer consists of an
y
upside down in the bowl with mercury. At airtight box of thin metal containing
the sea level, the mercury will fall until the very little air. The top of this box moves
nl
column is about 76 cm above the surface inwards and outwards with changes in
of the mercury in the bowl. A vacuum atmospheric pressure. This movement
is left at the top of the tube. To read the is transmitted by a system of levers to a
O
pressure, a meter ruler is placed besides circular scale with a pointer which shows
the glass tube and the change in height the reading of atmospheric pressure.
Graduated dial
se
Vacuum
Mercury Metre rule Pointer

U
Level
mechanism
e
Pressure of the
atmosphere
in
Corrugated
Metal box
Container
nl
(a) Mercury barometer (b) Aneroid barometer

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Figure 4.27 Barometers
Pressure is expressed in millimetres 1000 millibars or approximately one

with reference to the height of mercury bar. Atmospheric pressure decreases
column or in millibars. A bar is the with an increase in altitude at the rate
Fo
standard unit of pressure measurement. of 10 mbs for every 100 m above sea
It is divided into one thousand units level. Lines drawn on a weather map
called millibars (mb). At the sea level, joining places with the same pressure
pressure is normally 760 millimetres of are called isobars (Figure 4.28).
mercury (mmHg). This is equivalent to

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each arm so that when there is wind the

994 arms rotate. This movement operates a
994 998
1002
meter which records the speed of the wind
in kilometres per hour.
998
Metal
cups
y
998 1002
nl
1006
Figure 4.28 Isobars
O
Wind Vane
Wind direction is measured by a wind vane
(Figure 4.29). A wind vane consists of a
freely rotating arrow fitted to a central rod.
The arrow of the wind vane always points
se
Meter
to the direction to which the wind blows.
The wind is named after this direction.
Four arms marking the direction of the
cardinal points are fixed to the stationary
central rod.
U
Figure 4.30 Anemometer
e
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
in
The duration of sunshine a place receives

each day is measured by an instrument
known as Campbell-Stokes sunshine
nl
recorder (Figure 4.31). The sunshine

recorder is made of a glass sphere
surrounded by a metal frame. The glass
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sphere is used to detect the sun’s radiation.

Inside the metal frame, there is a sensitive
card to record the amount of sun rays during
Figure 4.29 A wind Vane a day. As the earth rotates, it changes the
direction of the sun and rays from the sun,
Anemometer which burns a trace on the card. When
Fo
Wind speed is measured by an instrument the sun sets, the card is removed and the
called anemometer (Figure 4.30). This length of a trace is converted into hours
instrument consists of three or four and minutes. Isohels are lines drawn on a
horizontal arms pivoted on a vertical weather map joining places with the same
shaft. Metal cup is fixed to each end of amount of sunshine.

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Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is a prediction of
weather condition of a place at a given
time. Weather forecasting is obtained
using two methods: Traditional and
y
modern methods. The traditional method
predicts weather through the observation
nl
of types of birds, crocking frogs, rainbow,
migration of birds, changes in wind
direction, position of the moon, flowering
O
and sprouting of plants.
Figure 4.31 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
Source: https://www.amusingplanet.com/2016/10/campbellstokes- The method is still widely used in
recorder-simple-device.html
predicting weather by indigenous
Cloud measurement communities. The modern method, on the
se
The amount of cloud cover is estimated other hand, involves the use of modern
in Oktas. One Okta represents about one- equipment such as meteological satellites,
eighth of the sky covered with cloud. The radar, aircraft, computers, balloons, ships,
symbols used to represent the amount of submarines, rockets and daily records
cloud cover on weather maps range from
U from weather stations. This method
0 oktas (completely clear sky) to 8 oktas is more reliable and accurate than the
(fully covered) as Figure 4.32 illustrates: traditional method.
e
Importance of weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is useful to people as
it:
in
(1) Allows people to prepare and

respond efficiently to hazards and
nl
disasters such as floods, hurricanes,

tornadoes, droughts and tsunamis.
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(ii) Provides the necessary information

to help farmers to know when to
plan for different agricultural
activities such as planting, farm
preparation and harvesting.
Fo
(iii) Provides supportive information to

fishing communities for planning
their fishing activities regarding
the movement of fish in lakes and
Figure 4.32 Weather map symbols showing
amount of cloud cover
oceans.

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(iv) Guides countries on when to carry out military operations.
(v) Helps people to choose suitable clothes, sport activities and means of
transportation.
(vi) Provides information for planning of tourism activities.
y
(vii) Helps the ocean-going vessels (sailors) to know about the conditions of the
nl
atmosphere.
Exercise 4.5
O
A: Choose and circle the most correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. Which of the following is the correct formula for calculating the mean monthly
temperature of a place?
se
(a) The sum of mean daily temperature for the month
Number of days in a month
U
(b) The sum of monthly temperature x12
Number of days in a month
e
(c) The sum of monthly temperature for the year
12 months
in
(d) The daily maximum temperature + the daily minimum temperature

2
nl
(e) The maximum temperature - minimum temperature

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2
2. Lines on a weather map joining places with the same amount of atmospheric
pressure are called:
(a) Isolines (b) Isohyets (c) Isotherms

(d) Isobars (e) Latitudes
Fo
3. The atmosphere is said to be most humid only when:

(a) is saturated with water vapour
(b) is unsaturated with water vapour

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(c) contains water vapour pressure affects human lives.

(d) does not contain water 3. List five elements of weather.
vapour
4. Differentiate modern methods
(e) is saturated without water of weather forecasting from
y
vapour traditional methods.
nl
4. A weather station is also referred 5. Differentiate between the daily
to as: range of temperature from mean
(a) meteorological station daily temperature.
O
(b) weather instrument
(c) weather forecasting C. Study Table 4.4 and answer the
(d) Stevenson’s Screen questions that follow:
se
(e) Isotherm Table 4.4 Mean Monthly
Temperature in Town Y
5. If the minimum temperature
recorded in a day is 12 °C and
maximum temperature recorded
U Month Temperature (°C)
in a day is 38 °C, the daily range J 14.3

of temperature will be: F 16.8
(a) -50 °C (d) -25 °C
e
M 22.3
(b) 26 °C (e) -26 °C
A 28.8
in
(c) 50 °C
M 32.5
6. Weather forecasting is important
J 33.4
because it
nl
J 30.8
(a) helps people to get well
A 30.0
(b) supports wild animals
S 29.5
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(c) helps people to plan daily

O 26.3
activities
N 20.8
(d) shows the origin of weather 15.7
D
(e) promotes people to become
rich (a) Which is the coldest month?
Fo
B: Answer the following questions: (b) Which is the hottest month?

1. Describe the features of a (c) Calculate the mean annual
Stevenson screen. range of temperature.
2. Explain how the atmospheric

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D. Match each statement in Column A with its corresponding response in

Column B.
Column A Column B
y
(i) Instrument used to measure humidity. (a) Wind vane
(b) Isotherms
nl
(ii) Instrument used to measure amount of rainfall.
(c) Rain gauge
(iii) Lines joining places with the same amount of rainfall. (d) Isohyets
O
(e) Isobars
(iv) Instrument used to measure wind speed.
(f) Hygrometer
(v) Lines joining places with the same pressure. (g) Anemometer
(h) Oktas
se
(vi) The rate at which air temperature decreases with al-
titude. (i) Barometer
(j) Stevenson’s screen
(vii) Wind blowing from the sea to the land.
(k) Sleet
(viii) Mixture of snow and rain.
U (l) Sea breeze
(m) Lapse rate
(ix) Units for measuring amount of cloud cover.
(n) Land breeze
e
(x) Rain formed when two air masses of different (o) Hail
characteristics meet.
(p) Prevailing wind
in
(q) Cyclonic Rainfall

(r) Relief Rainfall
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(s) Convectional Rainfall

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Climate Climate is the average weather conditions

At the beginning of this chapter, you were of a place observed and recorded over a
introduced to the concept of weather and long period of time, usually over 30 years.
climate. You have learned about weather,
its elements and how they are measured. The climate of a particular place is
Fo
In this section, you will learn about the determined by the latitude and tilt of the
meaning of climate, factors that determine earth on its axis, distribution of land,
climate, relationships between weather sea and ocean currents, altitude and
and climate, and types of climate and their topography, prevailing winds, the nature
relationship with human activities. of earth’s surface and vegetation.

