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I II / I II /
 ll-arnjn~ bout L.tn 'ua 't'
L t'n .. r. I ltlilor .
Contemporary
For cI lull I p..1 II
linguistics
An Introduction

E dllt-" "I
W IlI I M,I () ' (.I-!t\IlY
M il H ,\II 1)( 1IIK(JVIJ I '>KY
II-!AN( IS t.: ,\ I AMllt\

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II
An ..pM! 01 Pearson Education . T..".... ' D<:wI
donO ......."".." • • SIn F,aroseo Mod<Q . ....
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 I-dlnhurgh Gat.
Harle",. Ess"" C\l20 211'
I nlled Kingdom
anti {\\(){:idleJ C{'IfI"'UII~.\ thrall~h('1II1"c': world

\7\1' U.\ on 1M noriJ nide" Ut'b ,II:

http: '\\ \\" .peatsoneJ.co.uk

Frrst edItion Copp Clark Pllman Ltd, 1987

S<cond odllian Copp ('Illr' Pitman Ltd., 1992
Thud edllion _ Copp Clar' Pitman l.td., 1996

All nghts resen ed: no part of this publication may be

reproduced. S[ored in a retrieval system. or lransmitled
in an) form or b~ nn}' means. elcclronic. mechanical,
photocop},ing. recording. or otherWise without either the To the memory o( our friend and colleague
pnor wrilteo permission of the Publishers or a licence [wa Iwanicka
permllling restncted cop}lng in the United Kingdom issued 1950-1986
h) the Copynght LIcenSIng Agenc} Ltd.,
90 TOllenham Court Road. London WIT 4LP

First published by Copp Clark PUman Ltd" 1987 under lIle title of Contemporary
Llngui tic Analysis: An Introduction
This adapted edition © Addison Wesley Longman limited 1997 except the chapter on
Computational Linguistics © St Martin's Press Inc.

ISBN 978-0-582-24691-1

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for tbis book is

a,arlable from the British Ltbrary

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Contemporary linguistics . an ,"troduction I edited by William

0' Grady, Michael Dobrovolsky, Francis Katamba.
p. cm. -- (Learning about language)
Adaptation of: Contemporary linguistrcs analysis ,
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-582-24691-1 (pbk ,)
I. Linguistics. I. O'Grady, William D. (William Delaney), 1952-- .
II Dobrovoisky, Michael, 1942--. III, Katamba, Francis, 1947-- .
IV Title: COOlemporary Itnguistics analysis. V Series.
PI21.C5854 1997
410--dc20 96-23860
CIP
Set h) JJ In 101J2pt r,mes
I'noted III Chi na
NI'CCII ,

t'i I~ U
In O<l os 07
 Table of contents

Convinced at once that, in order to break loose from the beaten paths of
opinions and systems, it was necessary to proceed in my study of man d Dedication v
' ,
°
society by scientific methd:s; an d In a ngorous manner, I devoted one
, , " ,
~

year
Epigraph
Series list
vi
xiii
to philolog~ and grammar;,/ingUlstlcs, ,or the natural history of speech, being
Acknowledgements xiv
of all the sCiences, that which best sUited the researches which I was about Preface xv
to commence. Preface to the original edition published by
Copp Clark Pitman Ltd, Canada xvii
List of technical abbreviations xix
Ia. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Property? (, 840)
Language: a preview
WIl.1JAM O'GRADY, MIQ-lAR DOBROvOLSKY At-V FRANOS KATAMBA

1 A creative system
2 Grammar and linguistic competence ~

3 Changeability: gr-arnmars change over time 9

4 Biological specialization for language 13
1~
Summing up
Note 15
IS
Sources
15
Recommended reading
16
Questions

2 Phonetics: the sounds of language

\8
."!CHAEl. DOilR('I\OlSl-.' -\NO fRAl',OS KATAMBA
19
1 Phonetic transcnption :0
2 The 'ound-producing system 23
3 Sowld classe :5
-4 Con 'on ant articulation 27
5 }'Ianners of articulation 3S
6 Vowe\:; 41
7 Phonetic trJIlscription of RP vowel and consonants .tl
8 uprasegmentab 4Q
9 Processe ,d ' d) 57
10 Other yowels and consonants (a \ance 6:
Slimming lip o.l
,'limn
 S,II/n'r'
R('(t"lllNOI./f d I '"dllll: l ... Rl £ Of C"NllNl~ ix
{!lIf'\It,,,,","
Notes
S()u n~e,.. 234
I'honolo1:Y; tIlt' tllnC'linll .lI1d p.l tte rn ing of Sounds R eCOIt1l11f!1Ul ed rt'lulillg
:ns
Ik. II \I t pc 'U"'~ 1\ M s.., \NlI, '" ""," rl ft,; " '",,!lL \ App enl li.'('" H o w In b14UtI t'ee .'ilrll('Wrt's
23(,
B('
bll Q lIesliOlI,\
I St'gll1(.'nh in \.'oulr,I'1 2.lc)
1 Ph"m'II,',III, ,',>IIdll;,'n,'" "III,lllon: I'huncl11e~ and a llopho ne, 7() G Interfaces
J "hon,'II" ,lIld I'hom'I1II"".III,"'r;l'ltnn 72
MK,J IAEt. O<>BRc 1vtX.SIo...Y, WIl liAM ()'(,Io(AI1Y AI'II) f-RANl..1S KATAMBA
., ,\h,,\,' Ih"\l'!llll,'nr: '} 1I'lhk' M2 245
:; I'"atlll\" R.l 1 Morphology and phonulogy 2-15
Ii Ikril ~tion, 'Ind rllk onknng 95 2 Phonology and sY lllax 254
1()2 3 Morphology and syntax 260
7 R"pll"l'nlalion, (ad, illll','d)
109 SlIlIIm illg "I) 264
H .'itll'" Jnd lIlL'lri\.', (ad,an,','d) No /e.1
...\'l1l11l11illg "I' 113 264
Sou rce" 265
~ ' ·1 '(/'); 121
Rec()/Ill1l elltletl readin g 265
..~tJUIl'(',,· 122
,,~
Que.1 l iollS 265
R, '('cl/III1/"II"c'" readillg
AI'I" 'II'" I : /lull.' .ti,,· ."'{I·;ng 1'11I>IIolog.l' I'mh/t'lIIs
123 7 Semantics: the analysis of meaning
(JII' .1/;011.1 123
125
WUIAM O'CRAUV 26B
1 The nature of meaning 268
Morphology; the analysis of word structure 2 The conceptual system l 76
\\lI 11\,\., n (,J,: \11\ \NI1 \IPI '\ I~ III l,U 'Mt\N 3 Syntax and sentence interpretation l8-1
132 4 Other factor. in sentence interpretation 295
W(lld, and word ,lnl,'lure
2 nl'rnaliot) 132 Sllmmillg lip 305
I.,., NOles 305
J C'ompoundllll:!
151 SOl/rces 306
., Olher Iypc, or \\ onl 1<11'111<10011 307
156 Recommellded readillg
:; Inlk,'''on 307
160 Qf/eMiollS
() Funhcr C\<ll11plc, or infllX'lllll1
SlllI/lIIlIIg III'
164
170 8 Historical linguistics: the study of language change
,VOlt '.\ 313
,\(lIlll't'.1 171 ROBERT \\. "'l~~'

171 The nature of language change 313

R"C'tlllllllt'nd,'d reading
In 2 ound change 318
,11'1'flldil: HoI\' /0 idclllil.i' 11101/,11"111"1 illlll!(<llIIiliar langllll/wl 172 33~
(Ju,'.II/OII.1 .' Morphological l'hange
I7J 4 Intactic change 337
3-10
5 5 L~\. ical and . . em~\llli~ ~hange
Synta~; the analysis of sentence structure 6 The ,prcaJ of change.
346
\\1111.\1\, 1 )'1 ,~AIl' 349
7 Languag.e rc,'onstructlon
I Il I 3b~
('all'goril's and structure 8 Languag.e change and naturalness
1M2 363
1 ('olllplcllll'1ll option, '11I11I11i,,~ tI!'
I lJh 364
J rrallslpllllalions '\ ('tt''\
364
10J 'i,lj/I'ct'.\
4 l III' 'T'al gl,IIlllllar ;IIlU par:lllll'lri<: l'anallOIl 365
S ~'lllll' e\ll'II\IOlh (adl allt'l',l) 214 R"CC"/1I11I'lld, d r"Utllll~ .,66
(I I JIlin 1\ pt" ,,1 Sl IIt,let;" ,lIlail si, 222 Q",>.,cl(lns
SII1I1I1/I1/ • " 1 1 ' • 22'1
2J-I
 9 The classification of 1,1O~Ud~t'S
I~HIi UI IONII 1 .1
AJ..1 lrh: .,TIN:4E)..'(L

Some preJin1Jnal1t" Smln°t',\

.2 T~ p<)lu~i.:JI ,j;l"lflc,lIi,'n R rCOlJ1l1h'ndt'tl n'eltllng
QUl'\IiOlH
J Gent,tic da. ,Jlkalu>n
, IJIlUlIJ II r: III'
13 Second language acquisition
,VoU.'! K>tNAk,('.Vl.ID
SOl/1n'\- SOl
Rt'('ofllmt'lI<kd "'t/,/lIIg I The \tully of sccolllllallgu,'l\c ilc4u""inll ~04
QUt'SIIOIIJ
2 Imcrlanguagc grammars 5\1
3 Faclors anCctll1g Sl.A
523
4 The L2 c1a"room ~2l\
10 Brain and language SlImmilig "II
( ....\R'I tllBfl\,j-
5'4
41& NO/e" S3S
The human hram Sources 53~
.2 In\estigating the br.un 416 Recommt'lu/eu reat/'IIM 53h
3 Aphasia 421 ApPt'lidix; 1.2 pedagogy 53"
4 AcqUired dyslexia and dysgraphia 424 Question" S37
5 linguistic theory and aphasia 429
6 Wbere is language? 431 14 language in social contexts
Summillg up 434 R(Jf'\lAlO H. ')C MJlIlWlANl "Nt) JWN-.(,.lS KATAMlJA ')40
Notes
435 1 Fundamental conccpb 54()
Sources
435 2 Social differentiation of language 542
Recolllmended reading
435 J Regional differcnllation of language Sr.)
QuestioflS 436 4 Mixed languages 571
436 5 Speech ,ilUalions 576
Summing up Sl\5
11 Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing
Note 51\6
(.ARY lll/lEN
4~8 Sources SRI>
J Methods of psycholinguistic researcb Recommended readin!: Sl\lI
438 Stili
2 Language processing and linguistics Questions
448
3 Putting it all together: psycbolinguistic modelling
Summing up
457
15 Writing and language
Sources 460 5'l1
MICHAflIX16RO'v,(llSK¥ I\NL) WlllAM ()'{.RAlJV
Recommended reading
460 51)1
461 1 Type~ of writing
Questions 592
462 2 The histol) of writing
5'15
J The evolution of writing M14
12 Language acquisition: the emergence of a grammar " Some other writing syslcms h13
SOl1l<. WHAN CHO AND WILLIAM o'(,RAIJ\'
464 5 Enghsh onhogruphy 6ll)
J The study of language acquisition 6 Writing and reading h20
464 SII/11nJIIlg III'
2 Phonological development 621
3 Morphological development
466 N()/t'.~ ti:!:!
4 Syntactic development
471 SOllTt'L'S 1>23
5 Scmantic development 476 RecommellliL'd readlllg h23
481 Que,lIiolJ\
6 Dctcnninants oflanguagc acquI~ition
SIIII/ming III'
488
Notl'l 496
497
learning About language
Acknowl dg In nt
Pr fac

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 Prefac to th
original edition

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Thanh "Iso go 10 <I nUlubl') lit Ill'Ople al Addison Wesley LOllgl1lilU II) IItl' sophl\lIcalcd and COIl1P V. I<CC , . ' ny 111,lruclnrs who wele nlll
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 nl<xlular uppn';ll'hl, \I,'rd 1,>rIlI;lllOn ruks in morphol"gy, anu t'
pamm~tri.: \"MIath'n In '\nt:l\. 'ampl~, Of
To Ihe " len! po,slhl~, \\ h,I\': Juempled I" Inlegrare the bas ..
nism, outhn~d to tht!' tirsl £i,e.' ,hapleC' or the book inhl Our dis:' rnccha,
phenomena 10 !al,'r ,'hJpk'C' 111u" our dN:ussion llf semantic, hUs. IOn of
rrngubth
'. .·.... rll'or:tOd \<.."1.'"\)0 d Iangu.Jgc iJLqUl~rnon.
.' .. neurolinguistics
~nu ' "ton ~'aJ
List of technical
to some de~"",,e on th<, n"uon., pre,cl1Ied tn our tntroJUClton to gcn <.Ira""
gr~ar. erallve abbreviations
So te.'([book: ,'an he all things to all users. We hope that this boo"
pro'ide sruden!s nOl (lnl~ '\Ith apringboard to the realm of s" ~in
lingui.tk unaJ}sis. hUI '" ilh a grenter a~preciation for the wonder o~~~lJfic
language. the .. ant!'l) und complexny 01 Its structure. and the Subtlety o~un
use. It.-, • tin ntit!s) one or mure Det dl:lr.!nnincr
• (in front 01 words or DR delayed release
. William o 'Grad\" !!o.cntenceq tmacl..'cptahle PEG Electmencephal,>gmtn
MIchael D()brol'(lI.s~; # word boundary EA cITllr :ma\y!oti~
I Iirst person Erg I!rgallvc ca!\c
I primary slress ERP event-related ",>tential
2 second person ESL Engli,h a., a second
2 seCOndUf) ~trc:-,\ language
:\ third per,on FN fir,1 name
adjective Fut future ten~c
Ahl ablative ca~e Gen gemtlve ca'c
b, lIbsolulive case go goal
Ac accusative case H high tone
Adv adverb lA inflectional aftlx
AdvP adverb phrase lL imerlanguage
Af affix indic indicative
ag agent inf intinitive
AP adjective phrase lnfl Inflection
ATR advanced tongue root IPA International Phonetic
Aux auxil iary verb Alphabet
B bound root KT kinterm
C coda L low tone
C complementizer Ll first language
C con onant L2 second language
CA contrastive analysis LN last name
caus cause Loc locati ve case
CG consuicted glollis Loc location
CLT communicative language M man
teaching M mid tone
Co any number of consonants MRD machine-readable dictionary
Con conjunction J.l mora
CP complementizer ph.rase noun
CT computerized axial nucleus
tomograph.y Nom nominative case
CYC Cape York Creole num number
OA derivational affix rp noun phrase
Oat dative ca e 0 (direct) object
Oeg degree word 0 onset
I II If I I I ION .. I
I "

(11·1
(II
"hlhl\1\
(11,IIII'/t II
S
0;
"'~'nt\'lh ~.
,uh,\~ " 1
I' I' "1'hI1l 1 \U " " II""",
p ", 1'.:1' )\ .
I'rlll"'l'all III "'tll"""
SIS
S(i
" 'It\ •
'PI \h,1 -I, lit"
\lI1UlUh: '1.1111,
language: a preview
I '\ l~l'".II''' t ""'J"lh'lIl' ' ' '111'111.11
\",,11 '"
SI \ ,,,',:o,,d 1.1" 11I.1 ',,' •In I1l1\ \lVi/l,.rOl ()'( ".rely tv l;( h,lt'11 )ob/ ovo/s/.. y ,111(/
'1"-,'111\," Ihull
1'1 T }\hHn,"l 1111""'11 SI"'" I, .rll( h 1\.11, 11 111>, 1
lilith' '1111"" III 11"'1)1<'
I'll 1'1"hl 1ud,' l'III'\I~"111 r III'" "I. ..."
1'1 I'h"," 1'1 1,1'" I I,hl 1)'''''1'
PI' PI ,p,hllh 1l1,11 plu.I'~· Ihl' "'PH,'
I'R pfh1lh'fi ..' 1\'p"',,'III.111\11I I 'll l ll""''',11 \;, allll1\,11
1'1, 1" ',,'IH It'I1 ,'~'
1'1{ 1111.1\'1" Ill' , '1'11""1)1,\1'"1) Ilk.' ~11f (It '.11~4{1.I~:" J\ Ih,' ','lIt:"I"",",I/! h,1I1 Ih.1I m.Ir~"'" "N ,:/·o..,/( .III~ "It",/-: U"i 1'~Ir'
I',t 1'.....1 ft.' ''',' III{ tlllr"tlnd"'d "IJlII,hc"I','utMI'
R ftn 111\' \ I,', h
R 1\11111",,' ..1 \ \n\.\t,."

Rl ' ,:I.IlI','
f ' I,HIH." \ I' I "Ih 1'111,1'"
RH IH:hr l"l1 .hh .mt.I'I' \\ \\ \lI11.tIt t ,11\ ''''l}!\.' " lll,lIly thllll!~ ,\ ,ysll'1l\ or cumn\\.lI\H:~'\l\1n. " mcdHun fur
I "Ip '''''1'",'111 \\ .I 1I1"d th\lu~hl, ..I \Thu.;k hH \ill'wry c pn..·,smll. a "'Cla\ in ....\ilU1W1\ ••\ m~utci' tm
RI' R '", \ \',f l'I\Illtllh,' ,.lfulll I'"lt"l'al ""nl"''''''} a ",\laly,' ror na""" hu,Il"ng, 1\1\ human """'gs
no'lIIally 'I"'a" "I "',," ""~ lan~u"!1.e "",I ,I " h,ml III 'm,,~inl! nmd,
SI!\nllt,-'"11 ""'0;11. 'lIIl'1k~ll",I, II, u"",'~ a,I,vi,y lal,II1\'\I'I,I<:e III ", ah,cn,~
1'",11 "I ''', III,n, I"" 1\ ,,,,,,,, in Illllkr"'"llllng "'melh,,,\,\ "hnu"h, "alur~ ami
11M' "r lan\otll:lg~ Thi, h,Il'1.. 1,,"vOlks a I""" il1lrndll"illl' ,\\ hl1glll'I 'cs, ,he

1",.-iI'I"" ,hu, '1IItI", II""" IIIall,",

" I Rt I tVI
Whal i, hlnn,1I1 1,II1guag"" Wha, dll\:' II mea" ", I..l1lm ,I Ia"gual!d It, ;111'" cr
.. , .. II M ,h,'''' qu,"lil"", II " liN ne,','""rl "' umlcr"allu ,h, r""'lIfec, thaI a
Ian!!",lg,' m,II..,', ,1\ ;III,lhk \I, ", nllth e 'peaken., ,h,l,e "hI' ha" ,I ·"lIircu II
,Is \'lul"r '11 11\ a n,uur,ll 'Clllll!;,
rh,' ""'l'" ,\Illl ",,,'rsll~ or human Ihoughl ,mll "llI:rtcllce pia", gn:al
",'\I1,Ill,l> "" I,mguag". Ik,',IUsC cl'llIn1unicatll>n is nllt Ic'trid,'ll 10 a It "U ,Cl
,>1' "'P"", I;mguag" l1Iu,t ll,' "'Illl',hlllg Illl're Ih,II1\,I'\" Ill,' ;\ pa.:l..a 'C "I rcaJ}-
mlldc """,Ig"' , It lI\ust ,'na\1k '" tl' \,r"Juce ami llll,krsl~uI,1 11,'\\ "I",b.
I'hr,I"~s, ,III" "'\lI,'n,'," tIS the n,','d ;lrisCS. In sl"'rI, hUllla" langual!c mu'l he
l'n'IIth e ,Ill,,,, 111 ~ nl\\ elt) ,111,1 il1l1<\\ a,i,'" III n:'l">I1'': t" IIC\\ Ih"u ,hts,
l"1 'rklll"", ,I"" ,itu,IIl,""
l'lId,'d) III ' the c,,'all\\' ,1,1"'(\ "I language is ;111 \IItm',II,' 11\"lIlal ",t III
Ih~1I ,kfllll" th' h"uml,lrk, \\ lthlll \\ hll'h inlllll ,Itt"" l'an t,I\...,' 1'1."',,, rh,
"I '{'I\I"11 ,,1' Ih" ,) ,I, III ('an be' IIlU,"utl',1 h, I r '\Jhld) 'HlIpk ph nl'llll'lIllll
in hlghsh I'" bhlc 1,1) : thc 1'1, 'C" th,lt cr,'~tlc' ,clh, {r '11 'hi), 111,1
n,lItllIl' ,ll'li,>n,) It"", ""lIn' I !\lughl}, \\ ,>IU' nallllll ' tlung ),
H \lPOII ~RY LINGUISTICS

I AN(,l M,f A PR( vir w ,

~~_~_l/n~u._,~________________________\_~_ro_,_u_e______________~
Sy\tcmatic. COn,lnl1nh arlo! c!i!..,cnual tn the vlabihry uf the cr aU"'!: prne .
leave the b""1 on the be"..h beach the boal ~ 1f \1,;ell~eslabhshcd
word" Wl.'fl.' cun,tanlly hc:ing fl!placcd hy nl.'W Cfl!atHln •
keep the aeroplane on Ihe ~n>un" ground the aeroplane Ihe vocabulary of English woule.! be '" u,,,uhle that commum.:allnn could he
cru:.;h the a.. pirin into pmn/t'r powder the a.spirin jeopardized. A Similar uungcr wuuld un ...c If there were nn con"lralOt un th
slab the ",an \\ ith a M'ij" knife the man meani.ng of new words. If Tlte~' WI",,.r ;11 lIuwuii could mt.:an 'lhcy make It
catch the fish \\ ith a .\pt't1r spear the fish sn~w In Hawaii' or 'They wish it wl!rc winter in Hawaii' or any other ,trhitrary
make the child an "Tf,holl orphan the child thmg. the production and interprelation of language woulll be ch.u".: and
ungystematic. undcnnining the ro1e of languag\! communil.:.ulinn.
A, the following sentences show, there is a great deal of freedom t ~
in the fomlation of such verbs. a InnOVate
J) Some other Creative syslcms arc found in all asp<'clS of language. including the way 111
examples which sounds arc cOl11hined to fon" words. The forms 111 4), for im,lan~c_ arc
o. I I1Tisled the ball Ol'er the nel. recognizable as possible English words (which mighl he used as names fllr
h. He would try 10 slifJ-upper-lip it through. ne\\ products or processes).
c. She Houdini 'd her way OUI of the locked close!.
-I)
There are also limits on this freedom. however. For instance an. «. prasp
I . d'f d' . ., ew verb'
rare.y,come I a war WJlh the mtended meaning already exists. Alth IS
saY10i1lhe robber to mean 'put the robber in jail', we do nOl say ~ugh We
b. nib
robber to mean 'put the robber in prison'. This is becau e the wC 11_ PilSOn Ihe c. traf
verb imprison already has the meaning that the new form wOuld h e tabltshed Such forms contrast with the patterns in 5). which simply do not have the
Th I .I . ave.
ere are a so specl3 conslraJnLS on the meaning and use of .. shape of English words.
subclasses of these verbs. One such constraint involves verb th Partic ular
from ( . I . at are created 5)
lme expressIOns SUC 1 as Slimmer, holiday, and so on.
Q. *psapr
2)
b, *bfli
a. Julia summered in Paris.
c. *ftra
b. Harry winlered in Mexico.
c. Bob holidaved in France. The contrast between the forms in -I) and 5) illustrates that the set of posstble
sound patterns reflects con. ide rations that pennit certain no,el ,ount!
d They honeymooned In Hawaii.
combinations. but prohibit others.
Although the entences in 2) are all natural- oundin . Still other considerations detennine how new word. can be created from
can beuse~ in this way. (Throughout this book an g, n~t~1 time exp~essions already exi ling fornls with the help of special endings. Imagine. for example.
that a IJngUistic form or utterance is unacceplab'le.) astensk IS used to Indicate that the word soleme entered the English language (used perhaps for a new ly
3) di covered atomic particle). As a speaker of Engli"h. you then automatically
know that something with the properties of a sole me could be callet! 'U/t'IIIIC.
li. *Jerome midnigilled in the streels You also k.now that to mak.e omething solemic is to solemici~e it. and you
I * .
1. Andrea tI()()lled allhe reslaurant. would call this process solelllici~arioli. Further. you know Ihat the C I'
c *Philip one a 'clocked at the allport.
. prouounced as s in solemici:e but as k in solemie. Without hesitation, you alsu
recognile that stlll'mici:e is pronounced with the strc<,s on the sec,'nd syllahlc.
Thc~e e.\amples show thal when a verh is ' , .
II1U't be given a very specific intci re' .. created from a tllne expression, II \ You would sa~ ,oLEmiCl:e. not SOlemici~e or ~olemiCIZE )
s~'l11ewhcre for the period of tim/X,ta~~~.- roughly paraphrasable as 'to be 0\\ here tS the ability to deal \\ ith novel utterances more llhvillUS than til

Pans lor the summer', 10 ho/ill' • s, 10 .lilll/mer lI/ Paris is 'lo he in the production and comprehension of sentence. , part from a fey. Ii:l.cd
holidays', and so Since nllOIl (~;:1~1I ~;lII1Ce IS 'to bc In France for the
Oil. expression. and greetings, much of \\ hat you a) . hear. ant! n:ad in the cour e
than c\tendetl period" of lime th'" .. /ll/elllghl e.\press POlOts In tlillC rather of a da\ con .. i"ts of sentences that arc ne\\ to \ou, In C,lIl\cr allons. kctures_
tv"'-
. ,., . I ' "j ~ann()( be used . t0 create new vcrhs of this newc';',b, and te'tbook, you are regularly exPosed to l1t\\d c"l1lhinatil'ns of
wort\\. the c\pn:ssion "f unfamibar ideas. and the pre entation of n'w
 inllmn:ltltlrl. (\II''Iller. ror ""wnw. the paragmph that you "rl'
reading. '.'·hiIL- ea,'h or the,,,.,entences i> no Ilouot perfectly comp ~hU"""nll' lIlNC.UI\(,1 II PKIV'EW 5
. h rc cn "L. J
to you. It " c"rc'md) lInhkdy Ihal YOll ave ever ,cen <lny 0 \ '"',
oclilfl'. f thell! Because lhl'" u\uge may he unfunHhar to the: avcmge unI\Jer",IlY LUU nt, we
This ahJ/il} III pnx!uc·c "nil underlilnnd unfamiliar ut!crances doe will devote SHme lime to cnnsu.lcnng evcral fundamental propenle~ ul the
en,ure Ihat } uu c'an unllcr,rand or use any Imagmable combination r s n(~ s)'''-tem lhat lingu i'ls cal l a gr~lmmar
For nallll'k. '"ou douhlb," lind it difficult (if not impOSSible) toO WOrds, 2.1
- . 'nterp
the U((cr..me.: in 6). E\l'nthollgh all the words used here <Ire familiar Ones rei
ares'mp/) IlIl1 arr:mgcll ,n the right way to be a semence of English. .thel Gene ra lit y: a ll One of the most fundamentll l c\mm, of modern linguistic analy", " that all
languages have languages have a grammar. This can he veri tied by considcnng a few SImple
6) a gra mma r facts, Since all langunges lire spoken. they must have phllnetic and
*Frighlenell Ilog Ihe cat thaI the chased mOllse a. phonological systems; si nce they all have words and sentences. they also must
have" morphology und 1I sy nt llx; and si nce these words ami ,entences have
More",·"r. even though YOll can probably understand a sentence s uch . systematic meanings, there ohviously must be seman tic principles as well . As
by analogy perhaps with 71». thcre is something aboul il that makes i t~S/a), these arc the very things thai make up a grammar. il follows thaI all human
less than acceptable. und languages have this type of system.
It is not unusual to hear the remark that some language - Acadian French.
,)
Cree, or Swahili - ' has no grammar'. (This is especially common in the ca.,,,
a. *He broughl 11 chair In order to sit on. of languages that are not written or have not yel been analysed by Western
b, He broughl a chair 10 sir on, scholars .) Unfamiliar languages sometimes appear to an untrained observer to
have no grammar simply because their grammatical system, are different
As with other a.'peCts of language. the ability to form and interpret s from those of better-known languages. tn Walbiri (an aboriginal language of
IS . I·,mltatlOns.
. sU b'~ect to syslemauc . , entenees. Australia), for example, the relative ordering of words is so free that the
English sentence The rwo dogs rlOW see several kangaroos could be translated
by the equivalent of any of the following sentences.
2
8)
GRAMMAR AND a. Dogs two now see kangaroos several.
As we have seen, spcakers of a language are able to produce and d -
LINGUISTIC an unlimited number of utterances including many that un erstand b, See now dog two kangaroos several.
COMPETENCE , 'I· Th' .. ' ' . are novel and
UJllaml Jar. IS ablhly. which is often called linguistic com c. See now kangaroo several dogs two.
conSlllutes the celllral subject mattcr of linguistics and of this b k pete nce.
d. Kangaroos several now dogs two see.
In IOveSllgating linguisllc competence. linguists focus 00 th e. Kangaroos several now ee dogs two.
syslem that allows human beings to tiorm and . t on e me nta l
. . In erpret the wo d
sentences of theIr language This s}'stem' /1 d r s and
. ' , I S ca e a grammar F Whereas Walbiri may not restrict the order of words III the way Englbh does.
purposes ofthJS book. we will dinde the gra . h ' or the
m Table 1.2. mmar Into t e components shown its grammar impo e· other types of requirements. For example. in the
sentence t}pes we are con ·idering, Walbiri speakers must place the ending lu
on the word for 'dogs' to indicate that it names the animals that do the ·eeing
Table 1.2 The compon~lIl, of 3 grammar rather than the animals that are seen. In English, by contrast. this infonnation
Component is conveyed by pladng two dogs in from of the verb and sel'eml kangaroos
R~,\p'J/J.\ihilir\'
after it.
Phonel'cs
Phonology Ih~ 3rticuhllion and perceplion of speech Sounds Rather than showing that Walbiri has no grammar, such differences simply
the pa!lemlng of speech sounds d~monstrate that it ba. a grammar unlike that of English in certain respects.
Alorpho/ogy
word formation This importanl point is applicahle to all differences amo ng languages:
SYlltU\
'enrence formation although no two languages have exactly the same grammar. there are no
S,'rnanrirs
th~ IllIerprctulJon of words and SCntc",:cs languages without a grammar.
.-\. similar point can be made about different varieties of the ,amI! language.
I.tnguis[s usc the As you are probably already aware. English i' the language of many ditt~re~t
tcrm grall/lIJar in a ralher special communities around the world. The particular varielY of Engl"h found wlthm
and technical way.
 \U IS"'L~

IANI,I'M,' A PRrVllW 7

that there arc tmpurtanl gmmm •• lIc:ul prlOt.:lph:s and h:m.knn"s h.,[cd hy 111
human language,
One ,uch print.:lptc IIlVl,h'l's thl.' manner in \\hlCh l~ntl·nL.:C!io .• rc neg,lted
\\ uh unlimitell \'uritHlun. (lne \\uuld e\""'t the equivuh:nl 0\ Eng" h not to
(k,.:cur in different (l(hllion..., wtlhm the' !"cntcn(c In dlf1crcnl t.mgu~"'l: . 1hu ,

-
---.---:-----
lri -1\ or a particular language. questions
we might preuil:t thut en..:h uf the f",Uny. 109, pt.)ssibihltc, ,hnulll ~"M;c.:l1r "Hth
roughly equal frequency.
Equali!}: all \\"ht:ne\er then- h 1111)rc: th.tn lme \4 to:: more correct than another. Fro
. . 1m 'h.,,, bell<r or III
grammars are equal .uise.:1:-.h)\\h~t her4.lut.:h"ll t: ._'~,' makesnomoresenselO "aYth"t 9)
. I,JJ -m flngu"UC>. It
Ih" pomt 01 "e" .1 m <
Q
. h r than it dO<!s to say that th, II. NOIPal is here .
. E I'h' I><!tt~r than anal e e
one \ariel) "I ng I' I' ) Ulan the arammarofThai. />. Pm nOl is here.
grammJf of English is h"lIe~ (?r.wotr'CpartiCular I~auage have grull1mars Ihal
"II anguage,·anu ,"ltl , 'metres" a c. Pat is !tnt hcre.
,'U ,. sition ethat the human mind can
l>I th 'r~akers tll e\pres> nny prnpo ... eI. Pal is here nol.
ena e el' . .'. s a/I-im nanr ailerion, then. all vaneues of language
produce In lerroS .,1 thl m~I' of communication and though!. The goal A, il happen" the 1i"1 and f"unh [lllttcms are very rare. In 'I11.ually all
are absolul"" equal as ,",Iru k I
- • . " _ anal) sis is not 10 ran anguagcs on some lunguage,. negalive ctemenb such us lint either immedialely precellc or
or c'onrernpor.ll) flneUI,lIe ..' d
. - . '1' Rather lin!!"uists seek 10 un e"lan I e nature
d h
immedialcly foltow the verh.
imaeinan scale ot su~non y. . - I d d
- gr.unmauc.:1
.' m' Ihal allow people 10 spea~ an un erstand a
. I !'t}.',{e.'i The rdative ordering or other elemenb is also subject 10 conslrainb. To 'cc
of the l
thiS, we need only consider the six. logically possible orde", for a simple lhree-
language. .' ol,times made bv noting Ihat linguistics is descrip_ word statement such as Ausrralialls like cricker.
Th~=~nrtsW < . "... . . ..
.
the DOl pres crl'ptl"'e
. means
This ' thaI flngu"ts seek. . 10 de:'Lllb"
. human 10)
lin!!"~jstic abilil} and knowledge. not 10 prescribe one s)stemf_tOdPreferl~nce II)
a. Australians like cricket.
an;ther. A parallel poiD! of view is adopled to mher SUCICOlII I.C hlSCIP mes as
well. The firsl concem of all scienrisls is 10 descnbe an exp am t c tach they h. Australians cricket like.
observe, not 10 change them. c. Like A ustralians cricket.
E"en though il rejects prescriplivism. modem linguistic analysis does nOI d. Like cricket Australian.
deny the importance of clear expression in writing and peech. Such ski lb arc e. Cricket like Australians.
qujl~ righuy an objecl of concem among educalors. However. the uifficultics
that arise in these areas typically result from the incon. istent or careless use of f Cricket Australians like.
one' linguistic knowledge,not from any irtherent flaw in the grammar itself. Interestingly. the overwhelming majority of the world's languages adopt OTIC
Linguists also acknowledge that certain patterns (I seen thar. Ther was of the first three orders for basic tatements. Only a handful of language use
{here. He didni do norhing. He ailli here) may be restricted to particular any of the last three orders as basic. This once again reflects the exislence of
socia-economic groups within the English-speaking community. As di 'c ussed can trainLS and preferences thatltmit variation among languages.
in more derail in Chapter I~. the use of these patterns may therefore have These are not isolated examples. As later chapters will sho\\. some
negative social consequences: it may be harder to win a scholarshIp. to get a granunatical categones and principles are universal. And where there i,
Job. to be accepted in certain circles. and so forth. From a purely linguistic variation (as in the ca 'e of word order). there is typically a very /tmlled set
polOtof view. however. Ihere is absolutely nothing wrong with grammars that of options. COOlrary to lirs! appearances. then. the set of grammar learned
perrrul such SlrUctures. Like grammars for other variants of English (and other and used by human beings is limited in significant ways .
languages). Uley permit their users to express and understand the same
ulllrmlled range of Ihoughts and ideas. 2.4
2.3
Tacitness Because the use of language to communicate pre"upposes a .grammar. it
UniH·rsality: follows that all speakers of a language must have knowl.edge of IlS gram~ar.
pammars are alike ~here are mallY difTerences among languages. as even a superficial cxaminu- However. this knowledge differs from knowledge of anthmellc, road. atet).
~ ic ways dllo~ of Ihetr sound patterns. locabularies. and word order reveab. But this
'lC' not.. mean_.that ther'"ar>
~. e n
a
I" h
Imlls on t e type of grammars that human
and other subjects that are taugbt at home or in school. Unltke these other
types of knowledge. grammatical knowledge is acq~ired \\ Ithout the help 01
mg. lan acquIre and use QUil> t th
. c 0 c contrary, current rescan:h suggeMs instruction when one is still a child and it remams largely ,ub<;on ... clou.
 \ 1I Gt IS TICS

I " Nf,U" C I " "~l v ir W 'J

·'-,u<>h·'ut
u u\. ~ ... li k .. ~ \ ,;llJ
- ... \amnk
. t- "fthi'- • ':,,,blder -.vour pwnunciation Ortnn... p_b,t
ten ...e ending \\ntfl~n .l' ~d 10 me.' tullll'\ 109. ,\ lml.... HO\\ ~\t!r. un1) un~ ul thl"",,-lo It\h,,"'pll"lOlllnn'io
\c ntcnce. " pu') lhlc 10 the ",Hnwlng
III
1-1 )
o. humed
I>. slipped The woman who mter.lc\\ cd cu,h hlly Ihmk that he i, a gentu,
c. huued
In 14). lIe can referonl~ 10 ' 1m', ' .
. h ·h - j l c{ nc nUl mentluned. In the "Cnlcnl.:C In cuntrast
. \ ' u,,, that wh,'reas} ou sa) iJ In hUflled. you say I in slipped and d in bl/~ed. Wit w al happens m sem 'n" 11) I
d " _ . . C t.:l: - " It' ~an.nllt refer to each inut\ltdual In the
.\ (oreover. If n'u heard tht: ne" verb jlib. you would form the past tense group eSlgnated by the phrase ""''' Imy S,nce 'peake" are ahle III make thl
jlihbt'd and p.:onounce the ending as d. Although it is unlikely that you na~ ~ontrast, they must have know ledge ot the relcvant grammalleal prtnClple
ever been a\\ are of this phenomenon before now, you make th~se distinctions even though they arc not conscIously aware 0\ It.
automatically if you are a native speaker of Engit sh. ThIS IS because you
acquired the grammatical suhsystem regulaung tblS aspec~ of speech wnen 2.5
you were a child and it now exi, ls subconsciously to your mtnd. Gra mmar Linguist~ lise the lertn grulIII/llIr 10 refer to a subconSCIOUs lingublic ,y"cm
E\·en more subtle phonological patlerning can be found in language, a., the of a purucular type. Com,bting of several componenLs (phonellcs. phonology.
following contrru.ls help illustrate. morphology. syntax, and semantics). a gmmmar makes pt",ible the produc-
12) tion and comprehension or a ptltcntlully unlimited number of ullerances.
Because no language can exist without a grammar and no nne can use a
pint 'paynk language without knnwlcdge of i" grammar, the study of grammatIcal
fiend *fiemp systems has come to be the focus of contemporary linguistic analyst"
locked "Iockf As nOled above, the grammatical knowledge needed to use and undersland
wTonged
language is acquired without the benefit of insuuction and is for the most pan
*"'Tongv
suhconscious. Since we therefore cannot investigate grammar by ,imply
next *nexk recalling prior training or by self-consultation, the study of human lingui,tic
glimp e *glimpk systems requires considerable effort and ingenuity. As is the case in all
science, information about facts that can be observed (the pronunciation of
The words in the lefl-hand column obey an ob cure constraint on the selection words, the interpretation of sentences, and so on) must be used to dra",
of consonant seq uences in word-final position: when a vowel is long and inferences ahout the sometimes invisible mechanisms (atoms, cell~. or
followed by two consonants (pilll) or when a vowel is short and followed by grammars, as the case may be) that are ultimately responSIble for these
three consonant sounds (next, pronounced 'nekst'). the final consonant mu,1 phenomena. A good deal of this book is concerned with the flDdings of this
always be one made WIth the lOngue tip raised. (The con onants I, d. s, and research and with what they tell us about the nature and use of human
=are .~ade In (his manner: but consonants such as p./. I', and k are not.) Words language.
tbar \ lolate this phonolo~lcal constraint (the right-hand column) are unacce t-
able to.speakers of Engltsh. Even linguists have 10 dig deeply to uncover u~h
~alterrung. but.1n everyday language use. we routinely make decis io ns about
e ac~eptabJ!ity of forms based on subconscious knowledge of such 3
constramlS.
C HAN G EABILITY: II is a well-established fact that the grammars of aU languages are constantly
Consider one fi nal example. Speakers of English know that there are
CCnatn structures In which the word I ti G R A MMARS changing. Some of these changes are relatively minor and occur very quickly
or to a single indi vidual outside that g:~u~~n re er to eac h member o f a group (for example , the addition of new words such as ethnic cleallslllg , Spill doctor.
C H A N GE OVER
YllPpie, glasllost. yobbocracy, able-bodism, cIllIIlTlel. illtemet. (Illtocnme,
13) TIM E
IIl1kemare. l'egeburger. grullge and acid /rol/se to the voc~bul~ ot Engltsh).
Each boy who(m) the woman interviewed thinks that he . . Other change have a more dramatic effect on the overall fonn ~! the langu~ge
tS a gent us. and ty pically take place over a long period of time. The fo~atlO~ of negative
Sentence 13) can mean ei ther that each b .
structure in English has undergone this type of change. Pnorlo LOO. Engh h
mteniewed thinks that he himself i . ?y In the group that the woman
PartIcular person nOl mentioned' t~ a genI us or that each boy thi nks that a fomled negative constructions by placing ne before the vert> and not
to e sentence (say. the teacher) is a genius. (sometimes pel\ed IJaWI ) after it.
 1'1
{J "'n 'el~I1"1 ,'11/.'11'1 SiI\'J
b, Ik II 'I k,'lh II \II ( ,I<, d."" nlll 'f"'ak')
By J41~) ..r Ih r,·. !>.'UI'. lit' \\ ,h u"'J .llfrc<jllclltly anu ,/(11 (0. """I) typil:ally
',,','urrcU 1>\ .1, It ull r Ih' Icrn.
16)
a. J 'I..")c,' nut "h..' \\ l\nJl·~.
SCf\'anh 'Sl'f\"UOI\ "IHWo" UII uh''''cnl' word . un (11'~ \I.'
b, \k ',1\1 n,l\\ Ilh,' kill !!hl~S, won ttl gt·t no fI:ph~s ell.,: 'i hn ,U\VC.fh ,,' 10 'hc~ 1C'tntJ\
Ie \I a, .1<l1 11111.1 ,Iho1ll IWI' ,'cllluries I,)ter Ihat English c1eveloped ils CurrCIIt Hudson scllnds "I II Illng Ime 01 PUI"I' wh .. have 'amh'l '
pr,I,-li,-,' "I' all<lIl ill!! 111>/10 nc,'ur afc~r only ccrlalO Iypes or verbs (such as d" l.:hunge us cvitlcncl.' 01 culpuhlc ~I"vcnhl\cv", or wo ~ S .• ~I\ctt ;t1l(1 r\lhlU\ctl
hili ,,, will, ,Ind SII "n). . I'cen expressc tI UboUllhc slacl' III I".ngllsh in •Ilther Fnul
r ... c . . 11111 <.Ir t..:OOl:crn, h
h '. 'We
hi" • ,," ,sPC"''''1I e,mnln
ant III 01 er ",loflclIl pCflOlls Thus, in IllS? membc I h ' .
I7J ".
I n'IIIUle ' ..., ..' r\ () I c ( n',d,'u,
,n lomnltl hellrd a speech descnblng Canadian I'n \ h. , ' ,
<L I \I ill nnl ".) ell<' wonk (ICl'\u,·' will say nOI th,' wnrds,) diuleel growing up among'l UU. r populallon' The speake; ,;hl" t'''d a cth"rruPI
, , I" I I '. . . , " cc C hl t! u~
b. He did nol sc,' the llllghls. (I','I'\US ·He saw nOllhe lncgh".) ~) I \\0;( S suc,' n~ Of (I,m l\ ,hv""111 01 lantl l, bnH lim 'masle,'), .!lor" (tor
,hop l,ji\ (lor mend ), und guess (fur 'think'. as In J x"e", /'II g"l. Ju<.Igm.
rhes\: moJllj.:atillllS ilhhlralc Ih,' C.\lenl 10 which gr.tmmars can change Oler by CUrrCnlllslIgc, he ohJected In vain, g
lime, The ,lnl,'lures c\cncphllcd in 16) ,u'e archaic hy lOday\ stamlanh and
Ihose 10 15) sound cnmplelcly lilr<'ign to mosl speakers of modem English,
.1,1 Eighteenth·century The feeling Ihac lhe langllage is 101lering at the edge of the ahyss wa.s
reformers particularly strong In lhc eighleenlh ccntury. In l712, for example, Jonathan
Puri~ts \lie\~ change Through I~e cenluries. IOdlVIduals and organmilions who helieve Ihut cert:: Swift (Ihe aUlhor Ill' Gll/livN :, Travel,,) addressed a famous pamphlel enlltled
as decay lan.:lle., 01 language arc IWller Ihan olhers hal'e frequently expressed cOllcem 'A Proposal for COlTccting, Improving and Ascertaining Ihe English Tongue'
OH'r wh,1I ther perceive In he the delerioralion or English. Today, Ihe to lhe Lord Iligh Treasurer, Robert the Earl of Oxford and Mortimer Hc
ImnenlatlO:l,S ,Olthcse r,udsls e(ln ht'found in hooks like J. Simon', Paradigl1l.\, wrote:
Lo.11 Refit< 1/(1/1.1 (1/. LUNt/('\, 1I11d 1f,I Declille puhlished in America In 1980 My lord. I do here, in the nome or all the learned and polile perso"s of the nalion,
and J, flon~) " rh,' Lallg/tagt' 1/'/11': RlICI'. CllIH (llId Ihe 'SllIlIdllrd Ellg/i.\'h' complain 10 your lordship. as Firs! Millisler, thaI our language is e~lrcmc\y unpcrIeel.
/.1.,/1, 11/ Brlll"h School.... which appcured 10 England in 1983. Ihal irs daily improvcmcnc, nrc by no means in proportion 10 Its <.Iaily corrupuons: Ihal
the prelenders 10 polish and refine iI, have chieOy mulliplied abuses alll) ab,unliues:
and. thaI in many IIlslances. 'I ofrends against every pan of grammar,
'Dise.N~d English'
'ome of tht' denunciations of dccillll' h(lv~ taken the ~orm of'd' .
\I h.·h II ' . 'J .' IClIonanes In One of lhe many imperfections that troubled Swift was the 'perpetual
I b t kIt' al rnents of Ihe languugc (Ire catalogued. A good example of such di posilion to shorten our words by retrenching the vowels' (and indeed entire
:nd(~u'I~~ a,n ~cnl1(l'latcd dleuo~'Ir) which was compiled by Kenneth 1JUdson syllables) as in the abbreviation of replltalion to rep or the usc of contracted
. 1,1,. Y tnlH cd Th" /)/ '(I '" •• r D' ' .
1'-177 In the foreword to Ih"/. an, OJ I:'ellsed Ellglish, It WlIS published in forms of verbs such as ('(III '( for call1lOI and he:S for he is, although he had no
.s
"llOn,lry, Richard Hoggart writes: objection to Tis for II is,
Th,' la'i half·ecnlury ha, seCIl 'Ollie powerful ' d ' ,• Pudsts have always been eager to identify the culprits responsible for lhe
Ihe mereuslll!,! ,'om'plioll of Ihe Fligr.1 1 ,a" abundanlly JlISlllicd, Criticisms 01 degeneration of the lunguage, Swift denounced 'illiterate Court-Fops, half-
Orwell IIIIU W.II. Audt'n C(1I1'''1 I 1"11 ' 1"1 angungt'. T,S, Eliol. FR. Lcavis. Gcnr"c
witted· Poets. and the University-Boys' for the decay of Eng/i'h in his time,
pasSiOliale "SSCrt'on Ihlll Wll"ll"
' I,lilt al Oll,'e , Earl"Ier S'(11
I , th crt' was tail
' Poundeo's
I ' " angU'lge goes I th In our day. the characters in the rogues' gallery have changed They uSllall>
11t1Ugh1.S 'IOu lCellllg' goes roUeli 100. ' . ro lell e vcry , ubstanee or our
include modern linguisls and the liberal education establishment. Lingllisls
.. Iludson'; dictIOnary is Intended to stellltil' .' are singled Ollt because modem linguistic science insists, as we have scen,lhat
,llIlIl'L, the En"lish lanuua I I' I ' c rot by exposing lhe C(lJ1CCr th'lt its task is to describe language in all its variety rather than to dictate and polcce
" . "ge. IS se C'I f '
luns 10 nearl) 260 page.s, A "n . I" c ,Ion, 0 examples of diseased Engli~h 'correct' usage, Unfortunately. this d.:scriptivist Slance ha.\ been lrustaken b)
nnnl' . ,I lp c 01 cntncs will give you a /lavaur of the
critics for lhe espousal of the principle of 'Anything Goes', which IS ,aid to
have had a di,ustrous effect on the standards of English language tcaehing.
 '1 If "POR \~\ LlNl l ''I 't ,

t ""'I.Uo\., ""w Vllw \l

aitl!f the u\lhary u~"1t (lid IIal tou\,:h h ," ..
then chtdes Dryul'n tur 'llll" '.1l1nrU IHI"I" '"n.\ lit. 1\ 10Ilt,,,.-(, hln\ no," II
\' 'rh" ' I h , , , , I' ''''''Kille ,,<\
.upe, 1l'\~' I.unl. "ialll he, I 'j", (~/Jt'tltr ( l . ) ,
o· C
t.: 11\ vcrh 11m before the
Many ot the prC\l:rI{l\1VC nl"~' ul kn Ita... . t)'~ cn. I·uhl"f).
down over th.c la . . ' 2~O "C(\f'\ l'" .. )J k.h ~ralllnMr that have been han"~'"
J 0 \:.", ue. lr~\\.:cd hac.:\... 1 \A;U
nup,l' h
hUll, SUccesSive gC'. ncratmlls ul l.... \(' .I)w\h lh.tn\&.., Ul
'W . 0' 'liVe "cen laughl r
hen the Quallt,e, of lhllerenl Ih,n", . r' . ' on exampl",
e>' .\ C I..:l'ImparcU Ih. \
,h.,
g.o\'c:rncd~ not hy the tJiw,
C011JUn(.:lmn 'r (I' . I.: aUl"r Nuun ,
govcrnmenl 01 Cl\S~',) hUI hy Ihe vern\ orlI.\,
.
lh por a ('no".
.
Illelum II. nl!
.1.2 I
lIlle ~rst()od. lienee. accon.ling tll 1.owth. one should sa 'Yn~' • rcs!-.CtI (lr
· . e n:p<lSllllln exp'
language
-------------------------------
The French and /lali an, hau alreuuy confrollled, a fc\\ ccnturies before, the us I (nm *y()U lIro! not so u,lI as ""'). So he crilic,·,.... , sYI \. are ""l "" tall
standardization arp=m prnt>lem vf linguistic" decline by setting up language acadc mit's. The are a much greater loser Ihun III,' by hIS, death' (Swifl
~. , w, I ur Wnlm" 'Y
l p Q llU
,. •
P rescm-day .. , . , . . . 11 ope, I ... "", 1>1)
Italian ,keeuklllia ddt" Cru.f("(l was tilunded in 1582 anu the IC"delltie us,lgc sh()ws Ih,1l the ertlln, 01 the PUWI, Ill' lh I
lrallrai1t'in 1635, These acauemit's pro\ided !he mood \\ hich Swi ft urgeti the from such 'errors • havc nm becn pnmcularly
. ., .
>,ucce"ful. ...ave C angu"\ge
.
English '" emulate whcn he proposed the estahlishment. of a sOeiet) to .Lin.guiSis. rcjeci the view lhal languages altain a stalC <If perfectilln al llmc
·a.<e-ena",' (i.e .. standardi/e) the English langu3ge anti slOP It from changing POUlt In their hlSlory and thai suhsequcUl changes lead tll detenoratmn and
hy prt'sait>"'g and pn>s,rihing usage, comlpl1o~. As noted :lbtlVe, there are simply no ground, for claiming lhal one
Although thc call for an <lc3dem) \I 'l\ never taken up hy the state. ccnain system 01 grammar IS somehow superior lO another. There IS therdore no
reason to lhink thal language change ca~ or will undennine the adequac) of
concerned l'itilcns took it upon thcmseh·es [(\ safeguarti the purity of the
English (or an) olher language) as a medium of eommUnlCa110n.
language. Before th,' cigh'ecmh ,emury \Ias out, the English language was
codilied and ,tandurdi/eu hy /c\icographer.; and grammarians.
4
Dr Johnson's
The most notable of IhL'Sl' siandunJilers was Dr Samuel Johnson who, in
dictionary BIOLOGICAL As far as can be determined, the languages spoken in the world today cannOl
1755, puhlish,'dl DiCliOllllrt' oj rlt" i:.ilglish Lal/gllagl'. In the prcfucc, he
made the purpose of IllS diclionury \Cl) clear: SPECIALIZATION be traced to a common source. Rather. they seem to belong to a n\lmrer of
FOR LANGUAGE distinct families \\ hose histories can be traced back no more than a fe\\
Tongu"-,, like govenlinenlS, have" nutural lendene), to degenemtion: we have long thousand years. Archaeological e\ idence suggest· that language e,isted prior
p .....'ervN our consWllt"'", lei us mnl.t' some "ruggle for our language.
to !hat time for perhaps as long as 100,000 years. bUl Yirtually nothing is
~Iearly, !he dietionary Wll' nOI mtentied by Dr Johnson to serve merely ns a known about thb period of linguistic prehisto!) or aboul ho\\ language
/rsU,ngofEnghsh v(lCabulUl")~ Rather. It \Ias meant 10 he a vital weapon in the originaled in the fiN place.
uefence ot Ihe language agalllst decay As he pUI n. 'every language has Its one!heless, !here is every reason to believe that huma", have a special
IInpropncues and absurtilllCs, \\ hich it is the duty of !he Icxicog· h' capacity for language !hat is ~Ol shared by o!her creatures. The evolutionary
comel or proscnhc'. . rap cr to adaptation of certain physiological mechanisms for linguistic ends has
tlCcurred onlv in humans The so-called speech organs (the lungs, luryn.\.
Grammars tongue. tceth, lips. soft palate. and nasal passages) were and ,till are -
~!r~:m~an~ t~o set ~bOUl the t<ls,," of preserving the purity nf the Ian U<I e directh concerned with ensuring the survival of the organism. Table I J
~ual dCkITIUII~UI(}1I anti enlhusiasm In 176') R h" L g g t'ompares the linguistit: uses of the major speech organs \\ ith their prim.u·y
who later becam(' Bishllp )1' L ti .. - 0 el( oWlh. a scholur
t on 011 j1ubhsheti h'·· ' 11 . survival functions in humans and llther mammals.
("ntltled A Short IlIlroell/cli", I F r ' · IS very tn lIelll,," \lIanual
prdat'c that 'Ih' E· /··h ' '.. " .lIg /.III Gral/ll//ar Lowlh cOlTlplainec.J In Ihe 1n humans, these llrgam, have all become highly spedaliled for linguistic
. c ng IS L.lInguagc as 1\ . k b .. . ends. The vocal folds: for example. are more muscular and k" fatty tn
IMUon allti as It st'md, ,'tl tho< I 't' . .'" spo en y Iht! pohtesl pull (.)1 Iht'
. " ' , \TI lOgs 01 Our t human than in non human primales such a:; chimpanlccs anti gllrill."
"gamst ne .... nan of Gr. . ,. mos approvcc.J alilhors, o/lcnds
,. . , Ulllnl.lr. lie sho . d h Because of a ven Ilighly tieveloped net\\ork of neural patl1\\ays, thC) "btl
"lIIg James Bible allti thc \11l l ' '1: .' I\e. 0\\. even cht"tcs like tht'
('\('11 \\In IUm'ell· II' " IsO cnllilent lInters like Dryden Pnpt' 'Inti resl"lnd more pre~i,el) 10 eommanJ., from the brain, The same c,\en'I\1.' 'ct
.. , ere lontamlOatcd b ' , ' . ' ,' of nl.'uml path\\ays allo\" a high tiegR't' of controltwcr llther ~ech organ"
L,,\\ th c\plallls Ihal '11' tl ] error For tnsIUl1CC. 1111 palle II ()
te SCntellcc bc c al' I eo, such m, !he tl'ngue. palatc, anJ Itps. ueh control e\ceeds lln)thlng fl)und In
g 1\ e. t 1e Advcrh 1101 IS plat'cd
even our c10scst pmnale relati\ e ..
 14
I ';

tahl< U
,'un'waf fund;::..n _

-;-0 t'L'hange l 0,1. U\}~cn

to freah: al 0\ (C r~""Jgc: III
~\ft.t'l·h /tull"/io n
_ _ ---:.:.:......-:..-----
I" supplJ air ror speech
to pnxJuce voice for 'peech
sountJ-'S
-
lung 10 articulale vowels and
t NUl all nuuns namlOg pcriod ... lllllnlC c·an kIf\:. Io:nn\,cneu
to IlHl\C' h)t-xl PJd. {(1 rhnlol consonants Note ~
-
lott
-- -
cbs -

or rea<.ons thut are ~liH not unuer... u'K,,o the "(lUn>-, Ulllw ) ~e • n(}We\CT, 'hu •
(0 provide place of articulation very good \"~rbs. 1111 and wt't'k dl. nllt Ihake

Tc<lh for consonants They aUlumnedJwcekcd til Scuthmd.

10 articulate vowels and
tt.) sealllraJ f.:unl)' consonants
to provide nasal resonance The disclission of1"word creation is based un an .tnu;\\! by E ve CI'ar~I.. and
breathIng Sources 'WI
.
I krh (,hr~
--

lcn nouns sur nce a~ verbs. \1l UmXIUI1-W 55: 767-8\ \ (197lJ Th ' -' •
" WaInIO 11,1.
un.;:• Ib'liSe'd .01'1 K • H'~\IC' !i artie
. I 'P
c cn.on. .. ).
'in A F. .Ii I sc. Itrljl
marktng tn Wa\biri' " Jur Murri,
H(/ /t', edIted by S: Anderson and P. Klp""ky (New York Hal\. Rinthan & WIn'I"n
.' I· d' all·ons of the evolulion of linguistic vocalization.
There are ad dluona III IC . h' h . 1973). The quotallon Irom Gnmm "Iaken lrum 0110 J.'pe"en uJ/lKua.~c: II, NUlur;
.. b .k; f· u"ival respiration. speech breat 109 sows higher Del'e!opment and O"glll (London: Allen & Unwin. 1922\ (page ~2). Jonalhan <;"'111'
(;nhke the reauung 0 , •• .. .. Abd .
. d lonaer e~halallon lime than resplrallon . omlOal . A proposal for correcting. IInproving and ascertaining the EnglI'h tongue' IS {rom
lune pressure an a =- . .' b h'
~_I tho t are not nomlully employed for respiration. are. roug
mu,. es a h .
t IOto play W.F. Bolton (ed.) The English Lall.~uage: E.,.",y.> by English and Amerimn Men of
In a "stematic and refined manner in order to maIntain t e ~Ir pressure LeITers 1490-1839 (Cambndge. Cambmlge Umverslty Pres•. 19661. The di'iCu,,,on
necdej for speech. Again. a specialized, eXlen~lve scI ~f neurologIcal Controls 0\ Lowth is based on Robert Lowth. A Slw" [",rodllclion co English Grwnmor
(London: Millar & Dodsley , 1762). The 1857 speech on the "atus of Canaulan
e elusive to humans makes this type of breathing pOSSible. English is cited in Mark OrkIn's Speaking Canadian English (Toronlo: General
The preceding facls suggesl lhat Ihe human capacity for speech is Publishing Company, 1970). The data on the positioning of negative elemenls within
superimposed on already existing biological s.truClures. Evolutton .has pro- scnlences in human language come from an article by O. Dahl. 'Typology of sentence
duced a refinemenl bolh in degree and III kind through a long Interplay ncgalion'. Lingui,'tic.\· 17: 79-106 (1979). The book by Bickerton. cited below.
OClween Ihe demands of language and Ihe development of the human speech- provides a fresh look 311he emergence of language in the human species.
producing apparalUs. The exercises for this chapter were prepared by Joyce Hildebrand.
There is also evidence that humans arc specialized for the perception of
speech. II has been suggeslCd, for example, that we have special neural
mechanisms tbat enable us to perceive distinctions among consonanlS and that Aitchison. Jean. 1989. The Aniculale Mammal: All [lIIroduClioll 10 Ps),rho/illguislif.l.
Recommended reading
these mechanisms are nOI found in olher mammals. 3rd edn. London: Routledge
We know considerably less about the cvulutionary specialization for non- Ailchison. Jean. 1987. Lillguislics. 3rd edn. Teach Yourself Books. Sevenoaks. Kenl:
vocal and non-audilory aspecLs of language such as word fonnation, sentence Hodder & Stoughton.
formalion. and the interprelalion of mcamng. Nonetheless, it is clear thaI Ailchison, Jean. 1991. Language Change: Progress or Decay? 2nd edn. Cambridge:
some sort of evolutionary specialilalion mUSI have occurred. As we will see Cambridge Univef\ity Press.
Bickerton. Derek. 1990. Ltmguage "nd Species. Chicago: UniversilY of Chicago
111 Chapter 1.1,. specific parts of the brall1 are associated wilh each of these
hng~lsllc aC:lVll1es. ThtS suggesls that the human brain is specially slructured Pres.
Clark. Eve and Clark, Herb. 1979. 'When nouns surface as verbs: Lallguage 55:
for 1,lI1guage, and Ihal speclcs wllh dlf'fercllltypes of brains will not be ahl'
1<1 acquire or usc Ihe Iyp's of" , . .Issoclaled
. . . . . WIth
. human language. We c 767-8 II.
",'II . ' . ' .c. glamm.lrs CrySlul, DU\id. 1987. The Cambridge Ellcyclopedia of Lallguage. Cambridge:
I lelUm 10 thIS POlClI111 Ihe penultimate chapler of this book. .Cambridge University Press. .
Jackenuoff. Ray. 1993 PlJllerm //I 'he Milld. Harvester Whealsheat: Hemel Hemp-
Summing up stead. Herts.
Human language is eharaclerilcd h ' " Milroy. James and Milroy. Leslie. 1991. Au,horit)' ill Language. 2nd eun London:
"ccess In a gramma • I·. YcreatIVIty. Speakers of a language have
.. . ' r, a menta sYMcm Ihat all h I' Routledge. J \I' d
Innuliar and novel u t I · ows I em 10 oml and internrCI Pinker. tew. 1994. The Lallguage [nstillct: The f',',.1\' Science of Langut/ge an III.
CfJnces. The gra . I'
perccplll1n. and patternll1g of, 'ceh. mmar governs the articulation,
I.ondon: Allen Lane.
scmcnees, and the interpr 'tal' pel· sounds. the fomlallon of words lind
Cion 0 uttcrances. . AlII'anguages have grammars
 'J!'ITl~WO~AR\ LINGUISTICS
16

. "bs creaLed from nouns in aCCordance 17

The followmg sentences conw,", vcr.' n 1 of the chapter. DeSCribe •• _ a) He doo' t know ahout the race.
Qut!stions 1. \\ ith the process de,en'~d '" secliO ~'" b ) You was Out when t called.
meaning of each of these new verbs. c) Did you send ooe yen
We-punk.rocked the nigh, t away. . d) There'~ twenty horses registered in the , hl>w
a) rosS the arctic. e) That wlOdow's broke, ' " be carefut .
b) She dog-teamed her way ac
I) Jim and me arc gonna go campin' this weeke d
c) We ~1G'd to Perth.
g) I seen the parade last week. n .
d) We Con corded to London.
e) He Maradonna'd the baU into the net.
h) He been lost in the park for two huuf\.
i) My car needs cleaned ' cause of all the rain.
f) I microwal'ed the parslllps. j) Julie ain' t got none.
g) Sbe Robi nson Crusoed in the Galapagos.
k) Somebody lerttheir book 00 the train .
h) We· lI have toAjaJ<thes IlIk. m) Murray hurt hisself io the game.
i) He Windolened the windows. n) They've went to town.
j) You should Clairol your hair. 0) She very ki nd.
k) Let's carton the eggs. p) Ah hink ... mibbe she wouldnac ov came if you,c' d telt her.
. I . Lhe preceding exercise as a model, create five new q) We sees her every day in the pub.
2 Usmg the examp es III f th r) Did him give you de book you a-look for~
. ve rbs fro m nouns.. BUI'ld a sentence around each 0 ese new verbs to
s) Phil does be working hard.
show its meaning.
3. Which of the following forms are possible words of English? Solicit the
belp of an acquainUlI1ce and see if you agree on your Judgements.
a) mbood c) coofp e) sproke g) worpz
b) frail dJ ktleem f) flube h) bsam
4. Imagine that you are an advertising executive and that your job involves
invenl ing new names for products. Create four new forms that arc
possible words of English and four that are not.