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Relationship between climate and (iv) Both contribute to the survival and
weather distribution of living organisms.
Climate and weather are closely related
Climate and weather differ in the
because climate is established by a study of
following ways:
the average conditions of the elements of
(i) Weather refers to the condition
y
weather. Any change in weather condition
overtime has an influence on climatic of the atmosphere recorded over
nl
changes in the same place. In determining a short period of time (minute to
the climate of an area, the mean values minute, hour to hour and day to day)
of each of the elements of weather whereas climate is a condition of
O
are recorded each year for 30 years or the atmosphere recorded over a long
more. The mean values are summed and period of time usually 30 years or
the average calculated by dividing the more.
total value for each element by the total (ii) Weather can change quickly whereas
se
number of years for which the values were climate changes more gradually and
recorded. takes a long time for its changes to be
The average values obtained are used established.
to describe the climate of an area. For (iii) Weather forecasting is based on short-
example, if the average annual rainfall is
U term recorded weather elements
1800 mm and temperature is 31°C, then it whereas climate projections require
can be concluded that the climate of the weather data that have been recorded
area is characterised by high rainfall and over a long time.
e
high temperature. If the average annual
(iv) The description of weather is based on
rainfall is 400 mm and temperature is
in
a small area whereas that of climate is

31°C, then it can be concluded that the based on a large area.
area is characterised by low rainfall and
(v) The scientific study of weather is
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high temperature. The description of the

climate of an area includes also the values called meteorology whereas that of
such as humidity, pressure and wind. climate is called climatology.
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Similarities and differences between (vi) Weather may involve one or two
weather and climate conditions of the atmosphere whereas
Climate and weather are similar in the climate includes many conditions of
following ways: the atmosphere such as temperature,
(i) Both describe atmospheric conditions precipitation, wind, humidity, cloud
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of an area. cover and atmospheric pressure.

(ii) Both are determined by the same (vii) Climate has distinct seasons such as
elements. hot and wet or cool and dry seasons
(iii) Both determine socio-economic whereas weather changes occur on a
activities of an area. day-to-day basis.

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Types of climate and their relationship (vi) There are no seasons because
with human activities the latitudinal belt lies under the
Doldrums low pressure all the year
Our world has some regions which are round.
hot and others are cold, some are very dry
while others have plenty of rainfall all the (vii) The natural vegetation in this region
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year round. It is not surprising to find that is a thick forest called selva, the
forest is always green with interlaced
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in one country there are different climates.
The different climatic conditions support canopy.
different human activities. Basically, there Table 4.5 Hypothetical data for an
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are five climatic conditions as follows: equatorial climate
Month Temperature Rainfall(mm)
The equatorial climate
J 23 200
This type of climate occurs between 5o
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North and to 5o South of the equator. F 24 338
Places which experience equatorial climate M 24 433

include; the Congo basin in Central Africa, A 24 355
the costal low lands of Gulf of Guinea in
West Africa and the Amazon Basin in South
U M 24 275
J 24 230
America. The characteristics of equatorial
J 26 160
climate are:
26 70
e
A
(i) High temperature throughout the year S 27 25
with an average daily temperature of
in
O 26 15
26 oC.
N 26 50
(ii) Heavy rainfall throughout the year 24 230
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D
and generally accompanied by
lightning and thunderstorms.
Human activities in the equatorial
(iii) High humidity throughout the year climate are:
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due to high temperature and extensive (i) Crop cultivation is practised due to the
cloud cover. presence of enough rainfall and fertile
soil. Example of crops cultivated
(iv) The diurnal temperature range is
include cocoa in Ghana, palm oil in
between 6 oC and 8 oC, which is
Nigeria and rubber in Liberia.
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greater than the annual range of about

3 oC. (ii) Fishing activities are also conducted
due to the presence of large water
(v) The mid-day sun is always near the bodies such as River Congo, Zambezi,
vertical and is overhead twice a year, Limpopo and Amazon lakes.
at equinoxes.

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(iii) Lumbering activities are also done Table 4.6 Hypothetical data for a
due to the presence of thick forests tropical or savannah climate
and woodland which provide building Month Temperature (°C) Rainfall(mm)
materials. For example, the Congo and J 28 250
Amazon forest. F 26 208
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(iv) Tourism activities also are conducted M 26 208
in the equatorial climate because A 26 100
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of having tourist attraction features M 25 55
like forests and wild animals such J 24 15
as crocodiles, leopards, monkeys,
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J 26 10
gorillas and hippopotamus. A 28 30
S 28 48
The tropical climate or the savannah
climate O 27 110
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N 23 145
This type of climate occurs between 5o D 26 200
and 15o north and south of the equator. It
is developed in East and Central Africa, Human activities in the tropical climate
east coast of Brazil, the lowlands of
Uor savannah climate:
(i) Livestock-keeping is carried out due
Central America and Central Australia.
to the presence of enough grasses
The characteristics of tropical or Savannah
which are the main source of food
climate include: for the livestock. Examples of animal
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(i) High temperature with an annual range kept include; cattle and goats.
in
of about 8 oC. The average temperature (ii) Crop cultivation is also conducted
for the hot season is 29 oC and cooler with both cereal crops and cash crops
such as beans, maize, millet, coffee
season average temperature is 21 oC.
and cotton being grown together to
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Maximum temperature occurs when provide food and raw materials for the
the sun is in an overhead position. manufacturing industries.
(ii) Heavy rain, mainly convectional (iii) Tourism activities are also carried out
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because of different tourist attractions

type, fall in the hot season. The cool
such as the Serengeti, Ruaha and
season is dry. The amount of rainfall Mikumi National Parks. There is
decreases with the increase in distance also Ngorongoro conservation area
from the equator. in Tanzania where animals such as
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elephants, zebras, giraffes and lions

(iii) Low humidity during dry season. are found.
(iv) The vegetation of this region is called (iv) Hunting and gathering are carried out
in this region because of enough wild
the savannah which is characterised
animals, birds, and collection of fruits
by tall grasses and scattered trees. and eggs from the forest.

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The hot desert climate Human activities in the hot desert

Hot deserts are located on western margins climate:
of land masses between 20o and 30o North (i) Crop cultivation is conducted under
and South of the equator. Hot desert occupies irrigation due to the presence of little
about one third of the earth’s surface. Most or no rainfall. Few crops are cultivated
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deserts experience a temperature of about such as date and palms which are
40 oC in day time. Nights are cold with cultivated near oases.
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temperatures as low as 16 oC. The major
world deserts are the Sahara deserts in (ii)
Livestock-keeping is practiced
Africa; the California desert in North whereby donkeys, camels and goats
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America; the Atacama desert in South are kept as source of food.
America; the Arabian deserts in Asia and
(iii)
Hunting and gathering is also
Great Australian desert. The characteristics
conducted in this region.
of hot desert climate are:
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(i) Temperature varies from 29 oC in the Mediterranean climate
hot season to 10 oC in the cool season. The Mediterranean climate occurs in
(ii) There is no cloud cover therefore day the area between 30o and 45oN and 30o
temperatures go over 38 oC. At night, to 40oS. The climate is best developed
radiation is rapid and temperature
U around the shores of the Mediterranean
can fall to 5 oC. Diurnal temperature Sea, in south West Africa, Central Chile,
ranges are therefore very high. Central California and south-west and
southern Australia and South Africa (Cape
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(iii) Rainfall rarely falls. The average Province). The Mediterranean climate has
annual fall is usually below 120 mm. the following characteristics:
in
Table 4.7 Hypothetical data for a (i) Temperatures range from 21 oC in

desert climate summer to 10 oC in winter.
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Month Temperature (°C) Rainfall(mm)

J 13.3 2.5 (ii) Winters are rainy and mildly, and
F 16.1 2.5 at times can cause floods. Onshore
western winds bring cyclonic rainfall.
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M 20 0
The annual rainfall ranges from 500
A 25 0 mm to 760 mm
M 28.9 0
J 35 0 (iii) Summers are hot and dry, the sky is
J 36.7 2.5 cloudless and humidity is low.
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A 35.8 0 (iv) Off-shore trade winds blow in summer.

S 32.8 0 These winds are dry and give no rain.
O 26.7 5
(v) The vegetation of this climate is
N 19.1 2.5
evergreen with open woodlands
D 14.4 15 coupled with scattered trees.