5. Part of linguistic competence IlIvolves the ability to recognize whether

novel ulterances arc acceptable Consider the following sentences and
determine which are p<1"ihlc <,entence .. in English. For each unacceptable
sentence, change the senlence 10 make it acceptable, and compare the
IWo.
a) Ja~on 's mother left him elt WIth nothing to eat.
oj Miriam is eager 10 talk 10.
c) This is the man who I IIKI!. a piuure of
dJ Colin made Jane a 'andwi,h.
e) Is tlle dog ~lecPlJIg the hone agalll '}
n Chns prepared Rllbin it ('ake
g) Mill cleaned the garden up.
h) Max cleaned up Ihe gardel1
i) Max dcancd up it.
J) Itbirr you 10 kav\.'.
k) I hal you like li'er sUll'ri.\c, mc.
~. (oll,idc[ lh< lollo\\Il1g nlllllCs' I
'peake" oil ngil h It) I I I ' C.1l1 of whIch I nClcpt,lhl' III lillie
ll1~ach Ie. ' "" ellli Y Ihe Ille uiPIIVC rille Ih,Il.lf 11,,1.,11 d

Phonetics: the sounds of
language
lichael Dobro~ JI:-f.; v and Francis Katamba
HeJlerlv b/Ji.:J/517 3 "ori:/ 01 gull<rJb.
• "-3Iace 5/e\e1lS
. d ~.~ need 10 p.:ak in order 10 use Janguage. Language can be "riUCh
\\e o.~ ....am·-aJh and even prod uced b}• compu t
.._.. ers'In J'Imlled
. "a'J bU..,I
teL~rucu ma::u t.. , ' . . I
Ot!\ertbele. . peech remain the pnmary way "e encode II. Our \pe.:ie
poke long before "e beg~ 10 "nI~ lan~uage down. and. a we a", in the
tiN cbapter of this book, thl Ion? hl~tory of 'poken language I reflected In
our analOmica/ ,pecializalJon for JI~ Humans also appear to have pecia/i/ed
neural mecbanism, for the pefcepllon of s~ch sounds. Becau'e language
and peecb are so closely hnked. we begin our study of language by
e~amjn/Og the inventory and structure of the sounds of language. This branch
of Iin o uisti" is called phonetics.
Hu~an languages display a wide variety of sounds. called phon~ or
speech sounds. There are a great many speech sounds. but not an infinite
number of them - the c1a~, of possible ~peech sounds is finite. and a POnlon
of the total set will be found in the inventory' of any human language. Cenaln
sounds thai humans are capable of producing with the vocal tract do not OCcur
in peech. such as the sound made by inhaling through one comer of the
mouth. or the 'ra~pberry" produced by stiCking out the tongue and blo" 100
hard across it. Nonetheless. a \'ef)' wide range of sound!> is found in huma~
language. inc/udingsuch sounds a .. the click made bydra'ol.ing the tongue hard
away Jrom the upper molars on one side of the mouth. or the sound made by
constricting the insides of the throat a., you breathe out. The class of po sible 1.1
~peech sounds is also universal. Any human, child or adult. can learn how to
pronounce these sounds. Units of
There are two way_ of upproaching phonetics. One approach studies the representation
phy~iological mechanisms of speech production. This is known as articu.
latory phonetics. The other, known as acoustic phonetics, deals with \peech
ound 10 terms of how we hear them. To this end. it is concerned wi th
measunng und analysing the physical properties of sound waves we produce
\\hen we ~pe~. Both approaches are indispensable to an undef!>tandi ng of
pbonetlc . ThIs chapter focuses on articulatory phonetics. but also make
f"H I I
1
PHD ETIC
. Ince the "~Ieemh centll£). elf ru have hec:n made to de",
TRA~ CR I PTID ,);,tcm lor Iran cnhlnllthe IInd\ f peech Ihe helot"
i nternatiOnal Phonetic \tphuht!t til· ) h hec:n deve,lI<N.n
This 'Y'lc.·m "I tran'\Cnp"un 31lempi I" reprel\en! e:I "PUlg d e '
ch
'pe.:c h. "Ith a "ngle 'ymhot. These ymbol. are en~lmed Inn~~~ brae
to ind,cale thai the tra'henp""n " phunetic IUId Jf. n represen I I
'pelling sy'tem of ,I pan,,:ul.r language. Fur cumple, 1M IOUnd t I~
Ih in Engli,h !Eis is t..... n"'nhcd a 1"1 (pr nounccd eli!. ao In .. ::"U)
IPA u,cs th" symbol to repre'cn! the sound In "hleh"'er langu ge It
heard hec Table 2. \). "hether I' I~ Engli h. Spani h. TllIkmen (a Turkic
language poken In Central ASIa and wnllen "ilb the ynlhc alphabet) .
or any other.
fabtc 2.1 U", of 1')1 in me Internationat Phone"c Alphabel
Lunguulle Spell",/( IN I1tlVUng
Engh h !hi, J
It)1 'mis'
panish 1x$ (b:>claj '''eddlOg'
Turkmen llilak [aoak] "clOt
The use of a standardized phonetic alphabet enable linguist to Iran nbe
languages con,istentiy and accurately. In • 'onh American u age. however.
some phonetic symbols differ from tho-.e employed by IPA tran cription F<>r
example. the sound heard at the beginning of the Engli h \\ ord ~ark \.
transcribed as If] in IPA. but usually as [ J in • 'orth America. Thi book
employ IPA varianll>. but note .'orth Ame~can sym,bo! "here re~evant
If you wish to start practising the phonenc transcnpnon of Engli. h. turn to
Tables 2.16 and 2.17. page 42 to 43. for eltamples.
Am'one who heaT!> a language. poken for the fIrst lime fInd II hard to break
up ;he flow of speech into individual unill> of pr~uction: Ewn II. hen hearmg
our own languagepoken. we do nOl focus attenuon on mdl\ldual, und :l!
much as we do on the meanings of words. phrase . and entl!nce. Man~
alphabets. mcluding the IPA. repreent speech in the fonn ot segment!> or
individual peech sound!> like [a]. [01. [p1. or [mJ. l'.ing 'Cgment • howe\cr.
i. only one wa) to repre. ent peech. The ~llable. prccDted in Chapter 3. I
abo represented in ome writing ·)tem see Chapter 15. eClJons 1.2 32.
and 42). In one fonn of Japan.:,e writing. for example, Igu u h iJ'
 1'111 'N,l I I(
11"

NU',il l"a\ 11\ "

thlld IlIkl

()IHI""I1\ Ity

I J
'l.'l·~lI\d "'h'l , llyn
\'h' Il\Hlt\ oUrl"('''
II.' h,ll" ""'111\'" rho' "'~III"111 ,I' .111 Ill"" "lulII 'IWl','h '<1111111 1'1
I Ml t}ll' ,r fhar 'P\.';Ik.t·", h,l\(.' III,' . ll\rl' ~\I" ...
Ph;u IlX : 1\'\l\;lI to\l\ IUl"!

kill"., "t l·\/dl· lh,\'. II.ll Jill 'II· I ' I "'l\l'fitl 1",1 1t1l " Wllhtl\ \h \,\1 yn )
" Il' fl.1t 1 I
Ih,lllI\ak,·., II 1'''''''''1<' h. """Ik "nIl II ,I ., Ir 'a"l "I' 'I""'l'/I illl •
.
I ' I, "<I~~
.
Jm'I" III 'I~',','h I'rll.lIl,' I""1
.
pI III Id" nlll' kill" Oll' .
\J'll'll" ' 'UtHh '"'U
I. I "'""111\
\, l (\1 t ll' •
III \l' ' 1IIl' Uh .. S'lp, of Ih,,' ftll1 t-: lH,' ,' Udl ;I, A o ltlf ·f )tlOI
•
"'1' A I l \1\h:IIl'l'
\.UIl'
I
/IIt~(,Jillf H Ili ttl( H', 'IC ~('"If·IIIf1I.,h'l\\ '\.· I.!I)I(.·t1I~ ,hltlifl" 111/ . .
( Or#flt '0/ )
' I ttl1d
. . ... ~. l fCo' 'r'H1~ ') . \ .ur \1\
l\ IIhlll \I""k fill' '1Il!~l·.," Ihill ""'lIIelll, Ill' illdlll,III .11 I 1"'"'"0 Innhnn
" nr<'!llle .1111.1,hlluld
.
"t' ,C'I.. . ..
It 1'1\·." 'lIll·d IlIdllldualJ Itl' ' \ " '11
• lilli' OJ,. I .
I
• _' \. 1 (\ Il"';.lIh\.' •
11I!:II"h~
11,,' rrlMII,' 1I11',ma1lU' ""11I.',·,'h s"und, in hlllll.'11 1.111 'U " I nplIIIIl
1,1 ','g lll'IlI:1/ I' J1I111,'I,,' 'r,III." ·III'IIIIIl "a Wd/ , n\lll;V '11 ' / \ . .1 e.1. \II 'Ih'"
1/ I ,
<oc<"
'. . I H - \,l\ uf 11~ln,· h
".,,',·<,h. II " 1IllI"""hlt' 10 1"pll'."'"1 a ll \ In 1111, ,.1' 111/111 ' . 'II IlIg
, , ,Ill 'IW"l'h
sll"',' II,. tllll' '\,1,1.\ ,hI' "'Ill" sOlllld III l' ''','lh lit,· ',UII,' 1\ "I I .. N '" I1 Il,h,
II " III\'anall l l'IIUU~ - h tmrn lall~,lI ' I\\Ill
\\'"1\( ., ' , I. OIl"lhL'!'<",
j
ll' nI '1',',','II " ' IIJ.1I11
U, ,,, lr.1II,,'nhe ,hl'lll \'1\11" , 1<'111 II .' \ I' .s llulld i, '1111 '11 II' /1.( 10 ,UI!!Ua~" 1o, IIRun" 2 . ' 11w ~Cluntl · plodllllllg 'y~lt 'm
R tl ..' , 1"SUIII"IIIFI'lh
II.SSlall,I''. ·Iwk . I h,' l'Il" Illal 1\ h"11 pmdul'Il1g Il" sou lid I ' 'I I "/l " ,
IW." Ihl' lf "1" '''~'''"l'r hili Russ,.II' slwakers tlnl\' i1wil.s "," h:;g Is I 'P,'a~l'I"
2, 1

11,11 1I1,Ih' 'h,' '01111<1.' ",/11'1,'111 ,' lIllll"lI In Illn ' I "
..
. !! ) 1IIII.I,d du(.'\
,an s, p, lr,lI~s) Illh b Il
The lun!lS In oloer III produ,,' Ihc 1Il'1J11t lly III 'Olllld, III 11ll' wodd', LIII Ilia 'C', we ,,,I.e
"""l1d., ,, Jlld I .11,' d"'IIIt:l l'II"II~h Inlllll'Kh ()III"r ' I' I' " '. UI Ihr Ulr illlllihe IlIn!!, .lIId Ihell c. pI.'! il outing 'pecdl 1:\ ,mall 1111mhcl 01 ""1II,1-
I . , , I ,III/? uag,·s IIll' \\ '1.'
h ) .... "011·" "'·,1111' II ,III ' <' II I",d II IIh "'p"rall' ,) Illh"I " (\, U "\L'r arc lIIaOe w IIh.m ,IS It nllW, inlo Ihl' \lx:allra~1 '" \w will SL'C In 'ce\loll Ill:!.
helm\ ) .\ l'l'nain It'vel 01 .\lr pre"ure Is necded III keel' Ihe 'l~edlll\e(hal1l 111
2 flllll'llo\llng ,Icadil y, rhl' pIC\MIIC " lIlainlalll<:o hy Ihe aL"lUII\ 01 V,\f\l'\I~ eh
uf tllu,.:lcs (111I1I1Ig inl,1 play ounllg Ihe l'OUN: or an ullcrolilce rhe Illll des
1 HI .. (H,NI). un: plimarily Ihl' intcn'o,tab (Ihe 1II11,de, 1"Il:Iwccn Ih,' nhsl .\Ild Ih
"1101l11( 'N(, Sound i, PI\.t!IIL'L·U ,III " ' .:1 in 1111111<111 Th '
1\ 111'11 - dinphruJ:lIl (lhe lar ", ,hel'lol llIu,de Ihal "'paralc' Ih,' l'he'I'~I\ II Ifllm Ihe
1II,'(lIal1l\l1l ,IS ''IlI''''lill • ,.1 <In I . I . . IlIk 01 II'" '/ll'l'ch Prudllt:lio n .llxlolll,'11 l.
~\'''M
Illolion In 1\ 01\' '1Iet'i ll l"lll\ 'I .' If ' 111'1' }, ,I suulld 'UllIn' Ihal"'I, Ill\' .lIr III
. ' I l l \ ,1111
Ih.1I nlt>Ulfie, IhL' '''Wid III' .. '.
'u
'~c,' h I" • I ' I
'( il L lUll , ,lilt! ;I '<'I of filier, 1.2
. I ,ll IOU' II a I , 1'/1 '· I
lUll!!, rh,' SUunusolIl'L'L' I., III II ' ., ' . . (.111 ,uPI' Y ,.S plm l"I'd II) Ih"
'"CII' fo.d., (," H)CUll'(lrrj,) I . 'l, .Ir;t II \,
Wlll' re a "'I 01 IlllIsL'1t·.\ l'ulIL'd IhL'
The l.uynx As all nows OUlllf Ih,' IlIllf' lip Ih,' tnll'hclI (\\lIIdI'IP"), 1\ Pol''',
Ihmllgh a
I : 'L' o,'ated. Thl' frll ' . • I 1>o\lil-,' stru,'lure llIade of cllrtilage '"I1.! ll1uwk, IIll' I,U'I" «((HI\\1IIH1ly
,11.\11 . Ih,' luhl' "/Ih,' III' )'11 I I CI'.' .1." II,' IIl t'ans ,'h'lIT IltL'
'. "'\L'L'II Ihe 01'11 .. I I. 111m n '" Ih,' \"1l1"" Il\I Of \dam's appk; hgun: ~ 'I, rhl' I\tallll'"rtlllll IIf Ihe
" '';IIIlII Ihe ,lhlll" II\ III ' " 1 ' L,l\ II} HIl' II.l l'LIIYII\ \'.llIl'h
" , (tII,1 <'''I'll\, all/II ' . . I .. . ' larlll' " fl'rlm:d h\ Ihe thnoid cllrtilllJ:C, whl,'h sl'lea,l, 0111\\, Id h~c Ih,'
I""'''!!l'' all' (',.lkl'l" 'II ~ , I Ie 11,1\,1 L,lIl1y (hgllr,' , I) . I h,''''
( , 111)\111 .1' Ih,' 'I/('al 'rllct he;ld of a rll'u 'h .-
("lIe Ih)lI.id l"allilage re'" Oil Ihe nn' h,lpcd ,'ricnid
l'lIrtiluAc Hnl ,he"" 01 IIlII,ek l1are fn'llI Ihe Illnel sid ~ 01 Ih.: l.tryn ,
1,lllllin'lhe ("Iired \11,,,11 fold, (\I1(',lll'IIld,\ , The \'\1(',,11,,10' Ie <.I'h Illach ,I
III the' Ih~lIlid .:.mila!!,' al Ih.: In.nl ,.f lhe lal)\1\, ,nd In Ih Ilf)tenuid
";Illilag," ,II Ih,' h<ld. rhe \IX'.II fllid ,"UI he pulled ,11'.111 \If d, I\\n d r
 2. ( \I u~

Whisper

" Murmur Yet another glottal ... tute pruduc.:c ... i.\ tnurmur o1h." .
Sounds produced wtth thh gluual confJllur'ltl I . known as. "'bi.'\M!r) " Ct~t

L~
, 'I d It
~lre rt: ax.e to a 0\\ enough air tn C...t:'IJ)c 1. 'n'K.ro
~
1 VOlcell • hU\ tin:'
~-
\&'tlCa\ h,h\
effect. . • u pn tu.:e a MmultUI)i:l)U!\ ""'hi pery

~Th'~"-
The. c lour g lottal statcs rcprescnt o nl y 'Om f h
cilrtdJge .
c,
production at the gtOltis . Comhined wi th V-tr'll)U:~) ,1 ~hMhihlte", ot tlU I\t.\
~ :~ anlCU altOn" m~d' . L.
I arynx. thcy produce a WIde ran"c 0\ nhllnC' B 'f ." C · " "0 the
'. t:' I' .. c ore eX~\lU1mng th.
CricoiJ / d clall. we WIll first consider thc three rna'lor cl'''' t' h C"", In more

f\
. ~ .~e~ 0 pone
cartilage
/
Trochea
f I' b from Ihe back; c, from above. with the '0C<l1 folds In the
Figure 2.2 The laTvn,",' d, from lhe eel""'..:" ' ndicale muscles, a number of which have been
The slllal • ~s . Ie I
open flOSItoon. , ' 10 show lhe carrJiages more c ar y
eirrW>ated from rhe drawn 8>

Voiceless Voiced Whisper Mumur

2.3
, Id may be positioned in a number of ways ro produce differ;;;-t Figure 2,3 Four glottal state,s: t~e stylized draWing represents the vocal folds and glottis (rum above;
The voca1 10 5 , ' . F'
Glollal states e firsr rwo glo((al states presented 10 Igure 2.3 arc cOmmonly Its antenor position IS towards the top, The small triangles represent the arytenOid
glor[al staleS, Th ,, h th' d d ' ca rtilages which help spread or close the vocal (aids,
encountered J'n nlOS[ •
of the world s languages. T e Ir escnbes •
the
•
glott"1
u
," I nderlies a common speech phenomenon, and the founh IllUstrates
.stare wa U d' E I' h
one of a number of gloual states not encountere m ng I' . 3
SOUND CLASSES The sounds of language can be grouped into classes. based on th~ phonetic
When me vocal folds are pulled apan as illustrated in Figure 2.3. air passes properties that they share, You have already seen what some of these
Voicelessness
directly through the glonis, Any sound made with the vocal folds in thh propertie can be. All voiced ,ounds. for example. form a c1a>s. as do all
posiIJon is said 10 be voiceless. You can confirm a sound's voicelessness by voicele s sounds. Sounds fal l into two major classes. vowels and consonants.
touching your lingers to the I~nx as you .produce it. ~ou wi.1I not feel any Another cJas " the glides. ,hare properties of both voweb and consonanls.
librarian from the vocal folds bcmg transmitted !O your fingertips. The initial 3.1
sounds ofjish. ~illg, and ~ollse are all voiceless.
Vowels, consonants, Vowels, consonanh and glides can be di tinguished on the basis of differences
and glides (syllabic in articulation. or by their acoustic properties. We can also distinguish among
these elements with respect to whether they function as syllabic or non,
Voicing When the vocal folds are brought c lose together. but not tightly closed. air and non-syllabic
passing between them causes them to vibrate. producing sounds that arc said sy llabic elements,
elements)
10 be voiced, (Sec Figure 2.3, where the movement of the voca l folds duri ng
l'O Il'I/I!! b indicated by the wavy linc.) You can detemline whether a sound IS The articulatory Consonantal sounds. which may be voiced or voiceless, are made with a
loiced in the same way you determined voicelessness. By li ghtl y lOudllng the difference narrO\\ or complete c\o,ure in the vocal tract. The airtlow is either blocked
lingers to the larynx as you produce an extended version of the initial s()unds llIomentaril) or restricted so much that noi 'e is produced as air now pa,t the
of the words ;il' or !:(}II'. or any vowel. you can sense the vibral1o(J of the vocal con"triction. Vowels are produced \\ Ith little obstruction in the vocal tra.:l and
Ill/ds within the larynx. are general I) voiced.
 24 (()NTf MPOR ~R~ IINGUIS TIe s

. 'Ilt!renct! 10 articulation. consonants and vowc l~ di

Tht' acoustic A, a re,uh (If Ihl: d, Vowel.... are more sonorous than con.l)onanL\. and frer in
difference the w") the) ",und, d r and longer lasting, (You can observe this .'0 "0
perceIve them a' lou end vowel sounds in your pronunciation of Wo ~f You
compare (he c:on ... onanr a rU.\ Itke
pel and "'It/.)
4
of vowels aJlows them to form the basis of sYllabI
Syllabic and TIl C••e reater ,nnontyr d phonetically as a pea'k 0 f" sonon ty surro unded byes A. CONSONANT Airfl. ow is modified in the oral cavity b th - - - __ _
non-syllabic ,yllanl. can be ~e rnSeonorous segments have a richer Sound Lhan non _ Ie,s ARTICULATION ,. .
posltlomng or the lips. These modifications
Y e placement f th
0, e l(m%Uc anu \h_
rous ,cpmcnIS. d h' sono f ' I' Th . OCcur at spec fi 1 .."
sono 's ) For e Ie the words (/ an go cac COlltalO o nc ,sYllabi c. Ih - o arucu allon. e major places of articulal'lon d: I Ie p a.&..:c. ()£ .\l(I'nlS
cxamp , o ut 10
,~ '
I, ed'In UllS .
sec tion. Figure 2.4 provides
use In '~'ech pnld,uc.;l\on are
'ds" 1"'-
'
rou, (Jne, , . 'yllables, and the word lelepholle three sy llabi . e ' . amI
d !rlllglllllil IWO S ' fl" Cs, In View, of the vocal tract on which each 1 aglttal
f .sect',on . or tUlawa)'
wor. e s lIables in these words, we are In e ect eOUn llng the vOWeb indicated, pace 0 anlculatlun h",. hoen
counting Ih Y 'd t I'orm Ihe nucleus of a syllable, In section 5 71' t \V'I'I' A
I is thus "" 0 " I be
vowe ' , types of consonanLs can form syllaolc nuclei as weli It '
shown that certam '. . , ' IS a
, h
ood Idea, t erelO ,' rc 10 Lhmk of vowels and consonanL' not Simply as type
, , ' S of
g. ' . bUI ,'IS. element.> that mayor may not be
artJculauon~. . .sYlla.blc,
. In I) . the I'n't'
1 la I
.'ound~ of Ihe words In Ihe left column are all consonants, those On the right
are all vowels,

I)
lake ~b()\'c

far! ~I

[eel ~I
AJveopalatal /; \
jump jl ~a~al cavity
illink ygly Alveolar ridge: (f'.." Palate. P7alLalS
alveolars ~ ~ I
!Jell open
Teeth: dentals /. ~ I /
~
Table 2.2 .'ums up lhe differences between the two classes presented so far, /-'Bod\ I f Velum: ,elm
Table 2.2 The maj"r Jifcrenccs between consonant' and vowels
Lip : labial ~-;. - Back t- t;, ula: u\Ular;
Tip ( Root ~PhaI)n'\" phaI)ngeal
~"'t'l\ (and OIlier nHublc elfm"II/I) COl/5(1nallls (/Iflll·wl/ahit' elemelllS)
--------------------~--
are produced "uh rel,""rly little are produced with it narrow or BI3.d~/ ,~
ob,trucllon In Ihe "1<.-.IIr""t complete dnsure 10 Ihe voc," IraCI
art' more SOIlOroU"i • arc less snnor()u"i GIIltl, gk,nal \

TrJchea -----':,--'"
Glides A type of soulld lhal,hows propertIes 1)1' hoth COnSOI1Hl1ls ~nu vowels Is l'alled
a glide GlIde,\ lIlay hl' thought of as rapidly arl1C'IIJUletl VOWl'iI, Thl\ 1\ lite
h.:urt' 2.4 TI", \ -,lItrdCt.
auditllr) tnlptl'"ioll Ihey proUUll:, Gliucs arc pmcJuecd wilh 01" anlell ial/oll
IIkt' thaI "I a "owd, However, Ihey move qUickly 10 anOlhu ,trllllllati'lI1 , "
dlllhe 1I1111JI glIdes 1Il"'IlI 11'," 4,1
h"'l Ihllll·It Ihe) Ifl' \IJw~l·h~r In unJeltl.lilon , gild 's 1'.1111'/11 III 111111111111
TIll' I(lnglll'
~ WIISIIII;II1i, 1111 c~all1l'lc. IIdes C;1Il IlC~cr lorm Ihe lIuclllJ 11/.1 1I,Ink
Th pnmary lfti.:ulaung rgaD l th lOngue. \\ hich t \ I) 'Ie 1\ can be
rill l'd, 1(,\\ "mi, thru t Ii rward or drawn b.l k d even r ned b c fhe Ide
IlIle 'IIucs hllw 1'11I1't'rtll' 01 hlllh ('IIIL")II.tIll ,lilt! \I}wds. Ih le'IIll
of th tongul' an I [) • rat r 10 ered
 1(, ("'I[Mr,,~ RY IIN(.UI~ ", S

PhlII1CU-': deS("IlplHIfI fl.'It.'IS ", tj\'C' ur~a, llf 111l' Inugut,,_ I"he ti
arca AI III In.nl 1",1 t>dllllli the lip lIes Ihe Illade. The . p 1.\ Ihe nat "tIfH-4l lie
,. h h' d ' m.lln III'
longue I~ ("".tlled th(,~ hod) ••lIlu' (,.~ 10 mo.,( pan ul ,t he tUIl'uc . ,I S of the
..""'
muulh " ,·al"'.1 Ule llu,"I. n", btlJ} and had 01 Ihe Ion l,h.1l be. III ••. lub io \ e lar "IOI,:C lill" 'UI\~U
I r.u "I
rctcrn.'"d ,00nth u thl'" d ortum Thc root 01 the tungue I, guc
(0 .
C"I I .. he) .'"
~_ ..H the "'alnt.' Uml."
" h <I'lIIall1 ..• . '..
upper p.lr! ollhe Ihrtl.lllp aIY"'). c" In In.
4.2 Uvulars

PI.I< l'\ of I:;h POIIJl II "hlch Ih, aiN~cam can m~dlflcd III ProdUCe a d'
!'"
drlic ul.llion ",und I' L'.!lkd ,I place (or POIllt) of artIculatIOn, Places of.' II IcrcOI
. . artlcu"'l
luund .lllh,· lop". wllhm Ihe ora I cavlly. 111 Ihe pharynx, and al th ' IOn are
e gill""
Pharyngeals The area of the throal between the uvula and the Iii nx t
Labidl Any ,,,)\,,,d milde wllh d(lSUre Ilr neflr clo,ure of lhe lIps i, said h p h aryn x. SOllnd~ made thruugh the modifi(';'ltl(In f r Y ~ \.:.I\h~n• ;l~ th
, • 0 air t1 ow m lh
OIunds II1volvIn!! oolh Jrp' ure lenned bilabial ; sound, invOlvil:':
g
t~ labial rctmctmg the tongue or c,un"ltricting Ihe phary , nJ< are called pha
\ rc~"m .hy
hp and upper ,leeth a,re called labiodcntals. Eng",h Ineludes lh , ~ lo"c, Pharyngeals can be round on many dialec" of Arab'le • b u\ nh\ tn Lngh' rynll,.a\,
h
l ' d e hliab
heard word-lnrlJally In eeer. .7111, an -mom". and the labl~vuentals
"
h·,IU"
inillilll}' In!!r,· and 1'1/11 card
Glottal Sounds produced by ."ing the vocal. fold,. as the pn'm'.ry
~
an'leUIatoN are
called glottals. The sound at the begmning of the English wonl heuI' and
!Jug IS made at the glottis. -
Dental Some phones :lIe produced wilh the longue placed itgainst or n .' III h
' c, Ctc'h
Sound, mucle In Ihls way arc called dentals, If the tongue Is plae 'd he Ct,
d .
Ihe, lCClh. the ,soun I,S SW{ 10 e mter ental. [nlerdcnlals In En i"h '·t\l.e·co
I h ' d ,e
5
, consonanls 0 /'h
inllwl I.•' d
I e word -' !Jr glSarCth
an !.!J,ing. (Some EngllShs .. . C
produce ,\ and: u,s denial,s: sec scelron 5.3 for morc delails.) peakcJ1! MANNERS OF The lips. tongue. velum. and glottis can be positioned \0 different way' to
ARTICULATION produce different ,ound types. These various conftgurallon~ arc called the
manners of articulation.
Alveolar Wilhm lhe ora l cavily. 11 sma ll ridge protrudes from jusl behtnd lh •
h Th IS " I d I . ' e upper fron l 5.1
reel. IS ca Ie Ile alveolar ridge. The tongue may touch b. b
· 'd . h d ' , or c rought Oral versus nasal
IIC.ar IIlIS n ge JJ1 I e pro uClron 01 certain sounds whl'ch ',r" h ' A basic distinction in manner of articulation is between or al and nasal
, - ~ cncc d escr ' he I
as alveolar, Alveolnr "()llnds arc heard al the beginning of Ihe fOBo~' '( phones phones. When the velum IS raised. cutting off the airflow through the nasal
'7ngllsh w(lrd,: lop. dt'er. loaf!. jJp. {ip. and !leek. Some languages sue Ing passages. oral sounds are produced. The velum. however. can be IO\l.ered to
Spanosh. have an rlhallS mude wilh lhe longue touching the aIVC(JI;r·ridg;. as allow air to pass through the nasal passages. producing a sound that is na.sal,
Both consonants and vowels can be nasal. in which ca.se they are generally
voiced. (UnleS' otherwise noted. all nasals represented in this chapter are
Pdl,1I0-dlveoldr and JU",I behind Ihe alveolar ridge the roof of the mouth r's'es -h' I Th' " voiced.) The consonants at the end of the English words SUI.!. SU!!!. and SU~
p,lIdl,11 k ' " arp y. IS arca are na. al. For speakers of orth American English, the vowe!\ of words "ueh
110 nU,wn as Ihe palli/o-lIlveolar urca (or alveopaJa'''1 ' b
I' h . , .... In some ooks) Th· as bqnk and lI"!rrk are also nasal,
lIg esl pat1 III lhe mill of Ihe moulh is called Ihe palale ' d I " C
II h' ,an soun,s produced
WI J I c longue 1111 or ncar Ihis area arc called palatal~ P ' lat . I I 5.2
COllson,lIIl s arc heard III the followlI1g english words '} '. a 0 ,a veo .ar
'Ind ' I" Th' d .. ' . ' . ,\ rllW, ItU' {/,\'ure ("Illp Stops Stops are made \l.llh a complete and momentary clo,ure of airtlllw through
• Jl/l'1f." CWOI' '1I11i1ll1 phone 111 yes is n pal alai glide "
the vocallraet. thus pn:veming the escape of air via the mouth, In the world',
language. stop' arc found at bilabial. denial. alveolar. palatal . velar. uvular.
The soli <lrea lowards Ihe ..' f II f' and glonal points of articulation.
Sounds maUl' wilh Ih I reat () le 1'00 01 lhe mOlllh IS ca ll ed Ihe w lum The glottal Slop is commonl) heard III many popular British diakcb
Vl'la" arl! heard 1'1 I,e '"ug/'ue lout:hlllg 01 l1\;ar lhl,' P"'1l1011 arc Gtlk'd \ClaJ": (instead of the ltJ in the Queen', Engli'h) in wonls like burrer. ",uler and
I ,ng IS 1 al Ihl' hegllll ,. h
Ihe end ot Ih., "ort! h,,", 'I he I'd' I ,1.lIlg n I e. word, I'lIII ,tnt! 1(0. i111t1 ,II bouit· This glottal stop i often ,pel1cd with an aposlrophl! li>l,'a. \\a'er and
, g I c le,lrd word Inliially III 11"1'1 is <'"Ik·" it 1>" I).
In English. bilabial. alveolar, and \elar oral and nasal stops occur III the
 II ";'T-~

tHO (1,
,..:xU- Ii-red ID 131>1' ~ ~ ~ lie Ih~1 101 .1,><" n,lI ,,,,cur \"'r..r-inlllall~ lQ
Engl; h frkati~es
Eogli-

[pI
Ibl
1011
!!.1311

Glolttll'ifort' "'«In" oj tirrit-"lurulfl

III TYllflScrlpnj'lI1
.. ~un
(dl u,hiotlt'nfc,l
!l<" (nl \oice\t!~~ fal III
El"l(
\ok~d \tat !\ \
r Intr:'rUt'I1Ctd
(ll
\',~ : .. ,~11
eg) \·l"Ii~ele~~ mm lSI
\lli..~ PI' 101 Voiced lhl'. . e !3\
,"-...! \\l!!£
AI\'eolar
\'ol~ele~~ .:-In£, lsI
V'.., belo" ) (7) Voiced !lP 11.1
PalalO-llh·t'vlar
Voicele,s ;;hlp U1
Table 2A pre.ent> a phonetic grid on which the -.rap con, onanL~ of Engli,h Voiced 3!ure 131
grid for .. top are ranged horizontaJl~ accordtng (0 place of arnculatJOn, A, ) ou can 'ee Glortal
each >£oP, wim one exception, has \"oiced and \'oicele s counlerpan" Th~ oiceless hal {hI
gloo.11 ;!OP j' .11\\'3)' \"oicebs, It is produced with the! vocal fold drawn
f1ITl11y lOgemer. 3nd since no :ur can pa" through the glottis. the \ ocal fold,
C3DDot be set m motion, pecial note must be t3ken of the al\"eolar fricari,'es ls1 and (z1. There are
twO wa) that English speake£'> commonly produce these sound" orne
T8ble!.~ Engh;h ,to(" and !beir tnlIlscripuon speaken; raise the tongue tip to the al"eolar ridge tor to Jll;t behind the upper
front teeth) and allo\\ the air to pa, through a grooved channel in the tongue
Bilabial A/,rolar I,,-Iar G/olla/
Other :peaker> form thi. "arne channel uing the blade of the tongue: the lip
\ d: [PJ [tJ [I.] [7j b placed behind the lower front teeth.
\ iced [b) Id) [g]
'", I ;m) [nJ [Q1
Tahle ~.6 pre ents a grid on which the fricative consonant of English are
A grid for fricatives r.lnged according to place of articulation_ As in Table ~.s_ dental> are n<'t
&,tingui 'hed from a\\eol=. ,mee mO.t language h3\e sound \\Ith eIther
rricathes are con.onant produced ," ith a continuow' airllo\\ through the one or the other place of articulation. but not both, .' ate that IP.\ m
and [:,\
mouth. ~e\ belong [0 nlarge ~Ia, 01 ound! called continuants (a <:1,1, that corre,p'-'nd re,pecli\'el~ It' 'orth merican [~l and [il.
aJ mclude \o\\cl; and glide ). all of which 'hare thIS pmp.:n} The
: 8me- fann a ~laI. la of continuant: during their produclton. the) arc
prodmpam d b) a nbnu u audtbk nohe ~auc the :ur u cd in 'ihctr
UCbon p ~ through a \eI) narm" opening l TallIe 2.~. t>clo\\).
 NU1Nl11
Pala,.,.a/,-rola, ~ 111\ (ll

5.5: -_ _ __
UJ [i;J---.- Voice lag and
1.31 After. th~ rclc.tU" 01 l"l~n.HI1 "h.;.cl" h.lps tn , ngh h l
a piration percCI\C a lag \Jr nnel del.,) hcture the \fl\~lI\g <I I '11) lU ,
h I ""',"PC I,,,,, I <'-~\nc
.5.4 t c: ag t. n t h c nn'CI 01 \(l\.:,Ih-.: "Oh.:m~. I a":"()n ' 11 Q .1 L..

the trathuonat tcnn hlf thh phcnoln~nt)n I ~pi~,t'

. eo ... 'p.mICu u)
1 the fet !!ale 0 r .Ur
{(r;cates \\'ben a ,top.lflJcuJarion i, relea...ed. me lOngue moves mpidly a"a~ II
a ~ma nlt . . e. tl "h uher
. the- U'Ptf.lll!tl ..:un,on"tnt 1'onLl_'I1 t I'.n fit"", , , " h
'Q

pIace at- anteu Iat"I<m, Some non-continuant consonanrs r ha slo" relea Of

Eshow
. - . ~ lmd
~. ,amp1es nl a~plr~lkt' , tn l'C .,IJ hpr '''"k; nne
• . iJ,1l
Ulli.hplralcd I,;'un\unant
u d,... LI ~Um
h ~o'W \
•
m bol s arc mtnx!ul:cd
. here " ... well) . Nnlu.:c.' that ...the f,(.nl!
th" c/ qJre; th"''' sound, are called affricates ng" h"" _only 1'40
affricar",. buth of" hi.:h are palara-alveolar. The} are heard ,,:ord-Jnllia/ly III
S)
. • 'd ' d
~S~lfah.:: ' '.. "
'll~ urM~~lr.uct.l > n I....
\llncth!\ an.! all "Diede ....... :-.lnp . In H\hcr Ian u
ave n.1lh
\olcelcs::, fncul1\;t!s ant.! atlnl..."<lte, may al .....) he a'pu;!lcd I)r unw {Hrclll!d.g g ,
h h anJ J."mp,
Lurr: . anJ "'" transcribed
" as [tD Jand< " llhvel}- (The r"
[d31., respeC r,
tran ....TiplJon of an affricate US 109 a .symbo ,or a srop. sUc as [rl Or [dj,
foUo\\"d b} a s}mbol for a fricative Ilke en or (3) " meant ~o reflect the fact Table 2. 9 ·\ .. pmu~d und un."pmttc:d f.:1.) n,nnanl... in En~h'h
that an affricate Is n ,top that is released graduall} so thar In It>. fi nal Phase \ \p;rtllt:'d U,w.\P"dll"d
it is a fricari,'e.)
Ip"",,] pm bp.cl]
--- - ---
I," ,bl lub [ I.'h]
[k" ,ul kJu Isk.u]
A grid for affricates Table 2.7 presents a gnd showing the .two English .affricates: Note thai IPA
[rD and [d3J correspond 10 NOM Amencan [el and [J I rc:~peCtlve l y,
Figure 2.5 shows how a"piralion of a voiceless con'onant lakes place,
Table 2.7 English affricares using the aspirated consonant [ph I as an e)lample. Though the se4 ucnce of
Palato·alreo/ar articulalions takes places continuously. the tjgure illustrate, only certain
moments.
Voiceless
~oiced a b d
Lips cJ""ed for Ipl Lip' open for Lip:, remain open up n:nwn open
,o",el ill for \'owel for III

Sfridents and
At the beginning of thjs chapter. it was noted that acoustic as well as
sibilants
articulata!)' criteria are sometimes used in de cribing speech sounds, An
acoustic critenon comes into play to describe fricalives and affricates. These
sounds are subdivided into two types, some of which are disti nc tly lOUder Iltm
others, These noisier fricatives and affricates are called s tridents (Table 2,8).
Th.eir quieter counterparts. which have the same or nearl y same place of
artJculalJon, are conS idered non-strident. S lridents a re also known as
sibilants, Vocal fold, 'prend Vocal folds , till spread: Voicing of ,,'ow el Voicing contmuc:-. during:
for voice lcs!;ness voicelc!'>!<.nes:-' continues during now begins artll.:ulatll.1n of til
inI tial phose of vowel
Table 2,8 Strident fricat ives and affricates in English
art ic ulation (a."pirntion)
Place ofArticu/atiml \iliceieJs Voiced ----------------------------- TIme'--------------------______-.
Alveolar
Is] [7J
Pa/alo-alveolar figure 2.5 Aspirated consonant production (English pJfI.
III [31
Itn [d3J a) As articulation o f the voice Ie . consonant is begun, the gll'lIi, "open.
b) The closure for the consonant is released and the vowel articulation
begjns; however. the glottis i, nm yet closed enough to pennil \ oicing to
2 STirS
PH Nl It( H
begin Becau of lht>. the \m,eI is bnetly \oicele '. glVlO
imp Ion of an xlra release of Jllf thaI we call asprmllon. g Iht 5.6
cl Afla a shot! dela). mea urable '" miUI..econd . voicing of lhe '0\\ Liquids Among lhe sound. c,'mmonl; found In lhe: ,. -:
the" numeroo, varianl . The) lorm <KId Lmgua - I and r and
be!!"~ . liquid!. II pcual tl of <.onsonant:;. noo..11 ..
dJ 1bc IJps r"malO open and \"Oleing continue; during the arllculal"'n of
final .. onsonanl of the .. ord. Iht
---c- '6 an·'U ,_ 7 sho" lhe relalion belween aniculalion and VOl· Clng
.. r laterals VanCI;C' of I are called latcral~ A I'01 I'I.:nl.I· .
S. <lfe artlculat.td.
Fi ;;~ > _. .
pJrarcd and vOl cd consonants. The unasplrated consonant. 'uth ~ Or
allll'
Ihrough
.. .Ihed mouth along Ihe loll. ered .d., of Ihe longue When . . authe:e ape.
[PJ 01 Engli h ~pilJ hows "oieing of the vowel slarting very \()( lht Up "ral'" \0 Iile dental or a"'eolar l""I\I"n . I..''''·· denla1 .or alveol longue
I
release of the con onanl articulation. The voiced initial [b J of Eng l' \ af~r are produced. BOlh may be U'dn,cnbed a.. Ill , at aleta!!.

hov.s \oicmg starting ju I before the release of the bilabial bia artiCUlillo~~ Becau.", lateral" are generally "llIced the lenn larera l u~
t . •• •
· -> ....Ione u'5Ual\
?,ean, , olced laleral . Sull. Ihere are in'lance of voiceless laterah m ~
rhe vOlcele" denIal· or .. alveolar
I· laleral i wnllen
. with an add1110naI Phoncuc t>=:b.
c d
b ,y.m bol : caII ed . a d lacntlc. n thIS case. lbe dIacritic IS a circle benealh \be
•Upo up' clmcd for Ipl lip' opro fo.-IIJ L'P'rrnwnopen ,> mbol.lll- VOIce Ie" laterals can be heard In Ihe pronunciation of the E Ii.t\
",ord, please and clear and also in the Wehh pronunciauon of '1/" ;~g OCR
opeD foc 1.1
arucula""" 0( lJl

~
name. a~ Uandaff

~
~<?
ffl r
I../>
V-
English r sounds
umerous varieties of r are abo heard in the world·, languages. Thi. !.<:Cuon
describes some of the types found in Engli. h.
In received p ronunciation (RP for shon). Iile generall, accepted VarlelY
of spoken standard southern British English. r is a post-aheolar appro ·-
iman!. The tenn a pproximant lor frictionJess continuant describes a
\bcal fold .preod VocaJ fold, n:maJO '-'>Cal fold, In P'" Ilion Voklng COflltnUC1 consonant with a manner of articulation that involVe> bnnging Iile articulator;
(or vmccleunc 'IKad (\oICcleunc ((lr \(J'I(,:lRg
quite close togeliler while at theame time leaving a sufficientl) large gap
Tunc .... between them for air to e cape ",ithout causing audible turbulence. T~plcal1).
in the RP articulation of rCa!> in reed and raw). the tip of the toogue IS brought
Figurt 2.6 lJnasporJIL..t consonant pro<Ldion rEngish spill. close 10 the area just past the alveolar ridge Ihence the label po I-alveolar)
without making finn contact with the roof of the mouth. The tPA ~mbol f r
D h C this ,ound is [J]. but for con\enience the ~mbol [r] is oormall~ u....'\1. A
i..p> OflCn (or [I) LIps rrmam OJlCn dunnl voiceless appro)llmam can be heard in the pronunciation of \\ord like pra\,.
Anl<ul.lIon o( III
free.
- The r of Englih as it i, 'poken in Canada and the Coited State· a.' well

~ -- - a' In southwe. t England is alo an approximant. But its place of articulatton

is slightly farther back. This r (\ymbolized b~ [-Ll in IPA) is made by curling the
lip of the tongue back sO that a narrow apcnmc is left bel",een the undc"lde of
"".''''''
'J.
~ the tongue and the back of the aheolar riuge . (The same effect can be obtained
b) bun:hing the tongue upwards and ba~k In the mouth.) It is kno" n a., a
( T" relrone, r and i' heard in rid.. and car. It i aho often tran,cribed as trl
It! l 1'0110\\ ing a common com e~tion of uSIng non-Roman alphabet Ymhol like
VOIcing conUliun I.ll sparingly I.
Another ound commonl} identified "'1th r I . the flap The !lap IS produced
- - - - - - - - - - - lime - - - - - - - - - -_ "'hen the tongue tip. trike the al\eolar ridge as il pa"c' aCfO" IL III beard
111 the. ·orth American English pronunciation of bi!.!er and burter• and 111 orne
flgur~ 2 7 \trJc(1f wnSOOJnt d Brili h pronunciations of n'!y (a' in . couse. the dialect of Lherpool). It i
commonly transcribed as [r] and i. generally VOICed Table ~.IO presen the
latcrab. r. and flap In diftcrcnt ,andlc of Englbh .
 LI C. • TIC.