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Table 4.8 Hypothetical data for a Med- has the following characteristics:
iterranean climate
(i) The region experiences very low
Month Temperature (°C) Rainfall(mm)
temperature ranging from -29 oC to
J 22 18
-40 oC in Winter and 10 o C in Summer.
F 22 15 The annual range varies from 39 oC to
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M 21 23 50 oC.
18 46
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A
M 16 95 (ii) The annual precipitation is about 250
J 14 111 mm. This precipitation is in a form of
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J 13 96 snow in winter and rain in the summer.
A 14 88
(iii) Humidity is low because of low
S 17 56
temperatures.
O 20 41
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N 17 27 (iv) The natural vegetation consists of
D 13 94 mosses, lichens, sedges and grasses.
The Arctic scrub vegetation which
Human activities in the mediterranean tolerates such climate conditions.
climate
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(i) Crop cultivation is carried out, where Table 4.9 Hypothetical data for tundra
by wheat, maize, and potatoes as well climate
as fruits especially citrus are cultivated Month Temperature (°C) Rainfall(mm)
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in the cape province of South Africa. J -18.9 7.6
-17.2 5
in
F
(ii) Lumbering activities are also M -10.6 7.6
conducted due to the presence of A 0.5 10.2
evergreen forests, woodlands and 10.5 25.4
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M
scattered trees. J 16.7 35.6
(iii) Tourism activities are also conducted J 19.4 45.6
in this area due to good climatic 16.1 40.6
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A
conditions associated with sunny as
S 10 22.9
well as the presence of sandy beaches
which attract tourists. O 1.7 22.9
N -8.9 17.8
Tundra climate D -15.6 15.2
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The Tundra climate is found between 45º

and 90º North and South of equator. This Human activities in the tundra climate
region is very cold and covered with ice The tundra region, where there are low
sheet. It is best developed in northern temperatures, short summers and frozen
Canada and northern Asia. Tundra climate soils, does not allow crop growing. As a

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result, the natural human activities carried floods. This may cause food and water
out in the area are hunting, fishing and shortage due to severe drought. Water
rearing of reindeers and sheep. shortage may affect water availability
for domestic, industrial and agricultural
Factors for climate change activities; and deterioration of human
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Climate change is the significant change health. For instance very high temperature
in average weather conditions observed may cause skin cancer and dehydration.
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after a long period of time, usually 30 Floods may promote increased prevalence
years or more. Climate change is caused of vector-borne diseases such as malaria.
by natural and human factors. Natural
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Generally, climate change contribute to
factors include volcanic eruption and
earthquake. Human factors include poverty. Some measures of addressing
deforestation and burning of fossil climate change include promoting
fuels like diesels, coal, and petroleum. good agricultural practices, conserving
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Human activities like industries environment and minimizing emissions of
and transportation emit greenhouse greenhouse gases.
gases such as carbon and methane.
Greenhouse gases contribute to increase Exercise 4.6
in temperature. Increase in temperature
U
affects other weather conditions such as A:1. Define the following terms:
precipitation. If changes in temperature Temperature, air pressure
and other weather conditions are and wind.
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maintained for 30 years or more, it
2. Explain the relationship between
results into climate change.
in
weather and climate.

Impact of climate change on human 3. Outline four impact of climate
change on human activities.
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activities
Humans face several challenges for
survival due to climate change. More B: Write T if the statement is True
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frequently, the common climate change and F if the statement is False:

includes phenomena such as: an intense 1. Generally, areas along the equator
drought, floods, storms, melting glaciers, receive more rainfall than other
heavy rains, warming oceans and rising areas.
of sea levels. These may directly or 2. Low altitude areas are warmer
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indirectly affect natural and human than high altitude areas.

systems.
3. Cold ocean currents are associated
Impact of climate change include:
with lack of rainfall over the
decline in crop, livestock and fishery adjacent coasts.
production due to severe droughts and

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4. Temperature over the earth’s D: Carefully study the climatic data

surface increases as one moves in the table below and answer the
towards the North and South questions that follow:
Poles.
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5. Weather and climate are not Months Temp °C Rainfall(mm)
related. J 9 102
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F 10 66
6. Climate is the average weather
M 11 84
condition of a place as observed
over a long period of not less than 2 51
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A
30 years. M 16 42
7. Lapse rate is the gradual decrease J 20 18
or increase in temperature as 23 3
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J
altitude increases or decreases.
A 24 3
C: In the following items, choose the S 21 31
letter of the correct answer: O 18 86
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1. The climate of a place influences N 14 104
the……………of that place. D 11 112
(a) temperature
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(i) Calculate the annual range of
(b) weather
temperature for the station.
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(c) humidity
(ii) Calculate the mean annual
(d) natural vegetation
temperature.
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(e) landscape
(iii) Calculate the total annual rainfall.
2. Altitude influences……………
of a place. (iv) Draw a climograph to present the
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data and comment on the nature

(a) temperature of the climate.
(b) clouds and sunshine (v) Mention four vegetation types

found in the station.
(c) humidity and precipitation
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(vi) What are the major economic

(d) wind speed and wind direction activities conducted in the
(e) longitude and latitude station?

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Chapter
Five
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Map work
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Introduction
A map is an important tool for studying Geography. It represents information about

locations, distances, distributions, areas, and directions of various features. In this
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chapter, you will learn about concept of map, components of map, quantitative
information on maps and uses of maps. You will also learn how to use maps in
your daily activities. U
The concept of a map Activity 5.1
The word “map” comes from two
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On a piece of paper:
Medieval Latin words “mappa mundi”
whereby “mappa” means napkin or (a) Draw a map of your
in
cloth and “mundi” the world. Thus, classroom.

map is a short form of “mappa mundi”
(b) Draw a map of your school.
to refer to a representation of the surface
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of the earth on the flat surface such

as a paper, wall and cloth or wood. It
represents a whole or part of an area of
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Types of maps
the earth’s surface as viewed vertically
There are two common types of maps.
from above. All maps are drawn using
These are topographical and statistical
scales. The information given on a map
maps. A map that shows important
is shown using conventional signs and
natural and man-made features is known
symbols that are interpreted by the use
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as a topographical map. Topographical

of a key. A person who makes maps
maps are very useful for geographers,
is called a cartographer whereas the
students, tourists, engineers, ecologists,
science of making maps is known as
geologists and soldiers (Figure 5.1).
cartography.

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Some maps show

the distribution of
various geographical
phenomena such as
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rainfall, temperature,
pressure and popu
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lation. These are
known as statistical
or distribution maps
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(Figure 5.2).
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Figure 5.1 A topographical map
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in
60˚ N
40˚ N
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Tropic of Cancer
20˚ N
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0˚ Equator
20˚ S
Key:
Tropic of Capricorn Over 1524 mm
1016 - 1524 mm
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40˚ S
508 - 1016 mm
254 - 508 mm
Less than 254 mm
Figure 5.2 World rainfall distribution

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Components of a map (g) Publisher’s name tells where

A map should have the following basic the map was published and the
components: organisation that prepared it.
(a) A title that tells what the map is all
Symbols and signs
about e.g. settlement patterns of
Information on a map is represented using
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Dodoma
symbols and signs. These are called the
(b) A key or legend is used to interpret
alphabet of maps. With the aid of a key,
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the signs and symbols used on the
one can interpret or read a given map.
map.
Symbols usually look like the features
(c) A margin or frame that bounds the
they represent, but signs do not (Figure
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map area
5.3(a) and (b)). Most of the symbols are
(d) An indication of the North direction pictorial whereas signs are conventional.
This allows the viewer to determine A conventional sign is a standard symbol
the direction of the map in relation used on a map and explained in the key to
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to the true north (direction towards show a definite meaning. For example, a
the North Pole). dot represents a town or settlement. Signs
(e) A scale showing the relationship and symbols are used to improve the
between the distance on the map
U reading and interpretation of maps. Various
and that on the ground e.g. 1:50000 symbols are used to represent features
1 such as buildings, mines, forests, rivers
or
50000 and lakes. Features may be represented
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(f) Date of production tells how old using colours of the actual features. For
the map is, and hence how current instance, vegetation is represented using
in
the information is e.g. settlement green whereas water is represented using

patterns of Dodoma (2018). blue.
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Figure 5.3(a) Some of the symbols used on maps