Tab~c.10

Po l.ah , o/Qr~

" Okc/e ~ ) "I, ,n the word "'~n, "I, rr lid whICh (00\ nr~ In '''!chI
pronunClaltOJ1 ISo common to oc.land and
msl) rare el",,, here (excep\ In conte where \W}I preceded by a OOCe
lop"" in Tahle 2 17 on p'..ge 43 below). In on! Inlt,al POO' ,\
r- ndo
[J j from a hi'lOti""l)h w l co", manl (\u'>Ier whICh ~ ba:n IfnphfJed 10
Approx=1 dropping [hI in m("1 dialect! ITable 2.12)
~~~ ____ ~t~~ __________________
____
Table 2.12 Engli h <on"'nan'" pbc.. and IlIanneTs ofhruculat1oa

PluceJ %nu:wlauon
-
------~~~~~~~;:~~~~~~~~~~~ ,;ai, are more sonorous dian odler conSOnants and in
I. dian are the other COlbonanls . In f~l. thev
, . \taltne rs of
S\ lJabicJiquids and LIquId, snd na, .
.~ more like \O\le,
nasals f"'peeI ~. e' rna,. function as ) Dab,c Due el. n lien ey do '0, ~
. I . H"- th . art
conorous thaI ~"
'ds snd ~Dabic
nasals. SyllabIc liquid, and
voiced
P
b
I
d
It
are ctlltXI S)llablc :;:w rnam' of the world's language. including Eng &
lTable 2 1I J. are ~ ar~n
lI>uali\, marked widl a hon "eruealline Underne
'..aJ , <>iced m n Q

~~i:=~Ie. ~ ,~ll:ilijc'l al the:nd of l:.mle ~fAel!)) i tran"qj~

Fm",--au\e .... oiceles II J b
\olced v 0 z 3
- I - beginning hn!!IJI, D" ruden~ .. orthAmenC'.t1I
I!]. Vn1o~e Ylor j·.tenlhere. The )Uabic rsound heard in "ord likeb, II
Affricate \oicele
D0fI1Snot ..... 3) .cons . [ ] Th I • \Oleed d3
...-~ as a \o\lel-r sequence. ~r . (
. transcn,,,,,-, e \ Owe .)rnbol
and MT I' hoI' tIu
:~:III secDon ,oundl [~]
Uquld .. oiced
pre;,enlcu . 6 ._'oftlu chapter. )TbeIP.-\S)m lor
laIeraJ
\Oleed
Table 2.11 Syllab!c liquids and 1l.1>.lI. III English
1""'1-
S"llolllc Xon·S\llolnc alveolar
approximant!
bonIe [boo I lift 111ft)
retroflex
funnel [fADI)
sudden r \dn)
pill IpII)
Glide voiced ,.
~I r~IJ
DIlIIOO (b.\In} \ \oiceles, I",
lem {lenl]

5.8

GliOt- 6
RecaJ] that a glide 15 a \'er; rapldl. arucuJaled DOn- yllabic segment. The 111;0
RP English !!iides are the )-glide b) or of ~es and I.el/. and the IIo-glide [w I
u] d made \\, th the \ocal more open
~O\\e1 sounds (also
1r3i.'t
of ~~l, and -~mg. The [j) of IPA transcnption corre ponds to b) in • 'O!1h VOW El S \'0\\e1 are ..onocou.. ) llabl SO':uculatioru.. Different
oo.an varvin!! the placement of th ~ of
t
Amencan transcriptioD. (In British InlnSCripUon 100, [yj i sometime used than it i, for con and glide ed b\
1DSlead of uJ to represem thi sound.) called \0\\ el qua/Illes are produc h' 'f th-e ~,itv - an be further altered
th I lbe, ape 0 .~. ' . !um
Tne {jj I a palatal glide (often iled '" palato-alveolar a "ell) \lhost the 10D!!ue and . haplOg e l\h. vowels or by 10lloenn" the e
aru,;ulauon i. ' VU1uall~ ldenucal to thaI of the vowel/i] of ~ee, You can \ enfy bv pro~ding th.e lip to pr~ualcle rounded. rnay be'len<e orIa" dependlO= on
. al 1 Fm ~ VO\\ el . . •
10 produ-e a n \ Olio C • •: d nm:!hell ani_ulan n
tlu OJ pronouncing a Ulin an extended manner; il "ill ound vel) lose \0
th de = of vocal LraCt con metlon U "are introdu ed to most 0 the
an [Il The glJde [w] IS made \I ith the longue raised and pulled back near !he
In the followmg tlon n \ o.\\e b }ou . ned that will be 10 ed 10
velum and ",;th the li Protruding. or rounded For tbi reaWll. It ~O\\ I. 0 f En _ Ii h me phoneuc detaill' 0l0l
sometunes called a lahio \ t lar The ('" J corre pond closely In am la1l0n 10 tb foUo\\iog cbapler.
the \ el (uJ of ... /w 11us can be \enfied by eluending the pronunci uon
a /\\ \\ e \\ III co Ider [\\ ) a rounded \'elar glide for purposes of descripo
Some er; of Enghsh' h;l\e a \OIceles Iabio\elar glide, lr11 bed
 ---- ----.
PHU lK
.
- - - - - - -..-.-1 .ue di\ide<i major type'.
1010 1\\(' Imple 'o"el~ faJ
6.2
pie vowel, and Engh,h \0 ,." r mODopb!boDI:~ I and diphthongs (Taole , 13 so calltQ
d . h t h ong< Pure \o"e~ ... .., ~\\ noti.: able.:hange In q uaI'II)'. Th e \o\\el - . ) S·11IlPie
of' Basic parameters for 0\\ eI anu..:u1auons are not ~y to feel con
"IV!he fil"[\ on c/ 01.sl!Ppose are a II 'Imple \
\o"el d, fI()Iand PII. ~I
0" d D- _. c!!l, describing "o",els IIlce Ihe "ocal (r3<,t .. l\OI nanov. cd
much
""""'"
T" bcc~
,
dl!g. b!!.I,P~;,., cdubll 3 c'hange in quali!) "ithin a ingle 'I~hlel"'::~ \ 0\/0 e \ anIL-U \alJOn. ahernaJc\y pronounce lhe ds --- 1\Icd
are \one1< u~ ..... th d • L.lJ • feel the: longue mme from a hi\!h fmnl "I,,,. '-k" /uo and poe YOlt
D. she" ('haDge' 10 q~Jly al are ue 10 longue movement liu longue mmement. ahem:lIe be'\\ttn the: v Is POS·.on you ree
diphtho, u.ll \ond aru,ulauon 10wards another vo"el ~ LJ n a"ay feel the longue mm Ing fr m the: I"" hac" (._.~~ "'~ p<:'1 and pal Y U II
frOID the 101 .j qualil\ I' clearl) perceptible in "ord, ~uch a~ sa.' ho . lb;l . ' r ~"' uoc ........ II be --·'d
arne lime) 10 10" ronl posItiOn ("lib the: L. unrounded ._OU< "'\be
h31lf'e IR \ - o V t c , .. ,. U\' .
c ". and bit. In ,ome language, (1Ocluding English) Ihe fu..1 ~. '''''. be!ween Ibe '0\\ cis of h .... ~nu .. h". You w.1I notICe that' ~'nall~. Iana1c
Ia. ~7:" /!. mu -h-'oneer and perceptually more salient than Ihe <_. pan of a mO\ement between the high lront and high hack ~ I In • on to longue
diphuoo n£ I' C ,_ • -~Ond
your lips for the [u:\.
In RP.'there are mne di~hlhhong, andlthe y f.1al dl 1O,tO ~wo c~as e\: Cen;rin.
Y"'."OQ. yoo are" In&
l
. bth gs and closin,g dipht ongs ca, so ca e c osmg dIphthong .... Figure 2.8 h"" s " mid agma\ vie ... oj the lonoue """ition' ....
dip . ond'phthOn~ dunng lhe final phase of the vowel articulation lh~I'hln a [ I"J [J d [ u..\ b',iL<e d on.X ·ray, ludle
•• a • an
. .c
of C:.nadlan ,..--
Engli .0< UK' vov.el
h.lbese ('
centnn~ I " . kl
. '1 of the IOneue move. qUlc' ) towar
ds th . e 19b-
e centre of the mouth vowe" are V~f) "mllarto Ihe Bmi,h RP f:nglilh 'o.... els~ribed alx!~
elpotn. .' f' -!he onl~. \o"elln lhefigure Ibat needs~pec1a1 comment is [01 Thl • Itt..: the:
l\picaJ po,ition il 3\ ume for the artlculauon ° sch"a I(OIJ). Ihe \O"el at the
~ntl h vowel [0) tnPOI: The ?nly Ignificanl difference 1 that Canadian {ul
~innjng of the \\ord gddrefS. Thl erie ~ four centnng dIphthong _ namel~
" fo~ed "'lib the hp' "'. a falfly neutral po itton .... hile RP {ol" made ""ib
(Ia). as in dear. cheer. and clear. ea as to r;re- wea;. and aIr. [0;» as boo; the hp' pur<ed. The po tUon of the tongue IS 'irtually!he same
SIlrt!. and dour. and [:-a) as in QflL. shQLe. an ~oar. ~O"ad~)o,. [;)a) and [U~·
are dbappeanng from ~ and man) other \,llI~~lJe~ O.f Bnu,h Engli h. The;
are being replaced b~ [J.J. A< a re ult. "ord like pal<. pore. and poor rhv
~Ith each oIher. The) all come OUt a. [pJ:J. .llIe
In closing diphlhong·. lhe tongue ,!arb in a relatively low po ition and

I
ends up in a hIgh po JUon euher In the palatal area at the front of the mouth'
lhe regIon where the glide [j] is aniculated. or at the back of the mouth in ~
\'elararea where lhe glide [wJ is produced. There are three clo. ing diphthon o
lhat end in /I}. They are [elJ which is found in ...ay. l<'t!igJrI. and lail; [all Whi~h
I, found tn lie. buy. and m)~ and [::II} which is found in oil. boy. and COin
There are only t\\O diphthong .. in ~hich the LOngue move up to [oj. nameh
lauJ as in no. go. and rIo,," and {<lUJ which occur<; in proud. lo\;n, and round.
Table 2.13 Some
Smrpie ,'"",d Diphllumg Figure 2.8 Tongue po5l!Xln and tra!lSCJllIion for tIYee ~ vowel<..
I'll [I) bile [all
pel leI sa} lei.
pon )~;J aIr I~j
\'owel for v.hlch the t n!!ue I' neither r:nsed nor lowered are called mid
po! [oj beer [I~)
\oweL. In some ea--e. the ~latt,e height of the tongue ID the general mid
1a:1 zone reo ul~ in \ov.eL th t are perceptiblY different. SQ It ma~ be nec saIJ
pal lOY I I)
polt 'A) oar to dl. tin!!lli.h betwL-en mid. mid·high and mid·low \oweb. Thu ID RP.(el
1'J~)
pan (n) poor the ITOm' I·ov.cl (If Sfl I. aid to be mid-high. front. and umounded v. hile lJ:}
[')~J
now ,ooJ
i
lhe 1 ov. el of 'IOnIl, mid-low, ba.:k. and rounded. Sctl.....a ([:Ill. th f1f'ot and
grow the' Ilo\\eL-of ladonna i a mid. central lowel imilar to hwa i the
[;)OJ
I O!: unmunded cen.rnl ,o;el [3:) found tn v.ord like b!!d. d II ~ ( ee
O~ The colon UJdicate ee sec lion 6.3 below.) ti n 0.3 b.:lo\\ ~ r funher discus ion
In all ClI l!nfoltunat ly. there are no lear -ulon pomt' l>et n van t ngue
• !he diphthongs are SOmCv.hal longer than the hon Imple
lov.e' I hClght po IlIon Hence It i not alw ). ob ;tOll> v.hetha a uod ould be
 &.3
Tense and lax vowels All Ihe v(lweb li,led 10 F.g.ur02.'J. excepl leI lao\ and Int. are 10.h.; Ihe;.,.
produced with a placement ut thl.: tllngw! that rt!~uh.~ in gr\!al~r 'JllC.\\ lfad
cnn~triction than that of nOn~l(!the vowt!b~ in addiuon. ten~ vowd$ lire
longer Ihan non-len,. vnweb. Some voweb of English arc made ",.Ih roughly
the same longue po!-.itlon ~L' the lcn~e vowels. but with a \c ... Clln tr\.,;ls!O
amculalion; lhc~ arc called lax vowe"- Tahle 2.15 pro,ide example hom
RP comparing lense and lax simple vowels. Qle lhat nOI alilhe ,,,we" cmne
ill lenseflax pai".
h.gh fronl unrounde vo .... e
11·1 mld.h.~ fronl unrounded vo .... el
leI Tuble 2.15 Ten" and I" vowel< In RP
"I
"ha lu'l
high back rounded vo ... d
low fronl unrounded T e ll .fIt.' Lax
p~1
1",1
ccnrral mid unrounded a) Pure "owels
.~Iadonn~ lal
1,,1 long cemrdl mid unrounded f~l li:\ [!! 1.1
hlrd m.d-Iow back rounded rn~\ leI
1':( mel l:e\
I()w back rounded
pOI In/
bilrd 10:1
pQQI [u:l P!!II lu\
Central Back c~hl 1':1
Fronl 101
C\ll
[3:1 cobr;! lal
High w\lrd
b) Diphthongs
Roundcu milke [e.l
Mid-high [a.l
bike
[al]
Mid \ hIlil
:J; n\lle raul
A \ sha ul lau]
Mid-low [eo]
r!!re
dill [tal
Low bllQI [ual
roar [Ja] (marginal)

The difference betwccn two of the vowels illustrated in Table 2.15 .i\ ~ft~~
_ hear at first The vowel [Al in cwo dgd. p/gck. and 'gil" ac
not easy to .1 . 1 ',1 I . nd lax while the vowel [;:)1 of bgTlw11l. IlbOlll.
central. unrounueu. mlu- 0\\ a
40 Air" lIN{...lJI!'IIll S !'IIIJNI 1\C 'l Itt! SCIIINI)
.. ral. u"n1unJcd. an<l la,:, Th.., \<1\\",j 1'\1 en 'AH(.UI\ It 4,
""d ."fll " "".1. "nt 'hJll"e "r [ul (0 1,,1 alkelcd 'orne \\ I
I ( ,m.'-I I"".~. .1 h I II"' '~llh _11'111 U
• I I I h,' , Ihl'rs " like {Jull. pusI t. I"1IlIche,.. ''In,1 \lrd
b ' H.u.:k
J 'n\l..·U I' l ~ "ul Ihll (l . . u Ifl/
L
I,.
lu1 1'"1 1 .(. .mJ nJII. FUI1hermorc. the c hange the nUl all High i: '\
h~,-" .t~'~;;li;t~d chI..' Ivl pnlll~nl:l~~l:~~: England tiinlech do nUl have the \'o~~l \.ll
U'

~I ~CI'l/" ;\1.,,1 ,,,,,ak"r' ~'lr~~;ll /U/IO [.\1 J'~ nOI take place. So. nonhc~ Mid-H,gh e
I .- Ihl' an'3 Ihe "hJn)!',
/\1<
w
.1I I IJlIII. J,,<l Iplll, '
(."1,; ....
' 1/ rhe \O\\.c!
I pnlOunciallon of C/Il. d/lli. and plUck
ha'''' reIJln"J til<' (lnJ!,n,1 11',bd led schwa ("hieh, is unclcrhn'd a,
~ ... I II Mid
\
. ) i, called a reduced vo"cI.
IC'fll
,lIl . , I ; ',nJ ,,>j" th . I
I 1,-n'J 10 be longer than elf ax COUnterp, ~ ., Mid-low A

C'L UI
<lIf"',,,,I.ltIIII<j l<'II '
" -;, ,",owe ~ ,.. • d h - .. --\--
n Ench'h the, 1<"'< ','Illn.s refer to them as ong o
I _ , phonellt th an. Sort Ie vow, I'
For this re;l,,1I1. som< " diphthongs are longer an slInp e vowels I Low
~sno>cli\'e1)'. As \,. '. ,saw aoo'~, • t>ehaviour as tense s.mp . Ie vowe Is. So th. n 0:
, •. r- d' luy Ihe sumo . th . cy
man) case. th"e} "P , I d ..d in some d.alects, e same vOwe l may c,
. lense n Co . . d' ""
.~. also cI",•••
UI!
Ii ed as . I or as a diphthong m 111 erent contexts F figure 2.10 Basic po,itions for RP.
~.. " kW~ . ·W
realiLed as a lense Sllnp , [ .. ] and [u:1 occur at the end of a word they
inswnce. .Ifl· RP. "hen tense . I.
vowels. but as the dIp . hth
ongs [IJ.. ] and [uw]. ate
.
often prono unced . not as pure
' rd, bird. I/!!D·e. c"~rr: I. an jQ!!.rna.I ,s
I d' . m.'d . central
The vowel [3./ of "_0 the-r words, it is just like schwa tn all things bu' Tables 2.16 and 2 .17 (shown overleaf on pages 42 and 43) 'how the phoneuc
10 0
unrollll de . and tense. Th'
d . .. 1n most ca,~ t PHONETIC
'pclling gives a clue to .IS ongms. symbols for vowels and consonanLS commonly used to transcribe RP. To show
lenseness (or length). "'cl I'ollowed by [rl. In most varieties of Brill' 'h' TRANSCRIPTION
how each symbol is used, one word is transcribed completely. and then other
'd'cdfrom avow .'
[3:] ~S ~~~rl following a vowel was lost.leavmg behind a lengthened, ten~
S Of RP VOWelS words in which the same sound is found are given. Notice thaL in the example
Engb>h North America, the southweSI of England, and parts of Lancashire AND words, the spelling of the sound may vary. Be careful of this when you
vo\\el. In f Eogl:Ifld Ihe [r] was not eOllIely los I. There is still a CONSO NANTS transcribe words phonetically - the souod of a word. Dot its spelling. is what
Ifl the northwest 0 . I Th ' I .
. , ] h"h "olours' Ihe precedlOg vowe . e I-CO o unng of a VOwel is transcribed!
.
reSidual r
[rd w.e c,
as rhotacization. A rhOlaClze . d sc h wa IS . repre ented by the
.s re,crre to . . . ' d'h h .
symbol [a'J in TPA. (Sec also the diSCUSSion of centnng Ip tongs In section
6.1 above.) . h th I 8
There is a simple tesl Ihnt helps detemll~e w ~ er vowe s ar.e tense or lax. All phones have certain irtherent suprasegmental or prosodic properties that
In English. monosyllabic words spoken 10 Isolallon do not end In lax VOwels. SUPRASEGMENTAlS
fonn part of their makeup no matter what their place or manner of aniculation.
We find see [si:]. sar [se./. Sue [su:J, so [S;lOJ. and saw [s:>:J. but not *[SIJ.
These properties are pitch, loudness. and length.
[seJ. '[sre], *[su]. or *[SA]. Schwa. however, frequently appears In Pitch is the auditory propeny of a sound that enables us to place it on a scale
unstressed position in polysyllabic words like sofT;!J and Canad[;!J. It should that ranges from low 10 high. All sounds give us a ubjective impresionofbeing
be pointed out _ especl3l1y for those who thi~ their ears are deceiving them relatively higher or lower in pitch. Pitch is e pecially noticeable in sonorous
_ Ihat many speakers produce the final vowel 10 the last two examples not as ounds like vowels. glide'. liquids. and nasals, Even top and fricati\e
[:ll but as [AJ. con onanlS com'e) different pitches. Thi. is particularly noticeable among the
The representation tlfl'o\\cb and their articulatory positions <Figure 2.9) is fricatives. as you can hear by extending the pronunciation oflsJ and then of Ul:
expanded in Figure 2.10 to include more tense and lax vowels. the [s1 is learl) higher pitched. All sounds have ome degree of intrinsic
This rather formidable crowd of vowels should not intimidate you. If you loudness as well or they could not be heard. Moreover. all ounds QCcupy a
arc a nalive speaker of RP. you have been using these vowels (and others, certai n streIch of time - they give the subjective impression oflength.
somc of which you will be introduced to in Ihe next chapter) most of your life.
Learning to heM them consciously and transcribe them is nol a difticu lllllsk.
8.1
Thc next section provides more examples of the lranscripti on of Engli sh ------ pcaken; of any language ha\'e the ability to control ~e level of pitch ~ey
consonants and vowels. Pitch: tone and speak on. Thi' is accomplished by controlling the tern IOn of the vocallold,.
intonation ami the amount of air that pa:sc, through the glottis, The cOI~t-lna~ltln ot
tensed vocal folds and greater air pre sure result in higher VOice pilch on
 PUU l"

--
1 ttl 0\ b

ta ble- 2 .17

~. ~ tte~\'e . m:£!,e. rene

~' 4 - . 11"'1 pl' IP"n1
Ipl paln. "('<.... &pIIn
pll I pill
10. j;"o, 1QQ>e, m-..., 4!!.!L'>e Luc,
p;,!! - th
- .' rl!!!&b. 1'1 lid,. 11'11.\ [c , ul!
\ n IiUtre. ~ tutu
'\!fl' burn~
fir Itl tu..::~ I t,1.l
C!¢. guard. 1l1!!>= . l;!!!gh. ]!!!nl. ~ icln.. hunt ~. ~\)'
Ik" 1 keep Il..h"pl
f o~
~e"" l \kl .I.IP
£(IW . kernel , baOt.
Il.lpl
~ pref~. H!!!d err. h~d. w!Lon. an«. \Hl£.ll! hlai: kli ~ likely
I 'II chIp (t.l"lp] l\ln~. 'tl.;.~r. d,~_ tkkh-
connOI S~. ffi}rrb. cQ!onel Id31 judge (d3,d3
[,,/ gcrm·loumal , bU~le. ~~e
C!1!!!'. c~1. PQ!:f. w!!k. decQ!:. dlllO... u, Ibl bib (bIb] ~~t. h~rnte. r~. bla~t
,. ~ckl and ~ lui d.p Idlpl lIu". bell. \lral. -
(0 /
I'll atlas (."ltI~'1 "'i~nes .lO2. n£h (gloua.l fetnfUf\Xtnall
." IPlfTHo, 'GS ol a fol1o\\otng top or aHncat.t:)
rh~. d!!l. gr,lln. g;!!!ge. ~"'i!Jle, "a\
(IE ~£ D iJIC 11<lf/ Ut i get [get! gape. mUa!er. \'\'Irig. Iteam
engJ!ge. gr~ sleiclt ~. (11 lit \ fit! n", h. couE.!!mg. PTOOt. E!!legmouc.
" (r:Jr>J
!.~. ml· Ill· lide. th!)1h. b,tte. b!!y. d~ die gO~l.!r. offiCI!
1>1/ \Qiee. bQ!1. I~. ~a1 - [v) vat \ vret! YOle . oyen. pro~e
fb>r
/' 1 nQ. IQ!;. sumQ. thrlaL thQ!!.gh. sl~. oaf [Il] thick [91kl !hough\. e!heT. tee!!!-l!!rec. batlu-oom
n>Ofl
..../ ToronlQ. Q'Connor - [()] though [Il",,] then. bomer. teethe. b~ -
/l.r3od.
Q!!t. hQ!!se. plQ!!.gh. I~n. n~. gl!!jcOtna, hI sip ISlp] E;yehol~gy. f~;n. fan;'.~.~.
Fau~t ~leO£e
c1;-ar. ide.J!. criteri~ '" einf. he:e. mere [LI zap lz.a:p] ~ro". sc~rs. ~. !o'pper. flJ!!Y
Ilf l.1
".1 <""'"
r"./ cb;ur (ff e.) fli!!!'. flair. Pi!Il'nt. where. herr. ~
s.!:!!!. m.QQ!. [Our. ,"elour. paramour
[II ship Vlpl ~ock.
~ivalry
nation. m~10n. vigous, w\!;h.
-
poor (po')
10~J dQ2!. Q!!:. roar. shore. mQ!!:. PQur azure m~ure. rouge. vi~uaL garag,e (for ~ome
oar (,.)
(~1 speakers). Tai Mahal
LAX VOWELS [hI hat [bretl wbo. ahoy. forehead. behind
h!1. income, definition. pili:. (for 50me yet liet] ~. f~\\. ~e!t
(II fif IfIll lil
speakers) witch ~aI\. ~etrd.
[wI [" nIl .... ben
reI leI Ilel) I~d. h~d. S;!yS. '~d. ~ver. g!!£ I. fri!:nd. [M] twit [w.n] t~elve. sqJ!eak. 'l!!'1
"'~I [II huddle [h.,dl] bottle. needle. med&
lorl bal (b"'I, p~ic. \'!!'!. JII!!ITY. ~ckel. g!!S. pl!!nel. pl!!stK [r] reef [ri:f] prod. arrive
:01 cod lkoo, dgg. rQCk. bQlly. y~hl. "!!Im. "'h!!l. c~b [m] moat [m;Klt] !!!indohll!!lOUf. shimmer. ,u!!!. thumb,
101 pol lpol b!! h. hook. fool, book. hood. "'Qman. "olf lamb
/_) >hul IfAlj ,!!t. p.!!ll. Qlher. .!!dder, l.!!cky•• QO. 1Q!!.gh,- [Ill bouom [bo~ atom. rnndom. Adam. rbyth!!!- anthem
llQ!!<!. '!!pper [0] note [n:>ot] !lOw, ",inner. angel. si~. \\i!!d
I. j le~ Ilela) i!boUI. abbQt. ",om!!,!. plendQ,[, C~nberra. [nl huno D [b .\ to] cotton. mutton. happe..Q. sudtl~
c!!,!al). !!pport. colour - - [D] sing ["Dl "!!lrer. \o!!!ler. b"!!k- f\\ f!!IJe

Yo"els and ~onorant consonants. while less tense vocal fold~ and lower aIr
pre ure fesUl1in lower mice pilch. Two kind .. of controlled pit.:h lOOVcmcOl
fiJund lfl human language dre called tone and intonation.
Tone language is 'aid to have tone or be a tone language"" hen difference, in
word meaning are Ignalled by difference, in pitch. Pitch on form Itt tone
languages function, vet) differentl) from the mO\'ement of pitch In a non-
tllOe language. When apeaker of Englih say a car~ with a n, ing plh:b, the
\I \lrd eel r doe: not mean an) thing different from the arne form pronoun ed
 It-un .. 1

II
I
\
tma) ·n'lotht."r~ tush "me

Mil

H
.'>, L ~
[mal 'hemp'
I I I mid ri'e

[mil) ',nare' [mii) 'sleep' lLH

Im 14] 'moth'

f~- 2. f I 5.lrcee JeK>j rones. Imal 'horse'

Tlu. pe of notation is kno\\n as 3utosegmentaJ nOlation. HI.
Le\'~?tone" that ,ignal meaning differences are called register lone..
~
I
,"_ teens ter IOnes are the norm 10 most of [he world', re" ",
or u .. ee .... , ~I ler [n....
eua"e,. though four have been reported lor Mazatec. a language pok ~ ..< Imal 'scold' high fall
Iw_ a ~~
~fe.~co. ..th
A single lOne may be assocIated WI more than one syllahlc clern Figure 2.13 Regist'" and contour 1011<'5 "' Mandarin.
Mende. a language spoken in West Africa (Table 2.18), [here arc ~~n
polysyllabic forms th~[ show the same t~ne .on each syllabIc (here, t~ In Figure 2.13. there is one (high) register tone. The other tones arc all
diacritic' indicates a hIgh rone and the d,acnUc LDdlcates a low tone). contour tones.
In other languages, tone can have an evcn rnore extended function. In Bini.

-
Table 2.18 High-lone and low· lone words in Mende a language spoken in Nigeria. tone can "ignal differences in the len«e 0\ a verb
(such as past versus present). as Figure 2.1 ~ shows.
pili 'house
LL
h;iwama 'waistline
\.:pilifi 'tnpod chair' \ \
Timeless Ima '\ show'
Autosegmental notation allows ~s to repres~n.t the tone as characteri~tic of
an enure form. The smgle underlymg tone umt 15 assocIated with all VOwel HL
(Figure 2.12).
~ \
.\ am ,howing'
H H L Continuous ima

~
pele
;1\ ~
hawama kpakali Pa t
L H

\
ima
\
'1 showed'

Figur~ 2.12 Tone as a I\ool fCJture. Figure 2.14 T..nse and tone in Bini.
46 ~ U T£ MPORAR) LIN GL I S r If S

ic to native speakers of Western EuroPe'

Although wnes rna) scc':" e.'01 . d Tone languages arc . found through on H l.
langu3ccs. the, arc ,cry wldespre" . f . and East ASIa . flUt
North ;nd Sou;h Amcri~a. sub- aharan A nca.

t is nOI related to differences In w Sam bought a new vaCUum dt!ancr bag

ken uuentnces tha . Ord
Intonation Pitch mowment in ,' ptl . rakes no difference to the meaning of th
n
meaning IS called tnLOnallo . Ih m 't is pronounced with a rising Pilch () ~ Figure 2,17 A terminal contour.
. • " m"le whet er I . r r ,I
word ,\t'rcn . lor cxa " .' . does serve to convey InlonnmiOIl of '
falling pilch, However, tntoFnaoonmple the falling pitch we hear III the e d" Rising intonation .on namc~ nr requcI..,ls is commonly heard \ .
, t' I nature or exa , . n people, ILS use indlcaLes that the speaker is openi . n ,t(tdr"""ng
broadly meant,ng u ' u'ch as Fred parked lite car Signals Lhat the utterance h f h " . . ng a c(}nvcr~,,\um or
n
of a stalemenll Engl!>h s e ll ' g l'nLOnation at the end of an utterance' t at some urt er actIOn" expected Irom Ihe listener (Figure 2.1 ~l.
h' rea~o n la til . . "
is complcte. For t I.' , ' ' ) contour. Conversely, a fl SIng Or lev I
,
'nol (mtona!On . e LH H LH
called a term I t ml'nal (intonation) contour, olLen Signal
,:-
~
, ' lied a non- er . \

,f . - V
mtonallon, en ' . I ontours are often heard In the non-final form
incompleleness. Non·tem1lna c bers (Figure 2, 15), S
found in lists and [elephone num -
Bill? Can you come here'?

Figure 2,18 Two non-termnal COIlIOU'!i.

The complex uses of inLOnation have just been touched on here , Cnnsluer for
. hI I''our tWO j'ivC one three example , that rising inLonation is often used LO express politene,,_as in Pleu.5e
Iwoelg sil down . Some linguisLs think LhaL this use is an extension \)1' the 'open,enucu
mode' of intonation, and that since a rising intonation mdicates Lhat further
Figure 2,15 RI
'slng n<>n·lermtrlJI intonat~JllS in J 6st and a telephone number. response I. expected (but not demanded) \)f the hearer, a sentence ullereu \\,Ith a
rising intonation sounds les, hl.e an order and so is more pohle ,
In question" final rising intonation, also signal ,a k.ind_ o f incompleteness
10 that they mdi,'ale Ihat u comer ational exchange IS not ftnls hed.
Intonation and tone Tooe and intonation are not mutuall, exclUSive, Tone language ' htl\\'
intonation of all t~ pes , Thl Is po . ible· since the tone are nnt ah olute but
cc
Did you ha\'c w" nl , e 0 na lJ\\ i1 In) J 19\\e
tim

H L H L H L H L
Fj~ure 2. 16 Rising nor IrmllllJllntvnattOn 11 J tJK",11Ofl.
I
fj llWCVt'r, I.nghsh senlcm,cs thilt contain yuestion worth like W hll, what,
0
\
I I I I

I
,ID
lrilt'n, and hilI\' (for eJl<Implc Whut ,bd \'OU bltY? ) ordiniu rJy <10 not have rising
Inlunalittrl. It i as if the quc~lion word itself IS enough to il1dil'ate thaI all
un'wer IS expelled
Itn
\ \ \
\
1III0l1<111\1n can be Icpre nled Ilruphicaily as in l'illllrcS 2, 1S illld ;!, Ift 1\
I/1l1re lormal way 01 repre clllmg IllllJllallulIlS hO\~nln 1'1 'IIr' ;!. 17, llere, as
na I
\\ 3
I \
Ig
fIItonai n'pre IIlallon. I and II arc relallve Icrlll lor <lIt Ie I':II( "S 11\ Pltell Ihe )3
I 11m flI arc placeu ;IOuve Ihe yllahtc elcrn til I)n y, hKh th,' pll h h n c \\ e
occ ,111 d )lIed hne mdll Ite Ihat th toweling ptll h pi d I Itl S th ' Ik i If. 109 to n d abl) k '
rcmalllJU • pitch bearing clem nls
r ure2. 19 and Jlton,lt1On: down(~ III
 , . ''''~'\l'd ii' high If It " high rdal,w to the p,tt"- "I, JM lit
rdatl\c pih:hl.~'" \ IUIll.: 1:"0 fl\: . .rtJ··.......~ncc IS mallllUIIlC'u th,
h rdall\e u, ,"
around it. ", lung ,b I I' . , .• Fi"ure 2.19 shows th" graphIcal!
, 'oq
C PitCh
VU\\t'l, iUl" hlgh"'1 In pHd, hm' I md In" t I
II I ~ muonIJIII<U. e o . y. It ~f I l' ian un tr
f' lk~laruti\'e selHcncc 10 Igbo. u We\! "'\fn nu\ ~t way~ the l:.l<te. I he e ~UHP'c hi 1 ,,.It" tru I'"~ ~ t Of
\
Jislin..:-tllln ... \\1 d "l I
represent' tho " 'Herall p'l~h '.' ;' 'h'"'' an IgOO speakcrdcarly Olalnt,un, ~ prnnUlInc.:eu wtth th" ltCS cd \\I\1al.'
. h·
It)\\! r ,;".1 hC
d
\l\t')U
. t JO~, ute v . . . . . ~~ J ,"on I Un \1
lan'!Ilace \\ IIh reg" a l
'f' ' .
m 1 "that they h prlln1l11 nl WU" I 1 t to\he \ h\
nl1!')un,ilnt I
"ven as the O\ernll pItch ,,' the Uttcflan
h' 'I'h reg"I~" -
.
eo - '. c. them. ,lI1d lh" I'" U It.,Uy L(·umph \u:d hy h Tctalw '\ ) ruund
di,linctl"n anlllng t \ 1'" .. ' I \\ocr than Ihe precedong hIgh tone. but high. \ y I,nle ,flln _ I \Ii
tlr dl ul the 1h rCl' pamlHl'tcr nlfllh.h.llIlu\11 ,nilt length
fal"- Ea,'h high h'n~ "aIWJ);.~' Iy precedes it. This phenomenon,s knu:r
than the 10\\ tunc thai Jlnm~ Jil e n In . . Omc lanf!ltilgc" the II\lPll' "Hill 1,1 \!lYlel p'".nl' lell \ from
lhl~ pn~,ouIl'
. . fe.\H t
,b downdrift. tnll:fCU.:taon 01 pitlame-h'. In;I' I (lItter!:lll hlllll th.11 ftt\tnd \n
Lngl"h, In Mudem (>reck, 1\11 examrl.- "ltahk Icn'\III "-I t \I
~trcss. therefore. I'" ~nal\lh:"'Il'd hy it l'hanp.t: only til pl\l:h .ml\ \(H.ll\n
I'C. 1 t!~\\I" chgth
~8~.2~----------------~----~~~::,~~'~.~a:rr~etb~0~th~V~o~w~e~l~s~a~ndd~c~o~n~s~o~n~"~n~ts~·~W~h~o~s~c~a~n~,k·C~u~n
' - - . - . ' I
fll\ nm
In syllublc length . lone langllu)lC's. dn lUll dmngu Ihl' p\h:h ,,",Vt' 01 lh1l1t),u 0\
length In many languages there hat of other vowels and consonants. Thl tones 10 mark. ... tress. In many ot lhc'\c I\lIlgui.\gcs. rtli,tlve prlllnimn
. d I • relative to I . I . I '
IS hel onger . , . I th is widespread on the wor d s anguagcs. 1\, murked by exaggerating Ihe v"wcllcnglh '" rlleh CIInlll"!.
pheno. m~non. know n aSh ~ng dicalcd in phonetic transcriplion by the usc of There arc varinu\ wnys to mark ... tlC.S!oi In phonetll.! Han cnptitm. A.
d ahove lengt IS III
mentlone . I d after the long segment. commonly u",cu convcnltnn i. . 10 l'mploy an ;tCUlc ac(';cnl \ \ rlactft liver the
a colon [:J (lPA [;J) P acoe, an Cree. and Finntsh arc a few of the man v vowel nuclcu\ in qucMinn h.l mark 1he l11u ... , prominent nr primary Mrcs\. and
I r Hunganan crm • .
ta Ian. w I~n and shon segments. Yap, a language spoken on the a grav\! accent I" I to murk the '"elm" mll\\ prllminent IIr 'OCcnnd<lf) 'Ueu Or
languages Iha'. sho W g'm Pacific, shows shon and long vowels 10 pairs of stre"",. (This .. huuld nm he cnnlus"d with the u"! of thc same d,3I;rtU" In
island of Yap 10 the CSlc. ?
mark lune In LUne languages, I Stre .. , can aI,,, ~ marked hy placlOg num
"ords, such as those shown 10 Table _.19.
above Ihe ,lre\Sed vowels, usually' Inr a primary "re 'and l'"r a liCCondary
..Iress. The word ,t'le!{rtlJlio;(' is tnlOscribed as either of Ihe toll""'10 '.
Table 2.19 Short and long vowels in Yap
2)
[9i5) ''.0'.opple' [9i:s) '(a) post' ~ I
[pul) ''.0 ga'.her' Ipu: II 'moon ' Ilhelagneflk I or Ithel~gr;eflk\
[7erl 'nenr you' pc:rl 'part of a lagoon'
The examples In Table 2.21 .. how some differences in English slrc,.
placement.
Italian shows shon and long consonants in pairs of words, .. uch as those
shown in Table 2.20. Tublc2.21 Differing Slress placemenl in English
(an) export lekspJ:tl (to) cxp6rt Id,'pJ:t)
Table 2.20 Short and long consonants in ItalIan
(a) present [prel~nt\ (10) prescnt Ipmont]
fato [fatJI . fate' fatto IfatJI 'fact' telegraph Ilhel,gr.c1l
fano IfanJ1 'grove fanno [ran : ~1 'they do' telegraphy Ith,legrJIt I
casa [kasaJ 'house ca~sa [kas:aJ 'box' tclegr.iphic [thclogr;d'kl

Long and short consonants are also found In many other languages, f ur exam les in the lahle, you can ahoce thaI the ljUahlY nf
including Finnish, Turkish, and Hungarian. In the last 0 , ;,'. n whether they are slressed or unslres<;ed.
cenam vowels van.e .. dependm.g °E I'h Russian, Palauan, and many other
8.:1 This phenomenon IS common ItI ng IS ,
languages, but is not universal.
Stress
In any uilerance, some vowels arc perceived as more prominent than others.
In a word such as telegraphic Ithelogrref'.k], the two vowel nuclei that are
more prominent than the others arc [eJ and [.eJ. Syllabic segments perceived 9
a.s relatively more prominent arc stressed.
Stress is a cover tenn for the combined effects of pilch, loudness, and . .. . es of isolated events The procc of
PROCESSES Speech productton IS not a sen, , I, organs are operating inckpcnd
length - the rcw/t of "hieh i .. syllabic segment prominence. In each 1,lOgungc, articulation is a c(lmplex (lne, T~e arUcu alOl) . canied OUI vel) rapIdly as
the clYect of these proslJdic features varies. In general, English \lres ..ed enlly of each other. and man) hne adju,tnlent' are
 t.u ll"'rt,~ R\ IINl,l)IS llc \

we Spc·,~ \
. . I 4 ••a l'un t,.'('llIl'ncc. ...pc:ct:h pnxlucliun Uhl'lI r"'UII
anlcu almll Or.'r1 <• '''unu.• alkdlng. Ihal or anolher. ' , In 1"'1 OUNh
!he
.1 longue 1nc- h..mgul.!' hudy I Iuwtr\:d
. In I 1
artlCli Iatum ut the wur I \I
t " \llIlI.tl C n
o'arti( ulcJtion l
ungue tlP,~ r;lI\Cd hl,tnli;Ul.llc th
The ,1':Cllll1ll1odallon I>elwc~n ",crJapprng <U1i.:ufalory ge,turc\
prodll lIIJn ot .ldjacCnl ,clintents " referred to a.\ co-articulation ~.~ed In lilt
In 2 7 sh""cd h"" "sprralinn r"sufb fro~ co-articulalion. Figure 2.1~~tc 205 Yuu have ~t!cn h()\\1 mbU\ C~1OS"tn1\\
Velum
'I'm ... more l'I1mplc.\ a'f'<'ct'. 01 cO-<U1rcul~tJ(ln ..11 pre.~cnt .. 'Orne 'h,," allow air to pass \hroll\~h th." .'. 1l
die 1 tK\uced wuh the 'J I
. '1 co c nit .1' l..t~lll T"'- c Un, \o~c ed
.tnllOula!o,) ,lfgan, ",v"lved III the produclIon 01 Ihe word po . Ilf tilt \c um 1'.. nul i.l\W<1)':-' prc\:i\d' C , IU;:: "''''ing hn(\ \ '...... r \0
,
"menc'an. " . IJr In Cockn.:y. Rca d·mg f·rom lOp 10 bOllom then In Nh~h
"ngh.,h aCl1vuy. Speaker... nltc.n 'tnh' Y. CO·lhHhn:\tcd wllh tither NO..... } enng {the
" . aClt I I..:lp.tlc nWCfll1\' lh. I j'''''- 1 pt'(M\UC\IOtl
the lips. tongue. wlulll. and larynx are shown. The bold bl'lck line i nih Of d consequent}\!, pnllhu.:c '1 n. I
all.• co l:: VI.! \1m lnr na \\ CI
, " " vnw~\ hchm..:"
n each n..1~
IN' .J ' I n )hat\\
anU\a\ COI\\Cll\.tn, ~
•
represcrlls the .,Jate of articulalion lisled to the righl of the box. o OIlh Amcncun l '. llv\l'.. h 'I' w'll'
e k . e- ~ ... C I'~ !\pcakcl' 1
_oc m:y UO th1" con)tstcnl1y in fluel'l
,"IPC~ ...c:
l-

".1 'Ii () M.nnt: 41th 'r t\la\l!4;l hL.-

I kc
I
I h-
pall p;en I or /"",k Ih,el]k I (lh' lId
spccc, when Ih
_ e)' p'"n"unce "',"
""
,~ na~lllily). This is renccled In hgllre ~.2(". ~n~ I. ,,~er. Ihe '''wei In,h
LIps \ L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ closure changes 10 Ihe open Iinwercdi .. . Ime representing Ih velllm
· h pO"",,n <lunnu Ih . aru I
"owe. I bcore
I 1 C longue lip i!\ ni"cd l(. . rt· . I l: (:\1 atum of \he
0pcn , ) a leu ale Ihe 0word-finalln\.

Glottis You bave llln:ad~ ,cen 111 seclinn 5.S how a'pnallo I
.. f hi · . n resu " lrom a llel
VOIClI1g a Icr t.c re .
case .01 a vOIced .
'top
. A splrauon"
... . shu", n In I· ay., ,In
b y Ihc black 1ll1c rcmulI1l11g in Ihe voiceless pOS·III·on c 'cn a ler I e lip h••11
I h Igure
.~c Tongue / ...
opencd and Ihe vowel articulation is in place. ' ave
:; ;------
<J BcxJy lowcrcu
.~

'" Consonant All. speech is characlerilcd

. .by .Ihe kind of complex co-arti·cul a \.Ion amung Ihe
al" [ co_articulation artlculalory organs Illustraled 111 Figure 2.20. Anolher Iypical co-articulalion
§ t-r----~"" 1 Raised (oral) phcnomc.non occurs when we pronounce Ihe sound lkl beforc the v . 1 \ .. \
with vowels . E 1 h. owe I.
j Velum 1 "" I
' - - - - - - - - _1Lowered (nasal)
III ng 15 In words such as key.~ and keel. The [kl wc articulate bcfnre li:\ IS
pronounced .wlth the bac\.. 01 Ihe tongue so far forward il ncarly touches Ihe
palale (and IS transcnbed a, I~I). It is scarcely a velar articulallon al all tor
many speakers. The [kl we pronounce before the vowel!> In] and l~:] In words
.uch as COl and couglrt is articulaled further back. and is a lrue velar. The~
VOIced adjusnnenlS arc made in anticipation of the tongue posillon thai WIll be
/GIOlli s
[
ph
/
it: n
Voiceless
(open)
needed for the vowel in qucsllon: fron! for the [i:1 and back for Ihe [0] and
I:>:], The IkJ pronounced before the vowel [u:1 in a word such as cool abo
shows lip rounding in anticipation or the following (back) [<mnded Hlwd and
"transcribed as [k"].
- - - - - - - T i m c - - - -_ _ _~
9.2
Articulatory aujuslmcnts that occur during the production of speech arc called
Flgur~ 2.20 Processes and
(oarticulilticm tHll011g l,C'V(ll,Jl,lrlindatory parameterc;, processes. Their cumulative effect often result. in making words casicr 10
efficiency articulate. and in thb sense they are saiuto make ~peech more em~lenl. When
speaker> of NOrTh American English nasalize the vowel of h(/Ilk they do nnl
fhe raisl·d line in the up cr b)x . d'· . uclay lowering the yeluJl1 until the exaci moment Ihe na,al CIlnSllOanl
anic-ulatinn or Ihe Il1Itial I PI r I 10 leates !.hal (he lips arc dll\l~d for Ihe articulation is rcacrll:u, Mosl Nonh American English 'peak.crs be. to
arc npened _ rcprcsenll'U ~y ~h:~~~~nc order (0 anlculatc the vuwel. Ihe lip, lowering the ,·dum for a nasal con"lOant almost as soun a \he~ articulate the
stav opcn uurin" th .. un·. I ' f g In the posJlJlIJI 01 Ihe 1111<" - and they
• <> ' lUI aBun II Ihe [nl. . vowel that preccucs il
 1 H 11\11 _j(

In I P.u·tll-I nmnncr. \\hl'a 'Jl\.·.Ik.l'" PUlfhHllh.' c.· I~I .1'\ 111\11' p"'.II.ll It ,~ '"
nt
\'onl lIC'h l. \, th \ Ire s~ .lklJl' HH'I "111"' 11."111) '111111 th,,· 1'01111 01 \1"", "A
ofunl<.'U!alh,lll ""illl ·Ihc.~ In: 111.1"-111 ~.l h,"-' ,h.I,LI,," .,td,U:\llHl'nt II1IlH)' lUg ff\lft}
rtll ul'ltory I, lnly ~I t 1I11ll! IHItIlI I 01 l'hK:c
Ih rtl ul I"n ,.f II nhlrc p:!l.'taIIH hI Ihal "f., IlIgh 1""11 ''''','1 th,", tn " til pH"hll-~ It gn'.11 II "al ul IIII \.I
1I1~1.1'l: 1111ill\"\1
~.,
I
l1I1U" Ih If
"oul" IIlJlc 111 m""n1! Inlll1 " ,d,tr Iklln " h'gh ""nl "",,'1 hen 'll\)'> prot't'''''' .
,
",UI" h V.n IlIhll,,), t h
'01111,.' 01 'h~' Ilhl .... t lllIHIH1l11 H' Itll'~l' pltK:' C 11 1 1 \ICl"
d ll~]II. tl .th'r nt I n~h,h \\Ill1 ,a '. Ipn.'ldl tor .')(/rf/dt· h 111\1~lng a
111J.,,,'r l.1ju"n1I."lIllh.t( rt',uh~ 111.1 Ulllrl..' dtU':I~II( .u1l1:ul.IlHHI Ih"'I\\\1 "'Yllahle:
of . \.. n.... ,ul pnulullcl.lllun uJ porlld,' .tn.' n:lh't:t..'d h) on~ h) drOPPing InC'
un'tn",\.'d \ "'H'I t\f Illl' J II ,r " ~ lIahl~: thl' t~lfl~lIC pll'I1HlII IUJ I rl 1.....111 he ". 1I11mhl''. 01 tlllkrl,'ni pint',,' ,",c \,.'utll'LIIVdy "no ...... n.1 .' .
'nll"p,lIl'J "uring 1''''IIIII"'/.II,,,n oflh~ 11'1; lonall) , IhL' '",cdc"nc" "' the Irrtm Lh\,.' 1I11111l'lIl"' ul CHW "'"·~III\.·1I\ un n tl. \ .\ ""mU,uum r u\l
f· ,. I1 - ,I \) In. J MllH\atltHl IIw.ty r lilt
1I111,al ,t"l' ",,,nTl"" nn Ihwu!!h Ihc [rl 1011 II ~uum ll·l..'nlnlll~ I1H1I'l' like IIn()llu.:r Ilcarhy OUlld \
Inon.! \)1,1 ... ph\lIll'lu.: \,:hllr .. u:tl'n"'ll\.:~ II h l11H~ Cli nll<: 111
9.J NusalilutlOIl ul iJ vU\\l' llwhul' 'In'l"nt 1.;011\011'11 I C' ' I
."caW"Cl II,y \pl.·a~cr ... UUIU': - lputlllg
- H\ '1~\ltC12'tl lOt
the:." . "(II Ih,1,\
lowering ~ v _I '. , I\le)
Prot I.'SSI.'S ,lnd 's"IHl' rnl(,'c~~~, dPIX'.lf (n 11l;lkt' urlll,.'ulalioll k''','i t lHlt IIlUh.' l..'nkiL'lll, r'ur ~, • 1'1 )t.' Il''ll II I" I 1lut the plcl't:dIlW
, 1 '(.;gmll1t . C um III .\(lv~l1\r,;e ul ,
lI~l~U &.:
c:.\lmclH t, I· -. 1
clMit~ e ,1I11pk. Fn~I,'h 'pc'ale .., ulkn lenglhen enn"",an" and ""we.',
"hen the) n I 11C
I In II O\\lIIg l.·nn~OI1Itn1 'I h .... Iype 01 u,\Mmihlit
... '" It I.,I"e "" t" ",. ,lot"~
Ire ,,,h'"10 R'IX'al a "n,,1 Ihal ,(lmeone ha, nol he,ltd dead) , hc 101/1", IlIg1 • . . . . . . ) IS ... nnwn·1 n')l,r
uSMuulution. \1I1(.;t.' I hI..' Ihl' atll~llIon ..... In enC!.:1, tnn\o"Hl /J"ck"rmls 1
'.
,i",'
kind "I" c (h,IIl!!e" I) P'("/. pl'~~l!dll1g ~cgll1cnt h a
rhe nasall/~ltHln of V(,"t.'ch fOllowmg n;hal con""ollant~ In Sl.lIt (jachc 1
.I, an exampic III pru.:re .. ,,,'c a"imitation. "nee Ihe n"',IIoty moves fom"rd
' Ie-Fred.' Irom the nilsal l'UnSOnalll nntn the vowcl (Tablc 2.22\. "rcM,1t Imllt not
'Did) uu sa}. "(I" ","".,' 'I11m~d'[Hcly ralSlIl!, Ihc velum aller the pmJuelion of a ,\;,,,,1 top l!'<n
nasuitJ:allnn I~ tnullo where a vuwel 1\ preceded by an ural t.:un nnant Ie n
'No. l'aiJ. "Fltlw,'d"" glt' ,!r"i/wIJl"lklc h~Ii,lcl 'vcry pll!J,cd'.) , I

L,'n/:lhening "'/:II1,'n" resllits in a greater "n'l' ulalnl,) clhlrt, bUI the proc,'" 'Illblc 2.22 Progr..!!-;\ivc nUl-,all/utinn ul voweh in S";OIS Gachl:
,,'sulls 'n a /(>rrll hl'ing 1110r(' distmci and Iherefore c:"il'llo pe .. cl'i~c.
"nnlher PI'O('",,, lilul rl'sults in more l'astly percclvithk Sp,','(h udds a Imi\:rl 'b,g'
segll1cnt under (ertuin wndilions. When sp"aking sluwly and l\,rdul/\ in u Inil 'clittle'

noISY l'!1\'Jrnnl11cnl. rur c'ample, English '~akl'rs orten It1wrl it ~o\\ c/ Imlj I '~lboUl'

bel ween £nlUpS of consonants, Tim breaks up the scqu,'nl'" "l" consonullls Ine:11 'doud'
11110 sep:,rall' syllabb . 'Th judge from Ihe usc pc"plc uftcn muke of Ihis
pmccss when Ihcy II ish 10 bc clearl) undc"lnod , il ma) well make wnrds Voicin!! as~imilatiul1 is also \\ iuesprcad. For many speaker, III !englJsh,
easier 10 pcrcl'iw
voiceless hquid, and glrucs (l~cur aflcr V{lII;cl.:" stup' ,n "nrJ, su,h as 1'1.""
-I) [plt ..:J. proll<l [p aud[. allll I'ur.. [pju:>1 . These ,oUI1<b are ,,"d tll be de\'lllCCJ
in Ihis en\ inlOment. Dc\oicinl( IS a kind of a"imil.ltilln. lIere, the "..:al fllld,
'SlOp ""c:uning!
arc nOI sel in mntion IIl1mcuiatdy afler Ihe release Ullhc v{)kclcs~ con"lIlam
'Wh,t!'i' closure .
'( .,uid, "Slnp sc I~ I rcamlllg.'" Thl' opposile {ll' ucvuicll1g is voicing, In DUlch. fricallvcs a'''llnlate 10 Ihe
v<.il'lllg of Ihe SlOps that folluw them. 111 anll~lpat'Ull or Ihe votced con" mant.
These cxaJllples show thai Iherc arc IWO basic rCasons for Ihc cxis(encc of For e~'lIl1pk.lhc wort/artun 'orr. {lVCr' is pronoullccd wllh a Ivl in the words
:trtlculall1ry I'nlces,,-s SI'ltl' 11r) . " -, I ' ".. a/1><,I..,1 'w nng (.Il', and a/dl'km '10 cOYer over'
, . , ",. , l' (tcsses rcsu t In a mOl'c elllclcllt urlll'ulntlllll
01 a Sl'fles 01 sounds In Ihal precisc liming and l'o -urdinallOn of speech is ,",imilau{ln for place of aruculalilln is also widespread Itl tlte ",)('/d\
r'l'/;IXed to val/OUs dc"rl'l's ()III' "I . language, '1a,al ~l1ns(lnan" Me' \cl)' likely tn undcrgo lhl' I)pe 01
h· . .. . ,
\I ICIt " l'aster In 11l'P'''" - lit
cr processes rcsu I 111 a lI10re UISIIIl"1 nul put.
11, . a'''lndaU''Il. as shown in Tabk 2,2.1 011 Ihe nexI page
lin ucnl or rapId cVl'rytlay 'pel'l'lt Allhough
Iltl"C IWll r~llCs 01 pm 'l',S -
' " C
'h Ii. ' The I1l'I:!;\U\,C limn of cach ullhesc wurds I.' tl13d~ \\ IIh euher IIIlur /tI In
'. l ,c, lIug I al IrSI appC<lr In hc cOlllradlllllry c'"h
'crves a partll'tllar,'nu in s/X'cdt productIOn. .' • h{llh <:a,cs, the f<lfllI ,h{I\\' a nas I «,",ooanl Ih.11 ha' Ihe SlImc place 01
articulation a... the' slOp con <manlthal fo/lnw it: htOI.II]1I Ihe ca e uf I>() "bI..
 NtlN', It-H

D..il'lion
 \. \ .\
t,,, ~O\ t
IJf \

"Ul111ol I· ""I"lIul
h' mOl (\\ ''''1,,11
Ih (I' III Ikllktll
r.JlI II on· I Irrllll·1
('mh (trnOJ 1,'nlllJ
--------~~--------~------------------
'll\1\ '~lu,'r.l1tt. h.t\t' Ih' ',II HI.." pL,,,-.-,· llf,.trth'uL,Hl( \I\ ,i' thl" S\llh l r\\lll l ' o n\llll'lJlt 10
h' th ',r I'"'n .•lIhf ,III h.t\ . Ih' ~ ..mh..· \tlll..'in!! .b th" 11l\fl Mll1\ll\\lU l" 'n\\lll.lnt to
l11tllK \OWll" This 1..'!10ptcf h~'~ ~nn~idc.:-r~ll onl) lhe \ 0\\ c,,", nnu t..:\ln~Onanh ot Engh~h. m n\'
Ih,'lf n -hi nl \\ hu,:h are t(mnd 11) other \ang.uagl.:\, Thl!rc arc aho many "'pcl! h !it)und
\ '" ," m,lI , hI' "', 'J '1IIh,'.ill'd hI TlJf~"h, ,1\\ ,'nllll,l\ Ilnl ""):IlI\\Jlh 1\\ \ I)
roulld in the" nrlo', languages lhal are no\ heard 10 Englbh. Smee I'h"nelle
~ 'n' I.'naUh \\ hl"n ",11 f:-. .U\" '" m l \\ 'd inh.l rui"k,t,h, .m l'Jl(."tlIhl..,til' h1\\el" to .. ON\Nl" lk~cnpllon~ ~lrc.:- unl\cr. at') \ all\1. \.'nc~ the ba!->lC anKU1\ll")1) p~'nU\\ClC~ ha:'lie
tn," I tx'I\\ 'Il\. l.·rtrulh""yl1l."n\.·l.'~ ,)fl\\ 11uill,II \.'tlllS\lO'lIl.h, ",or', lIn~.l n '\\ (\ll\'\ (Ell) ht:'c-ll m.l:-.h:red. It IS not lOU uiHk:ult to lh!~(ribc and e .. en to prunounc \
I 'mil "t-I', 11"'11 ',' (1;11'1 _,::7), (Ill<' n', ,,'n f,'r Ill' Jlf~'~II"C' ,lIn"n~ ~ lamiliar ,ounJ,. Thi, se"\Il'1l presenb a number 01 sllCcch nund found \II
, "d, 11 'l"d n If \."'(11., ..'nl u' h(', ': IH l k'.lh'\Uf!h. (h.lt lhl" ll'~ c:1 t~ .11\, .1), high; l)ther langtlag~"
" '"'111 It~ 1 f, r /unh r 11\" 'nl,lIl"1I "e lUI] .lUd ,)(h 'r lIlII,lImh,1I ') IIlt'llh \
10,1 __
fronl 'oweb. whkh in English arc alwa) , unrounded, can al,,' be rounded_
Vo\\cls
A hIgh from lell,e rounJed ''''wi is heard in French p,!r 'pure', Gennan
Biid"'r 'bool..,·, anJ Turl..i. h di'i!IlI<' 'bullon', It is lran"nbed a, ly\ in IP,-\ ,
tr.un 11n."'11
hut as lil!11l ,)fth Amerkan transcription- a difference that ',)melime, lead,
dllt> I.ubl' 10 confusion A roundeJ high front la, vowel. Ironscribed'h IOlPA l'-I(am!
~l 111 'UlJ 'I as Iii] in Nonh America) is heard in Canadian French l!!ne 'm,,,m' nd d,!c
'dul..e ' . A rounded mid-high fn'm lense \owd, ollen Lr.mscnbed 101 \1"1 In
lPA), is found ill French pell 'lew' and Gennan .<"hi!-" 'bealllifu\', A rounded
mid-It'" front la'\ \ ,m el. !r,lIl . .:ribed Ire I. is heard in French Q!:!if 'egg' :md
p.'ur 'fear', Gemlan Qnlil'il 'local'. and Turkish ~Ql 'lake' Finall). bac
n)\\ eb nlJ.~ be unround.:d. For m'tan.:e, a hIgh hack u~rounded w,e!.
!rJ.n~crilved;)., lUI, l ' heard m RlI' ian "oro,. lil..e b~1 \\ "and Rumaman
",fn,j 'hand' Th's> \O\\~!., a:, \\~11 a. oilier 'C'\otlc' on', are found m man~
oth'r lano:ual!c, Ci' \wlL Tahle :'..:'., iUuqrale'the \ \\et- rre,entcd ill ilih
,hapter \ l'R -;"
unfl,unJed: R = fl)und.:d ,
pre,( rll'tioll ,I' 1','£\, rib, ,md
Fngli h, \\ h<f" , i, plwHlun,'cd
f ''''II lOll"';

LR R UR R l'R R
ill ut~n
High
1'1 r ~u til n
\ltd ' \n.-JWl.'.i)
f
l \\
 8
IP R ~ liN 0I"~ II, ,
!'IIIIN' lIc· lilt " H)NI)
. {JI \A.~HA)A,{.1

t ~L'i~1 \n\\d, . 111-..,,'" "II 'PIl \lll~'n" .. 11"('\\llha hl\n.~n..~ d \\.'lUlll i\

pHW.tlH.· .... d ul thl' WI\)..!UC
, .•.. II -u 1
Un! dC~l,."rt\)n. l '~l ,
.IpH,;.I\ lUll\ \0
SIt
p.l'" t" ~1Il1U1t.ItWlll"h IhrHII th ,hI.' tH.lI and 11.",11 "'.•.1\ !lll". N.I, .... I \U\\d,: c 4Ir i.. H;: C.l to: amlllal. RCll"utll'X IluIHh , • t, I1lt\Ul! \lo'nh the hi
while pa\ilt()-..tl\lcul~u Mlund... j ht~' 11,'I1lh·~l,."nhC'd a ItnIC' n&UC h\adc:
he hc.' Iro lit ~t1f1h , \nh.""II"tHl I'u '11'.h. l·rl.',u.:h. f\H1,ug lll.·'l', llandl, and ~I \\1 (1 .\le ( C:\llt1nlc" I ftC"'\ "h'ea' -
ttl~~
I' "
A nllm~r of Hth .." MOl' ' . 1 i,nuna' pt».\ ul I ...,
\,u;el, III .'ther l.tIl U.I'\'S (1.1t'lll' 2.21.))- nlt:Y an'llJh.'l1lr..m'l.'llhl'd \,jlh II
I I Il\ CI Ih,' , .\\\'1 "IItl1<,1 , I I"k
.
I anguagc ..... Scrbn IUatl~U1 h"" hl tt
.... •
PH Ihun "fl" \
•
,\ ., \lUH:t.·\l' an \
V ().u
"!"u t.: Hlll1ntlll 11\
e v,(J'I'\(\
t"
\\(lH'" .' C (u.\(1 1.1' ... h ,-md cia/':' ' pupll ' ' \1 • • . • \, '* \In'~C\~ fla\al,l\ tn
nn!
JI:lstll ","loh

\\111

1'.1111
1,,",1
11"1
'\\111
'hrc.ttl
"one hUfIllrc.'u'
-- re'pt'cllvdy tllukllllll thalccl' 'pu\'en 11\ ( '~,,<:" lran'\t;nhtou a.\ le\
uvular SLOP pair 1n wnrd . . like .
'.
lranscnhcdas[4lundlGI
'
, , I .
IP
' respeeltv'l A
1''', 1111 0 I ameli alllln, as III Spanish WI" 'y",
'
...hllw a "",(e\e.'\!\ lIlt\ \I h\.
,muq ',,\!. ;t';.tu.tand
C y, Ila'al "01' ", Is
u!t'" ell'"I
,a" mal I0 aline
C.II' lll'an,cnbeu'
'IS I 1\ I III nOli A nnlalion), Hlltt til Ihe lIvula '"
I
I .

tholle',lIt
In
1)\ C!4..t

l'ahl.1
as j'\ 10 tl',\ ,'nu
' ,
•

-
1'\lr1u£u\.·,,,' ,,,,'nh l I'flllll I
It:;p l 'toolh' as IN I, • well, where II " Ircmscnbed
Pnh'h 1,lh
We nnw I'Clum In Ihe glullut ' lai c known as 'I', '
was introduced tn ~cclion ") '\ In I tln'I,' Ih . \-\ If.'fl, e,?' \,'(Jfce or lUumw',lhat
HI ,./. . -.. . .. ere 1~ a sen f
Illcorre.:tly referred In lis v()lccd aSpil'lIl1!d sl " h' CS," 'llIp' '''melt"'.'
, ( , . oP' I ;il m,lke usc ul wh'
CU/lsn/l.ml, Con,oll.lIlh an,' th,., . . t:ntx'd \\ illl r~k'ft:IH:l' to '1\ paralllt:tcr.... vO ice murmur) , These slllpS ',Ire I'cprcscllIed wilh d hi I "pel')'
'f bl ~ 30 . ou e unt cnl"I'
,1\ Ihl' "'1 lin' of 11ll' alrslrl'allJ Ihal I' ll1<1dlficd wilhin Ihe I'rodU':llIln of Ihc I n a c -, , ,cxample."
. 01 slnp artlcuhlion
. ~
.. ;iod g Iotla I \tatc~ aT\!' laid out
,()und ,S ountIs fou nd III some, II nm 1111, vancil" of English'" . ..ue . . et 0 tf '10 \.,
lKlXCS.
h) Ihl' tlln','lioll III \\hldllh,' ,lIrslrCiIIll 110w,
,,:) the slalc (If thl,.' \()i..'al cords {n..'.'1ulling in ,'o;n'd. \'oin'it'.\.\ \,lr IIIUTI"Urt'cI
Tubte 2.30 SlOPS
",umh)
d) Ihe ptlSilll'nllIg of Ihe ,oil palatl' ~~hclher il IS rai'ell s" Ihal air "ill} Bilubial [)nlla/ Ah'('olar R",m}le, Palmal VdeJr I ,'h'uldr Glunal
C'C,lpt" Ihnlllgh Ihl' lIIuulh 10 I'wduce an oral sound or I"wer,'d 10 alln"
air In ,'scape Ihrnugh Ihl' 11 ..,,' r.;,'l1lll1lg in n lIc/ml sound
VOIceless Ipl It I It! It! lei Ikl 141 PI
Voiced Ihl 1111 lui ILlI III Igi IGI
c) Ih,' plaCt' of arlicllialion (c,g,.labial, all'eolar, 1,t'I(/r, elc,)
(OI'al)
n IIII.' lI1al1l1t'l of arllL'lIlalion (l' ,g" SIIII/,frim/i,'1'. l!tJrinl/('. ele ) [ml [n} In\ [ttl [pi INI
.\11 hUllhc Iir,1 1\\" ,rill'l'ill hal'l' heen dcscrihed aln.'ady In SUllie delailll\
Voiced lui
(nasul)
Ihl' rrecedtllg pagl's, Whnl r,'lIIaills In hl' L'lahorall'tI arc Ihe notions airstream
Murmured [bl 11I1 lui 1\1I lJ.1 [gl
mcchUllism, and Ihe directioll of uirf1uw, We willl'\plorc Ihese in the l1e\1
'l','IiOIl, \\hiL:h t'\rlnrl" slnp t'llilsollanh fw1hel:
The production of 'llCel.'h sounds always involve modifying in some wa) a
Airstream
body of moving air, II the spec.:h sounds described until now are produced
"11/" The ,allll.' slor nlllsonants f(llmd in l:ngllSh arc wldespre,ld In nthl'r mechanisms
b) modi fying aIr pushed out of thc lungs, up the windpipe and 11110 Ihe vo.:al
l,tIIguagt's, A k\\ .Iddillonal 'I\,P,' ar,' II1trodul'l'd in this set'linn tntCI as the speaker breathc out 111 a subcon, ciousl)' controlled W3.) , This
In lI1an} Fuml' 'all languages, ~\C lind mit the ,IIH.'nlur SlOpS III, Iti l. and method of setting in motion a body of air is called the pulmonic (i.e .. lung)
/n/, hUI d"~lIal slul" 11/, [dl alld Inl. ""hough Ihis ,e\.'I1I' lik\.' a vcry slight airstream mechanism and, ,b \\ e have mentioned before, the dlre.:lIon of the
dlfkrl'ncc 111 .Irtlt'ulalll'n, " t'an rl'addy he ohs\.'!".cd in Ihl' sj1<:ech of heneh
,\11'110\\ is egrc. he (i,c" OUlward).
.spanish, or Italian slwah'l', '
rht.' slOP' "I' Engli'o and other languages that we ha\e seen up to this point
"Oll\l' languages abo hall' relrolk\ SlllpS (as well as Ineallvt" a nd liljlluJs)
arc all produced using thc pulmonic egressivc ai"rream, uch stop' arc calleu
\I IlIl'h arl' llIadl' h\ l'llIhng Ihe lip 01 till' tongue right h"d, so thai Ihe
pillSiVl's, Th,' pulmollll' egressl\c airstream mechanism is by far the
IIndLT'I(kol till' longlll' lIIakl'S conlact Wllh Ihe rool of Ihl: ll10lllh lu,t pasllhc
1"'11l1ll0nl'~t mc 'halllsl11 cmplo) cd In the production of spcech, But II Is lIulthc
',II~ ,'ol;u IIIlgl·. SlIdl pO'I ,a ll'\.',,/i1l sounds (symooli,\.'d as 111, I, Ill. 111.1. Itl.
Ilnl\ III 'thod that IS availablc, Therc arc consonallls lhat arc 1ll1t produced \\ 1m
lll ,) ,Ill' ((l1ll1l10n III till' langua 't'., 01 Aust,alia and In Ihow 01 the Indian
th,' pulmonic aiNream hut rather \\ ith lhe g\ottalic or ~e\aric l1l1C
'~hconllll"nt (d /ltu~lIll ·y.Il11' (\)}nh.II -\usli .llia) and l~lIl.l.il 'd llid'
rll producl' 3 glLlltalic ,lIund ('Il'called because Ih.: 1\1lIWI11,'nlllf the a.lr I
( 1.11,1.\,11.1111 , Indl,l) I. In O,dl'l 10 dlStlngliISh ht.'twl.'l'll Il'lmlk'x "111m" allli
IIHtiated ill lh~ gllllll' ), th~ \llL'al curd ...In: hrought linnl~ togelher anu lhen
",1111" .111,,)101' 011" lik,' [JI ;lIId 1:;1. \\ hiL'h art' 011,0 P" I Il\l'"I"1 ph"nl'
tht' ~tr,' 111,1\ cd ;Ipart pulhng Up\\ anh l,r dl"\ n\~ard w 1m them the ellur~
11,'1,11\ u'l'lh, Il'llII' al)i(-ul,lIId IUlllinal to indi(all' prc(I\,'1 Iht' /,,:11 01 Ih,'
lal') \l \\ hrch, as a roult ••Icts as a piston in pushing alf ul nd outwanh or
tougll,' "",.1 In Ihe /,1"dll<'lIon III Ih," M)Unlh. ('ons"nanh IlIatll' \\ Ilh tllL' tip
Y 11"I(,lIl, IIC ~
I'lte 11'041 fll!t
'III ,.\ \)
(II v, C
1\C ."
cl"wlI ,,,,.I
Illward ,,1,,1!lICI<"U al ""'~ place
O1nl C.IVII> like Ih c. \\hclI Ih I.lryn, I, pu h In lhe
Ihe If traPI 'U In Ih moUlh IS ""mpre ~d It I Ihen rcleu'ed /llId <~: up
Itllt·,
A/\ro-
llilahwl
C,ut\\ard on C Ihe forn. nl 10 ure I r~lIIl1,'cd . ('nn,,,n.lnl pnxJulcd Will "'"
tlt'III'" ,/uaul Ahrular I'Walul
"dtal"' V~lar f,lon,,,
....
....r ~ ,I\r
. mntr III me,hulIl 111 .Irc "ailed eJect . 'I ,,!,. N orllwlly. IheyIIhlS Vlllcck .., 14>1
VUlced IIlI
rill 1111 II If! \ I~I
H)le I s. II c\umpl IIf /Ill cJcdl'l! IS Ihe alveolar WP 11'1 III Ihe lire LtVI Inl III 1'1 IhI
· 'I ' ' K' k h wOrd hlJ ttl hI
I11>411" 'tll 11m)\'.' (I 111>4o~1 '10 break) to eel, II langUage 1
(,1I.11 mal:! (rhe ,h,l rlill ' .11t.:r a con.,onun! symbol Inc.ll<:alc\ Ihal II I an )(
CJ"I,;II\'C.) Affncates
' ..• arc. found
. at 010'1 puinl s () I'anlculatll>n' I G
1 her' is illl .11t mallve Yoay of prodllcing glullaitc consonant,. If Ihe "OCal Affricates Ia b lC",ental alfncate, transcribed us. Ip'I . 'I' h eard at the
. nbe'«man
. . , .• ""Ctl
cnt,,, .Ire hlUughl Ingeiller IIghlly and the IHrynx " pullec.l dnwn whll t pfud horse. Many dlalect, of CanadIan r h h gmnlllll III Ihe \\"nl
· cene ave voo·el· .
maint.linillg atl nnstrm:IIOI1 made al S()~C pJace .h~Jward In the mu.uth. the ;,ur d cnta I (or a Ivco Iar) affncHte, It I and 11I'\ ' . c c, and .IIICcd
say'. .• • In word, hke fu 'y("lU' and t,Jfrt! "\I)
Icapp d belweell Ihe pl,t<'1! where Ihe a~L1culator' lurm Ihe oh,trucilon and Ihe
I;Iryll~ I rardkd When Ihe oh,trucllon IS relcH,ed. the air nnw, InWards Table 2.32 prescnts a grid including the tw E I' h '
• ' I f d. ng" af(ncales and
makmg Ihe vl><:al ClIf(I\ vlhrale. Con,clllanis produced with Ih" in~res'iv'
0
o tllers common y oun tn nther languages Th E r h !\I'me
alNream me,h'lll! 01 arC eall~d impJo,sives, Examples include 101 and lUi a:
off in a box. ' . e ng" ,"und, arc agam!iet
in HJII."I (Nigeria) l"a:fie :1 '111 eslrange' ("05. fba:bel 'type of IllCust') t1l1d
[liIlfal'lJuarrcl' (1'.\.lfa:da :1 'chief's residence' J. Table 2.32 Affricales
Stop, can als" he produced using the velaric airstream mechanism, To do
Palaro·
Ihl'. Ihe hack of Ihe lOngue is brought firmly ag.un,1 the velum, effectIng a
L.aIJlodental AII'eolar alveolar Velar
eotnr lele dosure . ,Sirnullaneously, another closure I~ made at a point In the

~
fronl "I Ihal dosure, say al Ihe lip' or the alvcolar ndge. The air trapped in Voicele;,s Ip'l II I Ik'l
Ihe muulh IS Ihen rarefied when Ihe longue moves backward' and down Ii Voiced Ib'\ WI I d31 Ig'\
al Ihe sullle lime, Ilw forward closure is rdca.scd, air IS sucked in with ~
popping nolS". 'slOP' produced using the vclark ingrcs,sivc ulNrcam
mechanislll urc culled dkks. An example of a dick is Ihe denial click III (not
As with the stopS, laterals may be dental as well as alveolar. Laterah can also
10 he coni used wllh III) found inlhe Lulu word Iiaia I 'dil11h' liquids be made with the tongue body raised to the palate. Such a sound is called a
palatal lateral. and is transcribed with the symbol ["I· It is heard in some
pronunciations of the Spanish words caba!jp 'horse' and ca!J.e 'strcet'. and in
I'ric:alives olhel Ihan Ih",!! of EnglJsh arc found in lhe world\ languages. A the Serbo-Croatian word, da1J.e 'farther' and !judi ·people·. The palatal lateral
hilahial fril,.lIiw, produced hy drawing the lip, all11o,l together and lorclng may also be voiceless. in which case it is transcribed as LA].
Ihe airstream Ihrough Ihe lIarrow opening, is found in many 1.lOguages. The Lateral fricatives are produced when a lateral is made with a narrow
vellede" bilahial iticalive 1<11/ i, heard word · inltially in the Japanese word enough clo.ure to be classified as a fricative. This sound is transcribed U'i [\5\
Fuji (lhe moulllUlII). The voiced htlabial fricative r~1 is found in Spanish when voiced and [~l when voiceless. Lateral fricatives can be heard in many
words Itke d"iIl'I' 'In owe ' 1\ VOIceless palatal fricative 1<;1 is found in American Indian languages. in Zulu. in Welsh. and in the languages spoken
'sland,lrd (;erm.ul. the word il'/t •I' wntain, thi' sound . Velar fricatives arc not in the Cauc~u,. Table 2.33 shows some examples of voice Ie,s alveolar lateral
lotlnd ill 1',lIglish hUI i1l't Widespread in the world's languages. The voiccles,
fncatives from Welsh.
wlur Inl'allvc Ix I is COll11110n III German and Russian The cump",er Bach';
lIanll'. prollount·t'd in Gt'nnlln, has a lim" VOiceless velar fril;utlvc. A voiced
Table 2,33 Voiceless lateml fricatives in Wclsh
vdal Iric(llive 11(1 is cUllllllonly heard in Spall ish wurds like IIRt/a ·walcr'.
'nlhle') II pn'st'lIls (I grltl 011 which some COl11mOIl fricati vc l'onSOllun\s ar~ Jlun lbnl 'clan'
r.lIJg,'d 'K'COldll1!' to poilll and manner ul articulation A, 111 Tahle ') .~O, dcntil" ambell lambril 'some'
:",' 11111 u"linglli,lwd lrolll alvcolars, as 1110st languages have sOIiIHI, with
<llhl'I olle 01 lite IIllter pOlnl 01 articulation, but nol hOlh. Sound, lound In Other r-Iike sounds an! wide I) heard in the world' , languages. A cummun
Fnglish arc ','1 of! ill h()\co" one IS the trill which is made b) plL"ing air over the r.ll,eu tongue tip and
alluwing it to vibratc, Trills arc commonly transcribed as [i'l (IP [rl), They
 can be heJrJ in th~ Spanish "ord, pep' ·d~)g·. and [Ii, 'riv,,~', unu the hali.
\\~)fds ""!:!:I' 'y,agon' and I>,rra 'beer', slllllia. tnlhngelk~t can he
\\tth the u\ ula. and, called., U\ ular urill. Its IPA ,} mbullS I R I,
Ill: The international Phonetic

A U\ 1I1.,r r made \\llhout trilling is Olure commonly heard, however ih

is the \,),~cd r 01 Siandard French. and IS abo ~\klcspread ~n Gemla". IP"
tr.lIlscripunn d.,,,,fi,,, Ihis ,ound along w,th the Ineall' es. It IS Iran eribed ~
[xl "h~n \lHc'd"" .lIld U' IK] \\ hen n)lced. '.
Tabk' ~.J~ pres~nl. the liquids. As before. sounds found In English are \e,
off in !xl\cs.

Table 2.3-1 L.yuids

ullI,'ral... Voi~cd
Voict'le!'o.'i
DenTal/ail'eo/ar

ill][!I
Palmal

IAI
[hI -
u;;;;;;-
CONSONANTS (NOS·PULMONIC) VOWElS

......
~'=79
VoicetJ [BI Chcb Votoed tmplOlim <...",
Lfllt!ral fricalil't'.\

-
0 fti!.tul 81bbia1
c-... i y - - i ' li -
Voicl'les~ Ii I W· U
I -' p ....... lY U
,'s Rcrmtlel
Approxlman[
Flap
Trill
leI
[JI
[f]
Ii] IRI
=\=
I
''''''-
........ -
AI...,.. ....
~ t'
k' v,.
s'
DrtwIoI~

........... ~
\
c-........

""".....
e q;- :,.6-

e: O!
;)

3 . 13
Y oO

A . :l

OTHmt SYMBOI..5
re 'B
a <E....l
Flaps and urills can be voiceles,. as well. Voicelessness for thes: s(Jund, "
usually indicaled by a small open CIrcle beneath the symbol. as In (rl or (RI.
M
W
\f11klt1$ ..... ¥tiafnal:I~

\fOlWl1t.btlll~l8r~
C Z . . '-*"'pdal traJ_
1 An.a. IMcnI n.
""" 0.. 0

4 Vol..wJ.blliI'pa1aW~ fj SJ".~J .. x
Other glides lIrc found in the worid's languages. A common ly h~ard one is
H Vultekll cpiJlolaal frian'Y'e
Glides made with the tongue position or (j I but with the lips rounded. It is tmnscribcd AfYriaIet_doIobk~_ I'n""""""
~ Volcedqrlilonillfrieanw: cu lit ~DtaI '" twa l,mboII I Secondary IIR11
as [4J and can be heard in Frencb words such as [qilj Ill/it 'eight', [4ilJ IlUile jaI:_bJlltilblrlf~ ,foott:)'III~n
'oi l' , and (4itx]llUilre ·oyster'. ~ EpI,1acW ploUYI!
Lon, e:
A complete lisl of all JPA symbols and diacritics can be seen in Table 2.35.
I. v_
OlACR111CS OillCitics m:ay beplM:cd above alymbol ... un. ckla:OOa, C.I.I)

I} Q I ,. - - p. ~ \ " ...... t d
" ...,.._ e'e
""f.....

Summing up The study of Ihe sound, of human language is called phonetics, These ~ounds
are widely tmnscribed by means of the International Phonetic Alphabet. S~Uabk bruk Ji.zkt
The sounds of language arc commonly dc~cribed III articulatory and Unkm& (.ma.cc 01_ brW.1
acoustic terms. and rail into two major types: syllabic sounds (vowels, TONES .......owato "l~
syllabic liquids, and nasals) and non-syllabic sounds (consonants and LEVa. """""'..

glides). Sounds llIay be YO iced or voiceless, and oral or nasal. Consonants e l::; e. A -
are produced at various places of articulation: labial, dental, a lveolar, e1 .... e~ ......
palata-alveolar. palatal. velar, uvular, glottal. and pharyngeu l. At the e -\ M~ e -1 ~
e e A~
places of articulation, the airstream is modified by different manners or
e
-I"'"
Jl;': e 1 =-
urticulation and Ihe resulting sounds arc stops, fricatives, or affriclllcs
Vowels arc produced with less drastic closure ami arc dcscnbed with
rderence 10 tongue position (high, low, back. and front), tension (tense or
la,), and lip roundin)! (rounded or unrounded), I .anguage also ,h\l\~'
~

t
--
""'- .... --..
I' .......

supraw/:llIcntal phenomena such as tone, intonation. and ~trcs,. 'ruble 2.35 Th~ Imemauonal Ph\ln~tic Alpha\let I re\'"ed tl> 1993, corrected 1996)
 PHO ( S tHE

-------------------------------~

2. Hov. man~ ""gmenb are Ihere In th.! fol\o"'lnl:! "'O(lh'

a l :11 e ) P'.cholog) -
b ) malh I) knov.ledge
c) cure g ) mailbo,-
d) hopping h) a"e ome

3. l. the fu5I >OUndlneach of th.!~ UOv.mgv.oflh\ cedo<

though zoom hu~e "hen
thought choo", gheno
fonn pan judge pneuma!1-
OCKC~ WO<!ll3tl 00 !be In=Ioo:tI Pboodi.: Alr/J.3bet """ be OOwned from tb< \i e\\ buns 'ioced
In!= l'boo<:oc~l'nl\eNI) CoI1~.Gov.er treet..Loodon. WCIE
6BT Enzland -= d.:![3 are 13k"" fn:ro E-O. Coot. ·\ov.el,;md ton.!> In ,<e'.
f.mtguu: ~ ~ - 16-1-- Gaelic d3!3 "'" L·c.......esy of J~ Galbraith. BIDJ dau are
~. t:. In!! the ",-onh pre..ented in <fUe'U n 3, 'Ute ... ~ the I _I
eac h;'ord i \01 ed O<'''Olcele .
of

ad3pfed from !.add< ~ elled "")0... ). More detailed ~3ding on the phoneu , 0(
E'l-lish and other 13n~ ~ IS ~port.,a. beJov. 1be -"rundi dal:l are irom A.E. 5. For each of the f Ilo... in<o r= of~. :tate he!her
1~'1. )959 Eu", tk Gramrn.nrr RunJi, Ann,*" du ~I"-<&' Ru)aJ du Con. same or different pI ce o t :uuculauon. Then identiry
lkll!e. Ten-urm. - fie DIllIltro 1eDCe$ de I'Homme: Lingw tiqoe. \ 'olume 2J ;- articul:IIioD for each . ound.
Some ~ Ij m thl cb3pIer ...-ere prepared b) Joyce H tldebrand. 3) [5] : [11 e [ml Lnl
b ) L1;.] : [ I) } f {d:; m
c) [PI : {g] If] : [hI
Ii c~ntkdre Calion! J C )9 - fJlTl<fam~1f1I.1I Probkms Pi>oNncJ Edinburgh Edinburgh
In
d) (I) r1 h I 1v. l' ']
l m\-.rim Pr=
fUlJlCJI>=. Aim. )

• \ A cd I
G~HJ I~ En

G (I) : {t]
'PIIWlC1ar.,," of En Iilh London Arnold 151b edn, ~viscl b)
Ot=nO:"lJ fl [} [ ]
l.ade~ eel. P 199 ~ A (fl/J r u Phcn~' rd edn ew York Hucoun Brace [tfl'm
"
h m]: [I)]

empu -

po (i 1<1."
(,
T£ IPO 'AR lINl,lJ I5T1CS ' · IIU ..... 111( ) 11\1

/"
d) C mada I) • tn.lI.h.m
g) high Ilad.. r\ll1nJ~J la vu\"d d ( 10) reJecl 1\ I Canalhanlle
h) 1,,\\ !"mnt ullfuun,kd ",we! II ('l)rl'i"\
01 ""\h~uh
t3. I·intl a, fluent ~pc~t\.;,cr uf a \a"UU~,"c hlhcr Ih'n \' I' h
" . 'nJS sho\\ Ihe same vowel 4Ualit 1
8 W hkh of thc h)II(l\\In~ pal'" of \\0 -n'bc each word Y e e • _ng, and
ph(lOClIcally len W('I'l" "I thaI tanpu,,~c , tn Iho unhle'l
lrall'
n
he:
. . larl. ,,:tch p.lir s \,/llIe-or (Iliffc('rfll,t Then trans" . ,. '. d ' . Y ~tnt I)f YOUr
hide height t; ncoun~enng ,,~y ~Oun \ tOf \\:h".:h '»' l1\b4.\1o;, Me not lHund in thl tha ter
C

al bad.. s.ll h) heed (including secwlO 10 anothe tp,\ chan un page M). allom!,1 III <I ~~
b) cot caughl i I least cook them III phoneltc lcnns and then lOVcnt UIUl..:nllcs \0 help you tran nne
0) biJ kc) j) drug fil Ihem ,
dl luck llio:k k) ,ink own 14. Using Figure 2.:!O us your model , provide co-,lniculahon \.hag.ram ... ror Ihe
e I ,"'Ze deuce 1» oak
01 pOri
t,;UUf[ pour following words. Be sure Ihal your diagrams capture the mllvomen) 11\ tho
t) cot nJ mouse cow lips, tongue, velum, and glOltis as in Ihe model
g) fe ll fad , ' .. , , a) had b) snap ~l please d) dome
. ' h -lic lerms like Sibilant. fncat,ve, and so on,
9. Using dcscnptlvC P o~~c characteristic (hat all the segments in each 15. Compare the fo\lowin g careful speech and rapid speech pronunc;allltn, or
provide a Single phone'd bvious answers such as 'consonant' Or tbe following English words antI phrases. Then, name the pmCess or
group share, Try to avo, over-o
processes that make the rapid speech pronunciation different frllm the
'vowel', , care ful speech. (Stress is omitted here.)
£ 'Camp Ie,'[b d g re my] are all VOIced,
[h?] Care!ul speed, Rupid ' peech
a) [p I k 0 ?] f) a) in my room
b) [iee;] g) [uoe]
llO rna, ru:m] [,m ma, ru:m]
b) I see him lal si' hlln] \a, si: jlml
c) [tf3fd3J h) [ztfd3J:J
d) I bmfv] I) nrmnOJ J
cl shall we [J~l w 'l U""1
d ) balloons [balu:nzl [blu:nz1
e) [A p ~ U] a J' ) ItdlrnszJ
c) o nce IWAns] [wAnls]
10. Transcribe Ihe following sets of words, You may use these words to f) my ad vice Ima, ad vals] [rna, :1va',1
prnctise transcribing aspiration, g) best b ook [bcst bukj [bes buk1
a) lUg i) pee l q) spell h) protection Ipr;)tckJ:1n] [p;>rtekJ:1nj
b) kid j) SLUn r) cord i) ha nd m e that [hrend mi : oret] [hremi : oretl
c) attai n k) Oscar s) accord j) Pam w ill m iss you [pre m wII mts ju:] lpa:mjmIJj:11
d) despise I) cooler t) astound
e) elbow 01) sigh u) pure
f) haul n) hulk v) wheeze
g) jUice 0) explode w) remove
h) thimble p) tube x) clinical

11, Using H. L, and asscx:iation lines, transcribe the intonation o f the

following English phrases, Compare your results With the ~nscnptlons
of several classmates, Arc they the same? If they are not, d ISCUSS what
aspects of intonation (such as emotion or speech context) mig ht account
for the differ~nccs in transcription,
al 'H i, Alice.'
b) 'A llen got a trumpet and a tlu te for Christmas.'
cJ 'Soccer aJld swimming are Judy's favourite sports,'

12, Mark pnmary and secondary (where present) stresses on the fo llowing
words. It is not ncccss:tf) to transcribe them.
a) sunny f) arrive k) secret
bl hanana g) uefy I) exceed
,) b)ackhoarJ h) summary m) summery
 'Ill 1\ 1". 1111 ,
Nil , I 1\ I! tI
t I It i
til II

Phonol( : th ~ fun('ti( n ~lnd

pcltt rning of ound ' ~ '0 " '111 , '""
1''''\ hUI , h.llH, '1. uull

II' \ tltil ,IH'Vf'.I(ll,W'1U\," Ht!f,1\ """r,.11 "In, 4... , ""hIUtt .

...,lt1 tI,(". \ Ji"l"lIIlrfl

I'

'h tll.1I '('1 IHIIHI~'I "I 'I" I., h ,\Ullhh th,ll htllll,Ut
.1\\ III ( h.lph'l ' Ih.II"h" • 1\
'III" .UI, "~I'"~ Hili Ih' hl1111.111 10111 "tI.1 'll
",..111, " lItd Jlt'h ph'lIli .11' Ihr
"",Mlhtl,·, IllItlwll1h 1\\ lit .. M1Ulhl, I"~ all 1.111 '\1.' '·S .11 • P,lIh'IIIl'd 1",1 ".I
~, '.1111 'd 111 lid, 1\ .,\ ... Ih.1I 1111 'III'"
\..1lI til" "~I fl ""'111,' \\ him Ih.1t IIl1d\~IIa('
Ih\'lf .11'1'1\.'. rom\-+. I 1It~1I1'" ;"'ll'I.1I1\ ,'''Ilttle Ih.1I 'I ·.I~n' h.I\\ (.11 1\'.1 I)
\,1111' ,,,1,'(111', IPII' ,II 1I111'1hO'1 klhl\' kd', 01 Ih".. fl'lIl hll l' IlIu" ll'. \, ~
',1\1 III I h,ll''''' I Ih,ll "II 'h,h 'I""I~"I' ~II"" 111,11 I", "" h~,' ,"," ,111.1 III 114
,II • ,h\\'pl.lhlr, ,,'uh- h'll11' "~t\ \n," lIud '('1."'''' lilt' "",. III t,ld, '1~·.l ll·1
d,l Ithlfl.' 11I;1I111\\h'III.11 "lllh hHIII' ,11\' lIlIn.HlIl,tilllllH'11 '" 'h'llt 111,' \ ,,'11 11 .11 ' 0
~'nIT\'d 'llch 1\\1111' It\ 111,lk,' lh~'11I ,In:,'pt,th'''' I\tl\" I'll 'II,h !'\p",lll'" \\1111111
l""IIIlumed h'IIIIII~I·,III''','' /"I11//l.lIh\'IIII,III/\lIII,/III/ "I ,'1',\llIlt l1 ll1
kllim lit' ,'\.1",,1\ "h\ II '\ 1hz, 1.11 I",,, ,lIb"',,,,,,,,,,,,\ ~IH\\\ iL-d'" "I '\lUml
",III "
I
I' II 111
r
"
,1 II 1
,\ I //"It/, 1,,\ rI

" '~ "'f 1/1/, \ I I

1';111,,'111\ Ih.1f phptltlh l

11",dl.ll'ln
'I'" ,11\' 1III\'I\',h'd 111 IIIU:O' t'j II) ,

".th,lt!! Ithuuulu '\, Ihl' nlillporh'ut Clf it " tlHIIt.tI III,hlt' li p 01

I I
1',\ 11"/",,
I
s,II,lhl"
\
""II,lhl" I'
\
11,111"
\ \
"II"h" ' I fl lllt' 1('\("
Ih,' ,'kill 'III' ,lIId 1'"11, '1,1\', Ih,1I "I'I,'IIIIIII<'lu)\\ \\'"1111 1',1111'111 III I 1.111 '11,1'I' 'lUIIII,,,,1 I ",HUll 11111 'llHOI.tIl t t ",,1\011"" IMI I HH,mt
,II" ", \\ h ,II,,,,,
''''m.ll\! \
'ul1n l ,\I11

I'h"I1<>'<> '1\1' 1111'1111'1 "'III,I~I' l'\phnl '1,11\'111\'111, ,lh""1 lit,' "'II lui P,ll h'llI\ "I
lIIdl\ ,till,1I1.1I1 l1.I1
111 ",d,,', In
I
(', ,1I,,,'p\I.'1 SOllll'lhln" .tholll th"" 1,,1' UI , II c.
"'1","1,,1 Itl'it I itll'lI ,I,lh"ll t 1\'.111 Ttl
..
t U.l lI lI \H un,lt
.
.
kllll\\ kd ,,,' th,11 1\"'1"1\' lIIU,' h.l\ c,' til PIlh.'1 hi \I'" Ihl' ,,' P,lIll't ", 1'\\" 11 ItlPl\'
hl",I,III, Ih,' ,"uh ,'I l'/u,,,,,I<, ') ,111,'1111'",0 "",'0"'1 '1'11\'1,11 1"11I'l pl,', 111,11
IIml~'lltl' rill' p.llh.'11II11 , ,,1 'HIIIHI, III hlllll,1I1 1,," '11.1 ',,'
'h,' "1,'"",, III 1""1,'111' III 1,lIlf'II,IJ.!" ""I1<'lIt" "II Ill\' 11111,1111 ,lIi"lI III
,"'11,1111 h"",' I'Il'III,'II" "I 111111., Ilial I'tllllhm,' 1<1 l1I:1k,' "I' Iltl'''' P, III ,' '''' ' nll\'" /IIIUI<' I,' 1'.IIII.lllll1tlll'-ltll~n ,IIII'\lI,IO,I 'I II, II III,' lit ""~;II I"' lt

111,,,<>1 11111", III :111,11) ' I ' 11111 hI' 1"1''''111''\1 III 1111' dl,IPI" 1 W,' " 1\' ,11",,,11)
,"''1 1''"111''\1 \I Il h tll\' "II'alh,,1 lit, / "1\\
"I' 'f1\'I'<,h ',Ill h,' "" " I,'d 1111 " "'1' "1"11" Itl IIIl' Ill' 1"'1' 11111", " ,' I""k ,\I 111",,11111\,,111 ' ''',II klllll\l,'df' I' Ihal "II,d,\,',
III Ih" <,hapl"I, I\<' 1I11''''''!!,II,' Ih,' P,III"III\'d 1,"I,lIltlll II / "'V 11 11' ''1 , W" 1,,11 '"'',Ik,''' 1,1 """11 ' 11I , h IIIIIIII ~ "'"l" ,11111 1<1 ,"'.11 1\llh 1/ ... 11111 1.1"11111
ul", ml""1 ',II,' Iht 1""1'\'111," til Iht' ' l llllhl,' Iht' h,,, ,, 11 1111 III \11111'11 "lhlll"11\' 1,111,111,111 11111111111111 ... I'IIlIlIlIll'I.II""\1I1 '" " II I' 'ul,'1I1
"'j:llh'II" ,u,' 'IIIIII"',J, A 'I "'Ihl,' ",1111111 " I I111)'11 '"i<' '11111'11111' 1It,II "1111" ' "
t'l ,I 'III'lhl" 1'1,'111, III ""llIlal" ,I 1'1\1<'1 alld 1111\ '<' '1111' 11" lit,1I ,III
1"",',,", d \lllh" 1,1 1111"11,11", lit,' ""1.1 I"glll, III ,',Ill h,' "" " it'd IIlhl 11111
"1I,lhit',, "~ till" "/1'11/ ,\ Ihlld 111111 o/l'h,,"olll!'I"III,III,II )'I' 1\ Iltl' h'u.lltl'
 II IIMI 'J~A Y IIN'oIl,1I1
1')U)N(Jlf)[,y Till II.Nt

1 • . IIf IN A~IJ "Alii RN1N(, rJl ')() 'Nt,)

minimal p".lr hus ncen c 1.11 71
. . . a) ' . . hct!. It
le.MINIS IN 1111 thSlanctlvc ,ound.., in i.lll cnvlTC., '~ In tact fare te) find m,
.Ikclh lllll\\ \\llIdl t' 'Ill III, 01 thllf I,UI)!U ,llo!l' (·unfn.,t. Sc.'glllC'rtb, evulutlOn of every hngu" I nm~ll\s. 11\ a lanl:r,uage ,,: nUnil} p'lI' lot
( liN III
,1111 h \t1f1tr,1 I (til III he fll\lirlt'lh,o,u h\. If' O'.fw,ltlcm) I h,:l1lh"'11 pl\')I('lIl'l'
\V "'. frl'{IUcntly than ()thc~, ,,'rg:- .'"'' lcd 10 nlnt: Hund, 'L._"I'n'cc the. h'''lllflCal
• IlClng chm o
uc; g Ul1\ d
"·'I(. exumple. you will hnd no 11linimal ,.'n;~'cd tnnn ~tlme en\'\£'ml~·e more
.

11111 III I III 1111 III II IHIfIlIt \\1111 (hlh'-ll·I1II1I\·;tnlll~'·· lIum .'h nthc.·l lh .
l 'III nl'li I~I lIullll COIlIt. l illlllhl· wunh ,\11 ulld -'I', ,I ... du IIIl" \u\.\'l·l~ 01 h'~ Ilr wor"-hnal POSition in English ~'" '~Vl'IVIng lhland (1)1 in ""~r~ . PIli
'
/lIIf •• u1I1 h" ' I'J I or end In Ih I. It " ul,,, Ihfl'icUh·IU,clilhere are no word, that he. IOlI'al
I I
'n. volye the sound 1:11, Which OCCU,., I· t"h Ind mln'mal p:"" 'n F.nggl,·',nh"'h" h
h or I c mu..,t part· . \ at
"'rene stich as azure and mirage. 10 word!o. burrowed fnHn
Mlnl"",1 p.lir, ~\ hoi It h''''' 1111 II MUIIUJ .. d,,,IIIU: II\'l'IU',"" 1.0, ; \.'illh:<I a IIIllIhllUI ,p ulr I~"I A
IIIlnllll'" 1',,10' .... ,",,1< "II"," I""". w,l" ""Ii '1<'1 '""'"'"'!!' 111,11 ",II," hy llllly
nIH' 111111111 III Ilu' "',H llt' 1111.\ ,11011 IIIl',ldl 1111111 I Ill' l·'\.lII1IPIt.~, i\,pl,\'I"
t' '1IIl'II1 Vowel contrasts in ('Ol1lra'ls among Engli'h Vowe l, c
•b
h .
. un c establIShed '" th .
,111.1 11,pl.I/' gl\l'1I PI,'\IPII,lv IClIm illllll\llll;11 pall lind ,how Ihallhc.' 'it1unll,\ examples (1 a Ie 3.2). ror now we w,·11 a h .' a lew Cl, 0\
English . • sSume t at Eng\' h
I 1,,,"11/1,",,",,,1 ,,'IIIV I"" II I and /u. :1. allll d'phthongs like \c'l /'01 I I . " tens.evllwehhke
.
[ 'rom h" ' a . ~U, and so on arc I
\ 1IIIlIIh," 01 1111111111,11 f1.1I1~ IlliIt d~'nHH1'fI,ltl' l'o"sonallt \.:onlra'l, lor I IS perspective, we can say that the vowels Ii' 'lng e voweh.
I 111,11 II IIIl' '1\l'1I III J .!hlt" \.1 h'lIll'!IIhl:l II " on Ih,l" hOlM' 01 sOUl1d flOt "nu Sl) nn. contra,1, ·1 and Ill. lell and leI. and
pdllll' 11,.11 1111111111.11 p.1I! flrl' l"t;.hll,hl~d In lh'pl.I\IIl' \.'ontw'I" the
r '","\11111 \\llId ,II('1II'Ic'l1p',ln'd .lInn· lIll' hOll/e'l1I;11 a\l.., \\ 1111 1\.·'Pl'~,:tlo thl'lr
Tohle 3.2 Vowel contra.... '" in Engh'oh
,,1.ll'l III .lIlilUl.llltlll ,,'wlin 11"111 h,,'1 .II} lI~hl (1,lill.tI, •• IH'olal, and '0 unl, beet [bnl
t
li:1
II"llfll".,1I 1\1111 ""P"lIIO 11 1:1 II Ill" ,.1 .UI,"II.IIIIlIl, 1111ll'dn III shllll \\h"h hil Iblll
1'1.1 '~'S ,II111111,IIl11l'IS (,1 tllltnll.I'lun ,11\' \' p)oit\'" h Ih\.' 1'lflgUil~\.' in 4Ul.,'SIIun,I
1'1
ball /1>0:111 \ClI
hel [hell [el
h:lI Iba,q 1"'1
\dar cooed Ik"u:d] lu·1
could [khuJl luI
."\fH"~ IIIH' lI'II'It'lIh'" (1IfuH:(Jnflnllilnt~1 cod\.' [~";>Udl 1001
1.'1' /1'1 1',11111 .... " ' 11/1 I"'~ I~ I "o0 [k"""1 Inf
",1'1"1 I',II11dl I" 1".11 ,"'1'1 cu" Ilb,dl 1,1
C UllfhwlIflh. lewd Ilu:til [u:1
'III 'Ii, "'111 loud II lid) [au]
III
I,ll ,III Ii 11'1 "I I I III ." r U'I h'l'lhl lied [laId] [all
1.1111 I III 1,'1 'I' 11 IIlt.1 III I I Lloyd (bId] l~'
;'\M""I ..
1.2
"""/111/ UIIII1 ""'1111
I i",,"1 1111" ~Ihh,
language-specific C,'ntr.,," .11~ langu3!.!... ·,~cific: c'und, rnal are di. tincu\'e m lln.: langUa2C
contrasts \\ill m't n','",' ,ml) t-.: di,un,ti\e III ;lfllllher. For e~ample Ihe diff;ren- e
"r1/ ," ~Ii Ii
1><'1\\~"'1l Ih.: 1\\,' \,\\\ '1- [el and [a~l" CnKtallll Engli.h. a, \\c '-an'~ from
I 'III 1l\l\li1l1,ll p,tir. Ii .... /{<11 It-.:nl and /><111 [\\;\:nl. But in Turl.i.h. this difference
,,'.11 1,1
in l'r"IIlIll,'IJII,>n I. n"1 dt,III":II\" A Turl.l.h '~aker ma~ pronounce Ihe
\\\\1 I f"f T ,I ' (t-.:u1 "f lh~(nl ITable 3.3. \1wflea . and 1\ "ill make n
,Ii t1 't '1\ 'c'" Ih(' l1" m!;
C 'n\ 'f ,'j,. ,'und tho I d 'n I ntra 1m Engli.h. -uch
• d.-Ill U\ ... 1U th f lanrua!!c There are n
110 1l1l111111.,lp~' I} r (Il lllu: 1m E;".h 'h. But in Japan
~ pk in Tabl H on the n I
'U 111 I' urn Ih "" " '1I1~1lI, I Illr lsI \ II nlllllll1Jlpiur "
 Gt. TC p~m"()tOGV tt1[ H ( IIU

7'l

---
Table3.J Tobie 35

----
~
Eng/uk
[ben)
I>lu< Il>lu:1 I'tough
Ibm) gleam 19liml 11'1....1
[bm) dafl • 1a.1'1
(born, :-.lip I,hpl t.:h.-.u I 11>1
Hog Illogl pta)
kat lliof]
11'1011
Table 3.4 Shon!Ion= ,,,,"cl cootr"-'l> ID lapane<e and Finm h
~----------~------------~-----------------------
Ja
in~c no voiced [11 eyer ''Ccur-, in the "'me ho _
[ton) 'bml' (tori:! '"hrine gate
VOiceless one (and \"i(:c \'Cf'U). we ... a) mat;c nl!llc en\ln\nnlCnt J
'hope'
(boo) '''-"'lIe' (kibo:j complem entar~ distribution . vanam of I are t"" In

Fuuush
'"ind' Tnble 3.6 Complementa') ~"tnbullnn ,,( III and III m EngJi"
I~-"hj 'fIre [,u:!i
[bortr) ·di. treSS' Ih",:tr:j "roencC (II III
AIt\!r \ oiC'ele~:-. '!\top ... no
Establishing the conua: ung segments in d language i a fj"" . tep In El",,, here
pbonologll:aJ anaJ~,j.'. But in any language. there are man) ound. that ne'er
conlJaSL The foHm'ing secuon deals wi!h !hi. major ,uhje~1 01 phonological The Lerm .elsewhere i. u~o in Table, 6 to indicate the \\.. .•. 'b .
.. . . , _. luer ubtn UUon
anaJ~ IS.
(OCcurrence m a greater. number of dlflerent phonetic emlronmcnt ) ohm,cd
(I).y occurs after VOIced ,tOps. 'oicele" fricatiws. and in v.ord-imtial
posmon.
2 In 'piLe of these phonelJc differences. native speaken. conSIder the t\\O
En8,lish Is to be, i""tances of the sarne sound. since they arc phon~tlcall~
PHO'IETICALlY E\'e~'da)' speech comains a greal deal of phoneuc ,ariallon. Some of it i due Similar and the dIfferences between them are s)'stemati~ and preoiclable This
CONDITIONED [0 variation in articulation thai arises from extralinguistic fa~ton. uch ~ perception of sameness is ,upponed by the fact thaL the t\\O h nc\er contra! t
VAIIIATIO~: orthodontic work. fatigue. excitement. gum chewing. and the like Such in Engli~h. ~ere are no minimal paif', like [pie I] and [pletl We can ,urn up
PHO,,",EMfS A D "anation is nOl part of the domain of phonology. ~luch phonetIC 'mation the relauonship that the tv.o Is bear LO each other b} stating that. for speaker-,
however. i. systematic. It occun. mo,t often among phoneticall) Similar of English. the two I are piwllerical/\' different but in the ,ound ',stem of
AllOPHONES
segments and is conditioned hy the phonetic conte~t (environment) in v. hich Engli h, gi\en their phonetic .·inularit~, predictable diqributlon, ~d nl'n-
the -.egmenrs are found, This ,'ariation OCCllI> because segments are affected contrastiwnes_. the} are phollologically the same.
and altered by the phone lie chamcteristics of neighbouring elements or the
larger phonological comext in which they occur. Every ,peaker ha~ the abllit\ 2.2
to factor out this varialJon lD order to focus attention on only the relev~t Phonemes and The ability to group phoncticall} different sound: together Into one c1~, is
contrast, of the language. :hared by all speakef', of all language . This phonological knll\\ \edge i
allophones
repre.ented fomully on a leYe! of phonological repreentatil1n thai is di tin.:t
1.1
from phonetic n:presentation. Prediclable ounds that are phonetically, imilar.
Complementary and that do not conlrast with each ()ther. are grouped together into a
When first learning phonelic lmnscriplion. English speakers are often
distribution surpnsed that all lhe Is they pronounce are not identical. In Table 3.5. !he Is phunological unit called a phonem e. These v:manb. \\ hich are referred 10 a,
10 column A are voiced. whIle those in column B are voiceless (indicated here :Il1ophones_ arc in complementary distribution A represcntatinn or thiS
by a '~bscnPlol.. ,\fany. spea~ers of English are unav.are thai the) routinely relationship I, shown in Figure 3.2 overleaf. The phonemic sy mbol fl1rthe c\ ,
produce lhl dltlercncc 10 articulation. which can be heard clearlv \\ hcn Lhe general" thcamc\,mool as the el.ewhere \ananL- i pi ~ed hetv.een
v.ords in column B arc pronounced slowly, • I;.hes. and the ,y mtx)b-for alloph()nes are cndo,ed in phoneu bracket.
The. \'()Icdc sne, 01 lhe I so un d'
s 10 column
B 'IS an aUlomallc
, cun cquen.:c Allophonic \arialton is found throughout language In fact. eWr) peech
of their phonclJc. environment. Voiced and VOiceless Is 'aT) sy'tcmatically In ()und ,\e' uller L an all('phonc of orne ph()neme and 'an he grou~-d tl "ether
that all of the \'(11 clc sis flCcur pn:diclably after the cia. 01, oiedc" slUps. \\ ith other ph()nellcall) smular oun<.i uno a c1~ , which I represented b a
Z.3 _--
Tlte reality of
pltonemes
 4)
luI

C'Ic.u!). e
..: ...... m<:mtxr ... hip

'W [-rJ. )
roor no) '" ln~ )
parr [p:r.
,ur (-13:.)
ne:if Lm
!are
- ~
 8 (II
I MI'l)~",~~ IINI, 'I> II<
"IU'NOlfJ(,'V 111t f\INf l\f)N'&'N .
n II 11\111kNINL rJf
(U Nil
7'1
IHlIwthclc"",, their d,..,lrlhutlhll I pIC'\I\-t.lh\C' In Ct'n~,," COnIC'll
\umo.. up the c..h ... ,nhul1t1I\;,l ""nl'ln III lh{" "~IWC\ tI' L" \ . \ '¥:ur '\\