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Figure 5.3(b) Some of the signs used on maps
Exercise 5.1 proportion, let us say 1:100. In this case,

one centimetre in the exercise-book
Using any topographical map,
U represents one metre on the ground. Note
(a) name all components of maps that the word “represents” and not “equal”
(b) draw and label signs and symbols is used because the line in the exercise-
e
used. book is 10 centimetres and not 10 metres.
Thus, a 10- metre distance on the ground
can be represented by a 10- centimetre line
in
Map scale
in an exercise-book.
A scale of a map is the ratio between
the distance measured on the map (map Types of map scales
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distance) and its corresponding actual

The size of the area covered helps to
distance on the ground (actual ground
determine the scale of a map. Map
distance). A map scale is calculated using
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scales are commonly presented by a

the following formula:
representative fraction such as 1:10000.
Map distance Map scales are grouped into three types:
Map scale = small-scale, medium-scale and large-
Actual ground distance
scale.
Imagine if one were to draw a line of
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10 metres long in an exercise-book. Small-scale

This would be impossible because the Asmall-scale has a large denominator in its
exercise-book is smaller than the length representative fraction. Examples of small-
required. One could only draw this line scales include 1:250000, 1:500000, and
by representing that distance in a known 1:1000000. When a small-scale is used to

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draw a map, it produces a small-scale map. Small scale maps are used to represent large
ground areas, with few details such as distribution of continents only (see Figure 3.1
in chapter three), major water bodies only (see Figure 3.9 in chapter three), or relief
features only (see Figure 3.7 in chapter three). Examples of small-scale maps are maps
of countries, continents and the world (Figure 5.4).
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Figure 5.4 Distribution of continents
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Medium-scale
A medium-scale has a
in
medium denominator.
These are scales of
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1:50000, 1: 100000 and

1:125000.
Medium-scale maps
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are used to represent

ground areas which
are neither too large
nor too small. They
show a considerable
amount of details.
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Examples of medium-
scale maps include maps
of districts, regions and
cities (Figure 5.5). Figure 5.5 Administrative unit of Dodoma district

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Large-scale Examples of large-scale maps include

maps of buildings such as hospitals and
A large-scale has a small denominator. For schools. Others are farms, estates and
example, scales of 1:25000, 1:10000 and villages. A map of a building will have a
1:5000. Large-scale maps represent small larger scale than that of a village. It will
areas and are more detailed. The larger
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show all the details including doors,
the scale, the more the details provided. windows and rooms (Figure 5.6).
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in
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Scale 1:500
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Figure 5.6 A map of a school
Expressing map scales

Map scales are expressed in three ways:
(a) As a statement: The scale is presented in a form of a statement. For example, one
centimetre on the map represents one hundred metres on the ground.

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(b) As a Representative Fraction (RF): (c) As a linear scale: This scale is

The scale is presented as a fraction presented using a graduated line
1
or a ratio such as 10000 whereby 1 is which shows measurements of maps
representing units on the ground
numerator and 10000 is denominator (Figure 5.7). A linear scale is a line
or 1:10000. This means 1 unit on the
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with secondary and primary divisions.
map represents 10000 units on the The secondary divisions indicate
ground. These units can be any unit
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the numbers that have values of less
of measurement such as centimetres,
than 1 unit such as a kilometre. They
metres and kilometres. The unit of
are placed on the left-hand side and
measurement used on the map must
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written in metres (m) as fractions of a
be the same as the one used on the
kilometre (km). The primary divisions,
ground. Therefore, the numerator and
the denominator should use the same which are placed on the right-hand side
are in kilometres.
units of measurements.
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Figure 5.7 A linear scale
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Conversion of scales Converting a representative fraction
in
scale into a statement scale

Scales of maps can be expressed in more
Scales in form of Representative Fractions
than one way. It is even easier to convert
(RF) can also be converted into a statement
a scale from one form into the other. A
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form. For example, when converting RF

scale represented as a statement: ie ‘one
of 1:50000 into a statement scales, the
centimetre represents one kilometre’ procedure will be as follows:
can be converted into a representative
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fraction. It can also be presented in a

Divide the denominator (50000) by
linear scale. For example, the statement
100000 (actual number of cm in km)
scale ‘one centimetre on a map represents
one hundred thousand centimetres on Scale =
Map distance
the ground’ can be presented in ratio
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as 1:100000 or fraction. It can also be 50000 cm
converted into a linear scale. In this Actual ground distance × 1 km
100000 cm
case, one centimetre will represent one
kilometre on the linear scale. Ground distance = 0.5 km

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Therefore, the statement is one centimetre

on the map represents half a kilometre
on the ground.
Converting representative fraction or 2 cm to 1 km.

scale into a linear scale
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(iii) Draw a straight line and sub-
Scales in form of Representative Fractions
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(RF) can also be converted into linear divide it into divisions of two
scales. For example, to convert 1:50000 centimetres each. The divisions
into a linear scale follow the following are primary divisions.
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procedures: (iv) Sub-divide the first division into
secondary divisions (halves or
(i) Convert the R.F scale into statement
quarters or one-tenths).
scale
(v) Number the primary divisions
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(ii) Calculate how many cm will
represent 1 km. from 0 rightward, that is 0, 1, 2,
3… and label them in km.
Since 1km = 100000 cm
(vi) Number the secondary divisions
? = 50000 cm
U from 0 leftward, that is, 0, 250,
1km x 50000 cm 500, 750 and 1000 and label them
=
100000 cm in metres.
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in
Figure 5.8 A linear scale to measure 2 cm to 1 km

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Converting a linear scale into a

2 cm
representative fraction scale Scale =
100000 cm
Using a ruler, measure the length of one
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1
portion of the linear scale. The result Scale = or 1:50000
50000
obtained in centimetres will be the
map distance. The length expressed in
kilometres on the linear scale is the ground Exercise 5.2
distance.
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Example, a scale of 2 cm to 1 km, 1. Convert the following statement

given that: scale into an RF scale:
1 km = 100000 cm (a) One centimetre to five
Map distance kilometres
Scale =

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(b) Two centimetres to twenty-five Measurement of distance on maps

kilometres To obtain measurements of actual
2. Present the following distances on a map, a linear, representative
representative fraction into a or statement scale given on the map is
linear scale: used. In measuring distances there are
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two main types: straight distances and
(a) 1:500 (b) 1:1000 (c) 1:75000
distances which are not straight.
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Measuring straight distances
Uses of scale
Maps represent man-made and natural Straight distances on a map can be
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features. Some of the features on the measured using a piece of paper, a cotton
ground are very large and, thus, cannot thread, a measuring tape, a ruler or a pair
be drawn in their actual size on a piece of dividers. Measuring a straight distance
of paper or flat wood. Cartographers use on a map using a piece of paper is done as
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scales to draw maps. The scales determine follows:
the contents of a given map. For example,
(i) Draw a straight line which joins
large-scale maps are more detailed than
two points A and B of the distance
small-scale maps. A scale is also used to
calculate area and distance on a map.
U to be measured.
Differences between small-scale map

and large-scale map
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(i) A small-scale map represents a large
area on the earth’s surface whereas Figure 5.9 A straight line joining points A and B
in
a large-scale map represents a small

area on the earth’s surface. (ii) Take a piece of paper, fold it to form
a straight edge. Lay the edge along
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(ii) A small-scale map shows fewer the line AB and mark the exact
details on a map whereas a large- length of the line on the edge of the
scale map shows more details. paper, that is, the exact locations of
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(iii) A small-scale map is represented points A and B (Figure 5.10).

by a large denominator whereas a A B
large-scale map is represented by a
small denominator.
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Quantitative information on maps

In working with maps, we use numbers
to show distances, lengths, width and
Figure 5.10 Line AB and a folded
heights. These numbers are known as
piece of paper
quantitative map information.