'ylluhll" and lhc . . c puttern me IU" tralt,'" 11\ hgmc"\.4 tll~l'~~~\ m \r d
tound 111 c\n,co \rcs\iioCd y\\;.,hlc.5

Ten,",!.! vowels / InUlldl1l """II 'Irc,,,,d .yUahle

~)
excluded Irmn ~yU.hles cl"'>Cu hy 10\

ICIIl,'1 a'ik .11/1 'Fl11nUlAlki ll ~'

'sJll! annex loun,lln clOsed ,'ressed syllahlcs
l'puT ,tn"bl
II:>nll", ,'I' h""il'",', IU,k ll 'llIl
11111\1:> I""1;l'JII:>' ,,,. nil I
'va nllla and hunan:! i cc··l· r~nlll'
'Mr Yamashita and me '
Lax vowels L exclulled frum open "rcs,,,d syllahl.,
II. \lIIIHI g""",:>n "<'1.1 'She vi"lcd (inu lind Delhi'
lound in syllables closed by II)I
I"kru r:>n da'ku : I ' Accra :U1d Dakar'
rhe ,hslnbulion of I('IN' and I,," IIOWI,I"
/I 'H' """111'" '" w,' haH' dOIlC ill Ihi, hook, Ihlll Ihe I,,~"()n full' in\crt, a Figure 3,3
1i"~I11~ I 10 Ihl' apl'wl'rI"ll' ,'nvironnll'nl, (slaled hcl(l~I. In 6)). all cases Ilf
h'"''';1 .lIvolvlIIg 1.1 <,'"I Ol' Irealed ,imply and III a Ul1llurn~ W,IY, rcgilrdlc , Firsl, whereas any killd of vowel except scbwa hee section 63 "f Chaplcr
01 wlll'lh"f I/,,'rl' was alllllllk'd}lIlg wonJ ,flllal Irl al "line pUlnt IlIlhe pa, .. 2) can occur in a slressed closed syllable, i,e .. one Ihal end, III a con,unant.
only lense vowels arc alluwed in ,tres,ed open syllables, I.C" ones thaI end
in a vowe\. Thus, whereas minimal pairs showing tbe COnlra't between ten",
/I Whl'lI IWIl I'IIw<'l.' afl' "dl<ll'cnl, il Ihe 1i,,1 is high II is predielllhl)' linked , d lax vowels can he found III the tbird column of Figure 3.4 (,werleaf)
Ihe VIlW'" Ihal follow.\ II h} an epenlhclic glide Ihat IHI' Ihe '<lIIIC
10 ::'hich has closed syllable" no minimal pairs can be li,ted \11 the fourth
hal'kne,,, iII.d HlUlIlll'dlll'\S, So, IIftcr Ii; I anti rII We lind II I and ultcr III: I column which contains open syllables, There only tense lIowe" nccur. .
or IIlI IV<' r.nd I" I, Second. as seen in the fifth column, any lax vowel c~eept [~\ canoecur III
a syllabic closed by 11)], But tense v(l~els are excluded trom thiS enlilronment
h, III slIlIlia. l'onleXls, nun Iligh vowei.- '"l'
lin"ed hy Irll<> the follo wlIlg
and, as a result. there is no POSSllllhty of contrast between tense dnd I,IX
vow'" (Thi, II'I lIlay eltlll'f hI' a vcslige of the Imlorll'a l Irl which h",
vowels in this Cl)nleXl.
,urvi"l'd .n Ihe ,pl'lhng lung <l/kr bcing dropped In I:ngl"h ael:ent, Iikc
RP wh,'n thl')' Inlrodut"l'd a rule thai deletes f"I.II-I'owlll" r as in Tahle 3 10
Dr an lII/nI.'"'I" a, 1115) ,) 2,6
AI h h the phenomenon of allophonic variation is uoivc",aL the patterning.
of tp~~;emes and allophonc~ is language-speciftc, What .... e d"cll'~r tor on~
Th,' d"la III 'i) "nd in 'r,.hk 1.10 whlt'h we have hc.'en examin ing ,how language-specific
pillalld, wilh Ihl' allllphu/lic di\lrihution Ihat we han; nmsldcrcd so I'<lr: patterns language ma) not hold true lor another,
l'I'lt"ill ekmellts all'pfl'dll'lahk under cena/n sysil:l11illl<:ally 'tatahlc phonellC
<'olldilioll,', lien:, hOWl'WI, in,tl'ad of II llul11hl'r of variants of a phollellle, v.c
hd"c -'Oullds II h"'l' di,lnhuI/IIII '-, 'tillahle In a 'pcd"l: cnvironll1cnt ollce we
kllOIl they Iwlnn!' to a I'ntuill tla" of s"ulld, We l'an th"s draw frnl1llhc dala Language-specific
IIInlhlc .1 10 the' gl'1l1'!ilir/alinll ' Slated ill fJ) ahovc whidl apply equally 10 ~
variation in
1II 11 l1l1l'hlholll' " Ild tn Ihl'dns"I!' part of a dlphthollg
allophonic
nasalization
" IIH' .1I1d I. M'I,
Wl' I, ill "'\lldude 11lL' di'l'u"io" nf "hllllolollll',,1 l'lassc' Wllh ,I bill' I
Im,;:rl 'hlg'
11111 'e.lltlc'
,'''''IIIII,lI/nll "I It'llse alld In 1'111\1'1" A, II'C ,all' 111 Wl'llolllt ..l 01 Chaptn 2,
I"!!h'h IlIwl'l, I'an h" da,,,ltl'd as lell'C III lax, Vllwl'ls Iwlonginglll thc,,' 111~11 '.:!llUlI'

"'0 sets shll\' dl/k"'''t I) 1"'\ of pholloillgi<:al di,tnhuliun. nlllugh th"} I"UI 111111] '.I'<'U\'
',c\:n:t'
h" shl"'" III hI' "'1""
ai,' phlll1elllC' ,illl',' Ihey 1'01111 ast 111 '111111' l'll' ""I1I1ll'Il", In'"l
 PHONOlOCoY un fU (110
1\ 0 PAt lUC
I III
5 Tabl. 3 , 12
Lax T~ru
, Is 0, " l'flaM"
\ Is (roc~iihl
srrr. SM doud b) [{II
S\l/abl~.'
In'''janl
1m3nh1 ';cold'
[o!k;7) • 'end'
(m~IaraJ)1 'fortlld'
Im.lkanl 'eat"
Irum3h) 'OOu>e'

1.1.: """ nng

""'tal 'car'

e bel length
<r I lanl.: Here, all vowe" and, ghde, ["l1m'tng a na.,al are predi tabl na.<al1Zed
a: guard 'p3 until an ob,truem, hqulIL or glollal ([hI, PH i' reached. For' I \he:
D ';00 \\TOOg
generalization is as follow,
~ !:UI bunk d
;) 3: ~arl fur
In ~Iala~, all \,ovo.ei: and glide, folJo ... mg a nasal consonam and not ~p;Ir.lIed
,. rd Ta\\
from II b) a non·n:h31 con'onanl are na.salized.
could lung
(in the nonh
~ rool \\00 oiEngland) A" was ,oo... n to '<ction 1 ~,a pnonemic ct>ntra>l in one language rna
el l.ill bs) language:specific prove to be a phonemic contrast in another. TIlls Ille3Ib th:u the re •
1 u bu} >'<Iriation tn of phonemes to allophones ma~ ''3I1, <\ COmparisOll of the COIltraSl. g
::>1 101 oo~ allophonic ,lOps in EngJi;h and Khmer (CamboWan) illllilr.l.tes this point lIab e ',1"1)
;)iJ tont" 00\\ distribution In both language>, :hpirated and una.:,pirated phone-; can be beard
(and arroW)
.w 10\\n 00", (bend) Table 3.13 Stop phone<; m Engltsh and Khmer
baroo d
English
\\ ~lTd deer
gourd dour Lp] (P] [P"l
door [t, [~l
1

\ 0'" 1:1 allophone: . Here e can talC Ibc:

(, mg

Gadl "'~n preceded or full ",ro b) n

 t't H .N( " t l(.,'Y 1 t 11 1\ NI 1 It)N
Fngh'Q "hiller . hI'''' t 1 RNINL ()1
1\ {,
III
(Ph"lll'm ")
p p ph!

(Alloph,'ncs) Ipl [phi

I
[pi
I
Iphl

4. 1 hi
The syllllhk " compo,e,1 III " nucleus IU""llIy a V\lwel) ~ il
3 oe f ·1111'ng the sylla e
non-syllabic :-ocgrnents. N'l\i\'1! :\p~nkcr\ 01 a I. ,
.
n Us '\\!\I~lU\el\
. h' . ' . .' .mgu.\gc d~mnn""lnt h
.\warcnt::ss ot \ IS untlll\ phUI\\.llllgll.:a\ structure wh 'ne ' h . C \ 'tr
PHONETIC A 0 . . . . . -.::::::.. ill a II ord. No I ~ngh' h speaker would hestl"l. lu "'a' ven") lh'l lh' C""1l1 5'\\ hi
' , . 1 e,
H3Vlng seen h4..1\\ nnn-lh.,rinc(rvc properties of segmellls arc factured ' a
hth three sy II abl l!~. and mo~l ,pcakcr~ \Nould teet cnnhd '\Il lh. _ C \\"T\I <h'n 1 I
' (fa
PHONEMIC phonol"!ilcal analpis. \\ e can l1nw compare Ihe I) po: of Imnseription OUt by . I ·') IIII b \c, hek , " • d~nll (lhe' • mark, " II .IlhiIl c\I"ld be
b. roken up 1010 lIe .•
TRAN CRIPTIO 'egmenlal phonnlogleal representation I\. ith phoneli.: transcript; ~'Cd fur • " A'· '11· I '. Y ,\ e UWI'I\lI"
IIltorma y). ~ \~e \\ t Sl.'"C a\c~ \)n 10 thiS ,-=hapt~r.... pc:akl:r~ a\ H \\~mum.\rate
eumples gil en in Tn!>'" .1.15 'hO\\ Ihis elitTcren.:" for the c/'L"es n. ~ 0;' knowlc<lge lhat syll!lbl~s h,ne Imernal struclure as wd\. The nrganiLlu\)n uf
in English thai We h,l\'c c\amint'u ., 0 far. sOUnd "s> liable" show n m hgure 3.0 wllh the Il\onos}\\ablc Engl"h woru prlllf.
n
TabJe 3.J5 Phlln~ljr and phone nUL' (mn~cripriOD

Prrdic"t"hlt· pn'pt'rty(,\j nor

- OnsellO)
---------- Rhyme (R)

!I\ "'''I''N~
Phonctil" PJulflt:mic reprr.'st'llfed in p/Jt)fIt'mic:
rraILSl"n'pllCJJI IrIJltscri",iOIl noni rrtlllScripfion
Coua(C)
{pl·ul Ipl,wl pl(lugh
Ikri:pJ Ikn:pl c~ep
elessne" of Iiqul\J
\'01
VOice/elisness or liquiu p n
1\ 1
{kwikJ IkwlkI quit'k voiceie"ness of glt<lc
{/eIJ lIell lei Figure 3.6 Internal structure 01 J ,~Uable.
{Ihaldl I"'IUI tieu mopirutJlln
A complele description of the internal structure of a ) liable requIres four
subsyllabic units. The nucleus (abbre,iated :-.I) is the 'yllable', onl)
The contrJst betwecn phonetic and phonemic repre,cntatl'on 1' ' e" obligatory mem1.ver: it 1. a lIabic element that fonn. the ~ore of u sy\labk
,>
Ifikj· t · · '. ..~~
, . ng 01 lhe ,\Ialay fom!' gn'cn carher. as shown in Table J.16h The coda le) con,ist. of those elements that follow the nudeu in the 'ame
nasalllatlon on all \ owe I and glide segmcnts is prediclabl" d '. h' W ere syllable. Th rh)me (R) i, madt: up of the nucleus and the coda. The onet \0)
• .1 r . C an IS t ercfore
OllUlleu .rom thc phollllloglcal reprc. cntalion . i~ made up of those ekments thal precede the rhyme in the 'arne 'yllabk.
We a$SUnle the e iste",;e of sub'yllabic unit> for a num1.ver 0\ rea ons One
Table 3.16 Pllllnelil' "nd plulnenllc lranscnplion 01 Malay nus,,1 vowcls of them is the faclth;1t 'p<:akcI' do not syllabify words in random or \mabk
ways. The W()rd e'l.tn:ll1c Icbtri:m1 would never 1.ve ') lIabified a' Ie. I..-trhnl.
Plulflt'lic PYr!dinllbl.. p"'p,'rrv!.l) /I/JI
Phonf..'mic In"·tead. syllabks t:ompl) "ilh certain con,trainl, thaI pr,lhlbit lhem (tn
frall.\enpril,,, r,,'pn'Jelllt'd ill /,/r"II('ItIIC'
-- -- -- -
IlIle,ldhl
Ir"I1.\"( r'l'lioll

Iml'\\ "hi
11(""
'Iu\uriou, .
Irtlll.\"("riplioll
Eng.li h) from beginning. \\ ith a ,cquence like her and so re lilt 111 thc
syllabitkalion lei" , sl£i:m/.
na,alllUlion
IIIHijJnJ IlIlajanl '.,Ialk'
InaUI na..'ial illll ion
Inul''t/ 'a"lcnu' nasalIlatiun I:>·rb :& applaud
IJ1.klaml dcdmt:
'd"plt.·In/ c'P lum
IIm.pr,n,uz/ Impn\\ 1'~
 , . NU r 1" T Ul , • _,
II
'll

~
• \1 ku
\\ \
4 \

0111 [f1~Ii,h 011,<'1, l'J ' .. , ampl', ,.f III '" ,,11:>1' . \ 11,11:>1 ' hllll , I ,'on., n; nl
' ''1 11 '0" , ,.f fngh,h Ih,ll , 01.10 H,i' 'I'. 1,'1' '·"ll· ,'nalll In
,,', I " , ,I ••111 Ilh"Ir.lI',j III \\ "n!-lIuII:tl1 .ili"ll I,' 11\ 'Ih 'Ill CJ,j"r I"
r" 'III I In'" m,lf \IIi!. hi ph,'"{·I".' d 'l,lIb ' lI,h ,I, 'hlllid ghJ' 1,\ 'I,'IU
II Iu 'h .IT' 111'1 fl:ln ,mt tl' Ill<' r " III .II' 'U " I"lI ,\1\' "tntU t h '.)

(I'll r (III r 1] I Il
rrl d (ttl IT :~TI , ;un
II''' II" I "\In 'Ill '0
I'll lJ , UI
'pi I HI , n ' I'
nl,! ('Irl Inp , r. I'
!-til ' 'lul'Jk
HII
" 'f,,~\\ l \\ (Or

III T.lhl' l I hr. I , gill 'nt "I .1 II ,'rll tnllia!

n' th
 "Ii J It I( ~ 1 H I 1\ 11, NO P t 11k

Cl cr
I
\
R R
language- pe iii , imporra1ll 1.1 cmph.c IU thar catui~1 a,pect. of [he par:,r ular lO.
phonolacti ' 'U C"d in !be pre\lllU , ,-uon rc Unl"~r; aI (fonn pMl o! human Itn UI c \
hI) l.. "here others 'Ianl;!u,agc- p.:clfic..•\D onset hke pi I fOund III
m.m bn!!113 ,Ix',ide, Enl;!11 h (lor.: ample:. In Ru. 'Ian, Th I, uno Frtnch
"luI:' an ~;t t-quence likt: Ip i, rarely If c,.:r found. " . t!' m ,)i lher Cllre
th I n,' fe,lndIOn, dgaJn,1 an (>O.,CI IIkt: pi appear 10 e 1\1 as part f hu c 1.., I ri: m
Iingui [I,' apJC1I), \\hik Ihe \;nual non-.: hren or un l'l' It~e ·Ip u [
thai ,)Dl1:thing in Ihclr .lniculah)1) makeup ",>rmally 01'4 uah lle' Ih m fro
figurt' :l.S
( "currine In Jan~U~H!l~.
Lang~Jg.:-,~.:if1c .:on,[ralOl,. on [he olh.:r hand, h,>ld Inll' fI'r InU'\ I,Ju~1 • Step b (Figure 1.9) On~ets before codas: Ihe longesl se4uence of
language..,u,'h a, Engli.h. ,IOu Ihey may ,'r may nt'l t>.: fpunu in Olhcr consonants 10 the left of each nucleus that does not violate the phonolactlC
language,. EJ h langu(lge ha, Ih (1\\n ,cr of restricti,,", un tht: phonologl 1 constrai nts or the language to question IS called the on.~t of the yllable
hapt', of It: ,~Ilable ,'un'UIUt'nls. , pt'akcrs of Ruslan. for t!' ample, equlle Link these consonants to an 0 and join it to the same syllahle a, the \ov.el
accurorned to pronoun,lOg ,)n,el ,equen.:.:, . uch a" 01" -, aI )-, and ell- 10 the right. Notc that there is no onset in the fITst syllahl.: of e.\/T<IIII.'
\\Ill h are nor found in Englih. '
a a

ti
Tab/rJ.19 . orne on~l ~u~n("('~ In Rus, ian
Ip-a) 'dog',' \
If 1""1 'aloud' R
[pl'Jr""l '!>ml'
\
o
• Pho~oractic con'trJ.1nts represent one kind of phonological I..no\\ ledge.
'Iou nughr wonder whar prev.:nt, Engli h word;; like I!Xlrl!me, applalld.
dec/lIIl!. "_Iplain. and improl';se from being s) llablfied as /eks.lri: 01/. /;)p.lodJ.
Ii\\
e k s t r i :01
Idlk.larn/. lek:;.plem/, and /Imp.r;l\:alzJ. since the e clivision' do nOI \iolate
an) ~hODotacrk con traiDl" either. The ne~t eclion anwers thi question by Figure 3.9
pro\ldmg a procedure for I!.tabli hing the as ociation of consonant. and
\ 0\\ eI. m ~ Hable ..
• Step c (Figure 3.10 ) Any remaining coo,onants [0 the right of ea ~
nucleus fonn the coda and are linked to a C above them. Thl C I
as ociated with the ) liable nucleus 10 it left in the rh) me . . ) liable
with a coda i called a clo ed ) Ilable.
 o
I p o o

R R

() (

I r I n

, ur 110
 PH

n
"

11\
r I " "

r I \ P
 l II

".ld
\\\.~d '("' ' '1dl1 ba.
,,~.
'b~ll
\"",\
\1><-
rh.,,~~
'II<'il\
'"'I .11'<'
t.,· ...-
1<"1'1
11<1 I
I xl 11'0<1, \x,. \1'011
I.l,g ,,'.cgl t ...,l.. ,.".£1. \
ttn,)guC' [0';>01'1 hwlt: Ib';>o1.1
lam...' II"cl11l1
\.~.\Il
I."tenl
.~II
1·e11

,
b Con\cI'ody. the "mc\' "rc <'Ialivdy I"nge, than they "ollid n(}rmall~ be.
\\ hcn they (\Cellr \>elM" \,',ced non·,,'norant Cl>n.on.ml.. \ Table 3.::"
(t cr ('I' ('I' ('I' cr ,h,,,, s. the phonctic durall,'n of \ 0\\ cl. is delerrmncd b. ) llabl .tru ture
The fjl'ol") liable ,,'\\ el. all pre(:cdc \ oiced. non·.onorant "'0. nant •. but
Ihc) arc nOl lengthen -d 'mcc the ,oked on,onanl b m the I 1\0,,"10
R R R 'y liable

Table J.l3
0 • L) 0 0
adept
negale
h " r h ,~
r n:'\ ,se In ':l,ll
Fi UN'1. 14 s3dl~1 . '''lhtl
nriJl " tJbiflClllOf\' b :m-" ( 1"('. , l:IblIIC.1IJOll \1th

The following generalization can no\\ be made

10)
Engli. h YO\vel, :J.re length 'ncd \\ h '0 fllUo,,"ed by a \olced oh,trucnt in the
..m~e:y Ibbl',

.\, th' anal,,,'. "f the di,tribution of a'l'lrallon and \O\\e1 kngth 10 En"h,b
hale ~h,'w~. the u, ,i ·)1\:11-1' repre.entation, tn phon Itg~ permit II 10
,,)Ill' ('~e' ,'rna' m, re gcncr.ll ,13lemenl>' hl>ut I,>phlm< I'ltem 10
I,mgudg' thJJl if \\ > u,' nl) ,t:llentent. that do not m ·c referen I ,) 11 ble
stn1('lUf'.

Phonetk length in
En Ii h \ 1\, I.
Illable .•lnd tres Fngli. h PfI.)\ d's unit. t
in Engli'h ~ h, n,>l,'gl' J.I :In. I) i
d' ~ .l>- th' f 'l1'd\ 'd P
•• \\ rd. 10 111 I
 f II(

PHONOlOCY (Hi fl N( HON 1\ n "A.l'lER

INC. OF SOUNO
95
Ire,
hea,) "hile s)lIllble, "Ith Ju,t a hon 'owe1 nre sa.d 10 he .
B C dtflerently. syllables with une rhHhmic beal or mo . li~l. 1 .. I'Ultl
m
Iup<lago
. met
.\mcrica
lV.O dre henv).l"'Olc!
fi·
s· that t h ' cl,.)mnbut n thmra nre
e tln"'ct \ Iil!ht
Uaband those
:--;0" compare the e '" ords '" tth the represenlalt;e ~~ . k weipl
. "-1.th
I~m In column C
'ee that the . nal yllaole \0 column C I not heavy· It " nctlhet closed e
hiitu, ... In~ma docs tt contrun a bran~h\Og nucleus "',th the", tact5 before u nQr
horizon 'pir3gu ... our generahzallon. We will be careful to Iimittt to English no..,;.~e can tate
thnlmp..,hl' m~!rop<)h'
II)
,-"Un: na 1,i\elin
=0:1
\hnne' ta
\ Jm ... on
a.'I~risl
English nouns are stre ,cd on the penulumale s)llable ",hen
n!hem lse. !hey are tre"ed on the antepenultimate syllable.
II I hca\y

""A!IOJ lal» rinth We have limited our generalilation to English nouns because the tre
r.ll.~ t\\(Unl anal~"'ls pallems of English are rather elaborate . 'evenbe1.". there b no doubt that
,yllaoilicalion play a central role m determining tre:>.s placement in English.
Ithough !he phonetic and phonemic transcription up to thi> pomt ha,
Tb \\ oni, In c""lumn, A nJ B are all stressed 011 th.: penultimate I De\t.
cmplo}ed segment. "!gmental n tation i i~1f a kind oi 'h nband, "nee
to-I ,I ) ,) liable. '" luk th ..e in ""Iumn .are all ,Ire,. ed on the thllu '~l1able
segments are ultimatel) compo-.cd of features. The next section e up
from th end fth· \\ ni (the anlepenuJtunale,~ Ilabk). 'th.: foml ('ab~1
aspect of phonology.
m c, dear Although tlk: tre"ing IIf the onh rna} seem arbllr.lf) al til\L
n:-r. rene 10 ) Ibbl tru lure mak" dear that Ih.:re i, ','me s~ 'tem
underl),n!! Ih' 'Igum III of Ire here.
• \ l;abltJ ,mon of amp/t.- from Tahl' 3.:';) fe' eal \\ hat Ire, i",i,;nnlenl
I boise<! on. Figure _.15 prm Id the ~ Ibbit• .:ation of one repre,cmali\e
\\ 'rd ( hoWll tn ph netk tron .-nptllln ) from e ch column.
-
5
FEATURES

Column Column B Column C

Penulllm.lIc 'Ires J> nultimate 'tres, Amepenultlm;lte lre,,,
a a a a a a a a a
5.1

AI /j
Why we use features
R R

I
0 ' 0, o. c Features as
I n o p b 1
Io I
independent and
I coordinated
elements
 OlllTrMf>( ,
JRARY II"lGUIST/C S

PHONOLOGY THE rUN( liON ANI) PAllfR

]o .J NINe {Jf Cj,( )\..lNlJ~ ()7

+syllabic Other features provide for other contra!o,l!' F

. s. Or exampte
These features define the egment as COn
-consonantal contmsl between I li and Is! in English w·lh th ' . we Can caplure lh.
vowel. or g lide (here, a Vowel) sonanl, 'I - I e leature lco li
+Sonoranl
-high
J Thee features define the placement
and I sI are vOIce
' th
"
th
ess and have an alve()lar
'
,
lhe longue up IS used In the production uf one
po.
wn_~~
f '
SQUn
d
and
n nuantl· BOlh IV
the
~
n. , • .. c faCltnal
tong bl
used In eo er lS not relevant to lhi~ phonologic \ d" .. _ . ue. ade i~
+10'" of the tongue (here. a low back Vowel) h ~ be' d a !Stmcoon In Engl n
+back
-round
J can t. ere ore Ignore.J By viewing the relevanl distinctive f ,1. , and
lconllnuanl], we can use lne same fealure to distin ·h be
Ibl and lvi, and Id! and Id, . gUlS
ealure a,
tween Ipl and IfI,
ThIS feature defines lip rounding (here, Unro
Hense ThIS feature defines lensenessllaxness (he unded)
re,lenSC) Table 3.26 Slop-fricative ContraMs as a feature
Figure 3.16 Fealure malri, for Ihe English vowel la'/.
l-continuanl] l+conlmuanlj
p f
Feature~ and natural A second reason fnr viewing segmen ls as composed of features is lh v
b
cau~es
feature. may rcpresent a phonolog. ically relevant characteristic of seg· at each I
un derslan d what IS · meant by Ih'IS, we f Irst i '
exarrune bl . t 0
how fealures. e .ments d z
distinguish among classes of sounds ",ilh many members. For cxr:::n ~ Us 10
sel of sounds Ipl, It!, IlJl. and Is! can be readily distinguished from th p e, the By systematically examining the phonemic contrasts of a language. we can
Id!, Id31 and Id by the feature] voice] alone, In phonological terms ~ sCIIbI, extract the phonologically distinctive features and Slate the phonemiC
capture natural classes. which are classes of sound thaI share a i
eature, inventory in lerms of these irreducible linguistic elements.
tCaturcs, such as voice":ss Sl.opS, glides, high \·owels. nasal conson~~~~re Or
so on. Any natural class reqUires fewer features to define il than to d Ii ,and
f . e Inc any Reference to features also enables us lO understand the nature of allophonic
one 0 :ts members. In Tab.lc 3,25, for example, more features are needed I features, pro~esses,
define a. ny of the segments III the class of Enahsh front vowels• than t0 captu 0 variation more exactly_ Viewed from the perspective of feature<;_ allophonic
o and allophOniC
the enllre clas ..: il takes .. even features to characterize the vOwellrel b rc variation is not simply the substitution of one sound for another. but rather the
,. ,. /".. .fy , ut only variation environmentall) conditioned change or specification of a fe~ture or features.
our ealUres su ICC to speci the nalural class of front vowels.
Processes like those presented in Chapter 2 are the primary factors in the
li1bJe 3.25 Two nalural cla'~e' : fronl and back vowels in English changing of feature . Liquid-glide devoicing in Engli h, for example, is the
change of the value of the feature [voice] from [+voice] to [-voice1 after

!
",omOlWnl"'j o-{;on,unanlalj --<:onsona11lal voiceless consonant>. Vowel na"alization in Malay is the change of the value
+'yllabic +S) lIahic +syllabic of the nasal feature from [-na: al]to l+na;al] under just the conditions taled
+sollorant
[ +sciflorant Honora",
in 8) on page I.
back +hack - back Ceruin features capture.:l .', of .l)Und! that are 001 al\l a~ _ ret1ected In
h.gh traditional dc"cnpti\e tenmnQlog) hut \lhieh are al'o rele\:ll1t I phuna-
h:1 lu :1 +Iow logkal paltemmg . The feature [c ronal], for e:..ample, refel'" to the cIa" of
ill 1,,1 round
leI ",untb made \lth the I ngue tip (lr blade mi ed. It tum, out that Ju,t thl
/oJ
lei t,';!ture i, requm.'\! tl' -tat.: the c n_tramt on the ,elecuon of con'Qnant
11\1 1a;1
lal '~<.lll.:n,e~ III ~....-.Ja {'V-jul'n (I.e .. fl,lIO'\Ing a vowel in the arnc) \lshlel 10
1,,:/
rllgli~h pre. entl'\! IOlhapt.:r I: ",hen a \o\\el i, len'e and f('\llNet! t\lO
,'O''',)I\.lOt" (pmt), l'l '" hen H,,\el j, la'( ant! follo\\ cd h) three con, nalll
lIl'l,llI<'c 'l,.lIl1IC~ dl'iIJ1' llalllr<Ji da',es, we can Ill)W \CC Illc illl'icvlliln' II) ,.'11
lll' Itl. Ih' final ,'n nl IllU" al"'ay' be \+coronalllt. d. ,z. 9, '. J, ~ tJ
phll.Hllogllal .lIwly" . II IS IH,I Ind/Vldual pitollClllCS lIl:h ii' Ipl Ih/,/k/. and , I d, I. F 'atun: .Ift'111U nl< rc th.lO ph netic' de"riptwn . m a differenl gUI e
IglllI.1 C(1I1III1\1 III I'n 'il II : ,alher, Ille enllre class 01 vIII~l'd ~Iop mlllrN! • -\ll<.' f'llture, con ,d-rct! to be the ulumatc building I
"'1111 lit .1,15 III VIII ell's IlIp', II " Iltt' kalUlc IHII~cllllal IS '·'J11I1,ISlf\c, ph,'n, I, \, lin 'W t h \c tkmptcd to t all po Ihl ph nolo I aI f c
11<>1 III 10U/\ldu,11 C 'III 'III , SlIIlt' \Ie CUll "('/tile Ihe CIIIlII.,,1 hl'l\\""1l c.l,h ,h,]tll I ngua 11th th fc I Dumber f fe ture po hie II 11 hunted
I' "01 ('11\'111 \11111 <llhel\\1 (' HllI\liral IItIUJi.III<111 I' I.' ,,1111' III Ihl num r l'f fe tun: - WTCntl around t\\ nt -four - h \
f, lurl /\('1 cl III 1111 IlIgh I .11111' 1\ ('1111'10) d III II \11" ,," ,,,,,·d.' 1 'n lllut n tmportant p.u1 thear)
ay IIWI [\Ill· J IS U di,lInflht f"alul' III In 'il II In th ph n 10 bell :lOur f WI
INC.u l'irl( S

".c I I J +
, +
~
i<
+
+ I
: /' .. ,
, + + +
+ +
, + ,
+ ,
, .. ,
.. +

,I'
MUJordau IClin (,"""wll
+ + , I .. ,
..
... + .. , + ,
jrt llllh"l tlt lfl fJ r"nll + .. + + + + .. ..
.. .. .. .. ,
.. .. J
+ , ---- byll"hlcl + + ... + + + + + ... .. +
+
..
+ +
.. .. , .. + + , 1.
.,llnlljlfal {ealtlrl'S I\:IIlcel + ... .. .. ..
j.l :
C" I + +
+ , +
Plan' [nltrlfe, lroulldl
+ , + I I + I + , + + +
1-
+ .. , + I )onal !t'U/ure.\ Ihlghl ...
+

:/:;
\Iu w l +
, 1' + , + +
I + t + , + , ib"ckl + +
+ I + + + + +
+ , + , + , ilcnsei + + + +

:I:
I reduced I +
+ I , + .. + +
+ + + ,.,ftJI1llef feature.'; [continuanl} + + + + + + +
I'
+ + ... + +
+ I ! + + + I +
+ + + , +
: I:
I I

I + + +, + I The next section pre en! the feature, of Engli,h. Tahle 3.27 and '1 28

~:I:
-'"
-'"
.."
+ J
+
+ ,
' +
I
+
I +
+
I

I
I + I

.. +
:.. !.. I + prescnt the con ,>"nant and vowel cgmenL\ of English along with the feaw
needed to represcntlhem in matrix form. It b a g(>Od idea to I"..k th c tah:
o ver before gOIOg on to rcad ahout individual features.

-"- ..
+ ,
I + 1 ++
~--
The features of Most features have label ~ that renect traditional aniculatory terms uch a.,
.. + I [voicel, [con,onantall. and [nasal/ . These features require Httle funhcr
.r; ..

+
, + I + .. English description . A few features have less familiar labels. such as [coronal\ and
.e'c.., t + .. + I [antcrior]. From this point on, features Will be used to de cribc cia cs of
Co. + I + .. I sounds. At the same time. We will continue throughout the book to usc IIme-
honoured terms such as ((JlHOnam. glide, and obHruenl (a lricatilc, attnc:tte,
o r non-na\ al LOp) in phonetic de cription . The tradltionaltcnnlnology be ,.,11
maintained because it is till,. iddy u cd In phonetic d~cription.
Feature. are not mngcd haph;vardly In a maim.. Rather, they arc organilcd
into g roup. that retlcct natural classes. The follo\1iing he'..dlngs Indicate whal
the'l! c1a.,scs are and ho,. the features represent them.

\Jajor c\~ featUre!> (Tat>le :1.:!9) Fell/lire, Ihal Tt-p,t'Sl'nI Ihe dtUlef
,'ol/ \otrllnl, Ob l/rt/elIl, (Uld OllorQIII (nasal. liquid. RIIlIt· and WI,e/I.

e ~
[con\onuntal] Produccu ,. ith a major obstruction in the vocal tracI All
nOll ,onorant wnWllanh ure [+consonantal]. £\OlI/rll'l , [p h I I 3 tI
ij"
~
~ ~
d31

....
.g
ef? ~ .. [s)lIullicl VOllel and syllat>lc hquld, and DOle als. E:mmple . It: c u. Ir
'11 1)1
~ C ] ;;; t:
I ." ::! Il. ~ ~ \0\\ el • ghde • UQU1 and
 I'tI()NOUH.Y t HI I \J
N( 11('N A.Nt, 1'''I1fkNIN<' 0 ,
\DUNU
Ihhl,' ,~,2'1 U cor l11al,}l liJ" h.-atun: ...
\0\
Dorsal features I t

1('\llt"un.ull~IJI
( )f,\lru,-nl\ \Uu't'I.\ t...ilitlt'.'j Liquid, --v---
_ _ _ _ " a'\(li
s
/(IIIRtU'.
. t'll IIre.\ tlUII rt>prt' ,\t'tU pi

[high] Sounds pmduced Wilh Ihe IImgut! 1x1(\ ,

.
tUt"nlt'm oJ IIw hudV pi Ih ...

+ + -:---
I ) 113hl~1 + + 1+highJ. This applies III Ix'lh Vowels and Y ra"ed arc (I>II hlO!Ti!<I
I~llfhlfdnrl 1j\lkj [gj. ' CIIOs"nan,s. barnpl.. \"\ \'1\
+ + +
+
[low] Vow,cls made with Ihe longuo hody d" I

--- central position on Ihe ornl cavity are I+Iowl ~slmci/ Inwered lrom "
/. \eWI/,lt" ph z H 1:0 .' JW I I' n, n
lind [71 are 1101 [+Iowl smce Ihey are not mad'e i~~~'P fY· ["'llu'\; hm [h\
COraI ca v lly.
l.ar)lIIlCIII fenlurcs F"lIlIm'" Ilwl repr<!Selll larYl/g",,1 SllI/.W. [back] Any sound arliculaled hehind the palatal region in the llI" I ..
£mmp /I!s: [u:] [mIl [0:1 Ikll gj. a CaVlly.
I,"iet') ·\11 nll~~d sounds arc I+voice]; all voiceless sounth nrc l-voiceJ.
[tense] Caplures Ihe tense-lax distinctions among vowels.
l'pn'lId Illoltisl (ISG]) ThIs feature distinguishes unaspiraled frOm
'''pinned wnsonanh. \splraled consonams arc [+SGI. [reduced] Only the schwa (lal) is l+reduced1.
[Clln,lriclcd Illllltisl (leG]) Milde with Ihe glotlis dosed. In English Manner features Feurures IIwl rep resell/ mDllller of Qrliclliario".
ollly Ihe gloll;!1 \lOp I?I is I+CGI· .
[nasal] Any sound made with the velum lowered is l+na:;al].
• Plncl' ft'lIlUres (rail!.: 1. ~O) Ft'1I11lrt'S IlulI r""r".I'I'1II plan' of UnfW/u.
l;(m [continuant] Free or nearly free airflow though the oral cavity: vowels,
fricatives. glides. and liquids. £~"mp/es: Ie] [s] [j1 [r].
[Illbinl) o\n) s"und articulal<!d with onc or both lips is [+laoiaIJ. In
Englosh: Ipllhlll'J 1\llwl , S<!c [round]. [lateral] All and only varieties of / are [+lateral). (See page 33.)
[round I ROllIHkd \'oll'l'Is and Ihe rounded labiovt:lul' glode I" I ound, [delayed release] All and on ly affncate consonants such a, ltIl and ld3\
Ihal aJ't'l+rollndl arc made by protruding the lips; Iherefore. all [+roundl are [+delayed release].
sOUlH.Is ;In' also 1+lahiaJi Sounds thm nrc 1+lnl'1ial]. however. arc nOI
nl'l"'""nly I+rountll. 'liKe sounds Iokc [p) or If] can l'1e prndueed \\ilhoUi Feature notation does not provide a convenient way to distinguish diphthongs
nccl',,:uily rounding Iht' lips like [al]. [au). and [:)1] from the other vowels. These diphthongs may be
treated as vowel-\'owel 'equence when using features. For example. [al] can
Icorona" \n) M)und arti<:ulatcd with Ihe tongue tip or blade raised" be regarded as [al] ([a] + [I]). [au] a:; [au) ([a] + [uj). and so on.
r won"ll . f.'\tII1/j1/n·ltJ Id]IOI [d] lsI [zl [tn
[d:;J [n] [I] [rl.
Illotcriorl ,\n) sound artll:ulalcd III fronl of the palato-alveolar regIon" ;.3
<'(1ll\1d",cd Il' Ix'l+anlerillrl. £wfllj1les : [pI fbI [t) [dllsJ [i] [e] I()]. Representation and We have seen thai e!!:menl!> are composed of maller e1emenl!> called feature.,.
We have also 'een -that features are organized into groupmgs that reflect
[strident] rhl' '1Illis) . fn,ali,,~, and affricates only. In Engli'h.lsI ll] In the feature
natural cla:; e . Figure 3.17 (o\erleaf) presents the grouping of features into
13111J1 i\l1d Id:;1 an: 1+'lIid':I1I] . hierarchy a feature hierarch). which i a representation of how features are related to
each other.
I\Ibl,·.UO ll,,' "I pl.Il·,' I,f uni,' ulUlion fealures
Dc'lI/a/." Pdlato ~ I'ah",,/.";
/'lIhi</I., dhto!arJ a(\'l'fJ/t'''l \'t,'lan Reading the feature E~lch feature grouping in the feature hierarch~ i' represented by a lal1el called
hierarch : node ,I cia node or simpl~ node (the nooe symbol is a mall circle: 0). Benl.'llth
/lIll<'fll" J +
and tier t'a.:h node arc grouped the feature or feature that make up thai subela '.
( ,'ron.JI + + ,'ode and feature are mnked on lewL- or tiers that reflecI their rclauon
f. ""'1,1 ,
to ca -h other. For e'\ample. all major cia:, feature are grouped together at the
1'''01 Itl,lhl J 31J.l3 kg I)
hl!!lJcsl node, called the root node. The root node thu define whether a
III I'
,-gmen! is a VO\\cl. con. onant. or glide.
 ' U ",
IlMPORARY llNGUI TIf ~ .'tHH-.I{J\(){.V 1Ht tUN(
llC. ~ "Nt' P'hTlt1l:N1NC. Of 0
Il \11\

4'V1ajur da",~ feature dement .... Current hn~U1 lJ.,; "\!!ol I pru"t u.1
'and
l'on onumal
onorunl
I phonC:1H: rcpn!!-.emalmn.-. tn h h ' lmullt\ann rwuy \0 1m\. rhunt:,' g\
Tht! relallon ... hlp hctwcen phtmu\uglc.ll arlll l'hnnt!ulo;.
turmah7ed b} as... ummg that the unnred'tluhlp t· .
.
Ttprc:senbtlCm 1
t · . . . . eatUf\::~ lit the hi
r ~)lIabic
o
) ... cgmcnt are bu'm; ur undt r' yi n j!.. l'hr our "re.....
. .' .- n\ purl''''''
pJum~nllc and untlerlvtn1.' mC~tn lh(" ~unc thin' Ph'.n •
p .m.emu,;
_.m
the'-
. ' t:\lc representauo
~______ Root node lhen denved hy the u," ot phonolul!,ical rul"" Ifor n IW We \\,\I fl:{er Ill> are
'"'-
general '.lal~men\' ,uch 'l' Xi nn page 1\ 1 and 9) Ull pao.e
~
91... I.
~ ru n. III
. I
tum
7 we WI II.,ee h ow lhe,e 'lalemen" arc furmahLed I In r"- ~ __
. , . . n ut=r to ~p the.
u 1laryngeal] "[place) ---- 0 [mannerl presenlallon Simple. underlYIIlg and den, cd repre,entaU""s are ~iv~n In
segmenlal cran,cnpllon. nevcnhcle" keep In mmd that a\l ~gment are

'''''~:/,
understood 10 he compo,ed 01 lealures

Phonelic forms arc derived by selling up the underlying rep~()n~

() Ilabiall () Icoronall
I round 1 'anlwo,' I ",denlJ Ih.ghJ IJowllhackJ Ilen«1 Ina.~11 fcununuanlJ (litteral) DkJ
Figure 3.17 The feature hierarchy
On the first lier under lhe rOOI node are placed the nodes and features th;'
specify all the rem;tining amculatory properties of a segment frUIn tilt.
laryngeal node branch out the features that capture VOicing ,lates. The placf
node branches out into lhe major place features. The manner node branchc
out into fcalUres that relatc 10 general manner of artic ulaJlon
Nodes scrve a dual purpose in the hierarchy. First. lhey function as luhel>
for natural classcs of fealUre, - hence label~ like laryngeal J/ode. place /lode
and manlier /lode , Atthc same lime, nodes. like features themselves. may be
referred to direclly when making sialements about procc,ses.
While feature representation may at first look more complex and clumsy
than sLrictly segmental reprc,cntation. it is in !he long run vt!f)' "dvantageous.
Instead of Ii,ting individual ,cIS of contrastive phoneme". we can caplure
contrasts aL the level of the feature as in English. where we can say thai the
feature [voice] IS contrastive. Much allophonic variation can now be
represented as the add Ilion. loss. or change of a fe\l. fealUres. The innuence
of the conditioning environment is also made more obvious with this type of
representation . as shown in scction 7 of this chapter. 4
6 inilial con.onanl of !he URs #1a!P# and #pa:d# are vOicele., ,tOp> found 1\\
IH JlI VA TJ()N~ A ND At this pomt. wc have established the existence of thn:c hierarchically related
RUII OIOH RINC levels of phollological structure. In this modeL phonological clements from
a lower level arc organi/ed and grouped inlo higher· level clement,. Thus.
}i·alll/'('.1 an~ grouped inlO (segmental) phollemes, which In tllrn arc org<lllllcd
lOW .1'11/"",1'.\, We have abo seen how general stalement, Ihal refer to natufJI
c1ass!:s null ,yllanlc struetun: aCCOUnl for the presence of non Cllnlm,sli\c
called an underlyill[{ form) and then allowing the rule or rule~ in 4U.,II"n ~l
operate in those contexh where Ihey are relevanl.
The derivation of lhree phonelic representations (PRs) from underlYing
representations (URs) is presented in Figure 3.18. Here. the underlymg
representation is on the top line (the cross hatch l#l symboli/es a wurd
boundary); reading downward. each rule appbes if the appropriate input i
pre,enl, and the underlying representation is adjusted ~ required. V>1tere a
rule faib to apply. the form remains unchanged: this information IS conveyed
by dashes. The resulting output then serves as the input to the following rule.
Finally. when all rules relevant to the derivalion in question have applied. a
phonetic representation is provided. The two rules pres~nted ~n the following
example are aspirallon and vowellengthemng (see section 4.~).
UR #sleep# 'slap' #teep# 'tap #peed# 'pad'
Aspiration #theep# #phred#
V-length #phred#
PR [sleep} [theep] [p"redl
Figure 3.18 The phonological derivalion 01 three Engli"" \wrds.
In !his e>,ample. 1\\0 rules are applied (since the word~ being derived ~e
all monosvl1ahic. the ') liable boundaries are equivalent to word boundaric
and so ~ not indicalcd herel. The first accoun~ for. asplral10n. S~nce ~e
onsel position, !he) fllllil the conditions lID?er.which Enghs~ stops. bec\1~e
aspir.l\ed. We therefore indicate that asplratlOn occu" b) prm tdtng an
inlemlediate fonn on a new Itne. .
We ha\ c aho secn Ihat. in Eng.lish. vowel. are predJClahl~ long y, h.:n ~he~.
()<xur he fore a \oiccd stop .tn the same sy 11abl e. 1n F'tgure •I • th'c lrefs ot
\1,,1' and 1<11' occur hcfon~ \Oicele" ,top, and 0 are DOl kng!hcned. The
 I\I\N ANll ""'11l<NIN(, 1.)\
()UN')~
105
11K

SIn.'"
Sl'hwil·I.h.·lcllun \ "1''''''IlI"
111111111 ~1iuc "CV\IIClIlf
nlllCI""
• 1 nlllcIII"
Vnw(,.'l h,'ng,thcnmg
#PI""I#
PR

Ilunnulty •
nnt written in, dcnvutmn,.
.
hl.!rc inlltl.:i-lh.:
' ,
fl.!cdillO
,
r'l' t' II
c> c a \Om, ip~.
NlllI~e IInw thm nil Illcorreci Illrllls wlluld result If S"y th'C \c'hWit-udellnn
• • ' Ll.
' "
ruk lIlIl'mplcd III apply hclore Ihe ,Iress ntle . ' Becnuse . i'"'-' env'lr" nmen' i ... not
no....~ddnd In l-i 'nl<' I,IS, \I,' ,,1\' 1111' ,11'1'1"',II;"n "f 111<' rull" (1ll'lIgl"h ;"l'nal l(111 anl! plcscnt, Ihe schwn~dcle"on rule would Simply fail to apply, However, \lnce
f dinR fill .. \ ,l\\ ,'Iknc:lih.'llltl " \dlh:h .Ipph !ll \ ,lil.'\·h.",' ,hlP' .Ind \4.)\\\"1\. h.'\IX'l'ti\t,'h. Ihe ,Ir,'" rule w", apphell, Ihe ,chwa,llcletllln rule coulll then fOllow III It~
ppll( ..lion 'nIl' Ih,lI Ih,' ,'Ill """"11'11" III \I Illdl ,'adl "I Illl'" , nlk, .11'1'1) ,,,n"'1 al\d rr~ tunt, ultimately Icadlllg til a Cllrrect phonetic rcprc,emation, What thesc facls
,,,1.1 ['<""11'", n"f'<', 111<"11 I ,II' "l\ln<'l "111,'1','111 , 1 h"I\'I<l1 " Ih,"" lule, Ull suggc,t, is that rule, in a leedlllg rcl:ltilln may apply in Jree <>rdt'T, ~ach
Ihl. lUll') 11..1 01 .Iflt·l~t ".ldl ,,(IWI tn .m, \\ .\\. thl' ,'ldt'l' 11\ \\ hi,:h th\.o an: IIllcmp"ng til apply .... here\'cr the rcqulred conditions arc met, .... lth no neell
Ipph·tt m.'''-,'' IH' tl!I h:n.'I1"\.' hlllh,'\lUh:,'l11l' (.\' a t:h.'rh .llhlll . l·it-:uh.' , IQ 'hU\h 1<1 '''l'ul:l\c .... hkh rule applies liN The result will he the liesired phonetic
Jll<' ',1111"1111.-, .11'1'1",,, III h'l 'I,,','l "'I : Ihl'1 'i, no dilkll'!ln' III 11", \'Uk"llle nUlplll

IR Ihl,l'JI# ,I,ll' # 1;1'1'# 1,'1' liP;I'dll ",Id

&.3
Gent:ral slalem nb aholll allllphontc lii,trihulion are fom1alileli a., rules,
The form .lnd

I
\ kll~lh #p.l'dll which rt:flt:cllhc dynamic nalurc ,,1' processes \Chapter:O, scct;on 9,~1.
\'IHI,I(ltlll 111 h, "1'# I/ph,~dll notation of rules

Pi{ 1,la'p I Ilh;l'fll II'h;l'd I Rules take the folln" ing form,
Rules
12)
A --+ R 'X_ r
\\,' Ihrf\'f,l!,'
uno,..'. I (/ \I IIh f
 "'H1NIHIH'1 1111 'liN 'I'IN I

Nil IAI', ~t<lN

1117
"11.111,,
+'\ '11\ 'I ant
I "",,'1 ' " "II,I!I,,·
\.' ,II\"IIl.U11.11
\,lll.
\,.'lHlIIIlU,11H
n sal \ ,'Ih:l'

d 'I." 1.',1 h.:k',h",

I '"

13)
) ) ( <.'llIah."
IlI\\"I;IIIII\' \ I
'S) \
'\)\\s~mO\I\\~\\
"S) lI ..hlC
.. ~nnmanl t'lmlll'ant

\
1 h..1Uld, .md 'lId\,.' ... tx"':llml~ "'h,' l'h.'" •• th." "II.thk' 111111.11 \,lh:\.~k·" 'hllh (l h",'~ \l)\\

Hense
Ruk' .11\,1 I '.IIU1· 1;', tl1,III~ "'1"
11<'1.111<>11 ',,'tI"
till' ,'n'lIl "I .11I"l'h,,",., (t hu~~
l'hl'll1 ·th.. 1'1'\ ' ,,' .. , ' ,lh.1I .1I1't' In the.' I".·tll~r,c..· \)1 'I ',,'\:h. F"f .,,·\.lI.nph,.'. t~
,1'1 ,'Kill: ,'f 1,,1'".1, .111.1 ~ltd," Itl "l1gl"h .' ,I I) "1,·.• 1"1"1""'" \II .1""IIIIJtl<)n Flgurt'l.l .1
I It, nlk '1\'1.111<111 III "'fll ...• 1 ~ I ,h'\\I' ~,plll·lth h,,\\ tl~" ,:h.lI\g~ ,'I 1+1<"< I
ttl l "Ii\. -I \l\.·\.~ tlr' III .\ "'1 •. . Iltl· \.1.,' of ''')lUll)...' h.llll'l\\ In' tlh,' '1.1" l'lt t~lPS RCllIemheL in fcadll\g ,10 "Ipha. you arc rcading a rule Iwice. \lnce .... 1111
th .• II' I \\'.,'\'1 . Ih,' plll\ lalue lor Ihe alpha 1c"1Ut'e. and once "ith Ihe minus \alul!, The
nlk 10 Figure ,'-2.1 ,Ialcs Ih"l ,I \+ha ... k) glide b tnscncd aller a 1+\>ao\,1
lHll1-lm' "",eI and Ih"l " \ - ha~kl ghd~ I, Il\scned ailer a I-hack\ 11"",10"
I \I\\\.'\. Sinl'c Ihere afe onl} I" 11 glides in Ihe phl1nl1logl~al in\enl\lIV or
Dt'lt·tion .1' .1 rill., \\,' h.1I ••11 ...•.• .1) ,,·,'II.h,1I I'l1d"h 'IX'.I""f\ \"plI'\Il.III~ \ "wI' ,. '~hll~ I~I III
Fnglish. \+ba.:"l 1\\1 ~nd \ hac"IIi!. Ihe correci glide will "" inscncd II)
.111 "('t'11 ') II,.",~ " h,'11 it " ,-.,It.\\, ,'d h) .• ,Ir ' " '.I ,\ 1I.lhl<'. ,.' 1111",11, "Ipk'i
Ihl.' ntle .
.1II.J/,.lI • .{, II' '1.11 . III<' rllk ",Ill h,' I,'nn.lli l ,'d ,h ,h,\\, 11111 hgllf" J2~.II"1I:
l\' I;'; .tIl .tbhh'\ I.lth'n f(l! .111) l1umb or \'11' ,Ul',,' l'S,l\ l' \""'U'('Itl.l1lh fn)1l1 ll'm u~
.111.1 11 n'I'''''''III' .1 ') 1I,lh'" 1,>\llInd.ll"..
Recall lh~ nih: lIf '(1w.:I Icnglhenin~ in Fngli~h. This ntl<' makes rderence to
Rules Ih.ll refer to
syllanh: truO:IUt'e.
,yll,lbl e structure
J.I )
English ytl\\ ... b ,ire long \\ hen f,II\O" cd h) a \ oked ot"lnt~nt consonanl in
Ih' ':un~ s~ lIabk
I"h I'u'h,h "IIII,I,k-ku,," ntk IUII'r.l<'l \\\lh Ihl ",",lrUI1I ,In ro".t-I~ PI',,'nl J a,:1 ntlt', an unJerl)ing shllfl \o\\d i~ Ienglh'ned in the appf\\pOlIC
,"U"'II,IIII ,,"llI,'II\'," II ,1\I1"I1I,III('"II~ fall, hI '1'I'h \\ h~11 un imIX'fI1u"it-k ','\lI~ I The 1"\U1IJar~ of lhe ') lIank ma~ be repre,el1l~J h) a br~d.el an.! J
'l'\lU 'II," ,\\Iuld I "1I1t Sill,',' 1111'1" and 0 1.11 .no: IInlx'nlll"it-k '\ll'~" in ,ub"'ripl cr, ,I' \t1 hgur' _ .2..k
F Igli'h. Ih 'n' .11< n,l 1<11111' h~l' 11'1\ 1\;>('1/' 1/<1/0 "f 1.111 :11 d<'l, It' ("\""1'1
111<'\11" '111<'1) ",\\1 '1',',', hI .
s~'OI1"\I1;\l1lal
Ililhil' 1 ,-- -wlhthk
-h:.""_I1\lll1al1l;l1
\ a

... '\lwr:1I11 -'l)nl)ram

EI)~lIltw'i, .ltlll.ltph.l - h.'\ng +-\ \)l ....t'
fut ,
\ -na'.I1
 ( \ I lH NO
\CI'I
1 'P" s n\'d ", 'h,~
,Uh'lh{,1
n h'

Itt' II ,,11;\1'1\'
,','II'\\I\.U\1 .. 1
I ,I

C\l1\'I.'lhml.tl h:\ln','1\.Ull.\\ + ','n'\'lnJ.I\\J.\

~,\ 11.,\>.,'
\
" Il •• h.c ') 1I.,h"
,I th. I'
.
..... ,'t\t 1.ll1\ \\ +"\1)\'\.\1,,
\\ ""'1\\ rJ.nl n
, I
I ,l
I' II R, \ 000
I I \
I
l' ... _
I
\\.mo~r 0
---1+'1.1',11\
" I'
t I -j
I

\I
\
\ I

"
\> .1: ••1: I)

\UI\,,~!.n1t'nt., I
pM 'iplt'~
 p LO

1 ,
\\ (' 'e :lIream "",n 1Ft
,I ted in rule format

I'
le",h 1\ -If ~U 1

--.:on.
'. \I:lt>i -3D1 \. )\
~'\f3Jlt T.
\

o o
R node

l ___"Onunu:mt) l....
~
ntmuant\ l-
o o

l-\ ;::el
Ip

Ir +-scnor.ml-

:.3
Tonal a" imilation as
a repre-entation
o

L H

tun'
 1I , TI Pl It )NOI t H • .,. lilt I UN \ It ''''I
"Ill 11 1 \t:~N'N CH
1\ Nt)
t
In
H l II

.~nh h,' y ' Ill.'n ·!>ea.nf'

H Ii

u dau 'mu~h' lunk."

I ',h"ep
8
~ !tln\ language, "'hillil ,lr6" \\ hid, " .!dined a, lh,' n"1 '.,'"
• • " , ' , <
I
~c .. pruln\nC'n e
.......... ' - ...

nt nne: ()f ll\nfC ~ 111\\"1\\: dl"mcm~ u\'~r \)\h~r, m a \\\,.lrd ,Chapler 2. \,:\lun
X ~). Rt.. ..:~IU that ~ln..',~ 1~ l"a~'l~ lX'f12l"l\'cd to Eng.H ...h in p~Hr n\ ~mal\\ll.'al\
Wh n .1 \I" if \\)Ih all I Ii II>n;)1 pJllem i, fi,II,l\\ ,·ll h) ;) \\ l'rJ \\ ith Iclated words ... u('h ,Is the: contr,hlmg nnun and verb patf!'r. pfc:-.cnt/prescl1t. nd
I,\o~. ,u 'h .1' Ih,' roolll ii '\1') 1"'(. the H l"ll~ "I' Ih~ li~1 \\,'ro I>eClllll.tn ~
• • U··' h . ~L
,'\/,orllnl'<>" (,ee Chal''''r ~. '~"lJnn 1l.3).
.' lJ:!li \\.uth,,'g' he.' "('Inll,~ ~ .1l'l.t'" £1(11 .It ... nt"t .l \\.1ft og : Itl.:)f'J 'beam' This !\~ctilHl i ... ..:~'nl:c:~cd \~ llh 'lrc ...... \\ hose plat.:c11l\!nl can he prel..h~to.l b
~'\: 'm~' m: ., Ali ''11\ I1t'( a Ot.'.lnJ'. and . . ,) (,)ll, gencral ImgUJ'lIc pnnClple" fhc ,tu.!) "f str~" placement l. ",[cO'"llo )
Th" 1,'nJI chan!!,· " .1 ~ind of :I."illlilllli,'n. .md pllralkl, ':"In metrics Properly 'pea!..lng. it I ' Ihe rhyme "f a ,~Ilahk lhal hc:lt'- tre
pn ~e',( ... \If a .. ,imil.l(H)n ('If ... e:!~lcnlal fc~ture ... Thi .•1s~lmll.Ul()n I' 'I~:~ h"" ever, currl'nt 11I'lal",n rekt'i directly III syllabic, In r 'prl"Clllmg str'"
1» r,h,'n,'I,'!!"I,:I.' J 'pre;ldmg 01 Ih.: L I,'n' I>ll.:~":ml~. tnlm Ihe ""rd z"h h'
Ilk IJn~' ,\\'t'l "flh' pn·':l'l.hng \\ord. a.nd I' sh,m II til hgun· 3J~ h) ora"ln" S,I
a d,'lIed .""...·1.11;'\0 I;n~ ("hil"h represent, Ihl.' .:hange ill 1,'11,·) .mJ hreak' ~ The fonnalizalion or ,lre" in lIlu"h curr~nt anal) ,is re,,, "n lhe Usc o[ \ml"
.• .. I .1. ',,'I.lll(,ln
. . I'me." from
. unbounded feet
me ,'nglftJ. (h~ \0\\(' I l\) t h '
e hlnncr h,ln\.' ,jlu(' ((h~ hInc- called metrical feel (nflen rekrrcd 10 'impl) a, j"el\. whICh arc dement, "f
dou!>l ... lines indil-"I\·lhl.' 1o" of",,,,,;alion\. I'D melD.:al ,tructure consisting <,f a slre"cd ') Ilahk ami .m a", 'ialcd
UI1~lressed syllable (,'r syllahlc,), To sec hO\\ lh" "or!..., Tahlc 3.31 ,h,,\\, an
H L LH L e mnple from French.

t \ I~ A Tabld.3L
k,,,u, !>ai 'II', 1101 II ".U1h"g' m;.ri hai 'if" nOI .11>e.trd'
· . . l~p·
P'"
;l1111 'friend'
L H L L H L
, emponcr 'c~"ff'
I
I A /1
U;\tIU hal
, f .unkalem ~n( ':unI,ahly'
'jl nt)t mu ... h' IUn!..o hlli 'it', n(ll ,hl.'cp· h\.bPltali. ;.lli('In ·b\'~rltJ.hl.\th.)n·

In French. th' la.1 \\1\\ 1.'1 of:l \\ ord recell cs prim.ll) sIre". !l.ktri a\ feCI
capture this final stTe" by pla.:ing :11\ " ilir<'.:lly o\cr the rightJ1l,'sl (final'
11m,. ""Ih (1.'.lIur,·, .lI1d 10llal malenal are handlt:d h lhl' ,a me Iyp.: Ilf S\ lIahk lIudeus l,f .1 \\,lrd ;)1 .1 kId <,I' represent;)ll 'n c lkd th< fooll~HI
repr,""JJ{alioll .lIld Ihl' '.II\1l· pnnciple" Cthlressl'd s\l\.lblcs Wilhin the ti.)t'[ ;U't! represenl'd hy <lllls: Ih, f'llll i
-" <'ndo.ed III parenthc,', !Xlails 1'1' 'yllabk 'tnlclUre .lr, nlll gi\cn unl " II
Pro('t' 'to , rule~ and
The
'11 a'mbU\<ll u. e of It'IIUn:'
• . ,Illd pmce"l'
. III I' IInnll 1ogl,"11 dl''''npIH,"
'
r pre't'nt.llion.: a
n: 11 < th III nall\le 1131un,' of hnglll'I;~ heha\ IOUI. 1,,,,,. Ih ... U,,' lit k.IlI1fC
fa 1 \ ord
re 1'13 b.I'lL re,d nl ph""lllngl<"11 a... u\ II~ - ","nlr. ,,- 1.lk, pl.lll' nn Ih,
I C3!Ure ,'\ ct. not In lh . 1·\ I h.'
e, l " <ft ,,'glll nh ar,' n:pr<·'l·lIll.'d. :i"~'\IId Ih,' II.'~
o f pnxe. lIo1aUOll nod ml • , ,r . •
l ,on\1a Ilallnn re/l':1 Ih .. 1,·.lhll<· "I 1t1l~1"'I'"
 1111 IlJNI \ I 1"'1 ANU l'All B!:NINI
01 t,(J u
[,{('",:hall: runt l.ulIbt\: tU()l

lhuumJC'd.ldl-ht!i.ltlCUl (hound J lI~l\l hea'\~d,

Ix ,J I "I }'out level
n n u n
prOlUhC

Figure 3,35

( . x) (x) FOOL level Since alternating, f~\ress \anguagt!~ "how more than unc~ f om on t!01(.;h .. \lJurl\ ~e
l . .\) Building in either have to asstgn eel In the wOfC.h, in !o,omc "'y~temati"l: manner " h cell\,)
'
a a lJ a a lJ a a directiOn rcusonn
.. .. bl c to assume that fect .'are ~I ....... iuned
b to a wor l I b Y ....taTtlng at the
b~glnt\lng of the word. and workmg . lhnmgh it from lett 10 r'Ighi ,rlgure e ,.,.36
ami~3lemenl ami pas
,hows both left-headed
. . and rlg.ht·headed bounded feCI bu'lit fro m Il! I t'\U-f\\!hl
over words III IWO different language" Nmc lhe presence of dcgen<ralc feCI
Figure 3.33 Pench slress: right-he.lded t.roboooded foot. In twO 01 the examples; remember thallhese result because a head IS required
,)n each foot. and wheneve~ hlllaryleet are constructed over an odd numher
Some languages predictably stress the initial syllable of each \loon!. Fi lire of syllables, one syllable \Ioill be lelt ovcr at the end of the procedure, In lhe
33-1 shows a left-headed unbounded foot (a foot in which the head is I~ c:d e"ample. words are given with pnmary sUe"es ani}: how Sl.'Condary "resse,
over the leftmosl ,yllablel. \\ htch is needed 10 represent the Intllal 'tre atLng arc represented IS shown later on III thL' section, The arrows are placed before
partern of the Hungarian words for ·mixed·. '~eep stining·. and 'un,urr<u ,.I. • the feet simply as a reminder of directionality of application; the) are nlll
ordtnarily written. The syllable numbers arc aha provided for the sake of
(x .) (x ,)
(x .) clarity and are also not usually written.
a a a a a a a a a
Left-headed bounded foot. Right-headed bounded fOOL
k e \' e r t ke\'ergcI kevere len left-to-right application
left-to-right application
Language: Maranungku (Australia) Language: Chemehuevi (California)
Figure 3.34 Hungarian stress: left·headed unbounded foot.
--t (x ,) (x .)(x) --t (. x) (. x)(xl FOOL level

B.2

Bounded feet Frequently. more than one mess is heard in a word. In man) language,. \Iooni>
with multiple stresses fall on alternating syllables. Alternating stre"es can be I a 0 k a rat e t i 'prawn' u n i n u p 4 r u 'make'
heard in English words like imecd6ral and prol'idilllial In Chemehuc,i Ian
Amerindian language spoken in California), the word Ita :>rSlllliil'i 'slhe like,' --t t. x) (. x) (, xl Footle\el
--t (x .) (x ,) (x ,)
is a typical example of ahernating stress, In alternating stress languages, the
stres es fall exactly two syllables apan (degenerate feet excepted), and ani)
one stress is primary in each word. Alternating stre" is captured by
employmg a con,lltuen! called a bounded foot, which is a unit of metrical h a + 4 ~ u t u i v 4 'slhe liked'
wclepelemanta 'k.indofduck'
representation thaI consists of a stressed syllable and no more than one
unstressed svllable. Figure 3,36 Two types of alternating stress. left·to·right apptlcation,
. Bounded-feet can be left-headed or right-headed. You may already be
lamlItar With such traditional terms in poetic metre as trochaic and iambic As the~e e"amples show, left-headed bounded feet ordinarii) result in
which capture thi, inSIght (Figure 3,35), A trochaic foot is equivalent to a stresses on odd-numbered syllables, white right-headed bounded feel resulllll
bounded. left-headed foot. An iambic foot is equivalent to a bounded. right-
stresse on even-numbered syllables,
headed fool.
 HI
~ IR\ II ',LI II, !'II11Nllllll., 111\ 1\ INI 1\1 It<.t
til' I ' I t "'H U It I

I "'I tH.. "tnlh\\\lthhd tllll' '"

1111 ,I",., t h" tp ,,·tu uP\,'" Ihl\1\
I .\1lr\t.'~'\· \
,\1 .ttl \Illh

, l II
)\ II )\Iltl\\

(1, (l. 0\ n,o,

• ~h;."'(t t"lllnd,,'d h~ll . R,!;hl h,',llkJ h",""J.od ""'I,
I , " .1 I .\ n .1 " ., k \\ PI'
n 'hi ", ldl Pl'iI,'al"'" d""! '," T1~ht h' h;1t .Ipplh."lhnn tI t l'

1 <In 'U,h!C \\ 01,'" l \ ,'11" 111,'1,,) l .m "ll\'~\.· \\ \.'11 (N,,"\\ (itlllll'.1)

tll\,II" , ",

) (\ I·

II I II ,I "' ,I ' ''11'1 '

Ii!;UH' 1_.1;

\1 fir" 1! 1 ~Uh:"·. hu\\ ,,'\ ,,·r.lhI.'H' \1.'".11\ ... hllx'lll' n,',I'.. OI1 h' ,t"Uf1W 111 ...'I Ir" Mil'
\\ a' ,11'1'11,,<111"111 n 'hi h. it'll, "",,'1 h,' ,11", r,',ul" . ... ," I> • "hl;II11<'" h, L
"111 II'lOg ". 1 It. \1111kl\(,\11<1 11ll' h."" "I "~",,,I.II ' ,I"'",s,, '111,,"'11
' ""
nt: ItUn .lIIH"
. IV \q
Ih",lrr 1ll pll.l1"/1'l\l111I,'d le.:ll""" k II (., 11 'hI. 'iI""",,, Ih,' "",<1,, "'''''1111' " l'rl1n"ry .1nll lh\' '\H."'"\1' nt til\" \\unl /"""'''(,111',1 c"JI"I tin 11 'UI' , v.-h\;1\ \\:.. t'
,'\,11"1'1<" ,,111 ;11'0 lall ,'/I Ih,' I,r I .1OtI Ilmd , lIahks \\ IIh 1"11 • I"n," 'hi \t (U
'
l1d .,r ,trt'" kll \\ tth Ihl' "PIU""IIII1H,-'~' lh.\I . .1H'SS 1\.1\\ IWt:1l .\'" '1\ ,,11\1 "ll \\\lHh In' \ I
"l'r h,-al""I . 11011 ,'all" ,'Idl Ih,lI 'Ill'"'' ,'ppl1l,tI n 'hi 11,1<'1 11/1 Ih,"" 1,,1 I 'II.l)!l','
. tills \\ .1' ,,," ,hl' l' ;,,\, Sill'" hl"\ \lnlv IW'1\ .1"I~I1\n' tn "','to' 1h, pl.ll'I1\\"1\\
Th,' ,11''''''1 III Ih" 'I""'"'''' lit" '" Ih,' ""'I Ih,lI Ih,' \\"1<1, '" hJll1rc I \7 Ilt ... tll.-" on l!\\: \\'Iud " Il'PI\'",\'nl\'d h ,'''''g1\\1\ ,\1\ nn.1 1""" h.'V \ nl1\
1

ahole ,111",,",,'101 0111 ",,'n. nl11111ll'1 1,1 s,l1a1>ic, I'h,' ,II,'" I'alt,'," "I \\~~
. 111.Sll1 1" ''IllFI) (alk" 11" wunll,·,,·l. """1 111\'" """' '"'''' ll11lh. 1""11," I
In Ihes<' """,' lallgl1ag'" II IIh "dd nUll.hcr, ,,1 ,,11,,1>11', ,,111 111'1 ""'k "UI I\v" word 1<'\,\,11''1'1 .11,'lIlusl",I,'" ill1'i 'Ill,' \ III
link'" sll,'" " "1'1'1,,'<1 nghl I" it'll 1',,'Iln .1 .It( Shl'"' 111l' ,'O"WI 'I .... ·"i".
I,'r 1\\ 0 hum, \\ lilt a" "dd 1111\\11>", "f ,yl1ahk,. (\

1.t'1I ·h,'atll'd [>01,,\11"<1 10,,(, R'chl h,'a,it'<I h"lll"ktll"ol. ,I

"""1('(,/II ); hl 10·1<'1\ "l'l'iI,'all"" 1ighl 10 1,'11 .lpI'I1";1I1""
, .,1/1>', ./
LoIII!;I1ag, ' W,,,a,' LiIll); I1ag,· WClI C1 0
(l (l

(.\ II \ 1(\

Jill a, a /I a,' 'Iw 1,,",,<1 II'

"IlUrt" .111 J.:'f:hl ·lo 1"'1 "1'1'11, .,111 """ W, "cI, \\,Ih .11weld 1111",111" "I ' yll,.hh. II" ..... \lill' Ih",","" I
I,Ut'" I',IIIt'1 I1lt"IIlIIt·,1 III tht·" , 1.111~II.lgt · ,.

IIOIWIt'I, 11 '\l'1I til appl\' 'irl'" r"'rIl kit III IIghl IlIlh,',,' i111II1',llInllTl'lI
pall,'III' fl"IIII, a, h 'III,' \,.\'I,h11w, .
1'1",,1'101< . III 111.1"1 111 ~"')\\ II h,'lh" .11I"llIating I"",,·, ;11,' IWlltg .IPl'ltl'd
Irh III rl 'ht 0, rlgll1 tn kit ill a lal1guage. ",' 11111,1 I", ~u,,' In ..,lI11Il.1I<' W'".1,
"'Ilt hlllil odd .111<1 eh'lI IIU1l1h"l'Il ') 1I"l1k,

--._- ~--
 INC.UISTI( S
1~II{)N(Jl (J( ,v I HI
flJNC II(IN ANI
J \'", IIIo(N1Nr C
• IF \() N{)\

pattern. "e negm ,I~ ahow hy hulldlng nght-hcaded bounded fcci I Interaction among tnt: ~e\l I 11'1
. Ihg () these lhr
to nghl over lhe word lornr allhe fnol level (Figure 3.-11 ). rlJln lei I parameter. cxtramclricailly (!lice M!(;\U, cc para mt: 1c n,. :tt{H\ \tI,
the ~lrc"s pattern", found in hu . )_ n K.5) acChlllll frlr a lhafClUtth ';0de
(. xI(. X) t. ~) Fool level palleming that have been prl!.,c~~cn. an~huagc. All hi the exa~Pl Vancty of
f h L_
0_ JU,l t e~e luree pammetcf1i. as lah)
uIOt"Occli
\ on res.ulled from th
"""f,"",

a cr aao 0
ahty parameter is nOl relevant f, I. e ,~3 h"wo .. "JIe that the de lUll!
. I (r anguauc!I. with L... ITtctlf)n
strcss " exc uded from the table. e unuuunded feet. Pnrnary
ha?i Ulu I v i
Tahle 3.33 Stre~"i parameter ~tling for lang. .
figure 3.41 Ino,,,lloo' buikling in C"',",.f1u('vi: righl·headed bounded (eetlefl·lo.righl i1f~>lK ill'lIl. uagcs presented in lhl.! !.t.:l.:l1nn
BmlndelilunbflUmJ('iI
Language feel
On the word Icvel (Figure 3.42). we build (for Chemehuevi) a Icfl·h ,. Headedl1es_\
unbounded fOOl ovcr the leftmoM fOOl-level stress. This captures lhe f. ~"dCd French unhounded right
. th . aq Ihal
the Ii"t stress in a Chemehuevi word IS epnmary one. II~ this Way. '" lIungarian unbounded left
represent bolh pnmary and secondary stresses. the syllable wnh lhe g ,. Maranungku hounded lefl
, . reate'l left to nght
number of x\ over il " taken to be the ,:,~st proml~enl. or pnmary 'lrc'sed Chernehuevi hounded right
Warao bounded lefuo right
syllahle; the syllablcs wllh only one x have secondary slless; lhe remainin lelt ng\ltloleh
syllables arc unslressed. g Wen hounded right nghllo left
Word level: lefl-headed unboundeu foOl
~-~~---=~~~~~~~~---------------------
Ie xl FOOl levcl: right-headeu bounded feCI. L-.R ,_trametriCality There •are exceptions
f to the requirement
' , a1l svl\abl~'
thai ' ar .
~,e a"OCrated "uh
(. xl (. E some ,oot or the purpo. es 01 tress a\ Ignment 1n ,ome Ian .
. gI llabl . . . guages. '" e ftnd
that a stn. e sy' .'e at the _beglnnlnoc or end of a '''ord .lS ne~er
. "lrc 'Cd
OOoooa w
Because \I falls oUL>lde the effec,ts of stress rules such a 'yll'abl'
• . e 1\ ~al'd to be.
, '3

ha?j su Iu I VI extrarnetncaL To represent thiS fact fonnally. an extrametrical ,vllahle "

form.ally excluded fro.m the fOOI-huilding procedure. To ..ee h~w extra-
rlgu,,' 3.42 word·lev(·1 (()()IIJuilding in C/wmeiwuvi. Both prmary and secondary stresses are now metncality mteracls "'Ith foot structure, Table 3.34 shows 'orne data from
"'p"''''(1tl'(l Kusatean. a language poken in the Caroline Islands.

-'
Table 3.3-J Penultimate. tre<-, In Kusatean
The fonnal generali/alJon for Chemehuevi Siress I.. as follows - fOOl level:
righi-headed hounded feCi . applying from left to right; word level: left-headed k,'ta.
unhoundcd fooL ,'to I~ad'
kSk:>:
p.\lakb;n • IUptd'
11,4
m~nini : ·thin'
(IImp/l'"ily (rom Stress pallems IJJ language: COli he highly intricale, hut Iingui.,ls helieve ;;; m.\Ia:Ia: 'light
simp/idly: Irl'~\ their complexity, like ~(I much other lingui tic complexity, arises frum IlHt.d,cJ!ik 'bcx me hght'
Pdr.. ml.'lt'r~ illlCrauioJ1 amollg a cl "I universally available opllons, The~c options arc
callcu paramctc"hlhlc 1121,,1 the slress paramctcl~ we have explored 10 In Ku. ;)Jean,
lit" chapter

luhle 3 ..'2 SOllie tress pOI ollie It: "

h<!llIId"d/llnlJ<JlIIUbllect
;: left IClght heaued Ie I
""(elton 'y I I 10 r 'htlllghl 10 leI!
 U";GlclS TiC,
f'll<lNOlCH.Y Illt
I, ... ~( I 'ON ANt} \'.\1 't KNIN( (
• If !'Ol.ND
I' cr\lcial. I" tinal ' 1 I ' l h l ' , III
J • C 1, una\la' 11
c!'lrametricu'" Su, rnnninv ht .1 •. 1 1 d l,C til the lre ru\ '-_
~ .. , h lUnUI.: U ngllt head .1 .
C;. '>q;..ilU ,
plVUuce t e \\ rong rKtlh:nl \II t ' ('u ltd frhln 'eft \ '"
Ihe \ccond ,yllablc
, I
r" '
c
which I Irh""l " I he I" I II~ WIll !:til, 1(, nghl \1(11\
• lCa<l.,1 Ih' Ii I n """",I
~'traml!lnca . mUM he ~trc~,ccJ lh. h I.: 1r \ (M.n Smce"\I r on
degenerate foot. reCr.!lVC ... 'lrc" :r he l trld. )' \l.thl..: (I,,). "",hh.:h \.1 :e~~ lIll\
LI c rcsu l h th . - ·"tu' a
a a <a> a a a<a> ( owc\'cr. by cmph.l),ing CXlram t' I'
•
l: Inl:urrec\ hJnn
C rica lly ilntl hUlld I
·hJ,
1
Ud.
' "
C'an come up \Vllh Ihe righl ,tr.ss P'lIl' ( F ' Ing rom nghllo lell
boun dc d . ng 'h h ' .• em !<tee 'gUTt!1""-4-IW ,We
, 1- 1- cadcd
. ICeI ""iun 'ct j'
. f:o l: rnm nght , ..
tu h:h• ' ether-.t",.
_ "lnnl
1,0)
extrrunetnca lly~mcClhcsC~clung~\\:l11 rU\l-c.l~. In conJunt:ttnn ~nh
p I c"l\andonlycllrre~I"re .,
(xl (. xl t. xl
FOOL level
Thb prIXe, is called stray syllable adjunction.
Stres> unin:rsally falb to\\ ards the margins (beginning Or eno) of 000<0> a <I <0>
inc"" 'tress fa.II" lowaro~ the left or right margin of a word. it 'I,S ~_ ~otd
,~e lor
a prima!} stre" landing more than one syllable from the margin of. Ind ka ra ta <si> tIa k u <I a>
Extl'3melrical 'yllahles capture this fact in that they are limited to ,3 form.
occurrence a: the initial or final syllable of words; they arc not foun~ Ingle Figure 3.4,\ Sw"h~i stress assignmenl using right·headc'<l bounded fee nd' h
I a ng Ho-lell apPkal>On.
internally. The care f ul u,~ 0 f extrametnc ' us 10 adhere to the~"rd
. ali,t} aU ows ba .
principles thaI account tor all stres 109 10 terms of either unbound'd Ie On a second line of the metrical rcpresentatio 'b Id
bounded feel. The next ,,:cLion provides additional justificallOn for the C or
• s"
un bouo ded lOOt. mce pnmary slress assignment 0 t h '
n we UI a nght-headed
'
, I"n)' 10 .slress, aSSignment.
. ,.
on I y to th " n e "ord le'el ".
exrrametnca an d sows
h how 'n mteracIs
. u," o[
wllh lhe senSitive ex . s on the tOOl level (Figure 3 '45) , the resu It "\'II b.! main
building of bounded feel. stress on the penultimate syllable and secondary stresse
stressed syllables. " on any precellmg

Bounded feet and [n Swahili. stress falls on alternating syllables: the penultimate (ne'Ho-la.\I xl x) Word level
ex Irametricality syUable receives the strongest stress. I
(x) (. xl (. x) Foot level
Table 335 Suess in Swahili
a a a <a> a a <a>
IfUm 'toad '
tfaktila ' fOod'
ka fa ta < i> tSa k u <I a>
KaraLisi 'paper'
ufikamano 'adheSIOn'
Figure 3.45 S\vah~i word-level slre,s assignment.
To assign primary and secondary stresses in Swahili, we fiN tentatively
assume thaI final syllables arc extrametrical, since they are never stressed,
Since stresses are alternating, we know that they must be as,igned using Summing up Phonology deals with the sequential and phonetically conditioned pattemmg
bounded feet. Applyrng the principles presented in section 8.2, we can arrive of sounds in language, To account for this patterning, three umts of
at a deCIsion about the headedness of the bounded feet . Left-headed feet, phonological representatIon have been establi hed: the feature, the phoneme.
whether formed from !t·ft to right or nght to left, are excluded, since they and the syllable. Phonemes are contrastive segmental units composed of
w~uld result in the tiN syllable of a word like IIjikumllfUl heing slre,sed, distinctive tcatures, Phonetically condiuoned variants of phonemes are called
Given that the bounded feel m:edcd lo assign slrc>s In Swahili ale right· allophones .
head~d, we must then decide on the direction of application. The \\ords Phonolog) m;tkc use of underJ)ing forms. derhations. phonological
l/clkllia and Iljikulluino provide no dctinrtive answer, since their 'tr~"c' rules, and representations in its formal notation Rule appl_ til free or
wnuld he correct (sull assuming extrametricality) whether the right·headed feeding order to guamntee Ihat COITl!Ct ph,lnellc represent anon . re denved
Icet were a"igncd from left to right or from righl to lelt, The word k,iralt/I/ frolllundcrlying reprcscntatinn,
1~'fO 'H )
I>" I UN Ill.
 PHCJNOLO 'I THl f UNC lIC.JN "Nil '>A1 lUt
1N(" c f 4!.(" Nl)
3) hh n 1".1"
'lx, ' d) ?an pairs, (For m"ance 'hough If I nd I" " ,
b) han:> 'prupert\ '
'I.:ing' e) ka'hm , . .,. fl-
II I~ ul
I ~
l~U t to Ilnd rmnunal I)alr nro
;y .ro par..te pho
'to !etch', ncrna m En
) 1umago-. V
hJ tl\.,\\ . f) humaglh '"' vmg 11\(:" phonenllc
'to P"'nt'
..uloph <, of.) gllen ph,meme are lbua!l~ phonetically similar. ~ A .... "ume phoneuc rran,(.;ripllon of the d.iJ.ta In all cxerCl'5.e'!i.
, und, th t are phoncucall~ s,m,lar, and ched, to ee" hether the\ ~
, rupleffi<'nt:lr) distrihution. The he,t "ay to do this is to ii are l. Inukrirur (Ea,lem) (:-;.II\C Canad,an)
<'n\lronmenb. In th<' f,,!lo\\ing data, also from Tagalog, [d] and [r] t lhe a) iglumUl 'to a hou",' hI pmna '\h
\"{,- d 3h"",lars. ,hould he con,idered as po",ble allophones L: bt:.tb bl ukiaq 'Iale fall' I) am f atoneuptberc'
. .. lSI", c) aiviq 'walru,' emale"lJrother'
em in: nment. 10 \\ hkh Ihe.. sounds are lound. Are they in ...,
rleffi<'nt3f) distribution? eun. d) amgu\"It 'if you leave' J~I i~~na (nc,"')boo5e
e) aglu 'seal' b h' hI' '!hal p1ac< up there
.- 'real 109 () e I) UIVtJq • he go<:> OOllle
a) dati!) 'Ill 31The t) '''ill COmplain' n i!!.lumit
-. "be'
'from a hou,e' . ,
, m ) 10, 'place, spot
h duni 'amount g) marumi 'di~' g) anlga\H cau,e you leave nJ uluuq ..... inter'
,) dumi 'din' hI marami 'many' i) List all the minimal pair,; in the ... data, Based on the minimal patr~
J) d.Jrnti [1 '\\ ill a1T"''- i) da?iI) '10 eompl:l.ln' you hal e found, Itst all the contra'lIve pairs of ","'el.,
d manduruJ..ol 'pickpocket' j) mandukol 'to go pickPOCketin ii) U<ing the .... owel chans in Figures :!.9 and :!,IO as your model; make
e a chan of Inuktitut vo"el phonemes. '
_', If (\\ 0 potential allophone. of one phoneme are in complemetna.... iii) ,'ow c.on~ide~ the data again: here they are transcnbed 10 roo",
distribution, you can he rea. nably mre they are a1loph?ne: 01 the ~ phoneuc det31i. In the data there are phonetically similar ~l!.1llents
ph, neme. Tr: to m3l..e a gener:!l statement about the,r dbtribUtion 10 that are in complemenLar) distribution, Look for them and ans~ er the
t<'Illb of 'orne n [ural pbonologJ.:a1 cl3". For e"ampJe- que,lion thai follow the data,
aa) iglumut 'to a hou",,' hh, pinna 'that one up the",'
Ta::II,; [d] and [r) are in complement.>r: di,lribu!ion and are :Il1"Phoo.. at
one ~me , 1"1Ie rulophone [r) (XC11/" be(V.""n \O".b: [dJ ocellI'> eI .. bb) ukiaq 'late falr ii) ani 'female'. imxber'
- here, ,.md-mitiall~, .b in Hems 3 ), /», c), fl, and 0 on, and after cc) ainq ''''a1111:; iJ) iglu '(,now)house'
:"l..m.."-Ofl!lDt,. ... in items e) MId J). dd) aniguYit 'if you leave' klq panna 'that place up
there'
-+. Select one allophone a; ha,ie, This ;,. u.'ually the al1,'ph ne WIth the ee aglu 'sears breathi.ng hole' il) ai\"llCl 'she goe, home'
\\ ide,[ di>lITbulion (the el.,.,\\ here \ mant ' I[ may be helpful to set up a m iglumit 'from a hau;,e' mm) int 'place, !.pOl'
tradiuon I phoneme-allophone dIagram, See Figure 3.3.) ggl anigavil 'becau"e )OU lea\e' nol ukiuq 'winter'
(I;
i") List the phoneucally . unllar segments that are in complementar)
disuibution, Swt.e their ditribution in words,

Ir] Id) 2, Gascon tGascon i poken in .,outhwe,t France) The phones [b], Ull, {dl.
Between El where [3], [g], and [v} are all found in Gascon. as the follov.'ing examples sbo...
\ "" el a) bren 'endanger' n) gat 'c '
Wnre poonol ~i.:aJ rule Of" pronde repre,.entallon thai accounts for the b) bako 'ro\\ ' 0) liiJ]g 'long'
predietJ Je feature of the other allophone, , Your rule (Of representation e) iimbro ',hado\\' p) 53liBo ',ali, '
I. probably corr t If II de cnbe. a ('()IIlIllOIl hngul lie proce
of n ;ur:!l d
in tenns
e of ound, interauing \\ith neighbouring egment and!
or ,) II hIe -tructure,
d) IJ:imbo
e ) dil)s
f) diilJo
'room'
'Monda)'
'until'
q)
n *
~i

s) Ji~\\
'hlMand
'10 ha\ e"
'horse'
FOf"e 'ampl • ~ rthe J.oo\e: d - r l \' _ \ g ) du,o ',weet' t) b) oct '!!1l1'
Here, the pron", th t lead 10 aJlopoon) I a form of ~ imdauon, In -'de - 'lefto\er read' 11 eJa30 'hoe'
th:u an under!, iD~ top con nan[ become a contlDuaul "hen found ~») ~:n~an 'to 13) eg" ' \) \lI.f 'mosquIlo'
bet\\ I 0 UnU<Ulb (the \o\\e! J, j) dudze 'tvoehe' ) n\lIt 'he laughed'
k) ;ute:- 'f! xl a ro
• menL are pooneffil if th ), nOi be shoWII I) elJ~ in 'th!, , ear' ~ I ~ rt 'be pla:~'

I.
.ffi ,Th data HnpJ) dtd not prm Jd ffilntmal m ) pOOe 'to be be'
"1Uc-h paID • phone [y are
1
l -~STlC:

Of 0,,- D

I I) ,umlor" -upport ~ our daim '" lib

de =pt1 , of!he i (nJ.M pail'- Pboo.t;.,
Ii) ;' t!he conronment., In whi~h!he phone:> [~J. [Ill. [dl. [()). [.
I fouod. '100 rna) Ignore wonl-lmal po Ilion ;;1.
COIl, idennoo.
II ) f there an) e,;de1l..-e for grouping these pail'- of '0UQd
phoneme.' lale!he e,idence for each p.11r.
1\) • I . e" ,;eneral ;13lemenl arout th" p3n~ng of the phoneme-
h:n e e-t3bh. hal.
FolIO\\1ng ) our :mal~ ;is. write the following forms in phone .
. on d) [Sll-Sl~oran\1
+stndent
rr:llbCTIplion. tnI.: +corona\
al [puy01 b) [de(lall c) [fiJ3aw] d I [kriimbo)
H) L ,ing Figure 3.19.IS )oor model. pro"ide compleledematlon, of
;orm, for J) [dudzeJ m) [puOeI p) [salijloJ and ,) [bl\;u-I. IJl.:,

3. Hindi I Hindi i. a language of the Indo-European famil) 'polien in India 7. Ellglish

Coruider the segments (bl and [\1) m ~e data belo\\ and an. "or IJl.:, Ian) speakers of EnglIsh haw ~wo t)~, of til. One. c lied d ..ar I. I'
que>lloll> that follow. The segme~1 tran.",,-nbed, f!?] " a murmured 'Olced transc~bed a..s [I) 10 the to\lO\\ 109 data. The other. called dark I. I
SlOp: It was presented m Chapler _. secuon 10._. rranscnbed WIth [11· E amme the data.. and 3OS\\er the ,\uc,ti,>n' that
al [barn] 'Iarge' f) f!?cdJ 'disagreement' 1'0\10\\ .
b) [bariJ 'hea,)' gl [bais] 'l\\ent~-[\\o' a) ll:lltl life g) [phtl] ptll
c) [bina) 'without' h) f!?as] 'buffalo' b) [Ii:p] \eap h) [ii:l] feel
d) [birJ 'crowd' I) [bap] . father' c) [Iu: z] lose i) [help] help
e) [bori] .sackcloth· j) [!?ag] 'pan d) [I1aup] elope Jl [b.\lk] bulk
Are the segments [b] and [IJ J allophones ofthe same phoneme or do the, e) [dllan} delight k) [s<>old} sold
belong to separate phoneme,' If you belle,e the) belong [0 separ;ll~ n [sli:p] leep \) [ful} fu\l
phonemes. g[,'e endence from the data 10 suppon your anal)'is, It You Do [I] and [I} belong to separate phonemes or are they allophones of the
believe they are allophone, of the same phoneme. Ii. [ the condlli(l~in. same phoneme'~ If you belieye they belong to separate phonemes. JJ\S\\er
en,ironment. , <
question il. If you believe they are allophone_ of the 'JJue phoneme.
an wer question ii).
-'. :\ame the ,ingle fealUre that distingui .. hes the follo\\ ing pair. of ound>. i) List the e,idence that make' your C31'e for considering [Il and [II"
a) [9]: [iI] e) IbJ ' [mJ i) [,,]: la]
_eparate phonemes.
b) [pJ: If] f) [.]: UI j) [s]: [Il]
iil State the distribution of [11 and [tl in \\oros.
cl [u] lu] g) [IJ: [il k) [I]: [r]
• \\llich \ ari:mt makes the best underlying repre>entation" \\ hy'~
d) [iJ. le] h) [1.:1: [xJ I) [uJ: [oj
• Can you make reference to SYllable structure 10 your distribuuon
5. There are a number of natural cla .. es in the vowel and consonant data stat<~~lent'~ If) OU can. do sO in ~le foml. .
below. Circle three natural classe, in each set of data. Indicate which
feature or features define the class. as in the example. 8. TlIrkish
As you saw in section ,t4. Turki .. h syllables have the f"\lo\\ 109 structure'
Example: [+voice} b d tS I.: h {-continuant]
• ma..\.imum number of consonant,; in an onset: I
• ma.\.imum number ~)f\owe\s in a nudeu,. I
a) u b) P tf ma\.imulll number of l'onsonants in a coda: ~. of \\ hll'h the fiN i, a
•
e o meati\ e or sc)nor.m!.
With these stipUlations in mind. S) Habif) the iollLm ing h mb:
a f f .1) l.:ul1u:n b) keh:ptJr c), emenJ d) kenu:nJr
m In the, ... funher data fmm Tur i,h. the phl)ne \i) an {t' '\U
lJ
 a'tiL 11'1
co mpl':Il1<'nt:l,) d"tnl:>uth'n ,mJ lorm on~ phoneme, and the ph In lhl! r~)\lO\\ lUg TanHt lh".I. unle \\ou,d. hegtl\ \l.Hh
anJ [e[ :Ire aI,,, m complemental") ul,tnvuUo" anu lorm an(lth~"I.J do nol. fhc s)Tnbu11lti rqucsc01S It \111 . \ \ @\u\ \\h.l\C! (J\hef
ralt') phonellk' Treat th~ kl" It'l a' su!,ge,reu for Sculll\h E cr("ql;,. I 1indicate:-. dcnt~\h\ nt n:\lut I!J. Hlp \\lithe d, n\u,,;.

page 101 ) E,amlne the UJta anu an",,,r the questions that inTI" hOn ITlititll j·glide Jllili(ll \\ gild.'
a) gclJlk '''<' urn'eu' I) IIitIcic '!lower' 1..) hman 'h:~'"
No Iflllud !dlflt
al jeli 't<lI' fl ''' ...li '1'"" .•1.' I.
1:» II '"orl..' !p tJ11t 'plough' I) emln ',u' Ur b) Jt:
n .
. >
) anvu 'w'no""\edur
gl wu:h'l ',,,,tm teat' t) 3Ir4u .It,c' ~
~) chm '}ollr h,mu' h) cI 'hand' m) !lidlk "hr~dded' c) jilaj 'lear' hl wlI:si 'neeule' ml a. aj '11 ",,'
uJ Ip 'thread' i I memer 'passage' n) bll 'Iou"" dl jel)ge: 'where' il "ujlr Iile' nl ant 'ri'<,'
e) scs ',okc' J} seksen 'eighty' 0) silah 'weaPon' e) ji<\,uppu 'waist' j) wo:ram 'eJgc' III a:1I1 'ungm'
i) Provide a stalem"nt of the d"uibution of [i] and [IJ and Ie] and i) T~e occurrence or these gltdes is rrculclahlc, mg yllur I,n""'led 'C
m "oru, lake) our statement as generaJ as pOSSible, but be pr Ie 01 natural classes, mal.e n general slalement abOUllhe III t 'h g
.. f eCI~1 the glides. ,n Uhun .,t
ii) Write a rule thaI derives the allophones 0 both phonemes fro .
,
unuerlymg .
form. Use f'eatures.-, Remem be r to give
- III the
your rul ii) ~ssllming the glides arc not present in the underlying rcrrescnta.
mnemonic name; use this name in the answer to question iii J. e a !!ons. name Ihe process that accounLs ror their pre><:nce in Ihe
iii) Provide derivations for the following underlying form.,. phone!!c rorms.
iii) Using fealures, write a rule usmg alpha notation that rOnnahlOS th"
UR # # 'cord' # # 'lasso' process. Show the derivation of the fonns for fly and break.

--~------------=
12, Mellde (Mende is spoken in Liberia and Sierra Leone)
In Mende. the fonns thai mean 'on' (nul) and 'in' (hu) are sunixe, (Ihey
PR I [sid3 1mJ [kemcndJ arc attached to a preceding word; sec Chapter 4. section 1.31. :-.lotlce in
the dnta below that suffix.es all bear tone, but that the tone varies on
9. Stale each of the fOllowingdrules in Pllain ordinary English, making different words. In the ex.amples,' indicates a high lone .• a low tone. and
reference to natural classes an common IIlgUlstlC processes. " a falling (high-to-low) tone.
Ewmple: [-SYllabiC
+con onantal
~ ~ 0/ _ _ # (an nbsfmefll i.~ deleted a) k5 'war' k5ma 'on war kOhu 'in war
b) pele 'house' pelcma 'on (the) house' pclchu 'in (the) house'
-sonorant lI'ordfillllUv)
c) bi:l!: 'trousers' bi:li:ma 'on trousers' bcli:hu 'in trouser,'
a)0~ +syllabic d) ngila 'dog' ngilama 'on (the) dog' ngilahu 'in (the) dog'
-consonantal i) Can you account for the differences in tone on the suffixes for 'on'
+sonorant and 'in' in Mende? State your solution with autosegmental notation
-high -syllabic ~ -syllabiC ] such as that illustrated in Figures 3.30-3.32. (Hilll: Assume that the
-low 1 # __ +consonantal +consonantal suffix.es have no tone to begin with, but that the words to which they
[ [
-round - sonorant - sonorant are attached do have tone.)
-back ii) Assuming that you have answered question i) successfully, account
+tense for the tones of the sufflXes meaning 'on' and 'in' in the additional

b) [+SYllabiC
-consonantal
+sonorant
j ~ [+roundjl
-syllabic ]
+consonantal _
[-SYllabiC
+consonantal
1 examples below.
e) mba 'owl' mbuma 'on (the) owl' mbuhu 'in (the) owl'
f) J1ilia 'woman' J1iliama 'on (the) woman' Jlhltahu 'in (the) woman'
[ +antenor +antenor
-round -coronal -coronal
13, MoTU (Miza dialect; Moru is a Sudanic language) . '
10, Change the following statements into rule notation. Give a name to the In Moru, contour tones are not found on short vowels tn underlytng
process in question in each case. representations. However, phonetic forms of combtned lex.tcal Items do
a) Voiceless stops become corresponding fricatives between vowels. show contour tones. Can you represent this uStng autosegmental nota-
b) A schwa is inserted after a voiced stop word-finally. tion? (Hilll: A segmental process is involved as well as a tYPiCal
c) Low unrounded vowels become rounded before m. suprasegmental process and the two processes must be .ordered.) In the
II. Tumil (Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken in South India and Sri data provided, ' indicates a high tone, • a low tone, and . a falltng (hlgh-
Lanka) to-low) tone, and a rising (Iow-to-high) tone. Vowels "Ith no tone mark
Y

need not be considered.

ItO PHONOLOGY THi- FUNC1\(
IIMI'! IN I/y 111';101 1 1l1 'i IN "Nt) PAl HRNING Of SCn.U"''''o''::.

f) atJaxil6:m
'"
,I) In.l .
" \l, t
• 1"1['1
' we
Hiligayllon (Philippines):
1
not
\
all Hiligaynon word, at e a'iM ~ned ~trC!\!\ \t\
the same way~ on y one c ass ~f words is repre ...ented here (Hln?'
h ) k,li,mu -, Ik(lmu1 that in this language foot buildmg " limIted to a maximu!
•
ote
jhl' nlll': 'he nlllS You need not formahze this fact in your answer.) m 0 two fee\.
,') ~,\ ,'I)'a -, Ik,;Og31 a) pamlil)kutan 'problem'
'Ill' Jumps ' he jumps' b) kilwauin 'thief'
d) ni, :Id, U/II" I IlJ"dlJl1 ja I c) buhig 'blind'
'wht) an~ you calling'?' d) palal)'lta?un 'highly sought after'
') Ill! ca ll whn?'
e) nagapal)ita?aj 'to look for each otber'
14, I Ill' English d,II,1 heh,w provide c \ampks of stre" placement 0 11 ccn'
.h ll
Hualla g a Quechua (Peru) (Hint: This answer wi\! require reference to
\'I...·, b ~.
('
/I section 8.5,)
""pre"r adapt
(ll laps\.' COI1Sldl.!f
a) uma:ta
bJ uma:pita
'to my bead'
'from my head"
,OlllCk
dt.'l..~t unagm(' C) uma:pitami 'from my head la-"enivel'
,'f,l"l'
d('t~nninl' d) tJajl1araq 'jU,t a moment ago'
c.tn:llI"'l"
(,(lll,xit' h.l1111l'nl pfl\mis(' e) ajwajkJinmi
'they are going'
'hit if
I) r l· ... 12nhr In ()n thest:' \t.'rhs. ~1ake sure
\\llnb lh(.' ... tn: ...... pL.lL'l.'rllL'nt f) aj\\ ashaJkikama
g) ajwaj
I
gO '
'lHI rd r It) ... , 11.lhk' ,tnh:ture in ) (lUI "t~H('ml'nt.
II) Ptl" id, "lIa'bifkd rcp~'t'JHatiOIl' nr Ihe, \\\'rds ..ol/Iite, eleer, and
cnnrldrr 11\ order Itl IUu,trate ) ,lUf ,,'lldUSJllIl ahout stress placement
In Ih",,(": h)nn

I~. ConSider th tfl' pattern, ID the language data hdo\\ Referring to Table
l,1;! IOct U'IIl~ fahk " ,1 as ),'Ur n1,ldd, "tate \\ hkh parameters are
ne ," aT) 10 count ~ ,r ,tre plac(,!1lenl and what the setllngs fo r the
IIll Ir par. m arc for l",Kh ,~( of data,
Itll I ~ (l t\l~
d) '}

N 'to h'
) 'w h on If'
not 10 \\;1 h one elf
reorganization'

d)
th nJ
II III hlln'
 t .. u

rh~ r'\1r~\\ n\~ \.~r '\. nnot ~

f: the anal 'sis of .\u,\.:h \ t\'\ th

.. 1\....
nd \. f a noun ~ I
\\ n\t~n h -..~ '" llh h'l hen)

ture ~I
• lh,' t>\N \ 'it ,
.l F. de all m \n ..~\ Ole\'-t. CIrri, b ;1 ,,,,)I\J '\O\" 1\ can
lauoo..
f('lll 'I" 109 to: ~hJ.ng~
In

.'
_-r'c:ll t'T \ : \Yh,n.lreth ,~thing ... mthcttte.
_"P-t" t"T 8: Bird,

·n
,:. birds ~~uning in front \.,f 3 \ero:
Bird... \oid ..:.ab .
D. binf- uc.:umng aftef \ect>·
Cat' .:ha,e biflb.
"onle \\ L fib. 'u.:h . Wi' in ~entence I . do not norm:lll~ cxcur in \ ti .
Ho\\ e\ <'f. th<'~ are ,~ll free tornb 'l~ce their po>-Ill :>mng ~th re ~\ to
nelghb..'unng c31eg ne _, n 1 enurel~ h ed. Thu>. ,,.hown b~ the foUo... m _
: 'nten~. Ih dCle,. n 'I :ll\\3~' ha\e to occur lmmedillel~ in front of noon.-

The ~ c' ung bmb remained in the est.

1
-
1.1
\IorpheOles

o
o T Tl E

I
 T

OR TR
;') • \3"
an orange ,.bl; time
dI1 a . . ct.~nt ~car

aned a girl
The form a b U ed ~fore word hegmnmg ~ 1m
re-act-n--ate before .\\onl:-. bcgmmng "'tth a \o\\d.' The \"ari:n~=nt and the form. an
called Ih allomo rphs. of .. marpheme "'"

----
genrJe-mao-h_oc
Another e'dmple of aJlomorphlc variation I found In the
the plural morpheme ·s In Ihe fol\o" ing "'ord . pronullClau<>a

Free and bound A mcrpheme Ih3t <an be a" d bJ iL~~f IS called fTft! ... hile a morphe
llle cat~
m I be .macbed 10 anodIer elemenl " SaJd to be bound . 1be m Ih.a::
II<. • for ~xamp e. is free tnre It can be U5ed a:, a word On it o..~ dog.
. J. 00!he other band. IS bound. judg""
CoocepLS Ih!It are elpn!s.sed by free morphemes in Engli~ do Il<lt Wherea. the plural i, pronounced as 1,/ In lhe fi!'.t ca.>e, II i, reallLcd IzJ
oo::essarih ha\e!he s.une tatns In o!her LlIlguage,. For e\arnple, in Han: in the >eCond. and a» liZ} (or perhaps hZ}) In the third. Here again. ",lecuOll
.AthJ.p.lsbn language poI.:en in Canada's , 'onh\\est Tenilorie ). ~ of the proper allomorph " dependent on phonological facb We will e,.
Ih3t indicate bod). pam /Table .!.2) muS! a1\\aJ' bc alt~hed 10 a ~ thi: phenomenon in more detail in Chapter 6. . amme
deslgnalmg a possessor (A high lOoe b marted by the dIacritic '., Other example, of patterns in '" hieh a morpheme' 5 form change '" hen It
combines with another element are ea») t~ flOd in English. The final -.egrncm
Table ~.1 Some body part names m Hare in illl'em and assen. for mstance. " realized as ItJ when these m0'l'he~
~~~~~==~----~-------------------------­
";lhpou~uor
stand alone as separate words but a» III when the, combine ",ith the
morpheme -ion in the words i"'·t'nr;on and assenion. Comparable alternauons
*fi 'read 'm~ bead' are found in words such as penn;!/pemli~-h·e ([t]-[s]). eieclri£,leIUlri[.il)
-be 'I;>e!l~ • 'Jour bell~' ([kj-[sj). di\"ide/di\'i~-ion ([dj-[:;]). impre~/impreg·ion (bHn). and so
*dzt 'be.Irt ·sorneone·.s bcartla !lean' on. In all !bese cru,es. we are dealing with variant forms o[ a ·ingle
morpheme.
Beginning students can also be confused by changes in . peUing found in
In Engli.sh. of course, these body pan name are free morpheme and do Il<lI some morphological patterns even w hen there are nO corresponding change,
have to be auached to another elemenL
in pronunciation. Thus. the final e in the words creOle and wrile is hit ",hen
Coo\ersely, there are also some bound forms in Engli h \\hose COUnter.
they combine with a morpheme beginning with a vowel (creal-I\·e. wril''')'
pam In other language are free. For example. the notion 'past' or These spelling modifications do not change a morpheme's identil!. of Coun.e.
'completed IS expressed b} a bound morpheme (usually >pelled ·ed) In and should simply be ignored when doing morphological anal)t"
Eogli h. but by the free morpbeme Iccw in ThaI. A the fOllowmg sentence
hows,!hi morpheme can e\en be separated from the verb by an inteITenir.~
1.2
word. /Tone i not marked here.) -
Representing word In order to repreent the internal nucture of words. it is nece·saT) not only
6) to identify each of the component morphemes but alo to classif) thee
structure element in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of the
Boon hUIJ khaa ... leI:"
Boon coo rice !".lS1 larger word.
Boon cooked nee.'

Roots and affixes Complex \\ ord, t)l>lcally con,i,t of a root and one o~ more affixes . The root
Allomorph morpheme carries the major component of the word s mearung and t:elongs
Morpbemes do nOI al\\ay hale an invariant form. The morpheme used 10
expr mdefmllenc in Engli h. for in lance, has 1... 0 form - a and Cill. to a lexical categol') - noun (,0. verb t\')· adJecu\e (Al. 0: preposll1on (p)
Thc. c catecone .... 111 t>e discussed in more detailm Chapter). cctIon I I. Fm
no\\ 11 ufllce, 10 nole that nouns I) picall) refer to concrete and ab Iract
l) TI \IP, l~ \~\
IINl.lil' lie \
MO\{I'IIO\ ()l.Y 1111 A.N", YM .... 01
WOIo:\) "\ 1 Rue 1 lJkl:
1\7
'tllInK" (Ill I'
t, 'teUm Ill) \\h I' '.. rcprC,SCOIUlion lh~t indicates unly the \(lC.<lhnn of th
,
.. dlCetl\es I ' II
. ISll~l \ n till , _
'c . .
\,',,,,
(m'm, "',K") I,'nu 10 U'
t.:1l0le .
1It1-k"ul. nrmJerll-I 'lt'. and ,",0 (In. t:: ml)rphl.!mc htmndan ~
l'nl'l"I' ' I" ,l plnpt,'rltl: s (klllc/. n'd). and prcnn~"tl' alti uo
~c 'patn fI.'l t'
. ' .\ H'ns. I n gl'nl'ral. nOlin' can occur \\ ilh"- tl ' O,lS ('III, Il( , .
\\" h •..,/1
- (11"/1 ' )
I '\;(),' ,_I,Ill! ,1djl,\..·ti\l'S wtth \'{'n' ("(")" /"'inti).
" II"""ur), \'er~-
Or)
A base is the form \0 which .m affix i, added. In man cas' ~
t l In""c rt "'I .s.• t I-I l\l" dn bl'lung to a lc\kul category 'U u
lH)t "'i
the root. In huoks, for ex.ample. the element 1 h Y . CS, the ba...e" aho
;(\~md lllorphClllc, A slro,ighlf,'mafl.l illuslr,ltillll of [his conl~"~1 are l
al\l,,1s correspon, d ~ to the. word's root. . tn Other C'l~CS
~. '.
ow It:h the affIX .
\S aduc.u
ho wever, an aftix Ca-,"i \....~.
1 h: \\ ~)nl It'clt'lIl·r. Whll'h cnllsjs{s of tht! root reclt'''. a verb. and th ') tlllJIld III to a Ulllt larger than a root. ThiS happens in words !-ill 'h bl n I'C add,cd
,. c as u~kened in h h
a i>lllInd
. . IIhlrph"lIle lhal ,',"no,nes with the roOi 'Uld gives. ,'I nOunc allh w' '.,, the past lense a ffiIX -e< I is added 10 the verbal base bl k , ' w Ie
111",lIl1ng 'onc \\ h'l I,'m,hes', The inlernal struclure of this w Ith Ih. of the root morpheme black and the suffix -ell. ac e'l -a unn com,i,\ling
~l'l'l'l':.el\led III diagram flmn, as sh,m n 111 Figure 0.1, I. (The S)ill1bt)II~~ "can be In Figure 4,3, black is not only the root [or the entire wo db I
'bl k r ut a '0 the ba e
tl>rallt") I Ilao<1.\ for -ell, The untl (Ie 'ell, on the other hand, is simply the ba,e for -ed, '
V
N

\ Ar .~fm,d -A~
teach
I I Root and base - A Af Af
for -en \ \ \
black en ed
Til\' Intt'rIl.11 .. trlldlllt~ 01 tIll' \\old tt'.l<.-Ilt'f.

Figure 4.3 A word illustrating the difference between a root and a base,
,The inlernal 'tn'CIIU',' of some other romp"''' words is depicled in hgu~
0.1,_.

,\ h N The vast majority of complex words in English are built from roots that are
a problematic cases \
free morphemes in that they can be used in other contextS as independent

,\1'
",
A ~
~ \f
(advanced) words, In the word re-do and rrear-mellt, for example, the root (do and rrear.
respecti\,ely) is a V that can appear elsewhere in the language without an
affix, Because most complex words are fonned from a root that can itself be

I
1II1 kind
I I
book
I a word, English morphology is aid to be word-based.
This notwithstanding, English contains a significant number of word, in
\\ hich the root i-not free, For example, tlllkempr seems to consist of the preftx
II/t- (\\;th the meaning 'no!') and the root kempr (meaning 'groomed'), e\'en
though kt'lrIl'r cannot be m,ed as an independent word, Other common words
l' \' V
of this type include !wrr-if." \'enge-ance, i/l-epr, and sa!\,-<1Iion, to name but

,\ AI' V
~ At'
a few, We will a sign morphemes such as kempr, Itorr, \'e/lge, epr, and sah'
to the spe,ial catcgo~ 'bound root' (B in Figure 4A overleaf), which we will
l'?,er\'t' for I'lX)t morpheme' that cannot be u;;ed as words and therefore do not

I
1II,"kll1
I
ill'
I
dc,troy
I
cd
\>eh)ng to a con\cntil)nalle"ical catego~' such a, noun or verb,
Th', origin of most bound I'l)()ts in wordsuch as the'e h the re,ult 01
s{'l"tfic c' ~nt, in the hi,to~ of Engbh, For example, there \\ a, once a \liQrd
fi":UI,'4 ,l '(lent t\tl'k'f \\ )nf" \\ 1Ih ,,\11 intl~ll'I..ll ...t'lK IlIn.l.l()fl'I,t1ng 01 .1 root .Uld ~111 .1ft" A, ""1 in Englt"h (with th> mcaning 'combed'), and it w ,to Uu' b~ e that the
am" 1/11_ \\ a, onginalh attached, At a later point, ho\\ ever, kempl dl!>appeared
rh, ,,' .11,1 'ralll', \\ htdl ,Ire llft,'n c:alkd tree ,trudurt", t,'prCst'nl lh,' fwm lh> langu;ge, I~a\'ing behind the \\ord un empl \0 hich an affIX
,it-t,lIt- "f .1 \\ "1,1', in"'t n,ll "lganilalinn, Wherc (hcs,' Jct.llls ;11,' inl'l,'"ml h' appeJI> \\ th a bound rOllt, The fonn ill pI (from the Latin uleptu 'un,uited')
Ih,' P"1Il1 l'c'lll!! lI'n,id,'I,'d. It " lIaJill"II,III,' II'C a lIIu,'h '1lIIpkl' '~'!l'nll't
 138
Co H IPu \
Mol III tt O' If.
, 1'1
\
\ 1'0 ,\

\f B R \f B At \f
/\ B B
I I I I I I
Ar

un kempI hmr if} vt!nge anl,..7l! in CpI s<lls

atiOQ
Figur.. 4.4 rht 8tl~t' ''''lhl11Ilrm
11 11 ~tructure or worn .. bUIlt around J bound root.
t.,khuh ' nln' I -11m _,"-huh \,\n'

nn th ' \>!h~r hand. '"'' borrowed IOto Engll\h as a "hole w la\... ;lll ·wnl}.. · I Ullhl\",hl · w.llke,"
rd.llion,hlp of its r..,1, -epr, 10 the word apr (from the same source) ord l'\, 'l: h()( \\(" rio tlt',I

o.,~n c, id~nt alone lime. hUI the "ord is now seen b} mosl
In\ 'he a I'lound rl.l\)t.
have
t!cs to
,pe7 pili? "..:1\11

Beginning ~.HI~~c nh snn~C'limC' s think thal 4t morph~mC' ~ul:h ;, ,," mil".,

bcn harJ~r to hreak inlo recogOlLable morphcm~s are "ord, sUcb
rt'l'elre, dc'cen'('. cOflceu'e. and perct?Il'e or r~mlt. pennll, 'iubmit. nd ('0 as
Th~,c items "crc borro" cd as whole wOHh 1010 English (many of the ~
Latin Ihrough French). Even at Ihe lime of borrowlOg. the re- of re('e~ rom
n,'1 has'c Ihe ,en,c of 'again' Ihat it does in redo ('do again') and Ihe ~ did
deceil'e did not c'press the meaning 're,erse Ihe procc 5 ' a. OClaled WI~
de- in demystify or decertify· Because the componenls of ""rds i1ke rrr.~
and dreein' carT) no identifiahle meaning for Ihc average pealer of F l '
(who has no knowledge of Lalin). wc wili not trcat them a: ng
morphemes in this oook.'Thus, wc take the wurtl receil''' to ellll I I Of a m 10:
morpheme. g 9)
1.3
Some common Human la:nguage makes lise of a variety of operations ,'r proces s lhat
morphological modify the .'tructure of a word. either hy adding OI11~ ~lcm nt to II
ish-lit's,' IS un. mh'\ ~ mcl..! tt ~M:l:ur:, hClwl!'cn two olhcI murphl,'me5 (1m .In(\
- lIt'S,d. but till S is nm so , To he an 1Il11x. . an aU ix mm.l O~(ur 1n')u.le \t h" ie
(as when - IOU in ragah)g o~<.:urs Ins H.i~ tllkh"h 'run' ). Nuthlng ot lhl \ on
hilPpc-n... in the case llf . i,\/t . stn<.:c ih hase i . . bo~... nOlthe 1mP" ;; ihh: -"0
lieu
,\ ve ry special type of infi xin /,\systcm is found In Arahlc, In "hllh a t)pical
rnOl (,lll1SlstS slll"\piy of three. consunanh. Ath xcs com"I'\tmg ot two \'uwcb;. are
the n ins..:rtcu into this roo t in a man,ncr that intcr~pcr!-"c, the. ,-,owe,", _,mung the
consonanl s. (In Ihe examples that lol\ow, the segment' 01 the ro\lt arc ""ttcn
in hold fke.)
katab kutih aktub uktb
' write' ' have heen wrille n' ' be writing' 'being written'
or\ One way to represent the structure of such words is as follows, wllh the m()t

phenomena making an mternal change 10 order 10 c\pr~" a n~w meaning or to marl.

gmmmatical contrast (such as pasl versus non-past, ' \"cr,us \'. and 0 on).
! and affix ""igned to di ffcrclll tiers, or levels of structure, that arc intercalated
in the actual pronunci atio n of the word. (See the discU',.,ion of templalic
morphology in sectio n 1.6 of Chapter 6.)

10)
Affixation The addilion of an u ffix. a pro:css known as affixa tion. " an extremel}
a Af (present) b Af (passive perfecti ve)
common morphologIcal process In language '1onnally. linguisl., di~ungu i 'h
:unong three types of affixes. An affix that is au ached to the front of it> ba:;e !\ !\
k uti b
IS called a pre rLX while an affix that is anached to the end of its base is tconed kat a b
a suffix. Both types of affix occur in English. as Table 4 .3 shows. "W
Root
.,
('wnte ) ~'write')
Table~..3 Some English prefixes and suffixes
' write' 'have been written'
Prr:fixes SlIjJiUS
Q!-ac£iv3te vi\id-!l
~-pla) goyem-ment Some words are unable to stand a lo ne as inde pendent forms for phnnologl.:al
Cliticization
mter-marry hUnl~ reasons. Such elements, c alled ditics, must be attached to another word in the
!!!-accurate kind-ness sentence. A good example of this can be found in English , where certalO vem
11 M ()~ ... ~
V 1 1 "'1. 1 1J~ I II

II)
1/)
(I St,'v" 11I11'l l',lch,' III , 01 I mllu hil ve h4.'l"llllll'lnh · I I '
, , ' l r, \) \ ""- ( hn ).!.n:'i~ Pan
(/ 1'111 h',I\'1f)' 1141\\, I) SC;Vl'I UI P Il,"l.,u ll'll\ 0 1 In{\liI ... h il Vl" h l'l' n nwmht, 'h ' ( ' Y
n IJ \ ongn.: ,,, Pan y,
I, ~'PIII' III ,"n'l'nl
f\1.11 \' S
' I Il l' plum l su n I X l'I U\l~tll h l' ~llI ad ll'(1 to lI u y nO\l1\ Clthl' T ,h.,n th\' nt
I ht'\ It' IH'''' 110\\ pilii'll!. ll t.' I1(.'l' the lI UP.I Il I1H lItllH.;u hl y II I 141J) )lin tho'! i

1 +1t'1I~'h, whll'h lul'iud "'''I11 """ II I UII"', .