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(iii) Transfer the paper to the linear scale so that the left-hand mark is on 0 (zero). The
right-hand mark B falls on 2 km. Alternatively, using a ruler, you can measure
the length on the paper from where you started to the last mark on the paper.
For instance the distance is 17 centimetres and the scale is 1:50000. Convert the
distance obtained on the map (17 cm) into ground distance.
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Figure 5.11 A linear scale and a line AB measuring 2 km
Note that 1 cm on the scale represents 0.5 kilometres. Therefore, the distance of the
route between A and B is 8.5 kilometres.
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Measuring distances which are not straight (curved)
Distance along a river, a road or a railway, which are normally not straight, can be
e
measured using a pair of dividers, a straight piece of paper and a thread or string.
in
Using a pair of dividers

A pair of dividers can be used to obtain the distance.
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Procedures:
(i) Identify the two points to be measured, for example, points A and B.
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(ii) Divide the length to be measured into short, generally straight portions.
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Figure 5.12 A curved length to be measured

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(iii) Use a pair of dividers to determine the length of each division, one after another.
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Figure 5.13 A curved length to be measured and a pair of dividers
(iv) Measure the length of each division as determined by the pair of dividers on a
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ruler and record it on a piece of paper.
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Figure 5.14 A ruler and a pair of dividers
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(v) Add all the measured distances to obtain the total distance from point A to B.
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(vi) Convert the distance obtained into ground distance using the scale of the map.
Using a piece of paper

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Another way of measuring distances on a map that are not straight is to use a piece of
paper with a straight edge. This is done through the following procedures:
(i) Identify the two points to be measured.
(ii) Divide the length to be measured into short, generally straight portions.
Fo
(iii) Lay one corner of the straight edge of the paper on point A. Mark with your
pencil short straight distances on the paper and on the map repeatedly until you
reach point B. (Figure 5.15).

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A
B
y
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Figure 5.15 A piece of paper with a straight edge
(iv) Remove the marked paper and Measurement of areas on a map

read the distance straight from
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point A to B using a ruler. Regular shapes
Different features on maps may
(v) Then, calculate the actual
appear in various regular shapes,
distance using the RF scale or
such as rectangles, squares,
read the distance straight from
triangles and circles.
the linear scale. If this distance
U
is 20 centimetres and the scale (a) Area of a square
is 1:100000 (1 centimetre to 1
kilometre), then the distance of
e
the route between A and B is 20
kilometres.
in
Using a cotton thread or string 3 cm
Sometimes a piece of cotton thread or

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string is used. The thread is laid along

the route following the bends. This can be
done using the following procedures: 3 cm
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(i) Mark the two end-points, for Figure 5.16 A square

example, A and B.
(ii) Mark on the thread or string Procedures:
with ink or a pen. (i) Measure the length of the sides
Fo
(iii) Trace the measured line with a of the square (S) (Figure 5.1)
thread from point A to B (ii) Find the area by multiplying
(iv) Remove the thread or string side by side (S × S).
and read the distance straight Therefore, the area on the map
from the linear scale. =3 cm × 3 cm = 9c m2

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(iii) Convert the map area into a For example, using Figure 5.17,
ground area. measure the area of rectangle.
Assuming the scale of the Area (A) = L × W
map is 1:50000 (that is,
where L is length and W is width.
1cm represents 0.5 km on the
Area on a map = 5 cm × 3 cm
y
ground).
Therefore, = 15 cm2
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1 cm×1cm =1 cm2 (on the map) Assuming the scale of a map is
0.5 km × 0.5 km = 0.25 km2 1:50000, conversion of the area of
(on the ground) the map into an area on the ground
O
is done as follows:
that is, 1 cm2 to 0.25 km2.
If 1 cm2 represents 0.25 km2, If 1 cm2 represents 0.25 km2
9 cm2 will represents how
se
15 cm2 will represents how many km2?
many km2?
By cross-multiplication:
By cross-multiplication:
9c m 2 x 0.25 km 2
=
U
1c m 2 = 3.75 km2
= 2.25 km 2 Therefore, the area on the ground is
3.75 km2
e
Therefore, the area on the
ground is 2.25 km2. (c) Area of a triangle
in
(b) Area of a rectangle

5 cm
4 cm
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3 cm
8 cm
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Figure 5.18 A triangle

Figure 5.17 A rectangle
Procedures
Procedures: (i) Measure the length of the base
(i) Measure the length and width of of the triangle and convert it into
Fo
the rectangle. ground distance.

(ii) Use the formula to find the area of (ii) Measure the length of the
a rectangle. perpendicular height from the base
(iii) Convert the map area into a to the apex, and convert it into
ground area. ground distance.

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(iii) Use the formula to find the area of complete squares.

a triangle. (v) Add all the complete squares to
For example, find an area of a get the total number of complete
triangle using Figure 5.18 squares.
1 (vi) Measure the length of one side
y
Area(A) = bh of the square.
2
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Whereb = base,h = height
1
= x8 cm x4 cm
2
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= 16 cm 2
Hence, the area of the triangle on
the map = 16 cm2
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If the scale of a map is 1:100000
(1cm represents 1km) Then, 8
cm represents 8 km and 4 cm
represents 4 km.
U
Therefore, the area of the triangle
on the ground will be 16 km2.
Key:
e
Irregular shapes
There are three ways of determining = Complete square,
areas of irregular shapes on
in
X = Incomplete square
maps, namely; square or tracing,
construction of geometrical figures Figure 5.19 Square method for an
and stripping methods. irregular shape
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(a) Square or tracing method

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Procedures (see Figure 5.19) Solution

(i) Trace the outline of the area on (i) According to the irregular shape
a graph paper. provided, the number of complete
(ii) Using a sharp pencil, trace the squares = 2
outline of the figure whose area (ii) Number of incomplete squares
Fo
you want to determine. 16

= =8
(iii) Count all the complete squares. 2
(iv)
Count all the incomplete (iii) Total number of squares =
squares, and then divide the Full + Incomplete squares
resulting amount by 2 to get 2 + 8 = 10

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Given (v) Find the area of one square using

Map scale: 1:50000 that is, 2 the map scale provided.
cm represents 1 km. The area If; 1 cm =
1
km
of a single square on the map is 2
2 cm =?
calculated as 2 cm × 2 cm = 4 cm2
y
2 cm = 1 km
Calculate an area of a corresponding Area =L2
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square on the ground as 1 km × 1 km
= 1 km2. Note that 2 cm represents
1km. Therefore, 4 cm2 represents
O
1 km
1 km2, which means that 1 square
represents 1 km2.
se
The number of complete squares in
the figure = 2, whereas the number 1 km
of incomplete squares = 16
Area=1km x 1km

U
The area on the ground is, therefore,
calculated as: Area =1km2
Area =
From 1square =1km2
e
incomplete squares
(complete sqares + ) 10 squares =?
2

x1 km 2 10 squares x 1 km 2
in
1 square
Map scale 1:50000
= 10 km2
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(iv) Convert the R.F scale into statement

scale The area of irregular shape is
1
i.e. 1:50000 becomes 1cm= or 10 km2
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2
2 cm =1km
(b) Construction of geometrical figures
The area is divided into geometrical
2 cm figures whose area can be calculated by
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using the formulae for calculating areas

of squares, rectangles and triangles
2 cm or a combination of two or three
Area= L x W = L x L geometrical shapes (Figure 5.20).

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(ii) Draw strips or long narrow

triangles with regular width across
the figure and assign a number to
each rectangle. Lengths will be
different. See Figure 5.21 for an
y
example.
(iii) Calculate the area of the numbered
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strips by multiplying the length by
Figure 5.20 Geometrical figure width of each. The area should be
in the same units of the scale of
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Procedures: the map.
(i) Trace the figure required from a (iv) Add all the areas of the numbered
given map. strips measured.
se
(ii) Divide the traced shape into
squares, triangles, rectangles or
circles. Try as much as possible
to include all areas in the divided
shapes (Figure 5.20).
U
(iii) Calculate the areas of the regular
shapes independently.
e
(iv) The area should be in the same

units of the scale of the map. Figure 5.21 Strip figure
in
(v) Add all the areas of regular shapes

measured. Activity 5.2
Therefore, the area of an irregular
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figure is obtained by adding areas Use any simple topographical map to

of the constructed figures. The do the following activities:
procedure for determining the i. Measure a distance of any linear
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actual area will be the same as in feature (river, railway, road) seen
the calculation of areas for squares, in the topographical map
rectangles and triangles. ii. Calculate the area of the whole
(c) Strip method map in km2
Fo
Procedures Locating positions on a map

(i) Trace the shape of the A position is a place where someone or an
irregular area of the map to object such as a physical feature is located.
be measured on a piece of A position of a feature can be located
paper. in different ways such as place names,

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latitudes and longitudes, grid-reference Procedures for finding bearing of place B

system, compass bearing and direction. from A is as follows:
Place name (i) Mark the two points A and B (Figure