('I,lhl/.IIIIHI '''' ,,1,," rllllllllllil III
dtl,,' I'fllllllllll' 11101111111" h,' illt,u' Iwi I 111 1III " Vt. 1It. (1\ IIIHI II ~.,II 11111 l' v Uh' l1I " "",I tnlt.'fllnt ChUl1l!(' ,11.., a pro<.'l" ...... t h a I !-\uh '-o\I\\lt c ... Ol~l' n Oli m Off'h c I1\H': .... c~ rncn\ t Of
I V('j I) I1h ' pllllltlU l .lt' ' t I ,,\"0 I I Illl'), 11l11I1l
WIIIIl~11 1,111 '.lIil)..'I' Ihr rlllu ' Hud lit' "'1'(j1" II, (ll1u the l , H\; 1I1ul..,ltatc<I 11\ till,.' 111111' '' 0 1 word s In " ah\c 4~
'11I~·ll· \\PICI }

/ ')
... 11l}' (pn'" 'Ill) "';lIl).! (pil'on
.""11/.11111\' ", .. \'U11
sHIh. (prl"l..'nl) ~"l\k (pu'1)
SlIt.UUIt' Ih"11I 'n', drove Cpa ... l)
\1I/,llIm" ,,'t'" Ihl'lIl til IVl' (pIC"l'ntl
loci Iplur,.I)
loUI (\;lnguIM)
('11/1" Ih.,1 "",,,h 111111\' ... 111 1>/ '1""",'dIllV "",,11""" Ih" I 1I ~ I " h " ""'pk'i VIlO\,l' (\;lIlgUIi.II) 'cc c fplll",1
,11\ l.lIkd l, .. diU",. Il1p .. ,,' Ihllt IIILIl'h 10 1IIl',he 'Inltlll~' 111.11,111 0\\ lit}' wOl d 1.1\
ill 1111'1 Ilt'l1,,1I 1'\,lIl1ph'l ilH' ~fI\I\\lt lI'IU'UI'ltfk,
!lit' dkd .. oII"IiIH"I/.lliPIIl'11i1 ht'.lI .t 'til aln'l.1I1 o'l'l1lhhuH.'I,.' to "I II \l ltillll VClhs ,uch ;" ';11):, "illk, itllli tim'" fnrm Ihelr past tense hy ch;mging the
IIIlT III hplh \'""',, j ill t'lI'llIflll Ilhll nlllllol ,land ,IIOIll' ., i.ltlw.:hn l to Oil \l' 'I vowe l (e,g. from. tn" in the fir I two cX'"11pksl. The term ahlaut is " he"
lIsed for vowellll\ern,'11011' that 1l\ar~ grammatical cnntr,,,,, m thIS way,
IIII' k, \' "" "'"'m'" ,,11,.,1 ,,"l1k,' .,11,,,,, 1I11Ih." dll'l" "'\('I"",d '" Iill ill ,'
I\hllllli Citll he <ii,lln 'ui hell trum umlaut, willeh invnlvcs the I",ntmg, of
IIU'lIlhr" pi d h-\I\'III t .lhTPIY ... m.1l ,1\ q',h. I)PUI1 (or PUlIIIlUII ). t\l
11 vowel under Ihe influence 01 " front V(lwel in the f(l\l uwin!; sy\lahk.
1'1 \'j I~ 1'1111 HI
1,,1."'!.lhl'l' I' ,lIll'lh"1 11/," ,.1 rllIlI' "h,dl "1111\ II .',,"I,.Il'\('d 11'"11 1l1.lny lIi~tllrically, Ih" " "hat" re'I">1,,,hk illr the u,e or J"t' I and ,~rfse as the
,..II '1.1111111" 1I'\",d ,'I~I'I>'I, 1>111 III", h m'n'III".""" " 1I),'u puhk 1>1 pillral I'orlll' of f",,1 ami '(10"" respecllwl) ~ the back \'o"c\ \0 the rOllt
o~Tllllfllr III 1\001.111011, I Ill' 't'IIII1H' \ 1Il111gll'h ,'" fl' 'i.tukd Itt 11H1 I1 Y I..' Ur r l'II1 (ol1!!I1);,lIy 10:1) \\as Imnh:J in m,,'pat1!ln "f the front vo\\d in the u\<l plural
1""11111,11' ,,1111 'I"h I ur""""
,11111'1 1>1 ""h II "hili .\llllI.u~h II" iI "" "lit! sul'nx /i/l, "hieh "as, uh c'lu 'ntl) "rnppel!,
"''''1'1,,'111'' II,,' 'II,II\(' ." ""I,' ,,,II,, I hl' uUlI,1I dllkle' I"'" j, II"" rhc IIllcrllal ,h.IllS " JU t c,'n I" 'I' '.I ,m: nut e amp\.: "l' inli'<tng \'0' two
,,1"'''',1\ II ,,1111\ '('I, 111111 lillI' 'I 11,'d I'hUIII1I"!,"',I"Y, WII"lI1l1l'il ll y, .Int! I'l';"OI1\ , \,irsl, Ihelc i, n 1'1.',1" II to thllll.. Ihat \-J1I!\i,h h", ",ot mnrphemcs

\111,11'/1 ,1111 \\/111111\ [>",1",,111 hll".'illlh·<I , 11<1''''''"1111'''"111111\\''1 "",h ,t, . ft (me.t1IlIl' 'I('l" r c In:llllt) " the Ie') or \II (meaning'pm"ule
(1\1111 It .llId III n h..·d hi "lIIt'lhl." lllll,lIIu nllIl Ihl~ ~l'IIIt'lill" ,Il 1111\,' hit,:t II l\l l' h " " , , " III ,I lllU le.llll'Il,·') \, h''''11 h) the T.lgalog <:umplc, III T,lbk ~,~,

hll' ," ""'" ",1'1>" \\ Ilh II II .. I I hus, Ih I'hl>,,"I .. ',<:,11 111,,1 1I1,IY he ,h ll.-',' nl Ih,' I',t"· illl,' \\ Ill"h .111 mfi I lIl, cn d 111u,1 c "I ;1' a "'parat, tmm S cono,
1111111 till' \'lIll1lIH. • uul \l'lthIllIH. htl,1 pi ,I l'lIlll I III ,: III Ill" l'l' ll i ll till' 11ll'1'l' " H" lIldq '\l,knt r,',I,nll III thlilk Ihallh,'le " ,I m,'rphe111c 00 III ~'n 'h h
1..111Itl.1 11111 pl,ln,' lIlt'lll ul tht' 'l fllint '111111l' 101111\\111" Iltal nll'.IIl' ',"' 'III • ,'r I tll)l'l'h 'III • ( th,11 llIean, 'plural' 111 the fi :ltlfeer
" ,lIlll'k .111) 1lI"~' Ihull Ihel I I m,',ph"lllc i Ille nll\); 'PI:'CIIl m a
/1 ) m"tl'lll'llll' ,/ m,',lIltll' ' 1'1'1' \l\ Ih, \I'"
'WI l.I',' SIIl,e 11111'<,<:' ,IrC b)
II !'lll I'll Shit-III dpqtH'l1U .I'!'tmlh'\l 1I\(lll'h III ". \ ,'11 l" ndu,k 1\h1llh,"e c ,tIllP,,", 1\\\"\"; Intctll.1l
" I II 1',' ,,1.'111111 Itllh,, ' cI"'1U"II,'" ,h,11\ ',' (th' ,u\ ,ttltltlllll,,1 III II t1lnll'h"mic C IllClIls) r 111I<r than ,nl1 'II

\ ""1'1' IId<:<I I.. Ih, III HIli /'/1'\/1/,11/111 111111 .. "",

Ih pi h. "" l'I'''I'"111 "' /1/'1 1111 he I {rom ,uppl~lilln morph' \0 I al
Idllh 1'" ,"1,'111 .1111111,,1 11"11,, I'h mol" 'Ie \I um I I u
1''' '
 .,.
II I ,
Ml11o!I'lhHtH,'
'4\

Yl't ~\I\OI~l~r l:nmmnll l1\ol'phnlng,II.'"I P"X:C'''' ""l \:CI\;\\I\ tm 'u~\}' 'S thl\l Ih){
,', 'Ulidi\~I;'''m ~ Fnglish) I ' n·dnplkntlon. ~"hl .... h I.l.uph\:\\tl's an I\r pan of the h., ... c \n V.hh,;h
I· .. :t\ l'lr 'tl' h.1\(.'" <u
'h.ld-'- - -.,-,-, ______ _ it \\l'p h l.·~ h"l m:l:\... a t-l r •1mm .\tIl..·"l HI .... I.·m"n\1~ nlOh.h\ I"ult r~d \l p\k~lhm
sp.. "I,h rr tth..' 'lhd\\\'~llr
thL' n .·pettlinn t)t thL' ...·ntlll.· word. ih III lhl' l\;tta \rutn \\lrki ...h 011\\\ \n'-'lln~!i.h':'
""'loll' rcspl.!'ctivd). sh\)\\ 1'1 In T;\hlc 4,t). .
t, ' .,n ,,1 'I' .. IUd '.u'\:·
RU"t.Ul ,~(,,"f' 'uIJI~ 'hc:I1<.'r' I 'nh'~ ~h""'-I'l

----
\l\n'ft' I\,bl<-I,l/

In "\ III ~ (,.\St". It I"; 11.1rd ttl di~(lng:lII,t~ 1'l\,'(\\(,'l"l1 "uppklinn .lnd Illte-
IIfrJ.i.·;}t
~h~Ul~(' hlr t,'\..UHp'~ ••tn' rh.,' p.I'( Il.'n:--(':-. ()' IlImA V1hlll.t.:IU). a.'h.l ,,' I. { tn'l
~ • C lOll h IJ,Ihuk "quid..,\) IJahuk IJahul. qu1l.:\;.\)"
'\:\:I)'
tht' n' ... ult (If ... nrrk·(i<'Il nf IIllC'nl;iI l"h;lIlge? Bcc ..llI'c the InJl1~11 phon. g I
I;),,\J '~low\y ia, ar .l il\aI .... ~f)
s\"""\y
Ih ',t.' \ (.ft, ... n,,·IIt.lin~ un.:hall1!t.'d. \\ • \\ ill \,.'\llhldcr thi" ahl.'nJ.lIl('n to .t.:fOt: or
.tIl i'\.tll.'m" f\lnn llt
, -
mtcm.lll"h.mgt' rJ.thcrthan
.
lnlt..' Sl1pplelhln. lllo\\~\~r
~~
~
IJI
'\\cU'
'heautifut\) .
III IJI
)1)' Ic\ g) let
'\lcry ""d\'
~) lei '\'cry heJ.\I\itu\\)
{('nn p.-.rtial suppll'finn i . . . lI·.. cd b) ~llOh,' hngl1l"'(~ h)r thc: ... e cast..~ . . , 1 . the
illf/OIl OiitUl
orau 'man oral] oraU 'J.\l ,ons of men'
tress .lnd tone ;\l1ak 'chll,r ana\... ana\... ';1\\ "'ort:-\ ('If children'
pl.l emen! nUl.1Jga 'mango 1llJ.l)ga mauga 'a\\ ~ort, of 1113.ngl."ICs·

In contras\. partial reduplication copies onl) pan of the word. In the

1'0110\\ ing data from Tagalog, for instance (Table ,tt 0), reduphcat1l\n afkcts
onl) (he first consonant~vo\\cI sequence of the basco
Ibbk -I." St~" ,,1.ll·cUll'm in Fngli .. h Reduplication in Tagalog
'nIbl. -',10
BaSt' R,·duplicalt'd.fonn
implant Hupl,lnt 'wlll run
tal-buh 'run talal-buh
Irnpon HHfI\m '\\ ill \\:111.'
Ial-ad '\\ aU,: lalakaJ
P"''''nI prt.."l'O(
\~ho\'):,e piplli7 ~ \\.ill ch('K.).. e
'U~ll,,,·t ~ti~jl'l.·[
pili?
COO(t',t :t'ntt',t

till another conUlll'n m<'rphological proces in human language involves

In the language \lon,,·Blli \'ll(l\..en in the African cnuntry of Ziure), 'one Compounding compounding, the cl)mbination of k\.ical categl)nCS \nouns, adiCCIl\Cs,
is used '0 lll, ke the distin.:""n ~l\\een past and luture ten,c (Tahle -1.81. (A \ erbs, ( r prepositil'IlS) to create a larger word, There em: countle" compound,
high 'one" marked h~ and ,I low It'lle is marked h} ',j
111 English, some of which arc ,ho\\n in Table 4.11.
Table 4,8 Past "'rus fUlllie in \Iono-Bili Tubl" -'. \ I S,'me e,amples of Enghsh Cl)mpounJs
Pa"r futlllt' \('tI" + \OWI Adin rr\,('" + \(lUII
dj
--~----------------
'p,n!.,"l' d:t '" ill spank' ~tre('t
lig.ht bluebird ~\\~M \\l..'In.1 ,\) erk"d
II ".Itt: " ~i '"ill eat' ,'ampsit ' h'II'P) h"Uf \\ushd0th \,mthl)u,c
'!.IIk-d'
"" \\0 '''ill kill' h~,:,:"kca~t-" hIgh ,'hair ,,'ruh 13d\ In gl\'up
 . . Jn~- r
di .....~' T-<'t"

on the Ide oi in Er.~ I h

'\
- _ de-rh alional
~
.iihe-S

S:4JiV:5
\ --"A
\" ~.

~r
y--,,:\
-in. y--"
--"~
-:
y--,,~
-"to
\" ~ ..
y~ -

• T ~-\

O( -"A
-"A
'--" ~

-"~
 \

\ \

\t \

utltu\'
 '11 \\ \ 't

\h)n\l.."\ h' \1\ 'p.\\.' \~\\" \h.' .. , l ',\t h."'" 1\"',, h\H\h\\U ,., \\\
, '\\'1 l 1 '\ \t \ .t! h"-'t ~ ~ t,~)\ ! \

(II

hk - ,11'II , il~ f\.,~,t-,Ibll , il' ,1<, 'pI ~bll II,

1'\><.'1 I n'lt "I ,.
1\)\)\ 2 1
pnxl -1-1'- \ hk ' -il) ,Ihl' * £\:,1,1 II ' ,Ihl' * ,I,' , '1'1'11~ • ,II'\'-)
-1\
-(I I'm .aI n\\)\ I n'l\.'l 1 1, 'It \ ~

-'T final ..'\'0' 10 l of th,. t-J. ...e' ,:h3.(]~ "'''n n 1,[

p i,- )
final , :>nan! of the b.!" .oh.m; -, fn'm 3
1\"1 of \IWlh 'r ,'\'ll\ml'!l ",I) Il' 1>\11ld ""l'1h III E!l~h'h \I\\\ll\ " l'\I\\\\l\lIIndin' Ih,'
!:-;n') LJI G
(OlirO L \.)1' k,i '~\l ~ ..\t ~~\1n" \1l('1lI\'. adjl'~t\\ . . ~. , 'lb,. ,-'It \'\"C'\',-"\\h,\lh).
(',J1l1hin;.tti\.'lt\
n t~l(ln
fin , "1..'lI1' 'nant of tht' ,~ . . .h .. l" fn\JIl
! "I d \\ilh , 'I) f'" ''\ TU,lll', Ih' n"lllt\1l~ ,'l'\\\I><.'\lIld ,\\,(\1 I' ,I I\,'un, ,I , 'rb, ,,\
narn
an ,Idj '('In' Ifi~uf\.' 4 ,10, ,,, 'rI'"n , II' '''lllk ',\,\1\\\,1..', I,f '\'\\\IX'ul\,1
1'1'\ ',lIilll', m'lu,\' Ih..- ",'r" /1'(' ,md elllte')
In Ih '" ,\1,,\1\\,"1 l'lh,'f "'mlx'und,, Ih ' ri~hlll\')'1 1II"ll'h,'II\' ,\cl,'llll\n',
Ih,' ",\I'~)~ "f Ih' 'nli~ ",'rd , rhU"~Il-<,,,'h'I" IS ,Ill I '(,IU'" II'
righunl,):-ot t..'\)tH{"u.:nl i, ..\1\ 'Pt'l'tt· rf,'c,d" ..\ \ ~\",\U:-.\.~ ' ( \ ' ,\1,\, tx'h\n£,., ill
to

Ihi' ,al"~'ll ~. and II We'1I\\ :,/. I' ,III \ .11IsI ;1' III", " I'h' m"lvh,'l\\,' Ih,ll
ntlne
,1<-1<'1'\1\\\\<" II ','.\l,:!:,,)r~ "r Ih~ 'ntil<'" "1,\ I' ,,11\ 'd Ih~ h~:Id
rwnc
-ful (h,)ne-
I) 1l('Ine
·cr none
-,>II ,df-l h none
ab! ,'mllk'nJ-able BOlle
, l
N t, , tn \ '1U

\ \
\ I'
\
I
I
~Ulh'n .\fl'r I
1"''1I~hl
,\ '''' I !-oilt" !-oml '"mp :-:UI( III
I.l'\ "

\ \
in _h,tJl\h,ln. lht." \\ ,"'IN f(,ln\).\\\\\" pn ~('"",~ n:';"p'-'n.;"i~\~ f('If den\ an n nd
'1;\1\\1 ')\IIlJ\t'~ ~;.lt\ i nt~r:\~t \\ llh e~h:h \\th~r. In 'hg\l~ -t \~ .. f\."\f m"t.\\\..:~.
\.' I,.\t11("'.'\10"\ i" \\''1nut.-.J I)~ c\)mhm\l\~ ,,\ '\lurk \\\')N dl'D.. u \\ nh t.bl! '"' "n N
\ \ \ l' \ \' " llt i .lf" Ie

, ~, Il >I ,b~ \. ....411 U .' 1 .... ' L In.lt " ',I,

!.til'"

\ \ \

\ \ r \

\\ hOI \ ' nl'

, \ tn !!T\ \\ II

ro nh It rI
II
 ''it;
A second distinguishing feature of compounds in " is not ;.~ lype of neck hut un ultra l:onwrvatlvc
anuuag's '. h - english . anu a .\UKll,.~dlldllv , ... nOl a tyn.. 01·. . While wor"-,n ' t.:h
fiI e t. IS t at tense lind plurnlmarkcrs can tYPically not be . anu OUt .. I·.... ...Ug,lf·CUut.:d t'ath'r . pcr\on
Irst element. although they can be added to the compound a .. altacheulO the, - who IS deemed to he huth uVClgcncfou ... anu ,'! hut a WtlHl"'t) 1\ lover
- sa whOI e compounds arc said to he Cx()ccntric much to() h\d t~lr her Such
In e
Tense on the tirst element in a compound: Table 4.19 Some N- N compound...
*The player [droppe~ kick] the ball through the goalposts. Example M('a,,;n,':
Tense on the entire compound:
The player [drop kick]ed the ball through the goalposts.
steambont
airplane
.~,boat powered by steam'
'a convcyence thallravels thmugh the illr'
--.--
18) air hose 'a hose that carries air'
Plural marking on the first element in a compound is usually disall air lield 'a field where airplanes land'
*The [foxes hunter] didn 't have a licence. OWed: lire truck 'n vehicle used to put oul fires'
*The [roa~ map] are expensive. lire drill 'a practice in the event of a fire'
bath tub 'a place in which lo balhe'
(There a few exceptions such as passers-by, parks Supervisor and m balh towel 'a towel used aflcr bathing'
~~ ~~
Plural on the entire compound is the norm:
The [fox hunterJ~ didn'r have a licence. A very .striking'difference
.' between endocentric and exoc en t'nc compounds
The [road map]~ are expensive. shows up III Engltsh III those rare cases where the head of the co dh
. I I I C 'd' . mpoun as
an Irregu ar p ura. onst cr In thts regard the examples in Table 4.20.
The preceding criteria are especially helpful for identifying co
whose initial component is a verb or a noun. An A-N compound (grem~Unds
wei s/lii) can be identified with the help of a different tes!. As illus~~~t~~!"
Table 4.20 Pluralization in English compounds
the following example, the A in a compound cannot be preceded by a w In In endocentric compounds hI exocentric compmwds
~u~ ~
oak leaves Maple Leaf~ (Toronto's NHL hockey learn)
19) wisdom t~lh sabre toolh~ <extinct species of tiger)
Compound with very: club f~t bigfQQ~ (members of an extincl tiger species)

· We live next to a very [greenhouse]. policem!;n WaJkm~~ (a lype of portable audio ca"etle
player)
Of course: when it is not part of a compound. an adjective can typicall be
accompamed by thi S type of word. y
Notice that the exocentric compounds permit the plural sufftx. -s for words
20)
such as leaf, loolh,Joot. and mall. even though these forms require an irregular
very with an adjective that is not part of a compound: plural when used elsewhere in the language.
We live next to a very green fence.
3.2 3.~3_ - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Compounds in other Although the rules for forming compounds differ from language to language,
Types of compounds Compounds are used to express a wide range of semantic relationships in
the practice of combining lexical categories to build a wonl is ver)
Eng!Jsh. Table 4. I 9 contains examples of just some of the semantic patterns languages wide. pread. As Table 4.21 (overleaf), which shows examples from various
found III N-N compounds.
languages. helps to illustrate. compound nouns are especially common.
In most cases the rightmost component of the compound identifies Ihe
With the exception of Tagalog. in which compounds are left-headed. these
general cIass 10 whtch the meaning of the entire word belongs. Thus dog food
languages all have compounds in which the rightmost element is the head.
I~ a ~ype 01 food , a cave mati is a type of man. and so on. Such compounds,
A special type of compounding process involves incorporation. the
which lIlclude all the examples in Table 4 . 19, arc called endoccntric.
combination of a word (usually. but not always. a noun) with a verb to form
I~ a smaller number of cases, however, the meaning of the compound docs
a l'Ompound verb. Although English does not make use of incorporation, the
not IOllO~ from the mcaning~ of its parts in this way. Thus , a greellilollie is
not a Iype 01 bottle; ralher, illS a fly of the genus lucilia. Similarly, a redneck process is common in other languages.
I~

to ()RPHO 04Y ,

comp<Jundo m .-atJ<_ langwgn

Korron
kat el rm IW-I" ~
mwun-mYw'tJ1 Derivation and compounding ""0
the two most -
ralgh Ice dC"wroun eye .... ater formauon . In Englim. but they are nO( the ""IvCOmmon l)-pes of
lUCie ·dri//Je· Jean' pre-.enled III th" ~Cl1On will sbov.. !hero are, n - ""'""- e

--- ------
.... or<ls. ather ... eYe"'" oe..
faga/OK
IalIod bayan anak araW lubig ulan
I',:trd IOWn .hJld ,un w;atcr r'un Con>ersion i, a pmce that assl6Jl5 an alrea(\v ell!' ord
'1'01 ,='
(#'rlTUln

(Ja1t h(Jf
'albino"

-------------
Wort -bcdeurunp-Iehre
'(<tinwater

rem-oehcr
-- s),ntaCllc category, Even though it doe not add an;.,.r,,, con=

(For thlS reasoll_ III '>Omeume, called zero derivation_ )

. 10 a new
derivallon becau~ of the change in category and meaning th~~:"~1es
=
Many examples of conver;ion involvmg the CTeation of a lie... etb fr

----
guest Inn word meaning theory far SCer a noun were gIven In the fir I chapter of this book (beach a boar. W'/lUr ...
h"lel' '5emanlic~ . ".e1C\'f!lijOf) MeXICO. and so on) Table 422 contaJns eumples of the three most CO<nmon
types o.f
comer,IOIl to have taken place m the hi,tory of English. . lXlIed
fmllifh in section 1.3 above. nouns denved trom verb;, 5Ometune-; 1lIIderzo
lamm ..-nahlu-tutkkl ehn-kem<>-ta1<>-ven>-l.ki shift. "hleh places the . Ire on the irutial syllable_ The efferu of tins
phenomenon can be seen In the fif';l three examples of the middle column_

--
cheep .kln coal life'. means Income tax law
fJ~klO(:(}aI "income lax 13...,,'
Table 4.22 Some examp\"'I of COQVet'<lOn

'l"lJIzii \' demedfrr-n-

pll xiiI mt!"k'inobal ?6m-tJ6n finger (a s"-'pect) dirry (a ,bin)
w,.p-head mother- nu.st rightaway-snake boner I the bread eIllp{) (!he box
'hal ' rambow ' 'deadly viper' ship (the pacbge) f::t nev.) Stir\e~ open t a door)
------------------------------- nail ( the door . hut)
bunon (the shirt)
(a brief) repon
ta Ion= v.:ill;
right (a wrong
~ the clothe,)
'/ he example In 21) arc from Chukchee, ~poken in northeastern Siberia.
.",d rhe M,.rone Ian language Ponapean , As these examples help to ilIu;lrate Le.S common type of cumer;ion can yield an .' from an A (Ihe poor. a
,"<:orpofaIHm otten fllvolvc phonological adjustments to the noun and/or ~
and e,en a \' from a P (to da..-n 0 beer. 10 up ;M pnce. 10 ow
f!0Y )
verb.
bishops )-
21) Con,er;i n L u,ualJ~ re tncted to .... oro" .:ontairung ,mgle morpheme
(J (hukchcc a1thoU!:h there are re .... e cepn n' uch a" propos-inon noun and \-ern
",'tlhout JlI("fJrp"rtl/um With II/cfJrporatifJn rtier-~:' (noun d \em) d din-}' (adjecu\e and ern)_ In orne, e_
" ;1pelark;m q()'''!l,) T:> -q(Jfa-peJark;m .:omcl"ion .:an e,en pl~ to a \. mpounJ. .... hen the compound
I leu ve re mdeef Irctndcer-Icave r:Mrubr,md l' u. ed 'd' em (he 'I e~ 10 ~rondsrand) in the , n e of'sh ....
I'm leavrng he f~,ndeer' ' I am In the pnK:CSS ()f[cindccr-Ic~ving.' ,'fC
b. """apcall
4.1
WlIluJ/I/ ill('(lIf"'I'lIIUJII With /f/('orporal/l1/1
, P.,lmllt ,ckl 1,,1,\ I flahn perck - J" Clipping
I will ullroll Dial f will ullroll mal
" ",II Ufl,,,lIthe lIlat I WIll eng.1 'C in Ill;!t ullrolllng.'
 I~ (,

B/{"lCh arc '",'rJ, Ih.,c ,Ire l'rc,tlCcllrom non·morphcmlc parts (,I

" I~tlng Itellls \Vdf.l.,nowll e.ample, 01 blend,. Inelud.c brwwl ,I"'" .'r.,..o&<]"
J rOl1l h J
}tHI und IlIfIf'h. ,\mo/? frnrn ,\l1Iol\t~ and f(~, .~pam I rom ~l(·t~d und h "t'll~
..' . m'l If'/
from It'/t'phOlw ,IUd IJIlIT(If~lfm. Iwr(Jl}/l'I.H~ I rom ~e..r(}IJI.(',\ and t't('r(" -' . "/h/l /! Acrunym ... arc formed hy laking the tnill.llltHCrs. ht )m" IJf "It'll'
(Jurthl' nl!\\ unl.1crw;lh:r · · aileI l hc continent) fr1\" • r hIfllt/,.,
link hctwccn BrltalO I
u ) ne Wf)fU
. hill (0;' 10 iL phnl\C or lt11c an{I rCallng them a~ i.t whrd '( hi l\;tvo ht w( "I f
, jI"" , C,fn 1\110,",
.Ind 1lIII",'!. and it~r()mt'''ci('' from !!!l!!.rl1l0llnll and ('onmlPrtifll
• '
"'Uff'1 is c~pccH,Hy c()mmhn 10 n~"nc~ of ()r~anll.'I\lhn lind lI\Cu::l\lIhc tenlltn(,\,
e,amples ,ho\\', a "lend" u,ually formcd from Ihe fir\! Pilrt oj· "n~ i\ loc'e Some examples {)I "emnym' Include IJNI( U f(,r IJnitC/I N'"II( I t'iY
J 1 nter
nalional (hlldren .. Emergency t·und. NAIO f,,, '"nh AII.nlle T,eat
, _ • . ' , .,
Ih, Iin,Ii part of a ,ewnd one. llihrd al1<l
Some "lend, hilve "ccome so inlegrated Into Ihe "(lndanl V(lC' h Organi/.atH,n. ACAS for AdvisC>rY. CnnelliallllO and Amllratll," Se,,,cc (,Yn
Fnoll,h llliIl .'''''(Ike"
. ,tatus, For example rei, ,II· ular"'. hf
ifrc_ unaware of their
• t"' ' J'-
people know Ihal "'endlllg hils produced chort/" (e()incd "y author
• d IV~I I

Carroll) lrom ('hlteA/" "ndlllor!, mOle! from mo/Or and Ilflll'!. hil (10 e() "'''',
t, '" the UK). AIDS for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syn<l'{)mc, But there are
also example,. such as NIMBY. f{)r Nhl In My Back Ya,d. Ihat are ('"md III
everyday language.
Jargon) from hit/ar.... and digil. .
and modem from modll/alllr and t/"""ItI IIm/Ufo PUler In some eases. speakers may not know that a w(ord III Ihelr v'><:ahubry "'a.\
Sometimes. u word " formed by a process thaI 'eelm to be r originally lormed as an aemnym. Three commonly used word, "flhl type are
borderline Octween compounding and hlcnding III that ilcomblne, ,IIf (:,~ ,:he ",riar (from radio detecting and ranging) . .~ruba (o;elf-cMlaincl\ und"Nlater
word ","h part of another. Examples of IhlS III Enghsh Inelude flern ne breathing apparatus). and laser (light amplification hy Imulated emlS Ion f,l
, Iil'prt'JJ
(for pcrlllfll/I'IlI·p"'H). workaho/tc, met/,care. and Xlte.l.llim(J/t! A mClr radiation). The name of Ihe computer language BASIC IS an aewnym for
. .' c rL"CCnt
creation of this sort i, Ihe word Ihreepeal III North Amenc.," tnghsh, u, 'U Beginner's AlI · pur~ Symbolic Instruction Code,
refer (() the wInning of a championship in three ,ucce"ive yea" (a, In~. to
of IIIl' Sail I, mlll"isc(J 4gen wue hopmg for a Ihreepeallll Ihe SlIper BOwl ;m.
4.4 ~---,----A-:-:II~I-a-n-g-u-ag~e~s~·:-h:OOa,:OO,, :OO·-::w-::o::r::;d:OO.,~w~h~(=,,:-::e sound represenLs an aspect oj the Ihing that
Backformation Rackformation i, a process Ih,1l create .. a new word by removing -:;;1 onomatopOeia they name. Examples of ,uch onomatopoeic words in English include bu:a.,
.supposed affix from another word in the language. Relltrrecl wa, Origi~ill~" hiSJ. sizde. and cllckoo.
formed '" Ih" way from I'l'surreuirJll. Other backformalion, III Engr ~ Since onomatopoeic words are not exacl phonetic COplCS of nm", • their
IIlelude 1101Ift'kl'ep from hO/tll'kl't'per. elllhu.fe from elllhu.lu/.\m. t/Ollllle fr:,m form ean differ from language to language. as can be '>Cen in 'lab!.: 4.23,
dOl/allOt/. and onenl or onenltlle from oriellla/wt/. Sometimes. baCk/ormatIon
Involves an Incorrecl as .. umpJion ahoul a word's form: for example. the Word Table 4.23 OnomalOpoeia across languages
pea was derived from the earlier .. ingular noun pecHe ( .. ometimes wrinen
pI'C/I). whose final Iii was incorrectly inlerpreled as the plural suffix. Japullt'se Tagalog
ElIglish
A major source of baekfonnalinns in English has been word, that end wilh kokekokko kuk kubuk
c,x:k-a-doodlc -doo
-or or ·/,r and have mCilllings involving Ihe notion of an agent. such a, edilo r nya niya...
men\\-
peddler•. Iwilldler. and .lloker. Beeau .. e hundreds of words ending In these plI·pii unnt
(hirp
affixes are the fe .. ult of affixation. II was assumed Ihatthe,e words too hUll been wan·".n a",·aw
hC!\\ . \\OW
(ormed nyadd,n!' "lr-or ('f 10 a verh . By Ihe process of hackfoflJlalion.lhe vern..
",ltl, pI'dtlh' . .r .... llidle. and .\"Iokl' were formed , In the same manner wllh the
alivelll of the personal computer, from the compound noun WOl'dproCl'llOr the I.ngli h docs not always havc an equivalent for the onomat0poclc word
Vern Il'Oldpm('('I.\ wilsoht.llncd. Yel anolher recent addllion. hUI with a drlfcrenl
l\lund in Olha language .. Thc Athapaskan language, lavey. tor til lanc • has
Mlun:c, is the verh la.lt!. procluced ny ba~kformatjon from lafl'/'. whICh II\ell
th' onomatopoei.: word all ah sah for 'the ,oun~ ~f a bear ~alKtIlg unseen
ofl!;malcd a~ an acronym ('ce sCclion 4.5) ,
nc'l f,1f from camp' . ()ik for 'the und of a \crufc hitting a tree. and tie, ,'ffor
ilacH'HlIlillion conlinuc\ 10 prndul'e new words In moclern f·.ngli,h, 'Iwo
,datlvcly rl'n'lIt procllll'lS ollhi, process ilre the velhs /iaill' ffOll1litli.\(1/I and ' th !lund of an egg splattering'.
 ''''

5
I HECTIO

FirsL tnllection doe- 00{ ,han"c ellh~r

.....on change ofme:min; found in the ,",ord t cn It
(.1'",,-

a b

'~Af

no or
Figure.U3

Beca-.~_ Ion ppb after !he '" nrc! formatJon proce di

section .:, !he plural affix can be added 10 the output of den
compounding (Table .. ..5 ell as to a irnplc noun
 fI( MORPHOlOGY THE A.. "'LV
o 1

Q , b
The po ... itioning ()f infleclJonal affiXes OUtnde de:rwalJonal,
l " • .\

""ample, reflect, the f ...." th:n ,nne on ta\.c place aft", deri

-\f \'
~ \f thud cnterion for di tmguishing between tnfl"'-"UOna\
ducti\ it" affiX" ~ to do "Ith produclh i~ . the re\3ti e freedom "''Uh
prO combme with bases of the "ppr pnate category 1nfIeC\lOnal 1 t)1>lcal\y
IZ ~l'\{"m U1Cnt have retau\ el} fev. exceptions. The uffix for example can om ne
vtrtuall. all) noun that a11o... a plural form tex,cpt for a fev. ex cpt>
as QJ:t"n and fur) In cootrast. derivauonal affi ",,~
L .1 r meted c of ba! . Thu
co form D.-ert>
1~'
f Af

aI In:-
I
<10m
OItheb.l,

H. I /)
 \ 111'11.1", III
Mf ,\o'I'IH,IIII,( 1111 ""'1'\'" ,I'
, f " 'WI ,I'I ,

.. 2 I)
~.I~ fI)1 "til l 1/,11
pt'l lI I'I~' lilt Wl
·W.' "Pt',IH'd 1)11" plpC
\"It,
III 11I1t~ 111111 { •• puke·" III IUlIlht In ( ,tHII' ) ;1), 111\ \\11 tllh\", h;1I1(\ '"f'1 I
I,d 1'\1011 1\1111 1'.1 I \ IlIhllll 'l lIl \\t'li w.IY 1ltllllltt'J (.111111,,",1 InVO!VIU' II'V\I\;II, d".11 (two .tlU\ tlll\y \w !1. a thr t"
I I"~'II " 'Hi III- I \\'III~ Illp (1I11tH t"itll twU) , 'I), w\{l\uro\'
I'll 111"11'.( r d lit- \\pd-,l·t!
,./)
I', I Jllllih Iph f n" r,1 J Ii" h.l" ('IIIi'II/"llIdwd
', \ illl\lo..,t'
I~' I II
\(1" I 111" \ t'Wh "'I\I\l' lIi'
(1\11'1'.11.111\1 " ~11i ~ '1 11111111-, 11th' I~""> ' lhItT'" IIHJlt·lu'" . . l·!'t·
lViII'
~IIPI'lI.III\' "\1 1111' '1 IIIIIk~IIIIIi '

/0,1 SnllW laIlVUa)!t·~ !llvldt' SHHIiI" 111111 IWh 01 1t1()f'C 1fIIlt,(.tu)lnll:l·

• .l s. I)~l\ on
1111 It 1\ 11111',111'1111" I IlInell lllll'lIl." dlllnrllu' III lilt' \\'1'"r III whh. II
NIIII"d'I~~ f,lt:tll"lI pi1f'Il0111I{H,;allllltl/fll CIT\;lIltll' "ltl{l"IIH:~, 1'\w Bouttn \all 'U.,,· ,\, wau
1111 In lhHI tllIt'I!lh III II "'l't'lIl'" III 01 I I It'Vlillit
1111 III,t.UKe, luakl4 II C (II pi t1Jl,l~!i \" dl~tll\v.UI!th itlnlln I 11I\lf 4 1\1,\11 UU/'~
Ilid lilt' '111.11 "'I p.Ulln",1I ,\- Il'I\' "
IIlk'lnl 1{l11II ,II,', 1111,11 lid"" .1' Ilt'l'lh'd lit .Inlu,llll· • \1 I
\\111 I
1 It'VIII'1!
WHItI dot c:t. flllW lit \\'hl h ,II ~ '1\1 It \It'\ ilh\ ~ ,-\l'J. Clime \ 1U1\ t' pre n II
IIl1ul'hnlpJ.!h.II 111/,' ( IH II ,I' .\dd I'd 111111;111-.. Iht' 1','''Illrll',,' I IIlqHlI,1
I ""111'1,11
I
1111'" It(' "'Plrd '11,1 '," II'''''' 111\-'1111)1 ' S
PrJ I1I.t'II'1I11 III tlh' 1.111 I IlInl\
ill lilt' \.' x.ul1ph·~)
(lllll~ ~ . .."""' "V I
I cI111""'1111' 'tlllll'S 1111111 ""lIdll'~ 1'1 110\\' IUI1~1. II Illk", 'P~,IM'I I
I hnl~'l
Hit 1',1\1 1t''''1 1111111 III ,I 'rlh ,,11,'11 111\"1'111\'11 \\,1111 III t I, 11'(
· . I 'UI \III'
1IIIIh'\ 'h,IIk 4.2')
"
jP111I IIIt'Il I" ItPlrt'i.llullI 111'1\\(1 11 I POlIl"llIlh'lIl1dh"'II'
" "I'Y III Ih,'
\~.I\LII II/dn
I .AII"",/t·
JlIII"i II 1.lk, ~ It ~'I 'IJIII' II' !'1\l' Ih~' ".", halll of IU'lllIl'llI \'l'lh ... "H,,' I\ ;\1"1 ,\ • ".jl
, lt lim 1,111,1 boy'
/1I1,/lh,11I II dtl~'~ Jill 111111'11111111 Vl'r!h slIlh .t'
,llItI" 1111 I I II,Uh l UIII(U)
IIlivulu
' "/I ""',""'' II
10 I."
I let ,I""" II I.lk(·i;, It IIII'I I III hll,ll' IldU"qll\'lIlh Ii,,'d IOIlIIS 1 1 1'
nllt .... 1I1~'II\O I \I \ IY 'pial'
1~1""1 1l'~11PJl'l"
lip
,Ii I
IIH' til It ',d,lI \l'lh·. III ,'PIIIIII\I , 111111' I , 1111 I\'P\' IHIi'-I1!y, 1\
on 13
III"qtH'III,"
'
hl'I
'I
11I'~I' II", pa ! ICII (' I IDllllnl hv ,I It'~'ld.1I l1t1t, " • ,
' II I, ""11111" I
III III
u hi
IIt I un ... III' I It \\l1ltllll IIH~ 111l'111.11 dH IIPII.II ' IIId ;111 H'lh ... (.111 Ill' I, n hll
pha ndl
111110 "'IIi'oI '1" d 1,1111111'" ph,1

'IIIl,IIIN In illI' ",1'"11 II , II I II "'11" I ",,'\<I I I IYI "I gl,II'"I1,II'lioi 1I"IIII'lillllll'lh,1I

H'I I •" III 'tl1I1I1Itllll ~I" ,ul III hlllll,II' III, 'III" wllh 110 hi'll' "I 1IIII"rilllilili
INIlI~ IIIIN 0111 I'

hi

Nlllllh", ~III11II1" , ." 110" !'~I''''''''N 1111i11,"I~ "'VIIlvll~

1IIIIIIhl'I l 01111.1 I

It II t' .Il1lpll', 1lI1111hll " IIpl

III I IHIt: IIII"H'IIIIII hh ~
 lE POR RY ~I GlIlS TICS

another set for nouns In the: mas..:uline. animate da.ss. Tabl c· Adam-\.'1 ev-dc kah.h .
'''7
gender endings for n<,uns mat function"" subject of a semen~e~30 hQ,. the man-Nom hou",c-Loc """yeo
'The man ... tayed 1n the hnu ...e:
Table- 4.]0 Ru""ian gcnJc:"f .. utlh.t"s d. Adam-<l ev-dcn lfikh.

------
£(,unp/' man- om house-Abl wenl
Cia" Suffix

------
'The man went from lhe house
\Ia..culine ","' d"m "house'
ulic·a 'street"
Notice how in the final sentence, ror exam I Ad ' ,
Femimne ·3 · f th " P c. am man be· h
en d tng 0 e nomlllatlvt: to indicate thal it i~. b' ' . a~ \ c. l.ern
'sensation'

-----
Nemer t!U\'SIV-o
-0 Ihe ablative suffix indicating Ihe place from 'hsuhlCCthl whIle e\' 'hou",' bean;
w tC e man W -0\
The conlraslS
.
represenled in the Turkish .
ca'se sy~lem arec.10tcrm
' d- .
6.3
complexity . compared
.
10 Finnish which has fifte
. .
d" e late, In
en \~tmcl ca.....e C't
Case Still another type of inflectional contrast associated with n;;;;::-:--- and Rumaman. which has only two contrasLs. a egone"
language in\olves case - a category that encodes informatio~ ~n llIan)
element's grammatical role (subject. dtrect object. and so on) I bout an
English. !his information is expressed largely through word orde~ a::dMOdern live case
Some languages make use of case marking to encode gram ' I
. I'k ,,- f d' f . matlca COntra.sLs
of prepositions. the U\e Erga qUite un I e u.ose' , C oun• ,
ID ami liar European languages I th A.
• n e ustrahan .
marking language Yid I III , .or lDstance. the case system groups togeme th b'
. 'ti' b d th d' r e su Jeet of
25) an mtrans. ve ver an e Irect object of a transitive verb (both f h'
. d' h'l . 0 W Icn
Anna composed a song on me bus. receive a zero en mg) w Ie uSlDg a special marker (-ngu) for th b'
.. b (A b' '" . e su Ject of
a transItive ver. ver IS transitive If It takes a direct object and intran ...
In !his sentence. the subject Allna occurs to the left of the verb and th ' otherwise.) Slt"e
object a sOllg appears to the right. while the element expressing loe e dlre.1
n 27)
bus) is preceded by the preposition 011. In many languages. howe,atlo hit.
· . kd b . fl . a! affi er.the a. Yidin' sentence with a transitive verb:
di stmellons are mar e y In ecllon lXes. As an illustration f
consider the set of related nominal forms (called a nominal parad~ !h"
Wagudya-ngu dyugi-I' gundal.
man-Erg tree-Abs is-cutting.
declension) for the Turkish word el' 'house given in Table 4.31. Igm or
'The man is cutting the tree:
b. Yidin'sentence with an intransitive verb:
Table.OJ Turlcish case
Wagudya-o gunda!
Case Fonn T)pe of elemem lhal il marks man-Abs is-cutting
'The man is cuning:
!\orrunali\'e eV-0 me ubject
Accusative e\"·j the direct object In this type of sy tern. the case associated with the subject of the transitl\ e
Dati"e ev-e the recipient verb. H'agll~'a 'man' 27a). is called the ergative. The case associated With
Genitive ev-in a possessor the direct object (dYllgi . tree . in the ftrstentencel and with the subject of an
Locative ev·de a place or location intransitive \'erb (\I'agtldya . man' in the second sentence) is called the
Ablative ev·den direction away from somew here absolutiH.
Ergati\'e case marking i found in a varied set of language. including
Basque (in north-west pain and outh-west Francel. Tagalog (in the
The following sentences illustrate the uses of these case suffixes. Philippines). Georgian lin the Caucasus). Inuktitut (in northern Canada and
215) Greenland), and Halkomelem (on the west coast of Canada \. It is also found
a, Adam-o ev-i Ahmed-e gOMer-di in many Australian language such as Dyirbal. Warungu. and Yalarnnga.
!-.Ian-Kom house-Ac Ahmed-Dat show-past. Ergati\ I' ca,e marking is far less common than the nominative-a~CU'3u,e
' The man showed the house to Ahmed.' pattern. which group, together the subjects of transitive and intranslti\e \erhi,
distingui.hin!! them from direct objects. Thi, is the pattern found 10 TurkISh
b E\-in rengi-o m;i\idir
house-G~n colour- 'om blue (a, n,;ted pre~iou"ly I. German, Russian. Japanese. Korean. and many other
'The house \ colour is blul!.· language, .
 and Bl'U HI',,' the IlIth'~'''onut IHiII\q'l'\ prllvhh' II Ihueh
pt:I'MlIl Hilt! 1111111bl" ot ttu- ""htITl phn'~ II I mtHfmahClh ahout the
. .
' I .hl,'
' .... 11
Pll"\'1I1 111 Ililhill!. I hit ..... 11(11 I" 11111/(1110 t
1M
•• l.
l' clnell1 n d
.1 .. "
I .
'''\",n can
ec m., he OV "'y
\'0111\1 Il'H' "'\'111\'1\(.'4.' pl·llIlI ... ,'l"lHy III 'I I InaL..e up a
lOt er~""K\ 'mh) 'I '
"C IlII.' lllT '" , .... a (.'O Itl11101\ Itatulc ul t"nV,l1ilUl' K. with 'h h" ~ ~ In uch
1 l' I r, Itt.: Vn .11 Inflett,em
Muclnll '.11)' 1'''' , H" It 11H1l'h InOte Illlllt.ver, ...hcd 'Y"'\('1n f,t
l1ul11hl' 1 a)'ll'C,nlCI\I 111 till' v".. rh . ~\lH' Ti.\hle4 . n how 11'1 ' ~rMm Imd
,.. u ... ",tl Oil IY I 01 111: I tllnt
I p"'r ... nn \1I\l!.Ulil1 III the \10" pa!\t \cn'iC.
I.,
.m Inne '''"nal ' lfi
it. IX

.\'\)
It till' 11 1.tIl 111 ., uhWI.'! pn"-lllulI
l'Iu,' mall '" l1ll'd
1'Ill' 1I1.I I1!tl(l" thl' hoo"
l Si Pl'l'llII "I"'ilk we ~ pcak
/1 rhl' 1ll,lll III dill·\,.·!llhW .... 1 posllinll yo t! "-TX'a\.- you ... peak
2nd person
.. \ IHlisl' fll~hh~IIl'd Iltl' 1I1i111 ~h c he, or It !-opt'a"- ,
.'rd pcr,oll they srcak
f hl\\ "'H'I'.
,
.1 IHHlIIIld I\c.:
~~"IIIII\T

,CU)
I
pnHltHliiS l',hthll it mOIC l.'lilliOI.lltl' sl' l of I.:olltm'-l(s. dt\tlllgUI\hill'
• (I • 111'1'
(_.
lit' . ,,III') • "II ,,,','II,.II'\<' (I/It', 111('1/1. 11/1/1 , lin),
(/III', 1/11'11,/1/.\.//1'1 I).
R
• ,tlll! a

I EXl:ept for command" fmma l I , ngh ~n diners fmm italian and many olncr
languages with rich vcrhal II1l1cclinn 11\ re4lllnng a complete 'cntcnce III have

I
un overtly cxprc\Sed suhJcct.
Nlllllill,,11I ,': II,' "lIikd.
lit 111111. Ihl' hool. 30)
,\t.'(,tI,all\c: .\ noisc fri!-!hll'nl'd him, : Speab Engh'h ,
(;,,:nill\l' : Suc Il){lk hi,\ ( 'til
SlIlfl' Ihl' ',1111,' IiI, nl 01 11ll' 1'101101111 i, 1I,,'d ",r
Ihc sllhic~1 01 un illirunsitive
~l"h (.llIIild .lIId Ihl' ""~)l'~1 (If a lfilll,illve vcrn (tllk,') and sin,'c this IUrll)
dlfkr, 1'1'11111 Ihl' olll' lI",tI for dircci ohlc,' ts, Ihl'sC clint rusts follow Ihc
IllHllll1tlll\"l' al'l'lI,,;&livl' patll'fli .
I ~ --­
lense
Tense is tnc category lhat enc()des the time "f an ~vcnl with referencc tn Ihe
moment of speaking, Thu'>, the pa~1 tense is used with verns denollng an
action lhat occurs prior to the moment nf speaking,

I
There arc many dilkrent t~ pcs of ten'l! systems in the languages 01 the
1>.4 world, In tcrnl' of intlcctlon. for e\ample, English makes a tWQ-\\ay contrast
l'l'r\1I1l .lIId nlll11lwr A \\ I<kh allc,ll'tI Iypc (If 'nn.11 mile,'lInl\ in human language illvolvcs between past I marked h~ the intlct:uonal \urth ,ed in regUlar ~erbs) and the
I"'l's OI1 .1 cal,'g'") Ihal ( pll.dl) tlisllllg "l'hc, among Ihe IiI'! person (Ihe non-past (unmar\...-d). Figure 4 If> h\,:-,s that the non'pa't Innll of the verb
<l~1 t'('JIlt'lll
sl"\lk'·11. (h,' "','nlltl I' I'nn (lh,' " ddrl'ss,'c)" ,1110 the (h,ro persnn (lInYlln~

I
c:tn he Usco, in cl'nain circum tancc ,1m both pn:,ent and tu\ure events,
d l'), III """1\ 1,111 "iI "",
Ih,' \ crh IS marked 101 holh Ihe pei'oll alld llul1lhcr
(Sill ,,,I,ll or pl"r,dl 01 (h ub),','1. \\' hclI on,' category is Inlkcled to mark
1'1 "1"'11 It" (.S "dl ,IS 1','''011 alld IIIlIlIh,'r ) 01 ""olher, Ille ealegory " said It", r~lt 11\.1\\ future
(II ltj;ft'(' wlill Ih,' "'(',,,"1
\ \'l'I' lidl ')',"111 "I' "gll"'lIIl'1I1 IS found IIlllailan . whidl ex hibilS cenilln
non'pastlunmarked)
rlllIlI."" III Ih,' l"l''''111 ICII'" (see I.lhl~ ,1..11), (Thl' "'I o f ",lIl'l' ll·tI form,
a"",'I.I("" IlIlh .1 It'lh " l .. tI"'lI ,I ndml lIaradij.:1tI "' a l'()nJlI~lIlj()n ) (\\'~ ~n\l"" hlln, \ Ie W l\l\nnrH\\\ )
(l It' '\\11 k"d 11,11 I)
lilhlt, 4,.12 11.111.111 1''''S\'IIII'' II'e 1',11 ,lIlIgllI

\",~ular I '/IU 1I1

I t JA'rst111 ' I I ,Ik ' p.II111I1I10 "\H ~pt·ilJ..

p.lIl uh,' "'HII "IW,II..;'

p,lIl.lIHl till' P' .Ik '
 M(H<I'II('\tH,y \111 -\NI\ I 'Y I.., (H
W()kIJ !'lk\IC hlli:t 1' 1

rhl.' two, h ;l"'ll.' IYlx " o t won.t lo n nal1 oll ,n I . I

a FUttll~, b. l'H·f1.HlIn': compollnchnJ,t l .es ... I..""ommon type, ( I _ ~n g\' ...h Me de-"\vaUon \
,n 11 d ' Ii ' . ) wor d lornntnlO, \ \ ntl(
I-ani h.lI1l-Jlt1 1e n tn~, c p~It\~. and hnc kformution Word,'. Ill,: U,- C conven"""
\\ IlIl'\ll11l" \.\1I1h..;,I'l.'UlilIng mark gmmmatll..'ul cOlltrasts an numhe .. lend tnLly ill"n ~. inn~tt:d 1o
.~ e .... case , pe"son . und ten~ .
In Spani,h .lIh.f I uhualllJ.ll. '-' It thl' \llher hand, IIInCl' IU,, )n~I I ' .
" l nth llUs
h-' l' pn·".1 rill '\.'\\ a~ pa.st p~s('nl t ulu~ CUl1tnlSt. C' .. art lI'l"d
In nun"'lunlli\rt~ Fngti!-.h I.lI ah..'(;t ... hk.~ Co\:kney und the l.an'.
,.ot," woro tnth,,1 h , ... lIrupp~d UCi.I\'tllg bt:\\lud i\ vowel ilt the. M.~a... hir~ 111.I\e(t whl"rc

"p.tlll.,Il: Li I hll;'.IIl Ian: 2

un: ltkely to say and wruc \;)11 a::t\ tltl hUI '1n,11
, ....... .." ;:'Ill .u.,
h' \
An l~~l.""resttng Inct ahollt thc~c lurlll ... " thllt although ' .('/1" -..
• n nt a Wllrll), pcopl
tHl'lflU\f'

J1I.1I1 hahl·t.l hll'Il. Oirb-au, IdcnullUhk meun11l~ . they ulh. lcrgo cl.."n.\in a.1t ... t .md mil ha\lc. nil
huye a special !-.ti\tll~ in the gnllnmllr T\;u!-. th ~rn~tulll!-. that sug~e't that the)'
(I

'John sf't1~e \\ ell,' '1 wllr~"d'­ . .• C f (,1\'(' III w()rJ ... h\.i.. .
c/r.-'(""('il't' hecomes ('('pt III rt'{"f'ln;vt' and dj'Ci'PII\'t' h'l h . c. r('n'''''t' i.md
b. .luan habl·a nil'n , Oirb-u, ,\lIlmlit and {J(' rmll hecome!'> Ul i ~.'i in .'iuhmini\'{> : ~ etc ./Uil tn ':orJ. ... like
'John SPC,IKS \\ dl.' ' I wor~'­ ,1- . f h . , \ . nt pernllHI\'t' ["m funh'
ulSClISSIllO 0 t IS POlllt, sec Vore l Pormmioll ill Gttlt' rcui\'j" Gnu ' .cr

Juall hal-I·af·,i I-IL'II, Oirh-siu, Arono!! (Camhridge, Mass,: MIT Pre". \970) PI,"", by Marl.

'JIlhn will speak \\ ell.' 'I will " or~'- !hcre. are son~c Cxccpl10ns to l~is gt:nerJli/atlon. tndudtng dt'/oll\(' and tllm '('
to whIch the nghtmust elcmentl~ u nQun but the pref,'\ det' h ~ •
word IS u verb. . cnnmcs t at the Vwh\l\c
A stilI n\.'her sy,tefll llf contrasts is found in ChiBemba (a Bant I
llf' 7 ' \\lllC.
.amol,l) 'h usc!" Its"1 '
mf ('('Iwna I system to distinguj"h del UUngu ~ ... age There! .arc th~e "ing ~nh.es in English. one intlectillna\ and two lkrivatt~lna\
inflectional ~m.~ combtncs \\otth a verh to givc a.nother verb as to H ' h I'
paslllt'" ,lIId futunl). \llIlhe 1",II11pk's ill Tal-k' 4,34, Ihe diucrili", Ill!re es of . . I - ." .. t'1\ r{'11t ling
DenvallOna .m.1: . co~hmes V.lth ~ vcr? to gi\'c a noun (Tht> hr('utlllnK of tltt,
,il'ti\cs nprl'ssillg 1I'IIse conlfaslS an: underlined.) k lone;
runner.~) or an adJcc'~ve Uht' .'i.It·(.>pm.~ ~lQm) - "ee Table 4. I 3 There are ab;llwU
ty~s ~f -ell/~(.·d suth,. on~_ mtlecttonal ru; noted in Table 4.!8 and the other

--
denvauonal The latter su th x conv erts \'erbs into adje~lt\-e" "'0 that thc\' I.:an
appear In structures such as the following.. "
Pust FlIlun." Q.. The .'ito/ell money
b.. The escupt'd cOlwict
Rl'lIllllC pa.', (llefflCt' ~6h:~·[\IJy) Remote future (urter tomorrow) 5 1n trnditional descriptions of English. nomlally the possessive. '.\ las in J(l/m \
"a·:lii·p.mll-·e'" ba-bi-p."'lbo hook) is called a ,uffix, BUI for Ihe ",a,on, given on page, 1-10- I above we are
'Th~) \H\r~t'd: They'll work.' treating it a~ a dille in lhi ... b\1\)k, This is the standard practl~e today.
Remo\ l~J P~lS' () t'''l'rda~ ) Remo\ed fUlun' (Iomormw)
b,.·:.III·P'll11b,1
rhl') " l'rked. ,
\'l'ar past (earlier loJJ~ .
"a'~"1 homha
b,,-g-P.llllt-O
They' II work.'
::-<ear fUlure (lal~r lodoy)
ba-b'-bomha
-
Sources
The estimate thallbe a\'er:lge hIgh 'rhool student knows 60.000 'bosic' .... or.1, cume
from Tht' L.m~rul;:. /flJrincr b) ,Pml..er ILondon: Allen Lane: The Penguin Pre"),
p, 150, The mtn.xlucuon 11.1 words and mQrphemes dral" on the da"l~ treotmenh
'Th"1 worked,' They'lI work: found ill L. Bkx>mfield', L.m~""~t· \. 'ew York: H.oh. Rinehart & Win'ton, IIl:l3 1,
1IIII1Iediaie pasl (JUsl hapf'\'ned) Immedlale fUlurc (very soon) Gk:t>on' -\.1I/nln~lu IIC'n III [), ,cripr;\'e Unguislit's \eited below). and C F H"d.,<ll'
"""I,p.mll-" ha·alda·bolllh" .A C()ur~( III 'll'lft'nl l..in ·u;lirio; l "C\\ York :\\a..:millan. 145):\). Thl.!" "hscuss\~)n of
' Thr~ \\\lrketl,' 'They II work.' \\ \.lrd fl mlath.l n :"01.."'1:"",,, to ( lnr.l~ tho ...e ibptxts of re~ent and ~urrent \\ or\;. that
f\"rre~t:nl \\ h.kl~ al..t..'\.~pl("J \ic\\, and are appn)priate for pre"Cmatil)ll \n an intru-
,lu,' II'" (C,tl><.....'1.. ~ luch I,f this "I'[\.. is ,ulllmariled in the I><.....'ks h) len,ell, Kalomh.,
,Uld Sj'<'IK'cr \':111'd lx'II"') andlhe 11\.11) referenl'''' elll'd therem,
\umfllillg up
rh" l'hap!c'r IS ,'olll'el11ed 1\ Ilh lhe slrut:ture .11111 fOJm<lllollllf worcl,\ in hUlllan rhl' \mhk t'\,unplcs m 'C'"''''t1 1.3 ore from r 17 III the hI....,1.. h) Spellcel ':lIed
1'lIIgllJgl.\;\lJIl~ "Ilrds ,'OIl,i\1 of smaller 100malilc ell' lIK' lIlS, l'il lled mnr. 1'1"" , lhe Itl'r Oa'ed allal)s" III Arabi.: \\I.,rd 'IruclUre IS ~d 11I1 .... rl.. h 1 'hll
ph~lI\l" 1hl'''' dl.'lIIl'lIl ,\ C,IIl t>..' d"s,Il'icd 111 iI vanel)' of ways ( fre~ V,'NI> 'kC.lIlh~ , Ill' ludmg hIS a<tldc 'A P,,)\,xlIC Ibe,'~ l,f nl'IlCI'n,attllIJU\e m"rphc,loK) ,
bound, rnol Insus um" I)relh "'rsus ,um ) ,ll1t1 "llIl I", COI1\OIlII.'" and tm ui.. It, Inqllln' l~' ,11.l-41 ~ (Il), I \ The tacts C'OlIcl'mUlg the requIrement that 11111
Il""hl.nl umb I'.trious l'!lIId.I'()II~ 10 hurld \\ortls, ()pc'r,UIOII\ Ih.11 ran ""lllhmc "lib ,. N'C of latin orinin t" non 2 2) re n,'led (II P 71 f th book b\
nmOIll ,llId l\1\1dll) l1)(lll'hl'IIII.' indud am IIlillll , dltidn.tln ll jllll' rllni K,ll,lIl1 ',I'J 1><.'1",
dlanj!e, ,uJlpldiun, ,111<.1 rt'duplilatiun, fIl, l' mpk "t t uk,h,' I !p<.lunding 11\ l'CtlOIi I from p
 MtJkl'lltl\tl(.V 1111 "HA I'i ~ 1
Ilf W(IIo!:I) lkU( {UK'
b\ S!,<,ncer ··I'u c'l 171
i, . \,: 1 I,: The Ponapc,m c\;.llnplc: i" fmru p. ' I ')
1'<."' O\\. .
YUtl \\0'111 IUHe th;.u th .., tunn Ih\ll HCl"l1l tn \\1
t ft "'t'1n',Grtlmma~h) t\:cnneth Rehg (Hono lulu; Uni\er'ill\i of ;1 .... ,01.\ P""
I;rom the lnmt...l,ttlon ... nl tht' !!.!; 1tC:l1h ....... . , l q u l Ikln!. In (lill
. The I!'\amp"-"" \,)1 I.:l1mt"r'\llln gi\c-n in sectic.m 4. I COOIC I~gcl : ..... a u ~ I~"" meaning namely, phll;'lhty th"; 1 c ~.m fi," th.lt th II..· IS ul l:t i 'ure f
I~ the txX}"'~ 0... Jell'en (PP. l)~ -) Jnd Bauer (pp. 229-."'0) ":ile~ ~~Ill the th~u ljh • pl~ Sl·nt 111 .,\1 tlill ..
SI.'.I\e~ Onllmal(lp\:":I~l i"_ fmm ·SL.lvey expres~l\'e (erms' by M 0,"". Ihe ~Slon pn. x:c.dun: jU"l .. t~\tt:d ~ we thl'll"IOl l' hYlW.Hlu.~'il/c th It Ihr~ I...t • \J mg the
Uc)r,(mg Ptlp~n in Uflgm\'~h:J 10(2): 85-100 (1985>. Pep~r. A:un Oft ~lur"tng plurality 11"\ r ur~t ... h . Onl: .... Ihl 10 ha lx:l'll dth:~n .' . th 1IIIIfP\W:ll\e
lOfer thm Imuml III Imumlitrl " al ...o I 111' pi Hntl\ We. .In lh n
. Th~ Jeti.nnion of slem tntnxluct!u in section 5 is from the anicl!! b fat . • • II Icnw (pros . hi
memllng 'candle ). that Itopl 11) Itophrl I a I I I C \1ll1., Y ~nh the
~Ued beh,l\\ (p. 16Jl. The discussion of Ute difference between reg I. Y S. Anue ' . . • 1 orfllemc (v.·tth th-..
Inflection draws on information from 'Ru les of lang uage' by S Pi ~ a.r and il'Ttg~ 'gun ). ilnd so nn 1\ larg.:r samplIng ut '1urk \ d . l~ IHl!4Ultng
COITcc tnes .. of these infrrcnccs h' .11,1 wouhl (ItntlHn the
530-35 (August 199 I). The Nancowry example in the sec~ionn ·er. SC"/t'nct' 2s~
pro\'id~d by R. Radhakrishnan. The data in the section on tense corneo n. n~rnber \10' In doing .morphologlcal an~t'Y'lS in unfamiliar langua t!~ th'
.Tense. a!oipecl am.I moou . by S. ~hung an d A. T·Imberlake In
. UJfJgu£I. pnnclPall"
e .,. . }" rrurn number of pllfal1, lo avoid . For Ih.c lype oi cxcrl:I'c n . g. II~ I.:re i.tre a
Ill,t Y uwd 'tt lh
Syntactic Description, Vol. 3. edited by T. Shopen (Cambridge: Camb~id )Po/o/?), and introductory Ieve. I t h C f oHowlng F-lildcline ... ~ht)lI\d Ilrove til
c!oop' .... II ' "
C4..:t.t Yu . . ctu\
Press. 1985), pp. 202-58. ge Un"."II)
Do not assume.'" that the morpheme ordc.r in the \anuuauc y .
The exercises for this chapte r were prepared by Joyce Hildebrand .. I ·~ , . E 1· 1 K to> 0 (Ill .lre i.UlalYMn u
problem 7 are from Writing Transformational Gramnw.rs by A Ko . The d<Jla In IS t 10 samc as 111 _ng" 1. In mean. lor c,ample morph' . I. . ~
. (I h" • erne:, 1m lcalmg
York: McGraw·Hill. 1966). . UI'oud.., (N.~ locallon 11e roug eqUlvalenlol 'at', ·in'. and '" forth) follow rather than
precede the noun (hence, 'lCIkkyo·eY\e " literally ',ch()(,1 at').
Do not ~ssume.that every semamlc contrast expre"ed 111 English will al",
Recommended reading Anderson. Slephen. 1982. 'Where is morphology". LingUistic I"quir.,. I~ be mam fested 111 the language y~u arc analYSing. In TurkISh , for «amplc,
Anderson. Slephen. 1988. 'Morphological theory.' In Linguistics' ·T.h . C 1-612 there IS no equIvalent for English lite and a. In Mandarin Chine.,." the
. e amb cl
Survey. Vol. I. Ediled by F. Newmeyer. pp. 145-91. Cambridge: C n~, samc pronoun form can be used to refer to a male or a female (there i.
UniversilY Press. .mbndge no he-she dislinclion).
Bauer. L 1983. English Word· Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge Ul1Iversil · Pr
Do not assume that every contra"t expressed in the language you arc
Gleason. H. 1955. An Introduction 10 Descriptive Lingualie.f. New Y~rk: ess.
Rinehart & Winston. II "I~ analysing is manifested in English. For example, some languages
lensen. John. J99~. Al!0rpho/~g~: Word Structure in Generative Grammar. Am\ • distingUIsh more than two number categories (lnuktitut distll1guishes
dam: John BenJamlns Pubhshlng Co. lor· singular, dual. and plural ; see section 6.1) and some language, make
Kalamba. Francis. 1993. Morphology. London: Macmillan. multiple tense contrasts (ChiBemba, discussed in >cction 6.5, has an
Spencer. Andrew. 199 1. Morphological TheO/y. O,ford: Blackwell. eight-way distinction).
Remember that a morpheme can have more than one form (a\lomorph).
Just as the English plural suffix can be realized as lsi, IzI, or ltd (section
Appendix: How to One pan of morphological analysis involves identifying morphemes 1.1), so morphemes in other languages can have more than one
identify morphemes in unfamiliar languages and determining the nature of the information Ihey car:; realization. For example, further study of Turkish would reveal that the
unfamiliar languages (A number of the problems In the set of exercIses at the end of this chapter will plural suffix in this language can also be realized as l1er/. depending on
give you an opponunity to practise this type of analysis.) The key procedure to the vowel in the base to which the suffix is altached. (This type of
adopt in working on this son of problem can be stated simply as foHows: variation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.)

• Identify recurring forms and match them with recurring meanings .

Consider in this regard the small sample of data from Turkish, consisting of
1. Can ider the following words and answer the questions below.
four words along with their English translations (Table 4.35). (In actual Questions
a) fly f) reuse k) spiteful p) preplan
practice, of course, a dala sample would also include sentences and it might
b) desks g) triumphed I) suite q) optionality
well be unclear at firsl where the word boundaries shou ld be placed.)
c) unlie h) delight m) fastest r) pretuer
Table 4.35 Some Turkish words d) tree i) justly n) defonn s) mistreat
e) dislike j) payment 0) disobey t} premalure
fmumlarf 'candles'
ftoplarf 'guns' i) For each word, determine whether it is simple or complex.
fadamlarf 'men ii) Circle all of the bound morphemes. Underline all of the roolS,
Iktlaplarf 'books' 2. All but one of the following Persian words consisl of more than one
 :lflfHp~ll·.n1l' (Not, .. 'elf cJ takeltook h) glK><lihelter
II
) '.lIld,lfn
. I
I,hmwhl
f1JC. lIl'. I hllY ill1d

"
1(/ d l'\lg llill l'\ th e .
Jltl\ t te ll , .
C, )
d)
C)
man/men
cat/ate
I)
j)
\ helher
am/are
ffi)
n)
c6nvicVconv\Cl
,o:pnnVimprint
I ~, " " I 'you (sF) ho ught'

"
~) . 0) d"puteldi'plile
"~I xan d '(he) ho ught' What morphologIcal process is al work in I '
iI ) ",IX,,, ,,!;,," I dllinol huy ' column Ii!'? co umn t} column \\"
C) Jlafll l,arid,-Illd 'they wen: 1I0t hU Ylng' ii ) Describe in y our own words the difference between the .
t) II t l ' dl I( JIITl 'we did not huy ' exemplified In column I vcrsus that in column \I process
g) 111 "'" "J ' (he) "u, huying' iii ) Think of at least one more English example to add to eaeh column
'I ry II> matd'l'lIch 01 the i(,lIow IIIS noti o ns w Ith u l11orphCI11 , 6, The following words can be either nouns or verbs,
Pn "'lOIn ddta , C In the a) record f) outline k) repon
tI) 1 c) they b) journey g) convict I) outrage
h) you (s!,) i) not c ) exchange h) imprint m) answer
(.:) Wl' gJ WU'i/wc I'C + IIl g (cnnlinllos) d) remark i) record n) impon
d) yo u (1'1) eJ surprise j ) retreat 0 ) cripple
Ii I Ilow wou ld yo u suy the following in l'ers i;ln ? i) Por each word , determine whether stress placement can be used to
iI) .,.II,'y w,',e huying . make lhe distinClio n between noun and verb,
h) You (Sf ) d,,1not huy, ii) T hink of two mo re Engli sh examples i\\ustrating the process of stres,
e) You <sg) well' huy"'g, shift to mark a category distinction.