Using names of places is the simplest way 5.23)
of identifying a position on a map. This
y
method allows for places to be known, B
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for example, Dodoma, Dar es Salaam and
Musoma.
Latitudes and Longitudes A
O
These are angular lines which are measured
in degrees. Latitudes and longitudes are
used to locate the position of places and Figure 5.23 Location of points
features on the maps. For example, Dar A and B
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es Salaam is located on latitude 7°S and
longitude 39°E. (ii) Draw a straight line to join points
Compass bearing A and B. Through point A draw a
Compass bearing is the direction of one straight line from North to South
point from another, expressed as an angle
U (Figure 5.24).
from North clockwise. A prismatic compass
is used to measure bearing. Direction is B
measured along 360° of a circle. It is a
e
N
good practice to express bearing in three
figures, for example, 0° is expressed as
in
000° and 85°as 085°. On Figure 5.22, the

compass bearing of place A from C is 045°;
A E
and that of B from C is 207°. W
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Figure 5.24 Joining points A and B
(iii) Using a protractor, measure the

angle from North clockwise, to
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point B as shown in Figure 5.25

to obtain the bearing of B from A.
The same procedure can be used to
Figure 5.22 Compass bearing of A find the bearing of A from B.
from C and B from C

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eight (Figure 5.27) and sixteen (Figure

5.28) compass directions.
y
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O
Figure 5.25 Measuring an angle by using
a protractor
o
Figure 5.26 Cardinal points of a compass
Point B bears 055 from A and lies in the
se
North east.
Activity 5.3 U
B
C
e
A
in
Figure X Figure 5.27 Eight compass directions

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From Figure X, find the bearing of the

following points:
(i) C from D (ii) D from C

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(iii) B from A (iv) A from B
Direction
WSW
Direction is used to determine the position
Fo
of a place. Direction is determined by a

horizontal angular measurement at a point.
The main directions or cardinal points are
North, East, South and West (Figure 5.26).
Figure 5.28 Sixteen compass directions
These cardinal points can be divided into

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The North direction The True North

The North direction on a map is indicated The True North is the direction towards
in three ways. These are Magnetic North, the North Pole from any place on the
True North and Grid North (Figure 5.29). earth’s surface. The earth’s axis always
points to the northern star over the North
y
Grid North
True North
Magnetic North
Pole. The North Pole is, therefore, used as
a reference point for the True North.
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Grid North
O
The Grid North is shown by vertical lines
(Figure 5.31). It is a straight up arrow
pointing North on the map. Sometimes
10 57 30 41 arrows are drawn on a map to show all
se
three types of norths. When reading
Figure 5.29 North direction directions on maps, the True North is
usually used.
Magnetic North
Magnetic North is determined by using an
U
instrument called a compass. The compass
has a suspended magnetic needle which
swings freely and points to the North
e
when it settles. The direction to which
the compass needle points is called the
in
Magnetic North (Figure 5.30).

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Figure 5.31 Grid lines showing the

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north direction
Orientation
Orientation is the relationship between the
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direction on the map and the corresponding

compass direction in reality. A map
represents the real world. By orienting
Figure 5.30 A Compass a map, you are positioning it so that its
North is actually pointing northwards.

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Alignment Grid lines help map users locate and

Alignment is the general direction in which describe the specific position of features
a long feature lies. Such long features are such as a town, a school or others on a
rivers, roads and railway lines. Alignment topographical map.
is shown in cardinal points. For example,
When reading grid reference to identify
y
South, South-west (Figure 5.32).
the location of a point on a map, six digits
Trend are used. Readings start with three Easting
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A trend is the general direction of a linear digits, then three Northing digits.
geographical feature. A feature is best 31 32 33 34 435 36
described by stating both directions in 44 44
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which it lies. For example, the road runs
from ‘East South East (ESE) to West North 43 43
West (WNW)’ or the trend of the road is 4 B (324424)

114o -294o and vice-versa (Figure 5.32).
se
42 42
A (350410)
U 41 41
40 40
Eastings
39 39
e
Northings
38 38
31 32 33 34 35 36
in
Figure 5.33 Grid references

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Figure 5.32 The trend of the road Figure 5.33 shows how to use grid lines to
locate points A and B. The Easting line 35
Grid references passes exactly at point A; therefore, the
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Grid references are map reference lines Easting reading is 350. The Northing line
indicating a location in terms of a series 41 also passes exactly at point A, then
of gridlines identified by numbers. its Northing reading is 410. Therefore,
The grid numbers on the West–East the grid reference for point A is 350410.
(Horizontal) axis are called Northings and Point B on the map is found between the
they increase towards the North whereas Eastings 32 and 33. Also, it is between
Fo
the grid numbers on the South–North the Northings 42 and 43. Between any
(vertical) axis are called Eastings and they two successive lines, there are 10 sub-
increase towards the East. The lines are divisions. The Easting reading for point
numbered and form squares on the map B is 324. The first two numbers, 3 and 2
(Figure 5.32). refer to the main Easting reference while

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the third number, 4 refers to the exact

Exercise 5.3
position of point B.
The Northing reading is 424 where the Follow the instructions provided to
first two numbers 4 and 2 refer to the main answer the questions that follow:
Northing reference whereas the third 1. Using the map scale of 1:50000
y
number 4 is the exact position where point calculate the distance of
B is located. The next step is to combine (a) Road with 20 cm on the map
nl
Eastings and Northings. Therefore, the grid (b) Railway with 10 cm on the map
reference for point B is 324424. Always 2. Convert the following representative
state the Eastings before the Northings. fraction scale into statement scale:
O
Uses of maps (a) 1:100000
The use of maps depends on the type of (b) 1:50000
map. All the maps serve the same purpose
3. Use the map of Tanzania in the Atlas
of telling you where something is located
se
to determine:
in relation to its surroundings. The main
uses of maps are as follows: (a) The road distance between Dar
es Salaam and Morogoro
(i) Maps are used to show the
(b) The railway distance between
distribution of various phenomena
U Dar es Salaam and Kigoma
such as climate, population,
minerals, crops and vegetation of 4. From the topographical map given,
an area. name any five components of the
map.
e
(ii) Land planners and surveyors
5. What compass bearing is given for
use maps in planning and
the following compass directions?
in
construction of roads, railway

lines, and airports as well as the (a) ESE (b)WNW (c) NNW
location of farms and settlements. 6. State the compass direction for each
nl
(iii) Geologists use maps for geological of the following compass bearings:
surveys and mineral mapping. (a) 280° (b) 135° (c) 45°
(iv) Maps are used in military activities 7. Using dots Y and X given in the
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and warfare. box find the bearing of place Y from

(v) Maps are also used to provide place X.
information to pilots and captains
X
in aviation and navigation.
Fo
(vi) Travellers use maps to locate and

reach the intended destinations.
(vii) Maps are used as legal documents Y
to show the ownership of land,
houses and their boundaries.

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8. Study the irregular figures given and (c) Weather (d) Wind
find the area for figures A, B and C (e) Weather and wind
in square kilometres.
(ii) Physical Geography deals
with:
y
B (a) Environment that includes
A settlements and economic
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activities
(b) Trade and business
C (c) The study of the earth’s
O
natural features
(d) Driving and teaching
0 1 2 3 4 km
profession
(e) Man-made features
se
(iii) Latitude 0˚ is known as:
9. Find the compass bearing of S from
R as given below. (a) Equator
(b) Greenwich meridian
S
U
(c) Tropic of Cancer (d) Tropic
of Capricorn
(e) Arctic circle
e
R (iv) The condition of the
atmosphere over a short
in
period is:
(a) Climate
10. Describe the main procedures
(b) Meteorology
nl
followed in calculating areas with

irregular features. (c) Weather
(d) Precipitation
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(e) Wind
General Exercise
(v) Which of the following items
Answer the following questions:
is essential in measuring
1. For each of the item (i)-(x), choose distance?
(a) Compass
Fo
the correct answer and circle its letter

from the alternatives provided: (b) Key
(c) Frame
(i) The air around the earth is known
as: (d) Title
(a) Atmosphere (b) Climate (e) Scale

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(vi) Which of the following ways (a) Latitudes

of expressing scale is a ratio? (b) Longitudes
(a) Linear scale
(c) Isolines
(b) Statement scale
(d) Isohyets
(c) Medium scale
y
(e) Isobars
(d) Representative fraction
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scale
2. Read carefully the following
(e) Small scale
statements and write T if the
(vii) A glass tube filled with alcohol statement is TRUE or F if the
O
and closed on both ends used to statement is FALSE.
measure lowest temperature is (a) Geography is the study of
called: both human and physical
(a) Maximum thermometer geography.
se
(b) Minimum thermometer (b) Fold mountains are also
(c) Hygrometer known as horsts.
(d) Barometer
(c) A small-scale map shows
(e) Anemometer
U more details.
(viii) …….. is an example of block (d) Latitudes are imaginary lines
mountains in Tanzania. drawn on the earth’s surface
(a) Uluguru mountain
e
from east to west.
(b) Kilimanjaro mountain
(e) The world is divided into 24
in
(c) Himalaya mountain time zones each covering