J, The 10JI<",,,,!, Turk,," datil tnvo /ves allomorph ,e varialto n, 7, The following Samoan data illustrate one of the morphological processes
a) lok"nla ' il r",(aL" wit , lokantuda 'inIal a resta urant' discussed in lhis chapter,
h) KaplU ';, doOJ' kapwda ' ",/al a doo, , a) mate ' he dies' mamate ·they die'
c) ralldnu ' an "I'po,,1I"ll'/1I ' randevuda '",/at an appointment' b) nofo 'he Slays' nonofo ·they stay'
d) ha it head 'r. haJta . mlat a hcad' c) galue 'he works' galulue ' they work'
e) kllap'a hook ' kitapta ' tn/al a hook' d) tanu ' he buries' talanu ·they bury'
I) k" lr uk an u""c",,,r' koltukta ' inlat an armchair' e) alofa 'he love' alolofa ' they love'
/-') la"d 'a ,idc ' lamfta ' in/at a sidc' f) taoto 'he lies' laooto 'they lie'
g) atruna?i 'he is intelligent' atamama? i ·they are intelligent'
o flocs Ihe 'Iud.. ish J11OJpheml' meumng ' in/at ' havc more Ihall one
,1I"n1<"I'II " i) What morphological process is illustrated by these data'?
ii) If "', ,,11'11 all' Ihl' alloll101f,h,'' Descnbc Iheir d istrihutio n, Make ii) Describe how this proces works,
your slall'lIll'lIl H"I 'l'lll' ral U\ po'-!'lhlc. iii) If 'he i strong' in Samoan is lIla/osi, how would you ,a)
strong' in Samoan'
.t, ('on l<1l'l tl1l' J"lIo\\ ItIg "o"Js ,
Ik,~ s I) 8, The following data from Agta \,'poken in the Philippines) illustrate a
11) l' ) tliumphed pleplan (V) m) o ptio nality
hi I) agt.'It's' ra,lest specific t) pe of aft!.:<.,
1Il1l1t' tl 11) prettier
a) dabl 'big' dumakal 'grow big, grow up'
l') III\'alld (A) g ) 11"IICl' k) n:u"iC 0) IlI b trcHI
tI) d"It~,' (V) It) 1"')111<'111 I) p) prevlcw (V) b) dar.ig ' red' dumanig'redden'
dl'l1llCY
c) fur:.l~ '\\ hite' fumur,iw 'become white'
II U"I\\ ,I Ill'" 'II lll't III I ' 1111 ea,h '\(>1d ,
i) \\ hat" the ,lith m Ag.ta meaning 'become X ")
1/) FIll till' ""''' "I'/llIl/llh/I', "hili I ~ tht' ha,c fill Ihe alII " frill 'I What is
IIII' b'IS,' 11I1 lit,' ~lIl1, t/I" Ie' l' llhl'l "I Ihese hll"" a l", lhe roOI rill ii) What I~ p.: of .Im,
is it'!
Ih'·l' III11,· w(lld '! If '0, wltil'h "Ill." iii) o
',crit>c: \I,. placem.:nl.
q, I he f" I\,)\\ mg \\ onh fn)111 Chamorro, ,poken in Guam and the ~I arlana
1',ldl III tl,,' 1,,1111\\ IlIg r "luII"" dfu,halt's a ddkl,'nl Itllllflhl1ll1/!lcal
bl,mds, lIlu,tr,lte ,,)me of Ihe morpholog.ical processes de,cnbed m Ihl o;
I'IUll 'SS
( " '/1111111 / ( "/111111/ II ( '.,/frllll/ III d l;lltl'r,
I R,'ol [) rh',dlloro
t) ItIIlU l illi" fI '''/" e lll ~) Il ... 11,"11· ... 11.1
.\) ,Idda 'nlimit:' • add a 'mllnl,ker'
hI IIlf, """ ,) 1'11\\ ,I I) 11111'111 1/11111'1111
• II

l~lf....amh,l ·~.u 'r' \";I\nl~ );('r l ~nk"U4('r

",
tutu.t=' .. 'wntl'r' ',\ ',(' ..,\ ..\1\0(,( ·"n~\\'I\er
II Dt n,°t"d "\)nf
~1) \1\ £CHt'f.ll\ ..'nlls, .w~.\\ dncs th Uffl ~r mean;'" the Old
d J;rall\ln 'ni" .. to h:l\."\k. ..u·
) h) 111.'\\\" tll1S l'1 lht:kn..-1\\ in mc.\mng f"un the *,r "nund. In the wanb.
,a.Il!!.m\.ln "-celtlhie' "1..,,((,,, ,\(\..1 \\d/kc'"
o gua'~:1 'Ill\ .. ' !.!uai\.;1\ "'It ",,1\ ~ple' .... ) S' . .lll.' the.:- ~..:m'tr.\int I.'" th,,' "\'''tn'',,\inn nf 'rr \\\UMfU\ed abo In OOt
!!) tutu 3 ·e\ . .·h~Ul!!t.·· lulaii..a; on 'e\"han)!~al>le' 1,.1\\ n W\""INS
h) eh, I -: 'laugh .:hald,on 'l'lUghal>le' 1.1) O\'l\:'''' 1hi ... ,,'\\I\""r.\11\1 .\b,", .\{'ply h) the t pc "f -r''' u'St'd In \h~ word
ng.mg. " •...·he\\ . n£. ..mgJ~\m 'dle \\ ..lhk' ,J,."tr','! (111111: \\ hat \\ (\\1\...-\ )'\,1\11:1.\\\ \)1\(' wh,) 1.""(\\\1 N' Or 'one 'tIIho
plough ... ··!)
III. RL)()/ [)t ri\'c:J u".,nl
J) n3~.lI1g 'hungl') . n.l!Jlang '\ .~ hungry' 12. The.:' rn1h.)\\ tng \\ \lrd ... ha\ I..' ,,\1 hc-t.'n formed 0) ·')\l\p'lunding. Draw a tree
) d~lI1k\ III '~I~' Jan~l1lolo "e~ I>ig' ... tnK1Ul'C f,)f ca~h \\\In..i . (Hille tf ~'\1\1 an; \1\ t.!o\lh\ as \0 \h \e l \
/) Illc.'tg\)! '~l:r(,,"g metg(lgol o,er') stl\ln,g' ~.\t«.:£ot) nf the- ..:,'mpout~d. ~me:mhcr lh~\\ \he I.:.\\eg"t) ,,{ \~ ~ad
m) I>unll,1 'rn:n) , bun;13l,1 "~~ "...,(1) , i..kl~nntt1C' ... the: -.: ..lh:g"l) nt lhe \\\lfl\.)
.1) f ....nhall >I tr~~ tnml"
I) Whal m,'rph"I,'g;,:al rnx"'S i, 1ll\,'hcJ ml} in II} in II!} '\) 1\\\\"'\('0<:
ill 0.., ,m~ eh.mg" III I<,\ i"-'II ,:al 'gol} I~<' pla.:e in I} in 11'.' in lI/"
h) ',Ird,uel" .11 k~J tr~c rl ~,'fke tal>I
c\ ~unhather I" I 'ul'''n1\arl,,~ls ) {l"" ('(
III) FomlUlalt' ;1 gener.1l '~Jlem<'m .1., 10 hO\l Iht' dail cd \I \lIUs in'l ",",VI. I!(
ionn.-J. 0.., th' same 1,,1' III, ~ d) in cn"",} I) glllfn~Oll II hlueprint
n') d fastll",,1 Ill) ~I\\ ~ ~ntr.: \I) Gn'Cllpea(e
0.."" Ihe affi\ 111 II h'1\e mon: than one .llIoIllOrph} If so, wh fai'bafe
lh ... 1I"01,'rph,"".hM Is. th<,Ir
' ,mUll'utl,'I1'
." ' k 1 al ~ f) ~l1n\\ are nl S) 'pa~e ,hip
gl freele-<iI) <'I !"'tat" peel \\ I h..-am .leaJ
10. In Ihi, charter, an ar:!!um~m \I a: rresented in fJ S ,lUr of the foll \\' hI ,nert..:..,\.: p) ~\lh:r- . . \\ .:ct XI \.:111 ·),,)
tru 'tu..., for the \I ,)rd ullhappine.u, o 109
13. In thl' ~h~\pler. ~\ croll "a~ . . ,dcnllf~ mg comP':'und~ \\('l"e dl",~ussed .
llf
L'"ng the te'" gnell in the kit-hall.l ... "lulll\l, s~nt~ the ....'"'I"'un.l ,tatus
or the c< I1\I",unJ. in the ng.ht,hanJ «,I\lmn.
Tt.·s: (~(}U1f)OWh.l

a\ ,,~' I ten": bl,l\\ JI)

t» c<'mpant>le \\ Ith \, " h'ulim"lllh
-) plur:lI heaJ\amp
A(
,
A Af J\ 'Ul:~:-- 'P'·~.)rh,'u:-.c

un happ) ne ~
1-'.
l smg Ihe slim I)pe of argumenl. ju lif) tree' S[ruclures lor the words a) utthn at
IllcompTthl'1l'rb/~, ",dr,po 01 and dis,' lubl"hlllt!III , (Hilll: This will b \) pll.'\.:{l< -ht
,) JI 'P 'lhp<'11.
lOS "Is c delrnmrung the I pc of ) nlaclI,' (.I":g0l) \\ IIh \\ hich the '11lI,c,
III th 'r \I on! can combine: see Table 4 . 1J , ) l) ) " t .\t>~
l' \ I) h ;un,de.ld
II. In hI 'I! h, Ihe ulth rr ('an he 1.1 d tn ,I pl,ICc II,Hlle hamm,' th,' t I) l k'''-ill:
\\(lrli.' lOth 1\\ () Ct>lumllS 0.:10\\ n) aml,h. ir
lI. )
Colunur , ( o/rlllUl H
Lc nd Iller
\\ \orll.rr
\Htnl
Berltn ~ 1/ )
I lin r moul"
WI
\\ " 'undl.lIld r
, .
M(H':I ' lhl\I\(,'y 11\1 A,N , .... \I~ IH WOkl\ ~T'R.\ (H,w.
I .• Th~' \'\'1 " III ...·,'Iuum.:. h.lh' t ·('I1I.'I"t'.:lh'd h,'m Ih . .' \'\lI1\'~ ""l .
In \,,',"II01n l IlIdl\';ul..' t I1 ~ t1h''1~ II \ ,I,.
"t-:,...'.,I 11""-"'"
.. h n'hn~
r\·'I~'lbqhl(.. t ""lrtt t l~l' " hit-ltd Inr ,h,- nlnl\(~ 01 a . .:O\\t·'l'1'\;\ th.u l"f\i~s \In\ "
,',. Ih'l) "( \'3,:h \\" f fill ,,,,ItIlIHl.. tlf tht h,', l't;\J.!.'·s. I,'a",'s_ II,'l',:f\',uns ClI.: y ...hoeo\ ..,,,
( "/limn I (4, )/umn .! '\ ,·t·, l\\l·<.'1 lah.'I.n Ih,' for.\ "nnk.'
.) .11111 m.Ult'" .Hlh l l1l.lh.'
~r\\up .\~ ~\ated
\,)
h\ h1l1111"

.. f)
Il1f,mll,lIh'll, \'nr,'11.1inllk'U(
I(lh'. ' .... n
-. hUl11h.hlh,"
Inf{lt;linlllCllI
10\ '-'\';1 1
IK. t)1,'ll'nlHlW 'w 1ll',h,·, Ill<.' \\:"n\s 11\ 1,·i\I,'h. ot the loHo"".'ng
In ('Ill' anHth\.,( h} Ph'<."l'SSl·' 01 I1ltll'l'llon or '\l'nv.\tH\1\
.,)

h)
~'l. glM.:". ~nin~. ~nl\l'

di,\.· \wl,.'r.lhsl,· n\l'I"). ,hSUl'\I..'H'r, lh'l'Ovl·r.\hll" lh,<.:n\oc-f.\h1lit)

,.) P" 'P'-' , prn~rt'" ~) In\ d~ , In\ dier. hl\ l'hl'st
t) "J"!!I";lphh..'.lll'Thll I) I'" tI) IIWcuinr. m\l·l\lnr',. 11\\\.'1\\01":-'. 11\\'<.'1\\\,,",,'
gl .lcnl.'h.',\,Ill.lr.If'hll1 ;h.'T\lh,llht)ll (0) (kmn~:ral,·). ~h,·nh)l,ral. til.'mnnalt ..:, dl'llww. :ralll\!
h) ,,<'I dl..\I~· (l\ .lft'
1) hlh.'IT1;lIi(Htll.l1\llh.'t' hlfl''l'tll 1'), !'lit.' toHn\\ Ill)! '':-I1I..:n':l'' ...'\lnt;'\11l hoth Ul'nViHh.ma\ and mt1CC\ltlno.\
.il [,<·r.lIl111lll,'I<'r pram ani,~~, lllHkrlin.: all ot llw den\t\1H'111a\ .\nl\'~s al\l\ circ\ . . . lhl~ inHcl,'\\on.d
kl (.1) ,,'(llll" a ll1\.l.·s.
(,llmh (\nur hair)
n Ix·"',hlln;,I., ""cL,I" .Il I'he Lulllcr' . . (O\\!>o l'SCalk'd n n\l,' strnngt·!>ol1l.1\\l,'f \\nn
ml \ ,,'ti"ll ('n St1l(lk.in~ ;llId Hc.'..dth \SIt Il) !I ",h'all1l11', g) rhel'llhullha,hlllcnthc
It) Il1l'C.IIl\ k' Il1l'~ l·~ dist.
tll rt'l(:rril~ft.·r. l·\\.·h.lII~t." td" 1,. ) '1110"'C S\"""'~s arC' me l~n'I\l' . h) She quick\ Chhl.!U the hon\...
p) II1llu,'ll1,' Ilu d) Jill ne ...·d ... Ihl.! nt:\h'l' (:" 11 \) Thl' dra1l\~\1Il,\l'nn \\<.'1\1 \locll ,
oj) rI,,'\ h;1'" hni,lwd 1h') " I' finish 'd C) HUll ha'.1 ""'lcn k', I) The ,h'pute \la, c\cntU,lll
rc~o\vt!d aftl'r {,H'lr,\cl.:d
It). I kf\' .In' 11\ t' IIh(.lnf..~f..·~ \\ 1ll'1 ...1 UC\\ \\ t~nl I.' Ilt' ·~h."d_ Cn.· ..uc: ;\ \\(lrd tnr l\l'gnt'Jhnn~
l'.h·h "l thC"t' d~'flnI(H'Ilh thin!! (lIt' \\(ll i "lnll.llH'It1 pln~.'l'" ~t1!o!ge~k\t. hI!
rn (Itt' MI;wl.., \\ lin ~ \'Iur IIt'\\ \\ ('Ini:-. In, (. \ t/\'dll(·(,(I.) 1· l:h \11 theo f"lln\\ 11\ (('fl'\\lra ot J.Jl.lI\\U ... li,,\\t.!' mnl'l'tinn or
I

.1) l ~c ,11,1 .h,'hlll~ III . ".~r) t)lIr Ulll..'Ic· ......'l·C\Uld t'll~k..... t ht't.l(h~r. \ ...11llt! t)~
' II,' \ "II ',j 111\ .It l h"'tl1l,I,. L G"R ,\
h) l \(' Illhlm~lIClJ'l('<.'I.l. ,h'r Ih" ~1'IlinJ of;1 ('('IHf.'t' rx'l'l'('II"Htlr UI \\'or~, ,,) Ocr " \.1nn i,t krJnl
I C.III', (,'(llh:l'l){r.lh.' f'lt'''-''11I~1.' nt) Pt.'1 ',... II\~.' 'The lIlan " " 'k:
") I I". ""11\ ,'N,'n , Ii'r \I rarrlflg"'Il11·thmg hn-:tkahk 'n huhhk., h) OIC rrau "t kr.m ,
"n,,'d ""11,'1 11l.lt ,'m,lIIll'nt Or c/,c It Illlghl t>rt';I~. ' 'fh" \\ (lman \... 11: ... :
til t \.t' Ul'~lrnJlilurld . Itu Ihl' tnl1fl m,£ ~tr1llg c,lf ch 'l'\l' stn·!t.·t'llllg hnlll 11 , GRE!"
\hl, l' ~)t hll( pim! (0 l'l1l' \ IlhlUllt .
c) ,,· ......llI, f,'lIUt t,lll anon
• h i ftW
llll'r '
hun ' prl'l'4'r1('u~l) ri-um Ill) hI'S. nur \')\'~ 'Th'\\11 ,r .11 th'man'
II) I' .mJr,b pllf\'l\l t II 'r all
,.) l '" 1',1 'kloflll,llIoll 'in thl',ll't"'1l ,'I h,ld,hum.ul'''1 '11' lU I 1';\\ , t~ "Ilf ,,~,
' 1\" h Ii h' ,'nh '11 I II1gUl '''I' , hl<I,1\
\I <'l \r." In f, ltr ,
I'.ll
17. ell'. Il' 11t'\\ \\ord, IUlt' dl ,'I lht' InIJO\\Ul~ '!lu,nlnth 'rh ...• Ill. n I' 'lnd.'
II) I ,,' ,I I'",,'url Il.II'''·, ,1m th, ,ct <11 "'l1lhhm' \I IIh ' \1 \ , 111. l
01
'I l'" Ih" luh lI(,f ~I\ lIlg 1'1'1.", h,lIh.' n
hi I,,' "1''''1','' n,UlI', ''''1 Ih ,I't III 1",'akll1' .h,h." , \Ihidl )III1,lIhall
d,x" 1\' '111,111
' flt.'\ "'Ill' h,
l ,,' ~'hl'ptn • fpr II.'\lur, III ." m 1"',1 ""h,',.'
111 <II 111111" (lh,· ,111"\ ,, ' ,hl"'p).
' 11.1\ l' \ tllllh~l1l' ) ')lIr
!II I I",j 'llIllCIH \('1 " 1\ In I
derll .UI<'II I" 1 '1118 ,1>1.' 1,'lx'I"IlI.I<'(.'" •
'TIll' ,'\'1111 dillf h n,'1 '<I, h ,.
h IP
\ II ,l ; l/(

I) gh oZ, ' l)nO ' tth.lH\"i1

5
-Th ~ ltD\, It." "rl~ 'nJdluu
j) I ZI.l 'Iu", , ... Syntax: the ana\y , of
- rb\.· unt h '[ud. t1'i.
I() Zh 1 t.' .tm<"fI k.J.n~ 1

'''-0(.' unl.:1 'h \ ntl!n\,.. m .

sentence structure
, F \ LhH
I) I dOll\uing In) hlnguc. \ Villi" m Q 'Gr.,dy
m) ). t)lI.tr' fluing your fl)ngu.:
n) ht.' Is oiling ht.'r hlngut!'.
'J \\.h.1( Iype ,'fnl'mln.tIlnne~lion d" Ihe German \cmcnccs III
"J :\ h.lt I) p<' of n"mlnal Inllecllon " ,,\cmplificd in Ihe Grcl'~U~lr"le"
. " nurked morphologIcally in Iwo ways. Idcmify hmh "ay,. .Ita! h ~'''ph \\~\"-I,) I fnt""t\nUIII Jl n,ll" I H·III)
III) Of the t\\" panerns of c;he-marklng "iscus_\ed In the chapt .
does the Greek "a13 sho\\" cr, Wh";b
i"J Ho\\ is the pattern of case-marking different in B,l\(lue from Ih Om.' ll f the tn .lIl\ thl.~ lnl!~ o f th.i ~ honk" that lan v,u,, )!.~ \" l' m" o\ v~!i an II\tn~ a,c
Greek" .II of
'~'tl.~m \\~ 1arl!d ) .~\1h1.: on,cl\l\l ""_ 1!r :\InmatK· al knowlcd g~. N mwh\: r ~ I" ttH
"J In the Ilalian dala. Ihere are four differenl forms of the 'Hlfd m mOl ~ .nhv luu. . thun In t~e stlld y ,tlt how W\Wll.... arc t..: tHnhilwll h \ hml1 . . cn\cn'c~.
·the.' Narne two In
• 11 celiona
. l contras[!'t that arc present 10 cc';In1ng
.u.:h tn thl ~ l'haptcr we ~tl1 l:lm s l ~l c l' the ~y~l~m u\" rule . . and l:a\~1! oncs that
those four forms. nt underlie . . sc lllCncl' tUrlnalton an human language . Thi!ot component ut the
"i) "'-'hat rype of verbal lnfleclion is Illustraled In Ihe Italian 'enlenee,> vrmnmar is culled syntnx .
\'II) Examine Ihe EnglISh dala In V. Whal types of scrbal in tlecl lon I i~ c Ihe olher lingul>lic systems considcreu in this h(){)~ , the ' YIlI,lollo
present on Ihe verb ' 10 be'? What lypeS of nomina l inl lecln'n lire ,,:omponcnt of the grammar is hoth creative and "'y!\temalic . A. . noted 11\
presenl on the six pronouns in these sentences'? Me C hapte r I , speakcrs of a lan guage arc able 10 comhine words in Mvel ways.
fonn illg S<llltenccs Ihat Ihcy have neithcr heartl nor seen hefore. I lowe vcr, nll\
j llsl an y comhinalion of words wi ll give a we ll ~ formed , enlence. longlish
spcake rs recognil.e that Ihe paltern in I) IS not permissihle even though Ihe
sa me words Can be comhined in a different way to form the acceptahle
structure in 2).
I)
*House painted student a the.
2)
A student painted the house.
We say that a sente nce is grammatical if speakers judge it to be a pO"lhlc
sen tence o f their language. Thus, example 2) is a grammatical sentence of
Engli sh, bUI I ) is not.
T hi s chapter will focus on the ' architecture' of grammalical sentences.
with an emphasis on the manner in which words are combined to form variou.,
types of sentences. Section I introduces some of :he most common catcgones
of words found in language as well as some Simple rules that govern the
organ izatio n of these categories into larger structural uniK Subsequent
sections describe other aspects of sentence structure, uSing examples and
phenome na drawn from English and other languages.
 18l
III I
dt-'gree \\-ord ... (Deg), SUl.:h dement ... gcm:ral\y have In
to dchne ..'.nll pamphri..~,e than lhu . . c 0\ ICXh.:.,\ GIll: 'I~;:~m& that nrc hah\r:r
mcanmg ot the noun lull i ... ca . . 'cr to dC~l.:nhc th' h 1; S. h'f tXi.unplc the
!-ouch U'" 'he or un nux iliary ... uch m. would an 1 t: n'Ci.tmng tit ad kllllll\(':r
A potential ...ouree of confu ... inn to the arl!U 01 wurd \. .
from the fact that some HCm'i Can belong to mOr. th' C .,'\ Ihl: d ll<lO \cln~
\: an une C'<11e~t)ry
3)
comb used as a noun:
The woman found a comb.
comb used as a verb:
The boy should comb his hair.
1 -I)
----------~--~~~~--~~----------~~~ near used as a preposition:
C .. TEGORIES A 0 A fundamental fact about \\ ord, in all human languages IS that they can he The child stood near the fence.
STR CTURE grouped together into a relatively small nu.mber of clas,e~. called syntactic lIear used as a verb:
categories. This classification refects a vanet} of factors, meludlng the t}pe The runners ncared lhe finishing line.
of meaning that \\ord, express, the type of affixes that they take. and the type
Ilear used as an adjective:
of structures in which the} can occur.
The end is nearer lhan you might think.
~1~.1________________________________________________~__~_______
____
How then can we determine a word's category?
~\'ord-Ie~el Table 5.1 provides e.,ample, of the word-level categories that are most central
categories to the ,tud) of S) ntax.
One criterion involves meaning. Nouns, for instance, typically name emitie,
Table 5.1 Syntactic categories such as individuals (Harry, Sue) and objects (book, desk). Verbs, On the other
u~rical categories £tamp/es hand, characteristically designate actions (run,jump), sensations (feel. hurl).
and states (be, remain). Consistent with these tendencies. comb in 3) refers
Xoun (:\) Harry. boy. wheat. policy. moisture. bravery to an object when used as a noun but to an action when used as a verb.
\erb (Y) arrive. discuss. melL hear. remain. dislike The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various
Adjecti,e (A) good. tall. old. intelligent. beautiful. fond ways. The typical function of an adjective. for instance, is to designate a
Prep<»ition I p) to. in. on. near, aL b)
property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns. Thus. wben we say ThaI
Adverb (Adv) silently. 'lowly. quieti). quickly. no,," loll buiLding. we are attributing the property "tall· to the building designated
Scm-Ie.tical calegnries £rampJes by the noun.
In a parallel way. adverbs typically denote properties and attributes of the
Defennmer I Det) the. a. this. the,e
actions. sensations. and states designated by verbs. In the following sentences,
Degree" ord (Deg) 100. ~. '-eC)', more. quite
Qualifier \QuaI) for example, the adverb quickLy indicates the manner of Janet's leaving and
alv. ay,. perhaps, often. ne'·er. almost
Auxiliat) (Au\) the adverb earLy specifies its time.
\\ ill. can. may. must, should. could
ConJunctmn ,Con) and. or. but 5)
Janet left quickly.
The four most studied s)ntactic categories are noun (N). verh (V), Janet left earl).
adjecth-e (A). and preposition (P). The~ elements. which are often called
Unfortunately. a word's category membership does not always bear suc~
lextcal categories. playa vel) important role in semence fonnation, as we Will
a straightforward relationship to its meaning. For example, there are 'ab,tract
oon .,ee, A fifth and Ie" studied lexical categol) consists of adverh$ (Ad,,).
most of which are derived from adjectives. nouns such as d(fJiclIlty, Inllh, and likelihood, .. hich do not n.arne entlttes 10
the strict sense. Moreover, even though words that Darne aetlons tend to be
Language rna) al. 0 contatn non-lexical or functional categories. includ-
verbs. some action-naming .. ord, can also be used as nouns (ptllh and sho~e
109 delenniners (Dell, auxilia,! verbs (Aux). conjunctions (Con) and
 1114

Table 5.3 18;

.tTl" nnun ... 10 gh(~ \-(""('on(' tl pu.\·Jt,:,llOl'c.' l. l\ia((crs are fun:her cornpi Oi"tribUlionul proptrtit.'1O ot N,. V,. 110U As
(~l'" tih..'! (h~1t in "'OIllt.' l·~)Sl·"'. won:b with ,-cr) ~imilar meanings ~1·l.Ieu by Category Distributional proper,}'
lltt1t.'n..'n1 1.·.Ht.·g'me . . . Fl)r imaan.:e. the wonh like ilndfo~'d arc very.si ~ng tl) N oun ocurrence Wlth a determiner
m~"ullnf! l~h in \/ic( Iikt'li.ln' !i.md of cheese). yet like IS a verb and ;llar In
•• d.ll"!I\ l ' . .\ ... \\ l' \\ III ... ee later (!<ICC-LIOn "".1). this problem becomes eveonq an
Verb occurrence with an aUXiliary i1 Car. the whc-;
Adjec tive OCcurrence With a degree word ha, gone:, will May
.k' Ule \\ hell ,\ e cl,ln . . iJer the fact (hat lan~uages .c an d I'f"ler In n III{)re
. lerrn~ of how
very och. tho big
l' atcg\)r1 1C \\ON:". \\ ilh particular types of meanmgs. the)'
Put another way. a distributional property of noun . h-
'n"'e<·tion with a determiner but not an aUXiliary, a di~tribulion' \!:l. 1S t at they ca.n appear
:\ hht lingui ... l.... llelie\'c thai meanine is o nly one of se\'eraJ criteria th"'t they can appear with an auxiliary but not a detenn'tnae Proped rty of ~etbs IS thaI
• . • d" . "eOle
inll) Jt·(i"nllinlO .... a word's catt:'eoT). A see on cntenOI1., compatlbilit). . r r. an ""forth.
\jrillU'" t) pc' ... of=-inflection' .
(see . 5) , IS
Chapter -'" , seClion ' summanzed
. "'lth
in TabJ 6)
5.2 e verb with a determiner:
' the destroy
noun with an auxiliary:
' wiII destruction
plu",I -, books. chairs. dOClo;:;;-------'
Together with information about a word's mearung and its i fI .
pa:-.r ren~ -cd hu nted. watc hed. jUdged . .. th di ' b ' aI f '" n ectlOnal
ca pab tbtles. ese Sin UUon acll. help tdentlfy ItS syntactic category.
pTl)gre:-;.si\"e -ing huming. \\'atching, jUdgine
compar::J(1\ e -t' r taller. fa.' ter. , maner -
~uperl,]ti \ e -t.'SI (.1.IJe~l . fas tesl. smanest
----------~----------------------------- t.l Irucl ure Sente nces are not formed by simply stringing \\ords together like bead, on a
phrase s necklace . Rather. sentences have a hierarchical de,ign in which "orct., are
Th~ om,,';nn "f Iht' gentt;\ e - s from the ';~t of inflec tio nal affixes i, gro uped to gether into successively larger structural units. Thi> section" ill
delit-er.He. A, ~ou will recall. we pointed OUI tn eCllons 1.3 and 6.3 of focus o n the narure of syntactic units built around ~s. Vs. As. and P,. Such
s
Ch3ptcr -l lh31 .IJ though tr3dllionall~ the po" e.'sive - of the king horses and s units are called pbrases.
Iht' /tum:' dugs " .tl so regarded as an inflectional affix for noun . in this book
\\ =~ treating it 3.' an enclitic rather than a suffix . This is beca use it is not
' tn,"gJ~ integr3tcd m the word to whicb it belongs sy ntactically and
"'mantt.:alJ~. It i, common. es~ctaJly in infonnal speech. for the genithe _S p hrase are built around a . ckeleton ' COnsl,ling of tv.o lewis. "" depicted
Heads below. (The symbol P >lands for ' phrase-_)
t" t-e scpar31cd from the word to whIch it relates (e.g., the man j/Owers \", s
tht' man n,xt 10 hun:,j/ollf!n: the noman\ nf!i~hb()ur vs the woman/used pp
\ 1' AP phrase le\"el
10 IIvr~ for' n l~hbour). A true affix like the plural -s cannot OCCur at a
di IJuee (rom It- ro'-i' m tht, \13),
\' A P
'tlwugh helpful. mtlechon docs not aJ\\ ay, pronde the mfOnnation
nn-dt'll to dercrr.::".lC a \\ord', categoJ!. In Englhh, for e.~ample. not all
.Jdj,Yll\c, can t e th~ comparall\c and superlalive affixes (.mtelli~enter. Figure 5. 1
Martl/full'l) and me Doun, do not nonnall)! take the p lural suffix
(flW/SIIiIl'. "ral, n, know/edgt').

O"lribulion
third and 0 ten more reI ole ('men on for dClemllnlng a word' category
w10h the 1~1'C' of Iclllt'nrs (e pcoally !unctional c8legnncs) \\ IIh "hllh tl
Ur(1l1 distribution ) For elldOlpIc, noun can I) ptcalJ) UrreaT\\ lIh
I uner, \ rb 1.:11 an ~ Illl1J) , and ,dj CIJ\C "llh a de 'n:c \\. ml ,
\\n In 1: 01 5 1
1111>
f 'N I fMI'O~AWY IIN( tJl\, j( 'ii <;VN1AX 1111 AN",v \', (H
IINtl"'-('"i
\1~\"H,_t\ kr
NP lit?
NP VI' " /,

I I Det
/' N /'
VP

N V QUil l

I I I
the
\
book, \
never
V

\
f/l,' like) hou~ .. (;.Ill ~1JI"ml l"i) cm .at
l' AP d pp

AI' pp
Deg
/' A /'
I I
p \ \
Deg

\
P
A quitc certain \
hhe i"
I
ccrtillll (he wenl)
I
in Figure 5,3 Phrilses consisting of a head and a c;periflf~r.
almo ... t In

The ,ynlaclic calegory of lhe specifier differs depending On the catego

r'nun" .';.1 Pltr.I .. I'., '" Whll h finly 1111' 11I '. ld IJI).,jfirm ,,,I.III>!1
of lhe head, As the examples in Figure 5,3 and Table 54 hel t h ry
. _ . . p 0 \ ow,
delcrmlllcrs serve as the speCifiers of Ns while qualifier, typically function a.s
AlihOlll'h phra.ses can con,i,,1 of juS! one word, they often Con lain Other lhe sp~clhers of Ys and degree words a.s the specifiers of As and (some) Ps,
ck'men" 01.''1 well ForcxuJIlpll': Question 3 althe end of the chapter provides practice in identifying 'pecifiel"i
and heads,
7)
IN,' the "ooksl
II, Table 5,4 Some specifier;
h, I v,, never eat I Category Typical,""Clinn Example ..
lA,' (jll,te ,','fill III I Determiner (Det) 'pecifier of N the, a, this, those. no
d I",.illmo,llnl Qualifier (Qual) specifier of V never, perhap'S. often.
I" addit,"" to
heml (thc underlined elcment), each of these phrases incl udes
iI always
" s,'colul wOld Ihal has a 'Iwclal semantic and syntactic role, Such words Degree word (Deg) speci fier of A or P very. qUite. more. almo . .t
(del"IJllIO"r., ii' ,"l'l, ,I,,'
'llld II, qualilic" such as /lel'er and ojien, and degree
WOId'i ,-uch ii' (/Ilill' Of almoJl) arc s~lId to function a\ \pcciticrs.

Consider now some e ample, ofhghtly more complex phr~es,

complements
Sel11alllleally, Slll'dnl'rs hdp til make lTIore prcclSC the meaning of the head, 8)
lI,'nrc, the d"termi"," (Det) ,II"
ill 711) indicates that the speaker has in mind 0, [sp the bot,,,, at'<)ut the \\ ar)
specifk hook,s, Ih,' lIualil'l,'r (Qual) IIITa 'in 71» indicates a non,oCcurring
/>, [, I' neYer eat a hamburger)
l'V,'lIt, UIIU Ih,' dl',l'll'C w(fn/\ (UCll) '1"1/(' and IIlmo,ll III 7(', d) ind icale the
nll'lll to ",lllch ,'panirul,,, p'"p,'rty 01 rclalioll i, mallifcslcd, , ', [ \I' quile ccl1ain aboUl \Iaf) )
SyntlK"Kally, Spl'uncr, 'YJllcally Ilwrk a phrasc hnllnciary III Hnglilh, .!, [",. alll""t!!! the hous.: 1
'p""i'i,'" "cc II I al Ihe Jell hllllJlciary (llIc heginnmg) or 'ht'ir rcspc,tl ve
pl"a,,'" Thl'Y .l'l' aI/ill'l'I'd III Ih" 'lip k'vl'l oj phl""c 'Inll'illlc, 10 thl' Il'll 01 In ilddtttll!l te' ,I ~':t!i.:r ami the underlined head, the phrases in ,~) aho
Ih" head , 1i'/W,h"I, Iwo d"lIlt'llls lorlll,hl' plll'''C ~tn ll' llllCS cl"llltll'd ill
'h,'''' n\!llnin ,t t'(llIJple\1l~IlI, fhese clements, v.hl~h are themsehcs phrases,
Ih,' In'l' d,a '''''',<
III hgul<' ~ l. /I., Wl' will SCI' In ""'/lOll I ,O lllC lall!' uag", PrJ" Idl' lIIfOlll1all<m ,I\:lt'ut .:nlltics and locations wh,,,c existenl'c Is Impl,ted
r I h,ll , /(11 "~,"lIpk) pIal'<' 'PL'U Iil'l S ,II Ih,' Ilghl hOlllld,,, Y (lh, ,'lid) (II h' Ihl' 1\1<, Illllg <,f the hC':td For c\ample, Ihe ~lcalUnb 1'\ ~allmph s an object
plua\t" l,r
Ih,ll l' ,',Il,'n, thl me. ning illllnrh.:s a \(x:alltll\. nd 'I' on
188
{ONTl MPORARY LINGUISTICS SVN rA.X; lll[ ANALYS IS (n
" l:,~t...IT(NCE 51R\J('""1\JRE 189
9) in Figure 5.5 Illustrate. (I n o rder to SaVe s .
structure,of the complement phrases in ,p~ce •. we do n()l depict the' •
tn
A vcgerarian would n('\"cr eal fa hamburgerJ. Qucslton 4 at the end of the cha. l~;t! exa~p\es.) 1nlt:ll\<\\
i i complements. P prOVide!; pract1ce \n . d
head complement naming the thing ealcn 1 enti\"Ying

10)
How does the gr~mar ~~sure that \pecifier,;.. h
in ,Ihe house'
occupy the appropriate POSlllOns in phrase <tru earls, and cornplem"nt
j i Clure')Th .... "
elements that make up a phrase is regulated b . . e arrangement of the
< , ' "

head complement naming a localion mechanbm called a phrase structure rule Y ' specIal type of grammatic.I
I . I' th .. . Th e follOWing p" __ _
Complemems are allached 10 the right of the head in Eng li sh (bul I ru es ~tlpU ale e posltton of specifiers he d HI~ StruCture.
left in many other languages - see section -I). Figure 5.4 il/ll s trale~ l~. various types of phrases that we have CO~"id~re~an~ complemenLs in the
read as 'consists of' or 'branches into' The th SOd .r. (The arrow ean he
struclure ofa phrase consisting ofa specifi.~r, ~ hea,~. and a ~~I11PICll1enl.(~~ . . fee 015 m each \ . .
NP serving as eomplemenl ofa V IS oflen caJlcd a direct ob.,cct.) that other complement options are available: these o. . ru e indIcate
in seclion 2.) ptlons WIll be dl'\CU'\\ed

VP II)

~A
NP ~ (Det) N (PP).,.
VP ~ (Qual) V L 'PI.
AP -> (Deg) A (PPj ..
Qual V Del N
PP ~ (Deg) P L 'p).
I
never eal a" hamburger
The first of these rules tate that an , 'P can consist of a determiner. an ..
Figure '•. 4 A VP COn"sll(1g (); " head. a ,!,•.'eilie<, and a complement. head. and a ,PP complement I as In FIgure 5.5a I: the second rule capture, the
fact .that a _v P can be compo-.ed of a qualifier. a V. and an .;P complement (a,
in Figure :>.4): and >0 on.
As nolcd ahove, complements are themselves phrases .. Thus, the cOmple.
ment of Ihe V eat is an NP Ihal itself consists of a determmer (a) and a head As the parenthe.e, in our rules indicate, both 'pecifiel'\ and complements
(/IlI/11h/l~~er I. Th" phra,e then combines with the verb and its specifier to
are opuonal. Thu" a pbra-.e ma~ conSht of a. specII!er. a head. and a
ti>rm a still larga ,trueturaluni!. complement: a head and a romplement; a 'peclfier and a head. or Ju-t a head
(Figure 5.6 .
"IP" APs, itnd PPs can have a parallel internal structure, as the examples
a b
iI NP b AP
l'
Dct "I PP Deg~pp Phrase CIm l,ung of a head and
omp emenl
I I / I I ~
Ihe books bout the war quite certain about Mary pp

p
"/'
T
f)'g I' NP '-
I I n , n then
Imu t the It
"' JU

" 'ur~ 5., lItl pi.. Ii IIf" "

 190 ( ) i f "PO~ H!'I UNGUIS TICS SYNIAX fH\ ANA.IY"\~ (H
~lN'tN( l S\~\I{ Han
\'1\

c d
Phrase consisting of a specitier Phrase consisling of jus I a head The largest unit of syntilctic ana\YM~ i!oi II ' - -
k be . l\; hCtllt:ncc lS ,.
and a head scntcncc!-. are tn en to . the pr.()(.\uct 0\ the rulc I.n 1j '.)' r"di\ lon't\\'j1
NP toften called Ihe s ubject ) With a VP II) iel I . I. which cl>mhll\e'.n
VP Figure 5.8. y (struC\Ul'C~ ....uch a... the llnc tn
NP

/\ I s
Del

I I
the man
N V

I
(The boys) arrived A -------------
~N'
Figure 5.6 continued Det N V D~ N
\ \ \ \ \
A scientist discovered the an~wer
Generalizing the By now, you will have noticed that there are very obvious Stru
rules similarities among the various phrase types exempI I'fiIed'tn F'Igures 5,4 tetural
In all four phrases. the specifier is attached at the top level to the left 0/.6. figure 5, 8
The structure of 5 (traditional view).
head while the complement is attached to the right. These.
similarities eOan the
be
summarized with the help of the template. or bIuepnnt shown in Figure 5 J3)
in which X stands for N. V. A, or P. .7, The S Rule:
S~NPVP
XP
This analysis assumes that S is special in the sense that, unlike other
phrases, it does not have an internal structure (with a head. a complement and
Specifier X Complement a specifier). However, many linguists now believe that S is essentially similar
Head to other phrases and has the structure depicted in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.7 The phrase structure template.

Instead of having four separate phrase structure rules to capture the

placement of specIfiers, heads, and complements, we now can formulate th
single general rule in 12). e
~
-----r--
NP

/Nf---
lnflP (=S)

illt
vp

12) Det t Pst V Det N

711f! XP Rule: I t I \ \
XP ~ (Specifier) X (Complement) A scientist discovered the answer
With the symbol X standing [or N. V, A. or P, this rule is an abbreviation for
° s,trllctllre 01 lPOnlliJr contemporary view).
the four separate phrase structure rules given in 11) above. 5 9 Tll
Figure.' t"

The rule in 12) is more abstract than the four more specific rules that were
inJli;t1ly proposed since it makes usc of the special symbol X. However, it is
also more ecollomical and is able to capture the structural properties shared
by the four different phrase types. For these reasons, rules formulated in terms
of the X notation are widely used in contemporary syntactic analysis.
ccording to this idea, sentences have as their head an abstract .categoryl
duhbed 'lnt1'. short for 'intlection', which indicates the sentence,\ tense.,
'.. ., lltl Ilke all head" is obligatory. thiS automallcally accounts for the
B ~c,\Usc t , '. th .. either past or O(ln-
f~Kt that all sentences of English ha\e tense te,g.. e) are '.. V
{nsl) The re,t of ,entence structure follow, from the fact that l.n~1 take~ a h P
as Its complement and an 'lP (the ,ubject\ as Its spec titer. A tu~ er
'::,;C;OI"\
ad\ ,~nt.;ge of this analysis i-. that it gl\'l~" ,entences the same IOtemal structure
 It!'
... ... nd m e... wm I."'l"\fl:'.i-.[enl \\ tlk..: XP rule OUlline-(j
,·n
('()(.:uuinale stnll.:::\Utcs
.. Dc.'o<.;:oJ fl.... w '~Jal ... rule In 1_, · ~
:'fU I 'h!fd -"" "Pre'" in me Infl !X' silion. '- \' 0. \"'l1" a pem::il1 nnll \"' .. a t)l'teh('~,lkl
- m FJ~ __ 10 ,h..", '. u"ih;n: ,,,rt-, c3II arrear 10 the he3« ~ "" ,.. l, hamhurgcrsl or l" hmJogsl
. 'n < " , IT thu, treat<'<l , an ,", tance " f me Inn categon . ~.~
, " la 'I , d" ren,ed" lIh. (Gl\ en me Il'n~-e'tahhshed or tltis Sli.l \ ~ml.)lhcr ly-pc of pattern \nc\ud~, a modlf\e" i1 .

f th<- = tI,." in lUl"1'hol,'g) . me u: e of me label ,~

~.. t:1:!u ... t I ~uJe tTt.'e fl.lIl11:. suc:-h ~ lnll and CO" ~:-; unt~fl b}
desc n~!'o a propcrt) of the head. Thl.!' mo . . \ '
' h d' -. I h' h
• n °Phona.\ element that
. l.:ommot\ '..,.pes of mod'hlets
E- o n£. \l ' area Jectnes,\\ Ie modif) nl)\1nhcad~)a.ndad ~.
C':
in
\~rh h~aJs). ~'!Tbs Iwh,eh mad\f~
H \\ e, r. '"ill 1"lk'" mi, u-<3ge bere '" accon:lance "1th the c, .
pre d 1'1:,,"(1...,.) , 15)
rI, ad.i~e (i' e modifYing an N head
a g(l(ld book
1>. adverb modifying a V head
.J>
He slept s",mdIv ,

'We ean foml semenee, comaining coordinate 'truetur-s ~.'ti

',nd mvul
. ' .. . - l: ~ ler-. b\'<U\

makmg relau yel) m all and "mple adjustment> to Our s,stem of phra~
De! , tructure rules. The e adju~tmen" are dlScu"ed III sections 5. \ and S."_ which
cun be read no\\ or later at the discretion of the course IUIOr. This 1""lbook
postpone, dIscus Ion of these matters III favour of ,ome lopics in "n1a -t ,
anal) ,is thal go beyond the simple modification of p\u'a:,etrucLUre ruies.' 1c

-\ further ju,nficallOn for treating auuliaries 3S 3 type of Infl i thaI m

wonh of tlu, tv""
. d·... . I anI
are inberentl~ a" SOClate. Wlu. a partleu ar tense . F'~
IA According to the cyntaclic an Iysb, bemg presented here. the words that make
.~ for phrase up a senten e form imermediale structural unilS called phrJ..'es. How do
ex:unple, It/II. can. and mal' are nece.~l) non-pasL 3S shown by the TeS IS
una.::ceptal>iht. of pattern. such as ·He ,.·,Wean/may work yeslerda\,. B structure lingui ts using £hi approach 10 synta:~. determine which words should be
placing them In the Inll ~'itjon. "e therefore indicate that the ente~ce i~ ~uped together into phrase,,; The e"i lence of the ) ntacllc units. or
non-pa. t. (In urn ,'a: e.. If b . ome\\ bal redundant to al 0 haye a ten e label constituents. that make up tree structures can be independently \eritied with
and "e will therefore not include it in our tree strucrure, wben an auxiJiar,: the help of special te b . Although we cannot consider all of the,e les" here.
I. pre,ent ) . it is po- ible to give .ome e'l.arnp\es _
For the pUrpo!'(' of tlu Introducuon to "ynt:lx. we will adopt the
, ntemporaT) 'Ie\\ that '>enten e. hay e Inlla>. their bead and that this element
ID3) be realized a eIther 3 tense label (p.15t or DOD-Pa!t) or an a ux iliary," Fo E,idence thal.;}l. are ... ynu 'uc unit, come_ from the facI thaI the~ can oflcn
the • e of e~po ition. ho" ever, "e wIll aJ~o folio" the common practice o~ The substitution test be replaced t-~ an elem nI uch lhe\,. if. or do so. Thi" i, illu,\l'alcd in (0 ).
USIng the label S ratbel' than InllP 10 de Ignate sentence . \\ here lh y replac . the . ' p ' , o:i:,".\ and do .0 replace . the \ P "~a, II , -
The appendn I the end of the chapter ouuine, 3 procedur~ that should help (Thi" j, called:1 sub. titution t -I
• ou III I~'11 to enten, e an appropnate tree structure Que"llon 5 provides an
opponuntl) 10 pracu thl procedure. 1M
(I .
I I'The cl[!len' } Ie 'll d a.fter llrey di'co\ered the truth .
,1:1"> = 1 ,iHlen'
,0\'001.: h . d Thu far I!I £hi Lhapter" ha\'e been concentraltng on phr:t ·s Ihal COIlIl\( ' , lb 'nt \ III [\ p \ 'ar Ii ,1if the teacher> w III do , .
of pecUi r . he.ad. d complement . In fact. ho",cvcr, human Ian 'U.I " ),) -artle ' \
, tams 0 r l~ pc of ) nta II p !tem well For e .Hupl • Il Jlll' phra: ( rn r I a umt
called coordllla t lruclu re arc fonned b) jlllning 1\\0 (or mor
rd III "nknce 1"1
II pe "'Ith the help of a conJuncllon u h allil " 1 ( .,.
 I 4
( ) n\lPOR IR\ U-'CUISTICS
\1\1 AN"IV'MS. l)f
INtl""'c I ')lkl (1\ k\
17) XI'

The mO\'ement test

The) stopped {PI' at th~ com~rl anu we stOPpeu there 100.
(there = 3! the comer)

A :\econd indication thiu af (he conler fo~ a ~on.stituent is that it

moved a.s a SIngle unit to a different posJllon wlthm the sen tence. ( can he
called a mO\emenl test.) In 18). for Instance, 1Il the comer can be 1"his i,
Specifier
/ x
Head
./
X'

C'()mplt!me:nl

from a poSition after the verb to the beginning of the sentence. 1ll0Veq Figure 5.12 The phrase structllre tC'mpbtc (r('vic,l'c!t
18)

The coordination
The) stopped [pp at the comer] ..... rpp At the comer], they stoPped.

Finally. we can conclude that a group of words forms a consti tuent if' NP
7 Inn'
---.....
r
test be joined to another group of words by a conjunction such as aI/d. Or It Can - VP

/"~
(This is labelled the coordination test since patterns built ar~Or bUt.
. . are called coord mate
conJunclton . . SIbelow.) Th und a
stucrures; see seclton. us
know that the VP oftelt sweep the floor in 19) is a constituent because . "'e
be joined to another unit by and or bllt. It can
Det N PP Inn
/
Qual
/'
V
yo

r-;p
I I ~ I \ \ L-
19) That documentary about sharks will perhaps educate the pub\t'c
The children [ve often sweep the floor] but [vp never make the bed]. Figure 5.13 Phrase structure with the intermediate X' level.
1.5
shows,. this unit can be re~laced by do so and should therefore be a con,tltuent
X' categories Thus far, we have been assuming that the architecture of phrase s;;-- accordmg to the SUbSlltutlon test.
(advanced) complies with the blueprint in Figure 5.11, which is identical to Fi~ur~t~r;
above. . 20)

XP
~
Specifier
X Complement
Head
Figure 5.11 The phrase structure template.
In fact. however. this is somewhat of a simplification since there is reas
to believe that complemenL~ and heads may actually be attached to a level ~~
phrase structure midway between the word level and the phrase level, as
depicted 10 Figure 5.12. The intermediate level of structu re is represented b
the symbol X' (pronounced 'X-bar').
. Acc?rding to this v!ewpoint. then, all phrases have the tri-level Structures
.shown In Figure 5.13. In which the head and its complement form an X' -level
constituent and the specifier is attached at the higher XP level. (The example
Illustrates .the Internal structure of an S. a VP. and an NP.)
Th: eXlstel~ce of X: categories can be verified with the help of the same
"(lr1ll~,syntactlt' tests discussed in the previous section. Consider. for example.
the \ edumr,· rite public in Figure 5.13. As the following sentence
That documentary about sharks will perhaps [v' educate the publicI. but media
reports never do so. (do so = educate the public)
Now consider the N' documentary aboul sharks in Figure 5.13. A, the next
sentence shows. this unit can be replaced by the element one.
21)
That [,,' documentary about sharks) is more informative than the previous
one. (olle = documellrary aboUl sharks)
The fact that Ol1e can replace documelllary aboul sltarks in this mannerconfml1s
that it is a syntactic unit. consistent with the structure in Figure 5.13.
In order to accommodate these new three-level structures, it is ncees. ary
Y to replace our original XP rule by the two phrase structure rule\ \0 22).
:!2)
a. XP ~ ( pecifier) X'
I,. X' ~ X (Complement)
The fiN of th.: e rules stipulate, that XP categones ,u~h as.·P and VP cQnsi L
of an optional 'pecitier (a detenniner. a qualifier, and 0 forth) and an X' The
 11, 1I1~ \0 IIlh ot"
h, h III

\,lilt h Ulll\,. I''': 1" ll"'"

,II\IHII 'lit fHII I
d\ t'ft
, tt'! I \U
\I' Ih' h'lllllh
"U 1'1\ , ".I,ll. I.II~ h Ia I

N"~"
ppP .,
~p.II'. h.IIl" N' I

I h,lIlIl , '1\, 1 nht

:tIu". fll\
Nfl 1'1\", hll ""~. "~l'l
I t
\ " l\t,u '\\1 I ",j Ilojr \ It fur An., ,
Nt} 1'1\ .. pili , Ill.h l , ~1.II"\
I h put \ I Ih, iI. He,., lI pl .tn 'h
c ,j(\
,j 1.111. , 'I" .• , t 1.1thd Illlli111dnl'o,\ Irpll' lid

t ',4' ~ f,}" I .\fll \

pl,,\flllh, ".11 h Ph" 1I1"fum ttl .HI3/ \\l lI\klWd \ I rh. ""drl hI (dr
n1IIlHIIl" • \ftll I,NII' 4'\1I.!'!I,·,,\\.lf/l.,I J'tl\lthm\
I tllllpl, Oh III I ,.

Ih. finn ,uh,.t'c',:cuft.l'hut I' 11,,<1 h\ II Itt It' mf,lliH.llhU' thoUI.1 "Oft} An. l\lllin}!, \\' thh. uhi(>., tlw \c.."lh" In till' \11 ... 1 hnl.' l\ 1"",11, {", II (, .ml\ dh)
I IlIllI,r. fill 1H 11I'J'Im, ,;111"'" \II II IIh.nl\ .\lI~ ,-,'11\1'1.-111<'111. Ilh\" \1\ Ih< 'l'llm,1 IIII<' 'KLllr ""h ,11\ NP
',II, .Ifl I II .lfll\1l Inltu 1U.lfhUl 11111 Lid "till llh pIlLI" !'oollll~ 1111 <'III II P1<'111,'111 ,llltl ,,' ,\II
\ \\l"" ,';111 Iwl"ng I" m.II,' Ih,lI' ,IIII' ,uh".",)!,U' , I h,' ,'Ih rill. lor

I' "'<'lIlIpl,' ,,111 ,"CIII "lIh,'1 \ IIh ,l\ II IIh,'''1 ,Ill Nt' "lmpkmclII .111.1 Iherel()re
''''I'ln~, I" h,)lh ,)llh, III II\\<' 'lIhC,II"~'''I~' 11\ 'Hit lab\(;
II III lUI(
''/)
:.. b ,\11"1 )!,·III11.' Ih,nlt', Iht') .111 (111l' ",",hll<"l,,' ),

I' Inl1 \I' :.. I "I\\l'\l'I, 11,11 .111 \ <"I b, l' hihll Ih, 11~ Ihiltl ,Ahl",u h .t, \' liT I imilar In
I ~ 1Ill',lll1l1A I" ,'dr, II ,,<\'11',', ,11\ ,"pltclIl) '1'II~d "l\nr\cm~1lI NP ,m,llh~relore
1'1 Nt' ,I' Inll VI' h, hHl).!' 'lIll) I" Iht" "'"llhl ,"h".I1~~'" III 'lilt I.Ihl"

Ild
1 I I 2.')
nd N 1),'1 N 1',1 \
I I .f"1 "II/ \\ IIlh'lIl " c,Hnpl< 1ll,'I":
Ih, Ilt',
I I I "
tlt'tltilld Iii, "11.1" h h tit" \It", ~cllill~ h"IIl, IIh') ",'\l\tlled
• Ill' h" ,Ulled
I), ,I, \",1/1' \\ ilh ,I ,""1\pl, Ill' nl,
\11,1 !!,llItl' h"1\\,\ 11ll' ,I, \,1IlIt,llhl", nd"I,h~s,
 lil" TI( S

A, (h~ t.~\~lIllplc, in T~lhle 5.5 i.l"~) Shll\\. s'-lm~. hcad~ co.'lt .t alc Illn TUhll' '!l.7 Sum~ t"x,.unplt·s ul '1I 1'n ,,\" 1~
~"'·UIIl\lt·m~I\\
one t.·t)lT1plern~nt. The \ t.~rh put I.'
C~I~C in fXlIIlt. SUlCC It ("etlUtrcs b...)th ~ t~
.:t ('omph-mo" 01"'0" SIIUI"lt' Ilf'lUh
complcmt'nl and iJ PP complemcnt. 'lfl~"p
(1
tilli. g.rccn. "n'ln
~6)
PP.•t..."t c.:unou,. ghld. <tnj!ry
put with an ,"P t.·omplemcnl and a PP complement: PPI\> apparen\. oh\ IOU"
Tht' /ibran.ln put lw the bookJ lpp on the shelt]. PP\~I lund. lull. lIn.'d
~i)

irh(lU( an P complement:
rill \\
*The /ibmri"n put [pp on the shelt} Tnblc S.H Some eXUn1plc,...,\ prcI)O\lttun complcmcl\h

~8) Comph'mellt oplion Sample ht'tld\

Pllt without a PP complement: o fleur, away. down
'The librarian put [NP the bookJ. NP in. on, hy, neur (he g.Ul) down
pp down, up, out in \NI' flit' hUII\('l
The VP Pllt the book 011 the shelf has the structure depicted in Figure 5 I
in which (he VP consists of the head pllt and ItS two complements _ the 'N5p down \1'1' intu 1/1/' nllur\
tht" book and the PP all the shelf. Ilere again, subcalegori/alion ensures lhal . . I
tree structures only ' . panlCU j'ar heads. can
If there" an appropriat' I
.. appear I.n
.
Figure 5. \ 6 ,the adjective
" cunnul. e ca
(Table 5 7) ypc 0 complem·
. en t . l'h U. In
but the adjective/olld cannot. . n OCCur With an 'uh"U1 PP·.
v NP PP
a AP
I ~~ b AP
put the book on the shel f

Figure 5.15 A verb with two complements. PP

PP

I'A
We can therefore revise our earlier XP rule as follows. using an asteris/( after

/A
the complement to indicate that one or more of these elements ts permitted.
29)
The XP Rille (rel'ised)
XP -t (Specifier) X (Complement*) A P Oet N A P
This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complement;
(however many there are) occur to the right of the head in English.
I I \ \
.
Oet
I
N
\
curious about the experiment . fond about
2.2 the e~penment

Figure 5.16 Subcategorization permits curiou!.. but not fond. to take an 'about .pp' a~ complm1t'!1t.
Complement Various compJement options are also available for Ns, As and Ps. Tables 5:6:
options for other 5.7 and 5.8 provide examples of various possibilities.
categories Table 5.6 Some examples of noun complements 2.3
Cmnplemem option Sample heads C;;lement In addition to the complement options considered to this point. all human
£wl1lple
language~ alk1\\ sentence-like constructions to function a, compkments. A
o car. boy. electricity The car
clauses
simple e'l,umple of this from English is given in 30).
memory. failure, death the memory 11'1' nf{/ /rielld I
presentation. description. 30)
the presentation 11'1' o/a mellail
donation 11'1' to IIr,' "'/IIf1('r I IThl' psychiC know, [that/Whether/if the contestant will winlJ.
argument, discu,"lon. an argument [PI' \\'uII SIt'II" I
con\."crsauon The smaller hracketed phrase III 30) ts called a complement clau.<oe whtle the
[PI' ahoul {lOlilin I larger phru. e ttl which it occun. i called the matrh clause.
 T£ I ) , ... It I.A bTJ( ...

111\

CP helit:'\,t.:'. knuw
think. rt::member
CP PCP per!'louade. tell

~S convince. proml~

p/~
concede. admit
.. --VP
I
c Del ~N Intl v There is no limit On Ihe number of embedded I
sentence. as Figure 5.19 helps \0 show.
-
cause, thaI Can <>CCur In a
I I I
rn3! the contestan[ will win
wherner
if \ VP
\ r-----Cp
Figure 5.1;- The 51roctlre oi a CP
s
~ VP
;
Alrnough C, :u-e non·le\ical categories. rney fil into struc~ures P<lraUellO
rnose found wirn lexical categones. Thus. rne head (C) and It~ complemen!
(nf! NP lnfl
(S) ro!!erner make up an XP category (namely. CPl. In sectton 3.4. we will see
thai there i, even a type of e1emen! that can occur In the specifier POSition
underCP. . h' I v C Det
A N
I~
Pst V
\Vhen a CP occurs in a sentence such as 30). 1fl w Ich it serves a,., pst CP
complement of the verb kllow. the entire sentence has the structure shown in I I I \ ~
thought that a woman said
Figure 5.18. that Sue reponed that .
S
Figure 5.1 9 The structure of a sentence "ith more than one embedded CPo

N~\r~
This structure is made possible by the fact that each CP complement can
contain a verb that itself permits a complement CPo Hence the topmost clause
contains the verb Ihillk. whose complement clause contains the verb s(r...
whose complement clause contain repon. and so on. .

/\ 1"" I NP VP
/ \
Det N NonPs!
! I
V
I
C De!
A N Inn
:v Other categories As the example in Figure 5.20 (overleaf) show. a CP may serve as a
complement to an ~. an A. or a P in addition to a V.
withep Table: .10 (overleaf) give example of orne other adjectives. noun,. and
I I I I I I I complements prepositions that can take CP complements.
the p.ychic knows tha! the contestant will win (advanced) Althou gh structures of thi son are common in English and other
whether
If language. ~ we will ret-trict our attention in the remainder of this chapter to
cmbedded clauses that are complements of V S.
Figure 5.18 The struc!ure of a sen!ence with an embedded CP.

Of cour,e, not all verb, can take a CP complemen!. Tahle 5.9 provides
e\amples of some of the verbs !hat are commonly found with a complcment
of (hi, Iype.
 ~ r Il S
,iNTI"'IIc I
f l f l\ Ie,

p AP

CP .-\ 31)

Ih.u
"'-
Eri~
~
will leave
I
certain
(l

11.
n'ill the buy lcave"
Can the cat climh thh tret'"
These sentence, ha\'e an uuxlliary vcrh to the lett ui tht:
to the more usual POsillOn illw.. tnttclllll 32). \tn] t:\ lO \:lIn"~ t
32)
C,)mpiemenlllf P
tI. The boy lI'il/ leave.
pp b. The cat call climb this trcc.

p
/~ Our XP rule place, the auxiliary in the appropriate p<ISll1nn In 32). hut n,,1 In
31). How does the word order found \0 31) C()mc about'!
CP
The question structures thaI we. arc considering are built 10 tW() tePli. In
,
I
~ the first step. the usual XP rule Is uscd to form a structure 10 which th
auxiliary occupies its normal posillon in Infl . between the ,ubject and Ihe v~
(Ialk) aboul whether Eric will 'eave (Figure 5.21).
figur., 5.20 "~and P "ilh a CP complement S

Thble 5.10 Some As. Ns. and p, permilting CP complements NP~VP

A
-
Irons
1\
Example with CP complement - - - Det N Jnn V
Adjeclil'PS
afraid. certain. aware, confident
I
the
I
boy
I
will
I
leave
The} are afraid lee tllm Eric leli1.
X()WIJ
Figure 5.21 Will occurring in the head position between the subject (its specifier) and the VP (its
claim. belief. facl. knowledge. proof They lack proof [cp tllut Eric leJi J. complement).
Pn!posjlions
over, 300m The second step in the formation of question structures requires a
They argued o'er [eP whether Eric had
transformation, a special type of rule that can move an element from one
left].
position to another. In the case we are considering. a transformation known
as inversion moves the aux.iliary from the lnfl position to a position to the left
of the subject. For now, we can formulate this transformation as follows.
3
33)
lRA, SFOII\lATIONS inversion:
Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.
E'en though the phrase structure rule we have been using interacts with the
.ct of complement options pennined by individual heads to form a very wide Inversion applies to the structure depicted in Figure 5.2 L yiel~ing the
range of pallerns. there are syntactic phenomena that this system cannol sentence in 34) with the auxiliary verb to the left of the subject :-;P - the
de. tribe in an entlrel} satisfactory way. This section considers two such position appropriate for a question structure.(The arrow shows ~e movement
phenomena and discu ses the change that must be made in order to brought about by inversion. For now. we WIll not try to dra.... a tree dIagram
acwmmodale them.
for ~enteHces that have undergone a transformatJon.)
 lAX I HI ANAl'" I I.,
.. . INtU~(t'HUI(h.'
I hl' ,urlm.:t· !t.,l1\II,.:HlIl" tor th. __
3-1) t; que tliln I' II
the ,IlVCrMUn Ildlhlunfli.11HIII YII.tl" it lorn 'II. 'h n r-
Will the boy _ kave" , llng,f1} t'.f1\ef.\ hy apt)\
DJ ~~
,-----...1
Will the hoy
The lr•.lllsfomlUlional all<ll},,,i.,, has at lea.st two advuntages. Fir\t .J
have to ,ay that there are two t}pes of auxiliary ve~bs in English; ~~ do o'l(
OI...·~ur al the heglnmng ot the sentence and those th~1t OCCur 10 the Y._ ~ lh.q rigurc 5.23 depict" the nrg;IOlliitum HI tht O
" •

position bet" een the subject and the VP. Rather. we can say that ali sUa,1 10h grammar a' It h.,\ JW.. l hccn outlined. yntal;hl.,;. Chlnpcmem (If the
, ' al .' d . ,au~lh '\
"ccur under Inl1. consIStent "JIb the an YSls propose In seChOn 1.2 ar,.\ The XPRulc
seotences that have an au,~iliary verb to the left of the subject Simply ~ l),(~
~
an 'O\tro' process - the inversion transformatIon that moves InfJ f ndergo DEEP STRUCrURE
origjnaJ po~ilion in order 10 signaJ a qu~tion.. rOrn Il
Second. the transformational analysIS automatIcally Captures th
!.:nown to all speakers of English - that the sentence Will/he boy lea~.raq _ Transformations
question structure corresponding to The boy WIll leave. ACCOrding /' the ~
analysis presented here, both ~entences have exactly the Same baSic stl1J~tuthe SURFACE STRUCTURE
The) differ only m that inverSIOn has apphed to move the InfJ categO ' re,
quesllon . structure, rym~ fhe syntactic compont·nt nf II", wommdr,
Figure 5.23

3.2 As this diagram shows, the grammar makes use f d It

.
mechamsms .S ornef ' ' '"
0 these mechanisms arc re'flOn ',hi' f
erent
h t<ynl:s\;li
Deep structure and The preceding examples show that at least some sentences must ~I ' , e or t c archlt 'C1ure
of phrascs (thc XP rulc), othcI\ for the determination 01 ' h" \'
surface structure " types 0 f mec harusms
' - th e XP ruleh', aY\ed " a C,l(, \Xl' \hle
with the help of two dlStIDct
. , w loh comp IemenLs ( su be ategonlatlOn), and ,till others !'I r th.
determines the internal structure of phrasal categones,
' andI transform_t'
which can modify these tree structures by moving an e ement frOm '
m_ . . h"
categones WIt In syntaclIc ,tructure (tran'f{)rmation~) .
) C Jl\cJvemcnt of

position to another. If we thl'nk a bo ut th'lS to , terms of a Scnte one '

nce
'architecture', the transformational analysis is claiming that there are
Consider now the set of que;stion cOn~trucllons exemplit~ ~. 'lhese
I

levels of syntactic structure. The ftrst, called deep structure t~o

D-structure), is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the he t sentences ar~ called wh qUe!>tlons because of the prc\ence of a que tilm word
beginning WIth who
subcategorization properties, As we shalJ see in the chapter on seman~ s
deep structure plays a special role in the interpretation of sentences. IC\ 36)
The second level of syntactic structure corresponds to the final syntaCtic a, Which car should the man repair'!
form of the sentence. Called surface structure (or S-structure), it res I
from applying whatever transformations are appropriate for the sentenc u.l!, b. What can the child sit on?
.
question. em
D o the deep structurC\ a"oclated with 3fia) and 3fih) resemhle the urface
The deep structure for the question Will/he boy lea"e ? is given in Fig
5.2::!. ure fo nn o f these entences ur are they quite different'! \ ....ithm the yMem of
sy ntactic analys is .... e arc u ing , the sentence, in 3fi} have the.: deep tructures
S illus trated in Figure 5,:!4 o\erkaf. (We treat the wh words II;ho and what it'

NP~ VP
si mple no uns and I"hieh as a detenniner.)
According to the: c deep structures, which car occur J complement of the

Det
A N
I
lnll V
I \c rh r<'''llir in Figure 5,24<1 'Ahile whm appear as complement of the
p rc p<N t io n 0 11 in Figure 5,24h. This capture an important fact about the
i
the
I
boy
I
wtll
I
leave
meani ng, of the: e sentence ince: II;hlCh cur as 's about th thing that Wil'
repaired in the fiN ca e .... hi Ie whut ask about the locauon where the chIld
l' ,tO it in th e eco nd Cal e.
Figure 5. 22 The deep structlJ'e for the question WI the boy leave! A e o nd argum fit In fa\our of lhi nal~ ts Involve ulx:ate onzauon
 1I 39)
s \VhlCh car ... hould the man rcp.Hr
~----\'P
t jl1\'t'r\lflll I \
I----------- NP '-____ \\/11 ft}\'emf'nt

o.,t -"
\
Inll
/\. Det ~N Application of the . . amc two. tran,tonnatl()fl"
5.24b yields the wh ques110n 10 .:to).
tu the uec
{'I
M
ructure \11 hgure
I I I I I I 40)
the man should repmr which car
What can the child _ sit on _ ?

h t t \
A----VP

I
I
A
NP

I
N Infl
I
It,p
V
I
P
I I
N
Up until now, our discussion of lransformalions has left un'>ellied an
important tssue. ReconSider 10 thIS regard lhe 'imple yes 1/" que'lllm
exemplified in 41).

41)
Will the boy _ leave?
the child can sit on what t I
Figure 5.24 The deep structures for t\'" wh questions.
[n what position does the auxiliary verb 'Iand' when il i~ moved by inveNon
to the left of the subject? If we assume that sentences such a!, 41) are simple
Consider In this regard the following sentences.
Ss, no position is available to the left of the subject, which is the ,pecifter (and
37) hence the first element in the S) according to our analysis.
a. *The man should repair.
b *The child can sit on.
This problem can be solved if we assume that all Ss occur within larger CPs,
e look at
Notice that these sentences are somehow incomplete without an Np aft An Oth r as depicted in Figure 5.25.
repair and 011. However, there is no such problem with the wh questions er inversion CP
36). which suggests that the ",h phrases must be fulfilling the compleme lO
function in these sentences. The deep structures in Figure 5.24 capture thOt ~s
A~'(
fact by treating the "h phrase as complement of the verb in the first patte IS
and complement of the preposition in the second. m
In order to convert these deep structures into the corresponding surface
C
structures, we need a transformation that will move the ",I! phrase from its , Infl V
Det
position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. The
transformation in question. called WI! Movement. can be formulated as \ \
follows. the will leave

38) Figure 5.25 An 5 InSide a CP ·sheI·.

Wli Movement:
What lies behllld the structure shown in Figure 5.25 i~ the aswmption that
MO\'e the wli phrase to the beginning of the sentence.
II "occur \\··th·ln
tI I
a CP' whether the)' are embedded or nol. It may
f help
' to
Sy applying Wh Movement and inversion lO the deep structure in Figure Ihlllk of the CP categof) as a ' hell' that forms an outer layer 0 tructure
5.24a, we can limn the deSired question structure. around an When embedded within a larger entence. the CP can contam an
 C
.J .• liz l /I. or . u."herher. Elsewhere • thCPOs" 44)
~l\ t'n I,.'tllllpkllll'nliler su,,- 1 jS
rhl' CP ,hl'll i., pn..'s(.'111 hut is simpl) fell empty. T ' lI.i Of] if! Inversion in embedded CP\ that includ
It I~ illln Ihis empl} po~;jrion ,thaI ~e auxi lary IS Illoved in Q. "The coach wonders rep if_ShOUld\chomp',cmentl'l'..ers:
4ut.'slllHl" Tim.' , the II1n~f!.iiOlllnlnstonnauon can be reformulated as f~~s. . .tro e grr _ Stay].

o~,'\. b. • A fan asked [ep whether-will the tea .

-Ill
t m IWIn \.
In\l'r.;iun (n'l'i.retl) :
1\10\ <' lnll III C. Interestingly, the acceptability of inversion in emhedd .
qUIte dramatically when there is no complement' ( cd CPs \mproves
Accord,",: In this proposal. then. the sentence Willlhe boy leave? is ~ t
therelore open t · the moved aUXiliary). l1.er and the Cpo'
0 receive .
~'tl()n i~
oy "ppJ)i~g Ihe inversion transformallon to the deep structure in Figur~tnJ"<I 45)
nome 10 give the surface structure In FIgure 5.26. 5'~5
Inversion in emhedded CPs that do not have complementizers'
CP a. The coach wondered lCp should the girl stay1 .
t T'
c~s b. A fan asked [CP will the team win1

I A~ Y
t -,'
Alrhough some speakers prefer not to apply inversion in embedd d I
. . ec~_u
Inll Del N Inll V all (especIally In formal speech), most Speakers of English filnd th
. . e sentences
I
will the
I I
boy e
I I
leave
rn 45 ) to be much more natural than those In 44). This is just what we would
e xpect if mverslon must move the auxiliary to an empty C po"ition, as
t j requlfed by our analysIS.
To summarize ~fore continuing, ;;e have introduced two changes into the
Figure 5.26 Movemenl of an auxiliary from Infllo C. system of syntactic analYSIs used until now. First, we assume that all Ss occur
inside CPs. Second, we assume rhat rhe inversion transformation moves the
A lra nsformation can do no more than change an ele ment's POSition. It d auxiliary fro m its position within S to an empty C position to the left of the
nol change the caregories of any words and it canno t e liminate any part of ~s subject NP. This no t only gives rhe correct word order for question structures.
structu ral config ura tion created by the phrase struc ture rules. Thus t e it helps explain why inversion sounds so unnatural when the C position is
· ·IS moved m
' to rh e C position, and'\VIii alread y filled by ano ther element. as in 44).
retains its lnll label even though It th
position that it fonnerly occupied remains in the tree structure. Marked by th e
symbol e (for 'empty') and called a trace. it records the fact that the mo ~
element comes from the head position within S. Ye Do insertion A s we have j u teen. formation of yes-ito questions in English involves
Why do we atrach a moved auxiliary to the C posi tio n rather rhan so moving rhe Inft cate go ry. and the auxiliary verb that it contains, to the C
other part of sen tence structure? The answer lies in rhe e mbedded CP Ille position. H o w. rhen. do w e form the questions corresponding to sentence
.semcn ce~ such as the following. S In such as those in 46 I. which contain no auxiliary?