(d) Ruwenzori mountain 15° of longitudes.
(e) Meru mountain
(f) A drainage basin refers to
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(ix) The graph, which shows both the area from which a river
temperature and rainfall system collects its water.
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characteristics, is called:
(g) Mist is a mixture of snow and
(a) Bar graph rain.
(b) Climograph
(c) Line graph (h) Temperature over the earth’s
(d) Isograph surface increases as one
moves towards the north and
Fo
(e) Isohyet
south poles.
(x) Lines drawn on weather maps
(i) Agricultural activities are not
joining places with equal
affected by climate.
amounts of rainfall are called:

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3. Match each statement in Column 4. Giving three reasons, explain why

A with its corresponding item in it is important to study Geography.
Column B:
5. State two differences between
Column A Column B
minimum and maximum
A piece of
y
(i) (a) Maximum thermometer.
land almost
surrounded thermometer
nl
6. List any four factors that
by water or (b) Minimum influence climate of an area.
projecting out thermometer
into water body (c) Large scale 7. (a) Define the term “scale”.
O
(ii) Joins places with (d) Small scale
(e) Hygrometer (b) Convert the following
the same amount
of temperature statement scales into RF
(f) Anemometer
scale:
(iii) Used to represent
se
(g) Islands
large ground (i) One centimetre represents
areas and they (h) Ocean two-and-a-half kilometres
show few details trenches on the ground
(iv) The furthest (i) Isotherms
position from the
U (ii) One centimetre represents
sun in the orbit (j) Isohyets
four kilometres on the
of the earth (k) Aphelion ground
(v) A tract of land (l) Perihelion
e
entering into a (c) Convert the following RF
(m) Great
body of water circles scales into statement scales:
in
(vi) All meridians and (n) International (i) 1:450000

the Equator (ii) 1:200000
Date Line
(vii) The ocean
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bordering Africa (o) Peninsula 8. If it is 10:00 am along meridian

to the East (p) Cape 40˚E, what will be the time along
(viii) Extensive high- (q) Indian ocean the following meridians?
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altitude areas (a) 55˚E

with more or less (r) Atlantic (b) 10˚W
uniform summit Ocean
levels (s) Plateau 9. Differentiate between:
(ix) Volcanic (t) Plains (a) Latitude and Longitude
mountains that (u) Active (b) Block mountains and fold
Fo
still experience mountains

volcanoes
periodic eruption
(v) Extinct 10. Describe the formation of cyclonic
(x) Measurement of
volcanoes rainfall.
humidity

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11. Define the following geographical (e) Calculate the mean annual
terms: rainfall of region X.
(a) Atmospheric
pressure 14.Read carefully the following
(b) Humidity statements and write T if the
y
(c) Wind statement is TRUE and F if the
(d) Sea breeze statement is FALSE
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(a) The word ‘sol’ comes from a
12. Write short notes on the following
Greek word ‘sun’.
geographical terms:
(b) All planets revolve around
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(a) Map scale
the sun.
(b) Medium-scale
(c) Large-scale (c) The Greek word “graphien”
means the earth.
(d) Small-scale
se
(d) Penumbra refers to the part
13. Study carefully the temperature and of the shadow in which the
rainfall data given for region X in light source is completely
the table below and then answer blocked.
the questions that follow:
U (e) The land occupies about
Month Temperature Rainfall 71 percent of the earth’s
(°C) (mm) surface.
J 22 8 (f) The Indian Ocean is larger
e
F 23 8 than the Pacific Ocean.
M 22 17 (g) Block mountains are also
in
A 19 43 known as horsts.
M 16 124 (h) A Stevenson screen is not
J 13 167 an essential component of a
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J 12 162 weather station.

A 13 142 (i) Ocean current is not one of
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S 14 83 the factors affecting rainfall.

O 16 53 (j) Lapse rate is the rate at which
N 18 20 air temperature falls with
D 22 15 increasing altitude.
(a) Which is the hottest month?
15. For each of the item (i)-(x) choose
Fo
(b) Which is the coldest month? and circle the correct answer from
(c) Calculate the mean annual the given alternatives.
temperature of region X. (i) The period when the sun is
(d) Calculate the annual range overhead at the equator is called
of temperature of region X.

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(a) Summer (b) Solstice (vi) Africa is bordered by

(c) Winter (d) Equinox the………………….to the West.
(e) Eclipse (a) Mediterranean Sea
(ii) The following pairs of weather (b) Atlantic Ocean
elements are correct except: (c) Pacific Ocean
y
(a) Atmospheric pressure (d) Indian Ocean
and barometer (e) Southern Ocean
nl
(b) Humidity and (vii) An example of a volcanic mountain
anemometer in the world is:
O
(c) Rainfall and rain gauge
(a) Vesuvius in Italy
(d) Wind direction and wind (b) Himalaya in Asia
vane (c) The Cape Ranges in South
(e) Sunshine and Campbell- Africa
se
Stokes sunshine (d) Mount Sinai in Middle East
recorder (e) Usambara in Tanzania
(iii) Some mountains are formed (viii) A raised part of the ocean floor is
as a result of weathering
and erosion processes. Such
U called:
(a) Ocean plain
mountains are called: (b) Ridge
(a) Horst (c) Continental shelf
e
(b) Fold mountains (d) Continental slope
(c) Mesas (e) Trench
(d) Volcanoes
in
(e) Residual mountains (ix) ………refers to the deposition of

moisture or frozen water from the
(iv) Which of the following atmosphere.
nl
instruments is used to measure

(a) Hail
air pressure?
(b) Precipitation
(a) Hygrometer
(c) Sleet
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(b) Barometer
(d) Snow
(c) Wind vane
(e) Rain
(v) ……………… is the only
planet that has been proven to (x) The side of the mountain facing the
sustain life. direction of the winds is known as:
Fo
(a) The Earth (a) Leeward side

(b) The Neptune (b) Windward side
(c) The Uranus (c) Easting
(d) The Venus (d) Northing
(e) The Mars (e) Bearing

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16. Match the statement in Column A with 17. (a) Explain the relationship
its corresponding item in Column B: between rainfall and
Column A Column B agriculture.
(b) List four activities that demand
(i) Vertical and
horizontal lines (a) Mist geographical knowledge and
y
drawn on a map skills.
(b) Hail
in equal distance
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18. Explain the differences between:
(ii) The angular (c) Continental (a) Meteors and meteorites
distance North slope (b) Solar eclipse and Lunar eclipse
O
or South of the
Equator (d) Standard (c) Dew point and relative humidity
time line (d) Precipitation and rainfall
(iii) The line where
date is changed (e) Inter 19. List five factors affecting the
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(iv) The curved path national temperature of a place.
of a celestial Date Line
object or space 20. Outline any five uses of solar
craft around a (f) Grid lines energy.
star, planet or
moon (g) Solar
U 21. With illustration describe the
formation of orographic rain.
(v) The process of system
wearing down 22. (a) Outline four differences
of soil by wind (h) Latitudes between weather and climate.
e
or other natural
agents (i) Longitudes (b) State two ways in which the
in
(vi) Prediction of the climate of Tanzania affects

(j) Comets human activities.
state of weather
in an area (k) Meteors 23. (a) Define the term weather.
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(vii) The weather

conditions (b) Name six elements of weather,
(l) Weather
prevailing in an and give brief explanation for
area over a long (m) Climate each
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period 24. (a) Describe the shape of the earth.

(viii) A steep slope (n) Weather
forecasting (b) Give three evidences that the
towards the
ocean basin earth is spherical.
(o) Deposition 25. Draw a well-labelled diagram to
(ix) Form of
Fo
precipitation (p) Erosion show the sixteen compass directions.

falling with
small ice blocks (q) Axis 26. (a) What is humidity?
(x) Pieces of rocks (b) Differentiate between absolute
falling from outer (r) Orbit
humidity and relative humidity.
space

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Glossary
Altitude Height of a point Axis Imaginary line about

above mean sea level which a body rotates
y
measured vertically Barometer Instrument
for measuring
nl
Anemometer Instrument for atmospheric
measuring wind pressure, used
speed especially in weather
O
forecasting
Autumn Season of the year,
Bearing The direction or
which comes after position of something,
summer, when or the direction of
se
leaves fall from movement, relative
trees. In the northern to a fixed point. It is
hemisphere it occurs typically measured in
from September to degrees, usually with
U the magnetic north as
November, and in the
zero
southern hemisphere
from March to May Cartography Science or practice
e
of drawing maps
Point in the orbit of
in
Aphelion
Circumnavigation
a planet, asteroid, or
Sailing all the way
comet which is the
around the world
furthest from the sun
nl
Climate Average weather

Atmosphere Layer of gases conditions
surrounding the earth prevailing in an area
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or another planet over a long period of

time
Atmospheric pressure Compass Instrument
Pressure exerted by containing a
magnetized pointer
Fo
the weight of the

atmosphere, which at that shows the
direction of the
sea level, has a mean
magnetic north and
value of 760 mmHg bearings from it

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Fog Cloud at ground

Condensation Formation of water
level that reduces
droplets or ice crystals
visibility, usually less
y
from water vapour
than 1km
nl
Crater Bowl-shaped cavity
Gravitational force
in the ground or on Force that pulls
the top of mountain heavenly bodies
O
caused by volcanic towards each other
eruption or meteorite or towards the source
impact body
se
Dew Tiny drops of water Great circle Circle on the surface
that form on cool of a sphere that lies
surfaces at night in a plane passing
through the sphere’s
Instrument used for
U
Dewcell centre
determining the dew
point Greenwich meridian
e
Prime meridian 00
Environment Surroundings or running from north
conditions in which to south dividing the
in
living organisms earth into two equal

operate parts
nl
Equator: Zero (0°) Gulf Part of the ocean that

latitude,dividing the penetrates the land
earth into two equal
rO
halves Hemisphere One half of the earth

as divided by the
Equinox Day and night of equator
equal length
Heritage Resources belonging
Fo
Erosion Removal and transport to a culture of a

of weathered materials particular society,
by water, wind, ice, or such as traditions,
other natural agents languages, historical

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
sites, or buildings Meridians Imaginary lines

that were created in which run from
the past and are still North Pole to South
y
valued Pole east or west
of the Greenwich
nl
Humidity Amount of water meridian (0°)
vapour in the
atmosphere Meteorite Solid body from
O
space that partially
Hygrothermograph survives entry into
Instrument used an atmosphere and
to measure both lands on a planetary
se
relative humidity surface
and temperature Meteor Small body of matter
simultaneously onto from outer space that
a single chart enters the Earth’s
U atmosphere
Isotherms Lines on a weather
map connecting Mist Tiny water droplets
points having the suspended in the air
e
same temperature
Moisture Water or other liquid
Lapse rate Rate at which air
diffused in a small
in
temperature falls
quantity as vapour,
with increasing
within a solid, or
altitude
condensed on a
nl
surface
Map Representation
of a whole or part Navigation A science of
rO
of an area of the determing position

earth’s surface as and direction of
viewed vertically movement from one
from above on a flat place to another
surface
Elliptical path
Fo
Orbit
Meniscus Curved upper through which
surface of a liquid in heavenly bodies
a vessel revolve around the
sun

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Peninsula Piece of land Satellite Natural or artificial

surrounded by water celestial body that
y
on majority of its moves or circles a
borders bigger object
nl
Perihelion Point in the orbit of Solar energy Radiant energy
a planet, asteroid, or emitted from the sun
O
comet at which it is
closest to the sun Solar system Arrangement of
all celestial bodies
Plateau Area of relatively flat
in relation to the
se
topped high elevated
position of the sun
land
Precipitation Deposition of Solstice Period of the year

in which the sun is
moisture from the
U vertically overhead
atmosphere on the
earth’s surface (sun stand-still)
An instrument used in Spring The season of the

e
Rain gauge
measuring rainfall year between winter
and summer in
in
Relief Features of the which temperature

landscape associated rise gradually
with changing heights
nl
from the surrounding Strait Narrow passage of

water connecting
Ridge Long narrow elevation
two seas or two large
rO
of land, chain of hills

water bodies
or mountains
Summer Warmest season
Rotation Spinning movement
of the year in the
of a body on its axis
temperate regions
Fo
Run-off Draining away of

Temperature Degree of hotness or
water from the land
coldness of a body
surface
or place

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Thermograph Instrument that Weather forecasting

produces a trace or Prediction of the state
y
image representing of the atmosphere.
nl
a recording of the Weather station
varying temperature Observation post
over an area during a where weather
O
period of time. conditions and
meteorological aspects
are recorded
Valley Low area of land
Wind Moving air from
between hills or
se
high pressure to low
mountains.
pressure areas.
Weather Condition of the Winter Coldest season of

U
atmosphere at a given the year in temperate
place and time. regions
e
in
nl
rO
Fo

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Bibliography
Britt, R.B. (2005, March 09). Mystery of Arizona’s Meteor crater solved. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.space.com/834-mystery-arizona-meteor-crater-solved.html
y
Bunnett, R.B. (1973). General geography in diagrams. Singapore: Pearson
nl
Education Asia Singapore Pte Ltd.
Bunnett, R.B. (1984). Physical geography in diagrams for Africa. Essex: Longman.
O
Clark, A.N. (1985). Longman dictionary of geography: Human and physical
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se
Commonwealth of Australia (2018, June 5). Observation of Air Temperature.
Retrieved from http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/cdo/about/airtemp-measure.
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U
David, W. (2009). Geography: An integrated approach. Oxford: Oxford University
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Emilian, C., Knight, L.B., & Handwerker, M. (1989). Earth Science. Chicago,
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in
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nl
Flahive, B. (2017, November 22). The Weird World of The Flat Earth Society. Retrieved
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flat-earth-society
Hilding, T., & Engels, M. (2019, July 16). Speed up Science on Near-Earth
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How it works team. (2011, July 09). What is the source of the River Nile?.
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Fo


Geography Form One TIE - DR KHALIYLOULLAH

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Geography for Secondary Schools

Tanzania Institute of Education

Student’s Book Form One i

Geography for Secondary Schools

© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019

Fax: + 255 -22 -2 774420

recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Tanzania Institute of

ii Student’s Book Form One

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Geography for Secondary Schools

Student’s Book Form One iii

Geography for Secondary Schools

Editors: Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Michael Andindilile, Mr Samson

Designer: Mr Frank Maridadi

Coordinator: Ms Beatrice S. Rulenguka U

iv Student’s Book Form One

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Geography for Secondary Schools

Preface ................................................................................................................. iii

Chapter One: The concept of Geography ........................................................ 1

Chapter Two: The solar system ......................................................................... 7

The planets ...................................................................................................... 12

The earth ......................................................................................................... 16

Parallels and meridians ................................................................................... 30

Chapter Three: Major features of the earth’s surface ..................................... 39

Water bodies .................................................................................................... 46

Student’s Book Form One v

Geography for Secondary Schools

Chapter Four: Weather and climate ............................................................... 52

Chapter Five: Map work ................................................................................. 96

Bibliography ................................................................................................ 128

vi Student’s Book Form One

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Geography for Secondary Schools

Figure 1.1 Major branches of Geography 2

Figure 2.17 Day and night 22

Figure 2.18 (b) Deflection of ocean currents 23

Figure 2.20 The four seasons of the year 25

Figure 2.24 Changes in the latitude of the overhead sun 27

Student’s Book Form One vii

Geography for Secondary Schools

Figure 2.27 (a & b) Determining latitudes 31

Figure 4.1 Temperature differences in relation to altitude 54

Figure 4.4 Rainfall formation 58

Figure 4.6 Relief rainfall 60

Figure 4.10 Land breeze 64

viii Student’s Book Form One

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Geography for Secondary Schools

Figure 4.14 Types of clouds 68

Figure 4.32 Weather map symbols showing amount of cloud cover 85

Figure 5.3 (a) Some of the symbols used on maps 98

Figure 5.4 Distribution of continents 100

Figure 5.8 A linear scale to measure 2 cm to 1 km 103

Student’s Book Form One ix

Geography for Secondary Schools

Figure 5.12 A curved length to be measured 105

Figure 5.30 A compass 114

Figure 5.33 Grid references 115

x Student’s Book Form One

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Geography for Secondary Schools

Editors: Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Michael Andindilile, Mr Samson