43) 46)
Q. The ~tuden~ liked the film.
{/. The coach wonders in' if the girl should stay].
b. Those birds _ing.
b. A fan aSKed Ie.. whether the team will win J.
Since Inn in Ih6l' o;l'ntence. co ntain~ o nly an abstract (i.e .. imbible) t~nse
The underltrlcd c/enlci1!S In these CPs are complementizcr.' and til' 'I' marker. thal' i, nothing for the inversion transformation to move . English
' h ' .. • =m
occur tn .t e ( pOSllllllI. AsslilTIl/Ig [hat there can be only one cleme nt in each cin:ul11\elll, thiS pro\:llem b) adding the special auuliat) verb do .
POst,tlon III ~ [rl'C s truc turc. therc should be no room Ii>r the moved au"'!;I"y
unde l the ( lallL'1 III Ihc cmllL'ddcd CPs In 4J), We [here/tHc predll'[ that
I/IlcrSIPII 'h()~ld uOlhe ohle [0 apply in the,,! case.'. The ungra nlln ,lll Cahty 01 .1. l1id the studenb like the film~
the 'l'lI!cnl'C\ III .J.J) shows [ha[lhl' 1\ corrcct.
0.., th'he bml- 109"
 :1"

~Q

~ h •.:h ~ hould the man repau

\etnent
e therefore reformulate the \1.. '" erne f

_-0
\ men! " '
..-II phrase to the _pectoo

c
 VNIAX lilt ANAIY~l 1)\

CP
r
c S II an-.lnrmallullt.,. Ii",\.· WI! MtIVl"IIU'ut '" (
Inent rult:, they move tlclIU.'Ull\ I ,I ''''o'CI Hm. Ule cMlInpl
NP anutlu:r. Such rule, lire l:Un, I HIII,1 'lilt' \)t) Ull1l1 "",Uun the I)f 11\INc.

/),,'1
1\;1'

;-.;
I
1/111
/"-..N
I)c,
I
11111 V
~
VI'

Np
. I h • '
hX:UlIun to another
IlIUn Y flO t'1It'd tH .
W 1lere a p a " a l:UVcr ler H I . >1
"lc:nc \n
Hhlf\ll1ttJl\ It !vi
1 or .my eh~It1t,:1H lhil.\ can he hilt', 1 ,_ '-'We r, .
~ nU1l 'inc::
Movement IS not lInl,;C)n~llalltcd I I'
I I I I I I I I , I' rIe,-Id ,- . , . " ilLt, mud, ,,' the ' ,
\\llId' \,:.Ir ,htlulJ Ihe man rcp"IJr 111 t lC <.) syntOlx tn Iceem ye", I, I n!l.c"i.trl:h und~nak
--.J"
t • I" M" leell dev 1 1 I!fl
" conl.olratn s un movement. It ha'i heen "-hown th"\ ( \ I, C( ,\(J dC1l:rmuunK,
r.. --J targeted by movement rules_ that only'" t, '
• r
I r
d
. ~
•
I' .
H\ Y l:t:rtmn CiUeg()(\t! ar.
.. t:r am P<)'>tttOIl\ can
sites lor move clCll)cnt\ and th'n th' ~.
ere arc ltlHt\ on hc)w t.
be ~~ove{. "'or cxarnplc. invcr\ion l.:an move an'
CfVc" '\anulnu
\
.. dr C \:0\<:1\\ can
~
')(" t,k I' "ItrtK hKI' II". ~\.JIi< 11 (,U.JlfH..J!d 1m', nl.11l n lp.llrtln" rtleM', 1<) thc' C fl
the' \\h,Jllr.lo,l' Il1rJ\.I" hI tlll l ,,)('fif,c'( P(),),tIOr1 \.In(It" ( .'p., O\lIkJfl
.if .... j
position only to the ncarc..,t ("' po\ition. .\uXthary frolll H)c \nn

52)
,,,,<'upi,,d oy Ihe "'" "Im"e in decp 'Inlelurc b Ihereli"e nOI "N. L>
u. movement of:.m aUXiliary to the nearest C po\itton:
n:nHlm, '" .1 (mCl' (WI empty ca~e8ory), 111 . d'lea,lIng
'h t m the moved"alh<
(.'/ r. 't
IeI'llI' I larry ,huuld know ieI' Ih'llthe bUHle mitthl explod 'III IDe
L:nrre"iponci'i Ie) the complement 01 tht! verb repflll: C!lllCru
lell ,hould Ill.) I larry kn()w \('P whether the tx ttl . Ic.. ep ..\ru(,:turcl
In Ihe c,\ilmplc",eo",idercd so far, Ihe IV" word. origlnales COl I ,1\ t. ___ --.I ) c m,~ \I .xp',,(\clll ISurt""" 'no"ur.\
of a \ ern or prCposll/OIl. III ,elliences such ,tS Ihe lol/owlng. howev.np h
Cit!
<n, I
word i, Ihe ,unjeel cr, t c ~h b. movement of an auxiliary to a more d"tant C PO"tion:
51) Icp IIp ,' larry ,hould know ICp Ihat Ihe btml. m'ght explodelll {De
. ep 'lru..:ture\
ICp M,+gllt liP I larry . h"uld kn"w ICp Ihat ,h. bolli. _ explodelli. {Surtace
Who erilici/cd Maxwel/ '! L,- --- - __________ ~J teu<lurel

In Ihis ,entellCe,lhe " ,It word ash ahout Ihe person whouncs Ihe crill""'n,
There are also certain context!> in which transformations '
,uh)c('I). nullIhoul the per.m n enl/clIcu (the c/lfect object). Figure 5 10 ,~(flht " . , arc un..:. bl'e to
o~erate. As a pre IImlnary IlIu .. tratlon of this, consider the fOllOwing two ai"
Ihat III .'L1ch paHerns Ihe ",It word ongllJates In the subject PO'''tIU !"'\ ot sentences. P
"uh'equenlly move., to the specifier posilion wilhin CP e ven Ihough th. ~. an~
ordcraflhe words in the scnlencedocs 1101 change as a resuit of this move~n:~,~al 53)
CP a. movement of a wll word from inside a complement phrase:

/:
Carl should see [a picture of Draculal . [Deep structure!
Who should Carl see [a p'Clure of _ 1" [Surface structure!
s + I

NP NP
J ............... VP b. movement of a 1\'11 woru from inside a subject phrase:

/1
Inll [A picture of Dracula! could fnghten John [Deep structure I
I

f I
P Who could [a p,cture of _ llnghten John! [Surface'trueture!
Pst t I
V N

Who
t_
,.I
t:rI!ll'lzcd
I
Maxwell
In the tirst example. the wit word is extracted from a complement phr.lse
and the rcsult [s acceptable. In 53b). in contrast. the wll word IS extracted from
the subject NP. The ungranunaticality of the resulting sentence suggest that
It is lIot {X)ssiblc to move an element out of a subject phrase. We can capture
"gUrt· 5,:10 1\10\1 ItU I f I I Ihl' fact b} f011l1ulating the follo\'.ing constraint on tran,j'ormations.
" ,:" , l) .1 'II lIP' I w ) word. ~i"c c' Ih"r('" nOlhing f'lr till' wh word 10
")('\,( O\;( f Irl ~Il( II ( . I!"f lC;, tlu'rl-'" flO vi\ rb/p I h.lrll;{ ' in wc"d orcJ, 'r,
 \YNIAX: 1111 AN",y,\\ rH
"'rNrrN( r ~lloi:\j( H.Jk:f 11'>
5-1) cross- linguistically, "'0 th'U ... cntcnc ~ t' .<
sectIon ~rc ~ot _ ound in any hmgui.lgc.) The "'Y~lem (). .. ) ~n \he prcv\OUs.
. f " 1..:\ I .... C ,ISh) and 56h
The Subje<.'f COllstruinr . a sub 'eel phnlse.
No demenl Ilhl) nt.' remo\cd from , ~ . and co.nslramlS ... haTed by all human hm Ua' . " 1 cu\t:&?ne..... mcch;,m'\tn\
(UG. for short). g ge!\ , ... called Unlversa' (~ran\llla ..
A COl1"i,iIUc:nl (such .:1.'> ( h~ . .s uhieet)
'J
that does not permit extract'IOn Of The fact that ccnain syntactic prope t- ~. .
. ~ ". t G
rt .. "'lied an Island. . a .
COI1lf.l(.l.l leUI Pi) IS t;. I ty""" of island found
English In languages must be alike in all respects r U
ICS are. Untver\al doe
... n(lt m. ean that
S b eer NP art' nOi the on Y t-'- . 'A. .. It· . . . n'Versa
vanaHon. a OWing Individual langu"ges t d" f f .
rammar leav e... n){)m for
. II U .I' .l ....
-'I mple" :-i also
show. II. ''. . not possible to. remove
I a h!h wOrd Sf tht . (Y ,. ~ , 0 1 er WIlh re~peCt 1
to OWll1g eX . .. Th . rdinalc structure IS p_ aced in braCkCtsro", para":,cters. ou. Can thmk of i.l pnrameter as the Set of . 0 ce.na,ln
It
d ' I "(ruclUre ( e cOO
('oor Ina t: ... - _'. 5 I a coordinate structure IS a phrase in .; il\ pemllts for a panlcular phenomenon.) 1n this sc t'
t f
.OPtlOn~ that t,G
outlined in derail in .,e~u?n. r0' g~lher categories of the same tYpe.) \\Ihieh a examp es 0 paramctnc · variation heginning. .with
. . S 0n: e addItional
C Ion. . Will con ... I dCr a f e\Jv
th We
word such a.' lind or or JOins
categon~s_ . .instances
' e mventory
of crOSS-linguistic differ ,," of ";yntaCHe .
are conSidered 10 section 2.3 of Chapler 9. ences 1n syntax.
55) '.' [ r a poem].
o. The author ollght '" fire a ~wry 0 .,
h. ' What mighr rhe author wnte [a story or _1_ ]' Of the syntactic categories considered in this chapter onty n
t are fOlln d. In
' a II . h uman languages. The adjective' category.
Ounswhile
and verb,
ve .
common, IS not unrversal. In many languages (such as Hausa Ko T I ry
56) . . ' . tran,tacion
rean. e ugu.
Hua,. and Bemba), there are no true adJeclives and no direct for
o. Sue will talk [to Tom and to Mary). ., English sentences such as 58).
Who will Sue ralk [ro Tom and to _ ]. 58)
h. t I
The cat is hungry.
We can accounl l,or th e..
'e ,
facts
. by form ulati ng
... the following constraint .
Instead, the concept ' hungry' is expressed with the help of a noun in Structures
57) suc h as 59a) o r a verb in structures such as 59b).
The Coordinate Structure Constraint: . 59)
No element may be removed from a coord rnate structure. a. The cat has hunger.
There arc man) differen t types of islands in la ng uag.e, and a good deal of h. The cat hungers.
current research focuses on ho\\ they should be descn bed , what properties
Some examples of this phenomenon in Korean folloy,;. (""om = nominath'e,
lhey ha,·c in common. and how they drffer from .'anguage to language. the subject marke r.)
Howe"er, since most of this work IS too complex to diSCUSS rn an rntrodUCtof)
tex tbook. we can do no more than mention this important phenomenon here. 60)
u e of a noun where E ngJi ·h me. an adjective:
4 a. Ku cha~ k-i cayml \~ta,

lJNl\' CRSAl
-------------------------------------------------------- that \x'lOk-, 'om inh!re:,t euq
'That \x'lOk i, IIltere"ting.'
Thus far, our diseu"ion ha.s focused on English . There are many other
(,R A MMAR ANO
syntactic phenomena in our language that are worthy of consi de ration and We 1>. Ku pap-i 'ria' "" ta.
l'ARAMr TR/(· wrll cuminI.' some of them in scction 5. FiN, though, it is rmportant to extend th')l fcxxJ.- . om ta, te e, i , t
\ARIATION the scopt.' of OUI analysis to ()ther languages.
'TIul fe xi i. ta't~,
The syntaurc dcvices prescnted in earlier sections of this c hapter arc not
ti)und on I) in Engh.sh. Indeed, recent work suggests that a ll lang uages share (>/ )
a ' 111.(11 set of '} ntactic categories and that these categorics ca n be comhrncd l ,,: "f a \ l'rh \\ hl'r ' Engh h U,(" an adjecll\e
10 (orlll phraSl's who.se Ifftcrnal stmclurl' indudcs hcacis , c·Ol11 pICf11enls . anu (/ Kn I JP- \ lna\Jlfll,
'pt.'lI lr<'rs . .\I()rem"r. it aprears that tl.(nsfnrm,Uronalopt.'r,ltio ns a rc suhlc'et In th. t fe" i-. m - PI _ )
Iflghl srflulal Wnql;lfnls in all languages , (hlf CX;lfl1plc. the prnlflhuion ' Th t f, :xl l '1" ):
against ntl.Il'IJOn from Coordinate .s(ru.:turc.:s dl'l"lJ~sc'd In SCC lfllfl 1 . ~ holds
 l16
(ONTfMPORARY LINGUISTICS

217
h. Cip-i khula. s

~
house-Nom be-big
'The house is big.'

A Nl\\
Despite their English translation. the words maypta 'spi~y' and kh llta 'bi .
the lauer IWo examples are a Iype of verb in Korean, lakmg tense Illarker~g in
other Iypes of infleclional endings used for verbs 111 thaI language. . and
Slill other languages seem 10 lack the P calegory. Where Engli~h h
preposition. the Mayan language Jacaltec. for example:, ~ither Uses"" a
Det N N P v
Inl1
morpheme al all (see 62a)) or employs a noun (such as S-Wl head' for 'o~? I I I I \ \
as in 62b)). ,
sono gakusei-ga gakko kara modot
the student-Nom school from return ta
62) 'The student returned from school. ' Pst
a. XIO Jlaj conob.
went he IOwn Figure 5.31 Japanese phrase structure: the head is always final.
'He went 10 IOwn.'
These word order differences reflect the pOSitioning of hea~- 'th
b. Ay naj s-wi' wilZ. '. ~ Wl respect
is he head hill to the other e I ements In thetr phrases, not the presence of an entirely new type
'He is on the hill.' of syntactIc system. We can aCCOUnt for these facts by formulating the
followmg phrase structure rule for Japanese.
There are even languages that lack both As and Ps. For example, the NOO 63)
languages of Vancouver Island and northwest Washmgton State apparentl tkan
XP ~ (Specifier) (Complement*) X
have only two lexical categories - N and V . . . . Y
Table 5.11 summarizes some of the vanatlOn m leXIcal categones found in As this rule indicates. the head unifonnly follows its specifier and comple-
human language. mentes) in Japanese. In English, on the other hand. the head fOllows its
TabJe S.H Parametric varialion in lexical cmegories specifier but precedes any complements.
~===-~~------~---------------------
Language Categories used
Matters are not always so simple. however. In Thai, for example, head,
precede both complements and specifiers (the head-initial option) within
~~~----~~-------------------------­
Nootkan N,V phrases other than S. Thus.;-; appear at the beginning of NP,. p, at the
Jacallec N, V,A beginning ofPPs. Vs at the beginrung ofVPs. and so on (Figure 5.32). (Tone,
Korean N, V,P have been omitted here.)
English N,V.A,P
~~----------------------------------------------- VP

/'~
As you can see, the N and V categories are apparently universal, with
language~ differing from each other jn terms of whether they use A and P. i'.1' PP AP
4.2 ~ ~ ~
Del P • 'P V Det A neg
Vari.lfion in phrase
slruc-Iun'ru/t,s
Even where languages have the same categories, the precise rules for sentence I \ \
J(mnation may differ But this variation is not random, For lllMance, there are ';'11 nii p 'It 7aan nang"'H rul suung maak
signIficant patlcms that recur in language after language in terms of the ..:o\our thi \\1th • -it read book thl tall 'eT)
po,'Hion of head, within tht'ir phrases, To account for these pattern" we can 'thi~ ("0 l)Ur '" Ith • "it' 'read th" book' "eT) tall'
po"t a 1ft-ad Parwlwtel that offer' three optIon, - head lllltial head medial.
WId hC;IdlinalIn Japanesl', lor example, hearls c(m,j'tently OCCII I in the Imill
position wllhill Ihl'u phro,,' (Hgurc 5,11). rhu" the nOlln ,'Ol11,',at 11ll' end
or the' NI~ the veil, at the elld (II the VP, iInd () on Bccilusc », (Jet'1I1 III the
elld til Ihe 1'1', they lire lalled III"lpII,iliflll' rather thilll prCposltlllll' , (Nom =
1I l1ll1lJtiH', tli ,uhl~l'1 lIIi1rkcr ; CP I~ "mIlled In S,lve pal C)
t1
 \. l) 'l \lr()R -'1\, I IN( ;Uh' IC~

\\'j(hill S. h(l\\ L'\l'r. ~t, Figtll~ 5 ..0 .,hu\\ '. the 'lx'nner Clhc 'l b /J. MUHu PHlum padHun -i.I
COnte, fir'a. )U" ~l' if JUL" in Eng li'h I 1Cq N()J Muttu fruit picked QUl!\
s ' otd Muttu pick the fnl\l')'

~ The. l~orphel1lc 'Ii is (remed as a Iype "I COl1lpkmem"cr wh",. • ,

pos itIOn follow s from the fUCllhm TamH is a hc'\o-\"" '\ \. ,l! ,enten\;c.hna\
In I-*tgure 5.34. corrc'\ponding to sentence 6~h)' lh . .,~a . anguagc , 1\., dl.:{>H.:lCf..l

f'i"r
t 11 I d fS
VP. n at t 1C en () . nnd C (containing the - question
, l! comC'atlhe.enU
m h' () \ \h c

I' // of CPo

CP
orp eme.) at the end

N Inn \ P N/ S
/

~' T
/ /
Phim ell klap clluk rongrinl1
Phim will retum from school

figure 5.33 Th.l; s(>ntt'nc(' ~tflKture: fhe spec-ifipr (subjecr) pre<.:u ies Iht~ he~ld. NP NP V Past c
L
MutlU
!:::::". I \
Thus. Thai usc, one \w,io/1 of Ihe XP rule for pal am pantJim
phrases ,mallcr Ihan S.
and another vers ,-
• On lor
.
Mullu fruit piCked
-a
·Ques
6-1)
Figure 5.34 A question structure In Tamil.
XP rule used in Thai for Ss;
XP --> (Specifier) X (Complement Examples like this ,how that languages can Use very different meam, to
express the same type of meaning. Whereas English can use a movement
,p
Xl' rule u,ed ,/1 Thai for phrases smaller Ihan S:
-->.\ (Complemenl ) (Specifier) transformation (inversion) to form yes-no question,. the corre,pondmg
sentence type in Tamil is formed by the phrase Slructure component of the
The ,mportanl Ihlllg 10 rL'cognize here is Ihat. despile the differences jUsl grammar.
noted. English. Japanese. and Thai all have phrase, and Ihcsc phrases inclUde
II head 111 addilj(1I1 to oplional specifiers and complements. Beneath Ihe
o[,,·ious word ordL'r differences. Ihen. there .is n more fundamenta l Si tnilaritj Wh questions Just as many languages foml yes-ito questions without the help of the
in Ihe <:ateg()ries und rule Iypes needed to bUild syntactic structure. inversion tran formation. many language, do not make m,e of in Movement
4. ! in the formation of ,,·h questions. Languages of thi, type include Japanese.
Korean. Tamil. Chinese. and Thai. The following example IS from ThaI.
Vilri.ltion in the use -------------------------------------
Lungua!!l'S often Ilttfa from each othcr in the kinds of rules they usc 10 fonn 66)
of tr.lmformdtiom
itparticular 'cntl'neL' Iyl'<'. To illustrate this point we will consider threc Khun 7aan 7aray .)
l
phelJ( l1lcna. 1\\0 in\"olving ljue'tion patterns and onc involving statements. n)ll read what
:What did you n:ad·?·
h"-nQ qUt'stions
11I'I"mil (a Ianguagl' (If India) . .'"e.' ··I/(} Ilueqions are SIgnalled hy the prescnce otlCL' that. unlik.: Englbh. Thai does nOt front the question word in its wh
(If the lIlorphclIle 'il at tlw clld of the sentell<:c, rather than hy an inversion qUL'stll'ns
Iramt(lrtniJlion. (The dialTitic indlcato a demal point (If 'Illll'll ialton : Ihc
diaaitlt - marks a long \"(1\\ d : 1IS a retroflex liquid)
(5) Verb raising
l/ , \1tJlIUl'a[,1l1l pan It all ,
\ItHlll Inllt I'lL"/( 't! 11. 1'.1\1\ .1\'" \, "l)
'\lullll pld,'d tlw fnlll •
b. P.lIl! \\\ r , h J~'.
 Tlll .. I.."\.)ntr.l,r I,e,f"'= "'(l~. m..:e thl>" rn.·\ero.1.hlu~htier(lf"-c:'\.\ t~n~tIO" <l....
fi~r of Uk" ,'C'l't.l3.DJ ~n"fl.)re ,ht.'lUIJ ,.-,"l..'ur h_""'I It-. left. 3_' 10 0 ." J urpn. Pe-cl~
00", '" er. c.'" n lTh,)Ugh ,pt.'"("iri "I"" ,gener.t.ll~ r~"l."Je (~e head In Frent.:h. 'tn I)'
fi " ... urn a., I.lUJOun 'ah\ 3~"· mu ... t folll.)\\ the, em In mal language. ql1a.li.
6..)
a. -Pau' h,-'UJt'lUl'o £J:I\aJlle. (= Engli ... b 6/,N
PauJ alw"J\'" \\Of ....

b. Paul IflI,aIlle ",uj""'" (= English 6-b!

P-Jul"Of -... a.!w:n' Have you tried?
WI" ,"'-'uld th" be" One p"sibilil) thaI i- currentl} being considered i, .h. However. unlike Engli,h. French abu allo" , inv"
Fre~('h h.l.., me! \erbr3l~ing uan~forrn3tion ouumed In 69). "1Cl( f
72) cr"'lOn {) nun-aux..lharv
. \J ,
69)
Inversion of a non-uuxiliary verb:
Verb raising'
Vois-tll __ Ie livre?
~ 10'< \ . 10 lnll
L-J
\erb r:u~ing is obligato!) in French. applying 10 the deep structure in I'i~
5.35a 10 £1ve the adjacent surface -tructuTe_ see you rhe book
- b Surface strucrure . Do you see the book?'
a Deep ,trucrure S
S ~ Figure 5.36 depicts the interaction belween verb raisin. and l·n\·e~·1
~
d
."onn~eed
:-'~'P
., e
10 form thiS sentence. (We treat the pronoun ru 'you' as a type of);P)
?\'P In11 \'P CP
:-.;
I ~
Qual \' :-.;
I
\.
A
Qual \' ~
Paul
Paul
I I
IOUJOun.
always
I
Ira,mlle
works
I
Paul
Paul
I
travaille
wots
I
10ujours e
alway~
I

C\ NP~W
I . ~
V Infl V NP
Figure 5.35 ~ r.lrsilg i1 French I I \ ~
Vois ru ~ e Ie livre
B\ monng the \'erb 10 the In11 position in French. the verb raj in. tL____)'---..J
uan..s(ormarion accounl, for HS occurrence ro the left of its specifier in rha~ Inversion V-Raising
language.
A fascinating piece of independent evidence for iliis proposal comes frorn Figure 5. 36 The interaction oi \em raisi1<;; and im<!rsioo in French.
the operation of the im'ersion tran. formation in French. As we have a!read\'
seen (section 3.·1). this transformation moves Infl ro the C position. Now. i~ Although English does not use the verb rai<;ing transformation in general.
English only au.'-ili3/)· "erbs occur under Infl. which explains why onl) they there i.- reason to believe iliat it applies to the 'copula' verb be 3> a special
can undergo inve~ion. case. As shown b) the follow ing example. be sounds more natur~1 when it
70) occur,; to the left of a qualitieruch as a/ways. which occur<; in the specitier
o. Inversion of an auxiliary verb in English: position within VP.
Will vou know the answer?
L-.I (/. />,' to the left of the specitier:
b. Inversion of a non-au xiIi3/) verb in English: Jonathan is ai\\ ay, on tnne.
' Kno\\ vou the answer?
t . -, b. h to the right of thepc.:itier:
.?* h'nathall • h\ a), h on tune.
 I I
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I l i l t .. "
I ~II I Itl"
71
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I 'hili"" Ilhlll \\, 1t"I\lIllIlI""\','lh'Il\'tllhh', ~thh p.llh·II" \\\" ldl l1llh'
~tl1h III \ '\ 1I"",ftlh 1\ ,'1,\1111\ 11\111' . Ill" 1\ I tll\\1 \ 1.111 ," '11t,' I" 1.. 11.1;1,111\11 .., Ill.' './IlIll'l

rnuutlll,ttH\l\ "I l'

II' "I'I ,111\1 II' ",," "IIII\' 'I,ll"
\'lHlldIH,ltU11l III \ .

\ \ 1\''',11' I,ll' II ",1111lllh ' h,','1

,I Iltlld , 1'1'<,,,1,,, 1\\'" ,'",,' '1111'" Ill" I I", III Ill\' ,"'II' I P" '11"", 'he
l.' lHHdtll,\l\.'d l.Ih '\lll1,,'~ ,lI\' bnlh '\,,,, 11\ 7 ). V\) ... ltl 7rd. ,\1\\\ "Ill' .\ .\(~)
Im.lI1\III\" '1')1,
\\It\t
"11 III "Ill ,,'I,' 'III)
I""" III Ill' 11101 I
" ,.1111.1,
, Ill'''' , ""P'.I", 1111'" .. I
'"11"'''" ,II " "It
1}IW' ""11",111 """,' '1'''ll'

I ,I" 'I I "1, ,,' 111/

8')
I ""Idin,,",'" I.t "n I' ,Illd ,I'I'
11.' 1l';,,1 l.'I,lll,'1 1',.1.\,11111\,'1 '" Ill"ltl","
" ' lhll\lol ..,,1 ",,~,~, ,,'\'1 1"1,111111' ,.1 ,Ill, I' ,ud '" \1'
" II I,. II 1t1'IIII, 1 1"'1 ",d h''Ilq Ih 1 I I 1'11" h"" \ ,Iud \ "\" \ ,Ill 'I \ \
 ..,YN1J\X III( ANA''t'\IS (11
l'ol.l hTI .., ~INltN( \
fl ' S'~\l( l\)Wf 1.1.5
The ~ymhol X _10 tht ... rule ""and", for -'" (;a\c
tndit.:uttng thal either an X or an XP I:an ~ -' ~(lry at 1m)! ll'\1l.:lu 1 \
. d- , h ClM.lfl.ht\illt::d A he fa eve\'
( ) ,'11 IcalC~~ 1 at one or .more cau:goncN. Ci.ln ( "" .. iotl!, the a.....lcr\ ... ~
conJu~"Ctl~n. rhu~. we ca.n lorm not only ... truttures ~~~r ,t() the: left h\ the
in whICh Ju~t two clcmcnl~ ar~ COOrdtn"l\ed l.. \ ch a... u ,"Un ul1d u b
• , \Jut a 'Ih "'lructu fly.
o boy. CJ cal, a d og. and a IUlnlster. in which ' re~~uth <1'\ a nUl
.1 \P d"' B ' a much la.rger n he __ fl,
Ull d crgocs coor InatlOn, y addtng Ju ...t nne mOre rule to urn 'r ot lkrru

\P ~\'P we can form a very broad range of Coord\nuti.()n t

~ ruCtures.
the grammiJr. then
.

\ . 'P
I \' NP
Con Thus far. our treatment of phrase structure ha, ignored modifi '
5)
~ I I .6- difiers clements that encode optionally expressible propert'
. '
f" ,ers, a c\a." of
,es 0 ..eads Alth h
read a Otl(lk l'r walk the dog MO leXIcal categones can have modifiers, we win foeu h .- l>ug an
categories that can modify Ns and Vs. s ere On Ihe lypeS 0\
Adjective phrases (APs) make up the single most co \
b . 'p modI. filers.'tn Eng I-IS.
h A S Ih e f '
ollowmg . AP
examples show mmon Yused c\a" : . of
" h ' s serve as modIfier
. 'p"-
-----:-------.
I ;-';P
of Ns. (Th IS IS not t e only function of APs: they ca I f '
1 f b h b
comp ements 0 ver s suc as ecome and seem, as in He became/,ee
naSoUnCtlOna~
'
d
[very' allgry]; see Table 5.5.) . me
Del ~' Con
I De! "'" N 86)
I I I APs serving as modifIers of N:
!hi, man and that ch'ild A very tall man walked into the room.
She made exceptional progress.
Figure 5.38 5oP1e coorcinate 5Iructlr."..
The most common modifiers of Vs are adverb phrases (AdvPs) and PPs that
describe manner or time.
How does the c:rammar form coordinate structures? One possibilil, is th
there 1. a ,epaf3r; rule for each coordinate structure. For :-< categorie~, f:~ 87)
example, the following mo rules could be formulated. (The • sYmbol AdvPs serving as modifiers of V:
indicales thar one or more categories of that type can occur to the left of the describing manner: Helen proceeded carefully.
conJunction.3l m c\ample ~Ol: Con =conJunction.) Helen carefully proceeded.
,3/ describing time: We arrived early.
a :--1' ~ ),1'* Con:1.1' 88)
b. .' ~ 1'>* Con :-: PPs serving as modifiers of V-
A .et ofparalJeI rules (onerbal categones could also be fonnulated. describing-manner: Helen proceeded wirh care.
describing rime: Hetayedfor rhree daH.
4)
As these example, ,hov.. Engli,h modifier> vary in terms of their posinon
a. \1' --> VP' Con \ P
with re:peet to the head. Thus ..'\P~ precede the.' while PPs follov. the verb.
b. \' --> V* Con \'
l\\am Ad\ P< can occur either before or after the verb that they modify, as the
S,mJlilfrule> can be devised for othercategones (5, AP. PP. and \0 on) as well tin.t ~,ampk_ in c'6) and Tahle 5, I:! illustrate.
nut? ou (an probanly ec that the result v.ill he a rather long list of new rulel.·
Tllhl~ 5.1 ~ ~ lodifier (X' Ilion in English
fortunately. we can al'old these complications by u'lng the 'X notation' to
Junnulate a ~mgle general statement that can take the place of the more
specllic rule ex~mplilied above
\1'
5,
PI'
The ( oardmatlOn Rule. \d,\' the head
X. Con X"
 '1'111...' hrac: keh..'t\ phi " ...\.... 11\ (J,,) i.\tl'
, ,"nv uh.' lntornmlHlIl .. ,hoH' \\w N lW"It\ ,,' ,I
n.·'""vt' c\"u~~,. ("P 1\\
A rult' for modifil'rs I lel\ ll\1,.Khh t 11.._
1 . . '. H.'If ctt h,,,. ~'41
l·,umpt~. thl', rda'ive da"'t: hdp ... I"lt.-mlry the man h 't .~n\l·I)\C. rlfl(.l). f\.)t
p l.!l'Slln ..:ritll.!l/cd hy .Boh. . "i I ll\\I.:.\\\ng \h.!\ he, \
lIke (),hcr 1l1otllt.1C ' .... n:\~l\tVC d~\U ... C' ... tX:l:\If wn\' L
,
head that lll.-'Y mot I y. ',.,HI ..... 1,le rdallV\..' . dim,c \n lin 9lJ IncI L' ''me pI".,• • 1\ \he
n \,,, h , " ·1. <1 , ,,,,"1,1 he n· n f C
NP hcuded h y lle N mwl. 1 11 ... \.:a1\ he vc nflcd with lh ' L 01 '" I'" l) Inc
, c ne \1"\1 ' Ihe '"n'lll U\\()n
h:~t illustratc( .In "I .., ). Wh'leh show ... that the 'c"uc.nct.:
\1' ·/";tici ..... t·,J •I S a sy ntacttc""
linn ~ "'c~ It C.\n b~ n.:p\aced ..,
hy lh.. 1t mWI who Ii UnL
( ... prun~)\.\n hun
N Qual 91)
.I. I Sue nlay know INI' Ihc mall 1('I,whom BnhcrillclI.ed __ I \ and \ I<.I111W """I,x,
an Intcrn.HUlnal cn~l:-' """'ys (IIilll = (/tl' mall witom Ho'" c",'w/:t'cJ) .

Relative clause structures resemble embcuded wll 'lucstinns in two respect .

' I ll.I"I.Ll'uIII
In llrucr '·,'r
. .pbceJ1lcnt
Ih·· .. .. llf I1Hxliticr:-..
. we '11111~t
) exp'''ld
- . .... oUr First. they beglll WIth a wll word such a.S who ()r which. 'icconu, \here is an
(lrigillJ.l \.. P nile ~ll th~lf It ;ll1ll\\slhe vanl)U~ oplJ(ln~ sho\\ n m89).
empty posilion within the sentence from which lhe wh phra,e has apparently
SQ) been moved. In sentences 90a) and 90b). tor mstance. thc NP positions
following the transitive verb cr;r;c ; ~.e and the preposillon TO are unfilled in
Th,' FII',lIId,'" .\P Rllk
:-"P --> (Sp<.'cl (Mod) :\ (Complement ) (1\.10.:1) surface structure.
The first step in the fom1ation of the relativc clause m 90u j imohes the
This mit' allo\\, a modifier 10 occur either before the head (as in Figull! 5.39Q) deep structure in Figure SA I .
<'r atkr II (SCI' Figun: 5.39b). When: there IS a co.mpkmcllI. a modIfier Ihal
(!<:curs alkr Ihe head will nonna/]) occur to the nglll of Ihe complement u.\ CP
wclI. This i, illuslr.HI'u in Figure SAO. ~
C s

/\ V~
\ 'P

/
~AdvP
NP
p
,If" '" /"-.......
V D.:t "I Deg Ad\ \ \
I I I I I
accepl the nell S IW) calmly \ \
figure .5.40 A plY,1"'" \\ hleh hOlh Ill<- nllnplt'l1lt'nt Jnd til<- modifier Octur Jiler Ihe \ \
h""rl. In "k h C.N'" Ih.· n1<>d,ti(~ ()('cur, JIIE'r tilt' compil'mP11t. \
\ \ \
ln 11m c\ilmpk. Ihe .\P rule gIVl!' a phrase consisting a head {the verbor
a cOIllI'il'm.:m (the NP Ilr/! 11<''''.1). and a motlilil!r (Ihe AuvP l'l'I'\'
<lCCf'I'/}, \ \ \
UI!III!y) - in thaI nruer. . I \ ,
lntl \' Det ~
.>..1
I
Rl'I.llh l' d.1USt'S
I th ... man
Su~ ma~
(,,,h,llln'd)
YO! TIlt' ck'ep tru<.ture for a 'ootil (' dau-
II. .sUI' ilia) knOll (It I.' m,lIl/whom Boh critICI/I'U __ I.
I>. Harr) 11\IIIUtltt' IllIagt'/\\hlclt SUI.' wa'''''t! to I.
 N IA

'" Vq
Uet'Ht

"\\1\." 1lI. 1, \...,,1\\ ttl\' IIl,\1\ \, I' \ \I' \\ hu liltl III ,\ \\11\'1\\

lJ~ )

S\lt' Ill., \..1\\'\\ tht Il\an \' 1' "ho \11'

t
, p

,
"
\ I'

• 'P
I
I' I i IT
f
b
, , 1'1' () I
rhu s Lu in thi S , ..'h;\\,h.'r, W ~ h;\\I..'_ hli.'U,cd ~)\l1 'll\i.'ntl.l\" tll\ thl.." an,,\y \\ ()
'l' llh'lll'l' ' lllh.' lUll' l'lnpln y l'd hy pi a.I.:tl1tntll't " nt tt ~tt\~ \<lrma\lnl\;\l "~"'I\ ;\"
I J t' s "I ,n l' I\IHHl e d at thl' ll\ltsl..'l ~ hO\\:I".' \ll' [. thh I~ not \h~ nnly \)ipl.' \l\ ,y t\\;\1. : \1~ '\ll;.\\YS\

11111
I
J

I
Ii
11", ,
I
I "
,r-
' " I" II
I
(''If \'
I
\ P

'Ii'
I
,,'l,tI In l'nntl' nlpOL\r y . lll\ 1:! UI~\\i.·~' in \\\l ~ Sl'l.:tHln , We win hrld\y COlhll.h .' r \WI.)
\1th l' l t -Pl'S of s~ 1\1a~ lH: anal YS I S. nne fncustng lll) grammatll.:a\ tI!Li\mn'!;. MlI..:h
;\\ , ubl,·,'1 a nd dll ~ "1 ohi~~I , 111\,1 Ih~ \\Ih~r ItKu"ng, l\l1 th~ \\ay In \\hl,h
S) n tm' til' s lnt c.: tlln: Is Il s cd tn Clllllnl\ltlll.'all· Itl~',-)nl\at\l)tl ltl lln..lcl III '\\u . . \r.\tc.
h.n\ Ih,' Sl' :l ll:lly ,~' wor". W~ w,\\ ma\..~ Usc III a ,emcne,·type Ih'lI has player!
;, \l'I , nllpurlalll m\c III thc dcvdllpm"111 III' '~lIlaCllc Ihcnry IIVCI Ihe ""I
"'h' 111.1\ ,,"'lI)\\ ,,,,'1".'" \\fh11ll
""h dUll'lh,'"
" ~l' \ ~ ri\\ dl~(" ad\"'· s .

" SlUC- 'iAJ I he'" ,t"f.it I '111It Itlfr' Iclf .114,1.111"',1,111'1" Ihtl \\ hplll.l'" ',,1" nh lH'd tn fhf'
'It "N.'I ll{l~lh\fl \\lIlun Iht' ( " (\)/Isid"1 Ihe pa ir lIf scnlcnccs ,n \)5 l, \\hich arc virtually idcntical in mcaning
,,,"SPill' nh\'i llllS slrIIclural dil'fcrcncc"
·,l111.(' th.1f lit' rh'\\ ft.lll,f,llIl1.llltl,,' .lI • I 'quirl't! ttl Inll11 I "'.un\.' \.' I.llI'l'
"'U,'lIm', ,,,,'/1 " lit,·,,' 1{.II/1,·" "'1.11,,,· ,'1.11\\\" ,';1Il I...• "'1111,·., \\ "h 11ll' h<'il' <)5)
,.1 Ih,' ' .'1/1,' 1111 \ 1",,'1111'111 11.1I,,""III.III<'lIlh.11 ,,"ld,·, ...·'hl<-lIll) "',/1111,." 1(\, (/, l'lll: lhic \ cs 1ll..,Is Ihe paintin g.,
1111 '1'11"""11'
T hl' painll ng. \\ ,I' !alscn \:I) Ihc lh,<:\ \:, .
1/1 Ih' 1''''''''''''' l ,'\,11111''''. lit,' u'lI II ",d "" f lll.II,' , in Ill" '''"I'l"! ""1" 1'1
J~"II"'n , Illil I ,inl/I.II .1Il.1"", i, .11'1''',''1/11,' 1,1 "t11l'II\I"" "I "'1.111 ',, d.'I1" .
In 1mil'l III de,,'I;he lhc dilTercnccs and ,imiiarilics \:Ict\\CC\1 lhc,e ,1\\0
'"11"",,·, . Ill"''''''''' Ih,' ,lilt' ill v":J. ill '''lIdl Ih,' ,,1, \1"IlI "II~ill ;II '" ill Ilk'
,CI\ll'n"'~, II IS nl'c','ssar) I,) ,hsllllg.uish helwcen the <lv-enl (thc dc~r 01 thc
'''lIh'~'d 1'\'~111Iln
:ll.'lilln lk ,, ~ n a l ~ ,1 \:I) the \crh ) and the th~me (Ihe clltll) dlrc':ll) :111r:(\cd \:I)
v,iJ Ihal ;1c'lil'n), (Thc,,' nlllH'Il' an: di,cussed III mme dclall 111 Ch'lplCr 7, )
. 11,' 1Il.1\ ~'lIl \1 Ih,' 111.11' \I h" ,' III'l'l l l'd 11,,/1.
1/,'", "It" ,"'11"'1"'11.1, (,1 Ih.· 1'." \1'" IIlhl .1,,,,\ tl1l' ,' IIII,"ill' Ih ll l lll' 1" " "'11
\I h" 'I''' ,'III", ,'d .. " ill 111l' 1''''' "'11' ""11111'1<'. nll' d," 'p ,llIldll',' Itl' Ihi, .1. ,1,' li\,' s,' nll'nC l':
,,'111",,'1' Ihl""I<\(,' ""11"'1"'11", I" 1I,n. III 'I hKh Ih.· II'It II "id "1'1'<,.11' III Ih., rhl' 11m" l" l ..)"k Ih,' 1':linllng,
'lIh,,', '1""lIhlll , ~( ' Ul 111 ,'111,
p~b,n l" ' (' n\Cn . .·l.. ~
I h '!,aiming \\ .Is 1:lkl' l1 \h) lh, lhi.:\ ·s)
1/" /II. I ~ Clll
il (I
'.J 71 lI'('~ ,~, ""'(if J"tll( <;;

Ilifl )
II active . . entence
Cal pu"l mpHn
WITlU open duur
1'7, 'The wind opened the Uoor
b. pa~\ivc sentence:
II Ih,,- dn ' \:h.l'l'd Ihe..' lIud.
Mpon g;lpa? m~ cal.
" 1''' . .' tlild.. \\ a... l'ha'l'd h) IJIl" dog. uour Pass-opened by winu
<lSI 'The cloor was opencu by the wind.'
fl. rhl' 1t'-'ldll'I prul\t'd (fllll'Ut' Il owcvcr. it seems that passlvinlliclO is not ~l\ways signalled in t .
II. Gil1l'Ul' \\il ... pl'.II'il'd hy rhe (l' .. u:ht'r TZ(lt~il (a Mayan language or Mexico), f(Jr instance th I" h" Way. In
W) agent an d llC
I t hClllC .IS t hc same in active and pas!-.1VC' con<;lructHm.....
e re alive mdcr ,,[ th c
101 )
1I. nil' dllld hlOke Ihc' dl.,hc,
(I. active sentence:
h. rile ""Iw.' were "mk"JI hy Ihe chi/el.
Ui snakan ti vlmke ti Xpctule.
l'hl' (1.ln~I(H"l11ali()n;l1 "llllllysi .... of pa,\~~c SC:lltl'I1Cl'S, cannot he adc4U~IICI> theme agem
discu'I,'l'd WII,' WI.! han' cot).'i,dcrcd sOllie ISSUC."iI~I.lhc study of. semantic, (set seated the man the Peter
Sl\.'1 1011.'1 0 I' ('h'llll""
.... 7) . lIowever" il is p<)sSlhie
" to eonSlucr two <llh l.:r 'Peter seated the man.'
pcrspl'cliv ....s on Ihc lInalysis of Ih" important synl;tcllc pal/c'nI pass ive sentence:
ln akanat ti vlnike yu 7 un tt xpetule.
theme agent
The kl'\ POIIII ot rclutiollulul1lllysh ".lh"l atlea,l sOllle sYlllacli<: pheno " was seated the man by the Petcr
n,en
;\It' hC'sl ut'senhed In leflll' 01 grallll11<1llC;JI re/allol1s sLleh ~I' SLlhJc'CI "nu direci
'The man was \cated by Peter.'
o"I,'el ""I her th"l1 ltIorphologkal pal/cm, or the md:r ()~ words. This C;ln he
."'L'1l hy eXallllllJlIg how Ihe passlvc' slrLlelure " lormed In di/fcrenl Here the passive is signalled by a changc in the form of the verb and the
laJl!!lIa!!e.s . appearance of the preposition )'u?ltTl 'by' before the agent. but there i, n(J
III Ic'rll1.' of IIHlrpholo!!y alld worcl order, the Fnghsh P,lSSlve has Iwo change in the relative order of the agent and theme.
d"tlllell\e pmperlles hrsl. a passive sentellce COnlal/ls SOI11C lorm the or Mandarin Chinese employs yet another Option.
,Iuxlliar) I", (11'(/'\, /.\, "nd so on) lOgether Willi a ver~ In thc so-callcd 'past
102)
parllnr'c torlJl', WhldliS norm"IIy lI1ar~ed hy the .sulfIx .' 1/ or ell (as in Wa.\
'"At'II, \1'(/.\ c/wwcl, and SI1 on) Second . Ihe rdUlI"'! order 01 the agent and a. active sentence:
Ihc'IJIL' HI passive sentencl'.s IS (/Il: reverse of that found 111 active sentences Zhu laoshi piyue-ie wode kaoshi.
(Ihhk ~.13). ThllS, whereas the th ... me pncc ... dc's the agent I/l passive ng/'III Ihem ...
'ellll'lle ... " th ... oppo.,ite orde, is lound HI aclive senlences, as M:rllencc 96) Zhu profe. sor marked m) test
;lhO\l'd,'mollslrat,'d. 'Professor Zhu marked m) test.'
/I. passlye semem:e:
\\('de \..;wshi het Zhu laoshi plyue-le.
111('111,' (/~t III

~nlll(.· form nf Au\ ht' 111\ (es( b) Zhu protes .. or marked.

Ihe Ihel11" l'IIIlles hclore Ih,' <lgl'1II ,;-,:1\ (e. I \\ as marked b) Profe,",or Zhu.'
p''',ll'aI1I<'1I'''' Ii>nll ,,/ II", \
11,'1," (h,' I'a .. , i .. IIMr\..ed b) a changc in word order and by the ppearance
\C

rh,' g"Ill'I;IIIl'lld"Il',)' IIIIHllllall lallgll;lg" is to Illark paSSIlI"aIHlJI hllth hy (1lllw pr,'po,tl1on b, j 'h) , ht'fore the agent. hut the verh ha e:v;.actly the same
,I dl.lll 't' IlIlht' lelall\t' old''J'tlfllw agl'nt and Ihe tII... II I... aud hy a 1110.111'" allon lI'f1ll III hlllh p:ntem ,

III Ih, 101/11 .. I fht' H'I h. rh, /(1110\\ iug c\alllple from SI" (a MOil I\.hl11el Wh:t( th 'n do Ihe p ,h e 'ent~nce' of Englih, Tzotzil. ChlOe c. and olh~r
I II 'III 't' '1'"k"11 ill \1,'111,1111) JlI<l\ltk' .lIlllther "IUstr.ilIOIl ol'(his. Ian 'll.lg c" hay C 10 lllllUllon Acc()ruing to proponents of relational nal) I ,
, 1, Mf'()1\ J.,>\ liNe ,1 1'\1,(

Ih . . , ""1,1,: I,ll t h. '" "" ph~' H \'Pfl\~"'Ptllld""lh.l· h"'I\"""'1I IllI" '1.t1l"11111 1

ItllJlld "' .11',""\(" ,,'flll'lI ".IU,' Ilhh4.-IIII1"i ,14.:ll\.C \"\111111\"11,111 ~,' 11.'1"
111i} ' !l'n"

Sy"ta('lll' illlatY"'I'" l';111 :II\u lot u . . 1111 \l. ,

tJ/l1i1lllt
s llU l.:tUlt.'S 1I1l'
' ,
uo.,(,·c,1 to umHIlIlIlIt'l\l'
•
a W.IY 11\
"II"
1 111;\\11111
'hhll' ,
\
S\l~' .
(1'." /t'nl ~Y "I, ,
. 0,.: II'"
\11/11'·('( l"IlI l'd funchonal S lIln· tlwy M-d, ttl 1IIU'l" ' I' I ' '\I\,lly,,_, ill'- lIh
• . ... ,11\( "Ylitilllu' , n
It P;"'I\l' ''''lIll'lIn': nit' P;IIIIIIJlg \\;I .... I;lk.\.· U (hy Iht' Ihic..'V(,"L oj tlll'l! l:O IHItIlII1Il-i ltlVC \tllllIIOllllu.: till'" I. P 1I'1"\11I11t'O;111\ h:nll
Nt)/Ivc £I,.1f II,\.' lined tlf~ll'L" III lilt.' 'iI,.'I I V(" /OJ,,) (tlu' l'fllltfllJg) I ~ Ih ,
... l'lIlt'IH:· ... I S t· ... pc l: lall y III"'UlIl'IIVC III
1,1~t lCtWl~4.:I\" \
Ihl"'I"t'j.!,iU" Allh()\I'h hl
l\f' .mcl pa\ I".
IliI Vl' Ihl' ~ aI1H.· ha .... ".: 11l,"·unlllg,. tlwy diller ho, I " \ \~ uth l'lIh'nrr: tY'le~
1 lln.: )h! ll'r ITI tI •
III rhl' pa"i"\l' /lU/.) \\ IJlIl' Ifll' ' lIh,t: CI HI /(UlI) (flU' (/tU'l't',\) Oc..'4,;I1I'''i .t 'tlh1l'q
, ' Ilu.'y rUl
· ... <.·1I1 the "111 HHtH)Il that tlwy (\(.''1!. nhe \'1'1' \ 1l~ w;'Y .III WhKh
PP III NUb). (/\11 NPlh;tI uc,,·c,,'llr.\ \\,.,h;/ pn..'pu" IIIIHI H I 10 hl , ohlic
".\ ,,'\
/l "11 lit
c' lc h othel' In the wily 11\ wtlll'h lt1l'y '\)'ll.l.,mOIler ' \ W',y. , II, II
iI IS'li
u y (I h:r hC11l1
It '\ rlIH\ ptI"jh/l' III IllInk ttl P;' ''i,l,oIVC M'UIt.'lll'!,." iI.' rh e ,.,rodll~:1 of ,Ih ~,) ('OI1HHUlli ca t c u . I wo dllft'n: tI<':~""l: an bt, noted here
• . • . , f I""')!C t 1t' Into .
'n"'tH}1) tt) ht:
dl.lIl!:l'S \hll\\II"1 'l;,hk:' '-J I n fh l·l.'WH,'''flo,H.lJnp UCII Vl' palll.'1'11 \: t\l,.1)
1'11"1. pa~,sivc ... l·ntclltC .... tend lu (ii, C1l1pha\lIc. lh' \ '
... ilu;ltlon bClll!! (, Il'SClth'd In LKI.lhc va ... t rlnlonly eI' ro . c' 01 Ihe •wel\l e 1n \ h c-
litblt'5. '" 1'101)("'1("', C)/ pU\.',n- ,fIIKltllc," • <) passive ~CntCI\l:c \t
menl,on ,1111.: agcnl at '1/\ IlencI:, WI: call s"Y "tlI"ly 7'/ '

'iuhwcl
--------------------
Pel""''''
/'".\.\/1'(' ~
,
01 'O/(' ""hi" W('rt' /"(1" '11, wllh""1 :llIrih"llI1g rc' p<",sin'lit lor h""
III any partl<:ular p<:r\\lI1 ,
'),
' I 1111\1
)(~ lClI n'ltI1{ We t t ~. r
Y I .
","/I
eVelll

---
ohl"llIl'
Se<:ond, pas"ve se nlencc, flllc groundlhc Ihctne hy 'k' h
I )Jfl'd oh;"'l" . . lIh,,"'t:1 Illa Ill\!, II t I! Un}e,1
01 ' Ihc sentence,
, '" ,
As"" Icsult,
,
Ihl!' . '
htlu.n"," IS prescntcd fromll
that 'IIHJ, vl(\u al. (As we w,lI
, Sec, In' (haph:r
, Ie p.:rsp.:ct
7 the ,unJ'c"t U<U' II "e
I III
• . Y \ntfm He!.!",
t • ..." "
Sillee' 11lL' <Til"'''' ""''' 10 idt'lIld\' ,"b,t'US ,lI1d dirt't'l oh,t'l h diller I Ihe en t,lty Ihat the n:st 01 the c ntcn<:c IS ahoul.) COtl>otucr in Ihls re ',trli Ihc
followlIlg passage, g
"lI1pu,,!!,' 1".I"n~lIal!", IIW't' rhang"""'Ct'Olllp"I,hk w"h a varit'ly of l"lfc~~::1
,"IIIcluml <'lit'"", III 1:1I"",, h, Wht"l' Ill<' dln:C1 oh,eci appears aile, Ill" I /05)
,~ " ,.~~
alld Ihe slih/l't'l ht,'forc ," a challl!c 'II all NP, !!'illllnHII,,'ul relul'oll will I
' " " u~
"I\'Olll' a l'IliIlIl!t' In ,1.\ '''l,'ar 1'0""(111 1 hils" thclllc NP Ihal Sl"ves us .\uh,cci Mad,n:gur is a pn':lly lud,y hlokl!, Lasl night, he Wl!nt out, got tlmnk. an,l
(a" IIllhc I'a,'"w) ralhn Ihall dlll"'1 oh,Ct'l (as '"lhe m:l,vc) wI/ I UPPl"U 10lhe starlcd rolllllg around In the slreet Befme 100 long, 111' WIIS hi! hv (/ rur, But
11'1 I (If Ih,' vcrh ral her I"all 10 Iht' I ighl. he wasn't even IIlJun:d, In fact , he got up and walkl!tI home
If)';)
The iw\tcilcd pas,ive cntcnce in thl~ pa sage sountl, cOlllpktdy natural
(/ i.lL'IIVc..- sc..'l1lL'uct' sincc It hrings ,I() the fmegrnund th~ pronoun he, which refers to the per"lll
TIll' Ihk\'cs I(lok Ih,' paillling, (MacCiregor) Ifllm ",hllse per pectl\\: the entire series of event, I I1<:lng
i described , In contras\. the pa ,i\ IS not nearly \() nalural in the follOWing
,h,'ml' ,\'I'/I'mg III di"," (1/'1"'" t:lHlIC\1.
h. pa'SI\'(' Sl'nlt"ll',' /O!i)
/Ill' puintill~ \\,u, I;,kt'll (hy Ihe IIIICVCS).
[ ~l,ll'(irt'g()1 I, .\ plt'tl) lud.. y hloke, La~l night. he went out, gilt drunk. and
,ht'nll' II'I'I'ifJ~ 11,1 "d'll"" slall,'tt 11,1ling ,ll\lUnO in thL' strCe\. lkfof\: 100 long. *(/ C/irWIl\ l,il hI him , But
his hand \\ :\sll'I<'\\.:1I lIIJlIrcd ",
III Olh':1 IUllgllugl',', l'h'lIIgl" III grallll ilalical rclallOlh lTIay h,' 11I,"1l'lI hy
SIIIII,'lhlll , oilier Ihall a dlallg" III word onkr III Ihl' '1/011" passiVl', 101 \lut llt' pl.l"" I his I bee us II
" alllpl,'. ,111.1"'011 01 Ih,' PH'I"I,sIlIOIi m/lll/ j, l'lIoUgh 10 illdll';lIl' 111il1 llil' UpClI1 reM tit the p .lge \ cl arty about
""0 lOll ,,'I lite SlIiljtocl D,'spill' llics,' dilfrrl'lICl's, hm~"H", P;IS"v(' "Iflll'l III ,', OIlIIllUlI) ill lhe noV, of m mnallon,
III hOlli 1'lIgb" h ,III" IlOllil itaH' in t'OllllllOli Ihl' pair 01 II'bllllll; d than/!n
",lIl'd III I.lhlL' 'i, /.J
1.1111 III he, S) IIlaclit ph"IIOIIll'na "'III Ilt' allaly",d III Il'l IllS Ill' pill'" s,', Olen c Ih key
 24

,~ummin.~ up
;l~hl--";lpl~;:;' h;1\:-:::11 :';;;:;:I<'cl \\ IIh some of Ih~ funcl<U~
In\ (lh cdIn rh~ ~Hla" " ... of ... ~nll"nL"t· fonnarion. A:"I \\ t.~ h~\ C .secn. thc\C u~\ ~c~\
'l'em to hc..~ of dift~r('nr (' pt."'_ (hen" are phr3sc structure .. utes ( C\"I ...•e,
r 'duciblc tll a ;-.in!!lc XP r;lIc) rhat dClennin~ the an:hirccrurt' l)f a )liCl~~h~~\
deep struclun:'. suhcalclloriz!ltion infnnn;Jtl0n Ihal elbures 3 Illalch ~I co\,
head,'\ and the cOlupJements \\ ir.h \\ h.h.~h thL') ,..Ippear in, s~ ~ta~th: stnl:~een
snd trans(ornuuiOl1s rhJI (\U1 nu)Jit~ deep :-.truc(urc 111 \anoll~ \\a' ure,
pmdu<'e a surface "truelun:'. Taken ({)~elher. Ihe~e de\ iccs Illake J\
10
IIllportaJll P;lrt ", our ," cmll lingui,ril' C"lllpcl<'nC' III Ihal Ihe) PrO\id: an
1l1t.'an, to \.'(lmhIllC \\ ord ... int4.) ... eJlten('c ... 111 endk ....sl) noyd \\ a)~. the
------ ~dn'fOmlaI10nal 'ynta. i the mll't \X'pular of the half dozen m' .
ajor synta\,;lh.: lhenrie
u:-.ed In cuntempo.rar) hngul')l1C • orman.". It ts the the~!"\, tau""ht
. . ". . -
"
'\/th"Unh Ih' prl'l'i,<' rules for ,entelll'e fomlJlion difrer fmlll lannu . both L._ ~ tn m\f('UU~\OTV
hngul\UCS .course~._ lJCcause HI. ...0 \\hj~lJ used anu bec;lU~e man) o{ the Q\h~r
'. t:'
~ , - . . ~ age to
l:upua"e l nilersal Grammar pro\ IUCS alliancuages \\'lIh the sallle g'n' approaches that eXl, t today hal < dc\ eloped t,n rC'\X'>n,c to il The pan ' I,
<- " ' . ' , - c el':ll
1\ p<" "f UC\ll'C,' I,) nt,Klll' ,'alc~one,. phr:bl' 'truClllre rules, and lransfo •
outhned .he~
• . •
1O',oh es a ,anety of "'lmphfic'J.tl\.)n~
• . " h.:U ar \) 'tem
to make it appn,,'pnatl! t'nr
[1(10 ... ) \boy llt Ihe diffl'rl·nct.·~ am(m!! languages ,can be tJ41ccd to~a­ presentation In an Introdu~t~"lf') COU~.
<'\I'I<'lk'<' "f II ,mall <'I ", parnmelers. each of \\ h,ch makes available: The treatment 01 aUXlhaI') \erb . . in\ohe~ a "'imp\ifh!d. \'er-lon of the: S\ ...tcm
\ anel) of altem,lIn e proposed in Barriers b) . ' . Chorn K) (Cambndge. "IA: "IIT Pre", 1<)\\0): '~e the
book by Radford (Clled below) for a ro're detailed imroduclton. The 'l'lcm of
off'S
\Crt> 3 Ittnlcnl \\hl h Ilk,' I,'n e IS oftl'n realized a.' \'erb", rnfleClion ( •----
It I." C-ol1utKlOly 41' umC'd r..hat the lnflllod(' aI-.o ,. :ont3~ns Information .3boul SUbject_

(1tapl r4, sc,'uon6 41. TflU ,th Irec ..~ FJgure S 9 \\ouldal'lUally look Itke FigU;:ei~
\Hrh the (C:IIU uncl rthe \ lrf1 f'f'n nll.abel malchmg rh,,,e on Ihe,ubject.
subc3tegonzauon ernplo~ ed bere I too,d) b'bed ,'n the One outlined In GrneraJi:".1
Phrase SrnJCIUn' Grammar h) G G:uJar. E. Klein. G Pullum. and I Sa~
(Cambridge. \IA' Han'3nl Lru Nt) Pre', Pl,5\, v.hich del.'Tl~' a n ;
tram,fomlation31. approach I ,) ntl!: , The Ibe. f) of tral"illrmation pre ctlled bere I
essenti3l.1~ the one erop )ed throu~houl the 1'1 ,b) the \a,1 mal rit) f p<-'Opl
wNk.ing \\ ithin tr. nfooolll:lllicltUlI
Int1P ( S l The statu. of
\rhcll' HdH' II t!
Int1 \P J~l'ahc ' \ ' 'Ii n;1 1) " f
In,l!;\\l,l l ni\ 1'11\ '. I
Tns \gr lp

[kl PI 1 • \ Vel
lIcnl III ,1, red lh IInS\\

'"k',,!
 - ..
pp

/~
p De t N
I I I
near the d oor

Adding the PP levet above the P head.

figure 5.45
Htl~c.lbm Il.)l)(). RdtllimlcllGrammar, London: .~ouL1edge.
R{l",C!'.\. R\~I'lCr1_ J9l)1. Srn/tJ("/ic TIlt'OfT: A Unijlt'd Approach. Londo n: The N P to the right of the P clearly functio .
\nwJd ·
names the Iocatlo ·
n entaIled b y the meaning of ns a..) Th.
lis campI .
emenl ("nce It
lin (In. 1:"111). 1911\..J. ,\\II/tU: A FUlIctiollal T:rp%gical APPll1OCh, Vol. . near . 15 e\em .
attached at the PP level In accordance With the XP I . . ent" therefore
•.h.tdphi.l: Jl)hn BenjJlIlins. . . structure de picted in Fi gure 5.46. ru e, gIVing the complete
Ha(,.~St·nHH1. Lili;lIlt!'. I qq..j.. /lJIm{/uclioll {(J GOI'l'rll1l1t'lIf and Bmdmg r ht •or)'. 21ld edn.
(hlt.lnL Hla~k.\\L·". . PP
RJJt()ni. ~\.nJrc\\_ 191':8. rrUI1.'ifnrmaticJIIl1! Gr(unmar:.A First COW',H', C:lll1bridg .
Camhndl.!t.~ Cnh ('(SHY Pn.'~.....

Cam~rid,ge : C'lIl1hriJgc Unl\ er.,H) Press.

' .
-"'wren, Tin;O[hy. ed. 19:Q5. Ltl~lguagt.· TypO/Ol(Y illld SYllItlCIlC Dt·S(·"'ptioll. VOls 1-3.
e

/A
p Del N

,'pt-ndi \ ; HOIl tn
----------------------------
4./lhough III' rd.1li,·d) eas) 10 check.1 tree ~trucrurc 10 s~e if it complies With near
I the
I
door
I
bUild II,-t- ' tru( lure, Ihe XP rule. il is some\\ hal harder 10 hulld a tree slructur~ from Scratch whe
Ir.' ing «) analyse a ne\\ ~hra,e or senl~nce: In suc~ cases. you wi ll prObab/; Figure 5.4
6 The complete PP.
fllla il <,."k.'1 10 pn>cced rn step> workrng from th~ boltom up and frOm right
10 lefr. A, ~II illuslralioll. kl u, Ilrsl conSIder the phrase lIeor Ihe door.
The ftrsl 'IL'P ill\o/,es assigning each word to the appropriate leXical Consider now how we. proceed in the case of a complete sentence such as Th e apple
"aft'gol')' "., dt'plelcd in Figure 5.·13. /!light hit the man. AsSignment of each word to the appropriate lexical category giv","
the structure depicted in Figure - A,.
P Oet :>I
Det N Infl v Det
I I I
nt'ar thL' door I might
I
The apple hit the man

Figure 5.47 The categories lOr each \\ad 11 the 'ffitence.

Th"II, \I orklllg 'mm nghl to left. the XP k,·eb are added above each N
\: A. or P. a, .~ figur.:- 5 44 Thus. we fir. t add an i\P '~hcl above the N doo;
\\·,)rl..m>: fT\.)m right to eft. It I ' e ~ to ...."" that the noun man head, an.·P tFt=
1hl'rt' I' "earl) no cOll1pkmcnt h re. but there" .1 ;;p<!cifier (the determiner
5.4fl that ~'nt:lln' 'lfier UI DO mplemeDL -
rll I, \\ hlch can he attached at th 'P lelel ill accordance with the XP ru le.
'r
I'
,
Dtl I '\
I
lnll \

liar the duor Ill' mi'ht hIt the man

'lgutd.44 BI ", thl. 'I'

III FI -u 4~ lIe cam Qui Ih am PC( dun' lor Ih P /I nr,

rcqutn.'d PI' I \ I
1 8
SYNTAX 1Hi A.
I\l'VSI'i Of E It l

ha, .!ppht!d: it it begms Vrolth a wh w

\P
the ec""menc-e \\ 7uu s/wuld Ih on!. ~ Wh Me. etne:m.
~ u-ansformation~ ha"e :tpphed. ~ fa~rJ planl '" ~ both
P
In oroeno detennine the deep '1IUct <>f Ihe.e
Del to it!-. po . . 1110n under lnfl and V!.e mn ur-e. Vlie mu return the

The al'ple
Infl

nll.. he hI! the

Del
""'"
m3.n
~
wh "ord ha., been moved. Smce the ~~D<: the i'OSruon
fanners planr? "'k ahout the comple: In the ~ \\hat
fr:"'''lar)< <tb

planted). we pl ..ce" hDC in the ,erbal m of the em (the th JhouId lito

Ttli' ",yes the deep -tructure depicted comFPlement i'OSlUon In ~& 1hat
- 1n 19ure 5.S!. .......... ..
CP
.. , on Ul,r.m..'~ of Inel. lhe n"li~ ""~Clrl ,lhe he~J of S. with the \ P
~r\1r.g ... £... .... mplemeol:mel the .:"\'P to the .len luncrioning a~ i~... 10 the n
C~
S
}1eJ~, the ~;omp ~ie ,eoten..: iHU ... 0"3[N In Figurt" 5.5( P'ectfiey -
,p~
"P---~\·p
~
.:P
1\
Det Infl
)\~
\'
I
!nil , ~
The farmers ,hould plant "hat

appl DlIghl hH mall Frgure 5.5 2 The deep SlruCtue io< the sertence what sinJd :he larmers plant.

The au:ciliaI)' should then mm e-, to the C position hn,,=

the specifier po~ition under CP \\11, 10 emem ldinlOl1) and .. hal to
The lin" >
urface structure depicted in Figure 5.53. . ~e g the co ete
"5 .!
CP

/~
CP
(--~

/ /~
;p--- ~\P . ;P ~
~
\~

~ lntl Intl' .;P

Del \\ p
Infl \

num hit man

r

-- --
 fit. t.t ,. I •
14 \
(,.~) fhl' CthtOIUC( u,h·J lur .1 ~o'u fx·e!. I, " III" !UilflaJ'cr .flay "It, , lUI lOt.r ru;t)t
¥.) ' J he ,udy-(· hhr., 'I\t(,11 h"flllhen,
dJ The l.'U"'(Ollh.'( fl'qUL'\It..·tf lor.1 I.:uld nct..·(
c, I k' g;l'. the H:c..'d ('ro" .\urnc mOllcy. h) ' I he leadl", f,ft"fI "rgAfIlI'f.:41I Ih U' Itu,
I) A p~ydllc Will IK!4I~ If, HIl gfU"iJ
n Ill· UOJlalcd fhe H:C"u ('nh\ ,Ollie mOflcy.
g) r he pJJol I.,"dcd Ih~ jct. J} Marmflrw (.:(lUlfl \)('(..1111' 'IUtl,· ffln,", I,t Larry
tl) Th~ Icl I""ded ft. Apply the: Io.Uh,tllutlCm If! I hI f1~I'''SIIfj i\'tllch fit Uk hr4k.;
j) "Juurnal"" wrOIC the arudc. 10 the fulll,wHlg M:Ulcnc:c~ tllnll ("m lItuelt rtcd ~~U<::tlC<",
J) fhc .tnide 'Hole al IThe lragedy\ uP"'IIIII: enllre hrlllly
J..) Julie" bored of hcr joh hi They h,d lin IhcclIvcl
I) Julie" IIred of hcr job. CI "I he l"orllplIlI'r Wa, veryl ex I"''' ive.
2. Intllcarc Ihe c:uegory of cHch word in the fol/owing ,'c nlencc~. I 01 1"1 he u,wn s'l"are ""<\ the CIVIC hu,ltl,")!\ ",1\ he rehullt
~) Jane Ileft lownl .
help 10 rdcr back to scclion 1.1.) II (",Iu,
f) "' he 1'",11111:.' I ~w" ", ;"0"'''1111<" l:th:.
a) "n1111 gl~lss suddenly brokc.
h) Ajoggcr ran lowarcl, the end orlhe lanc. 7. Apply the rr".'vcmenlleM I" delcrrnllle which (,I Ihe hracktled
c) Thc.sc dead Irces mighl block Ihe road. in the followlIlg <,cntence. Ihrrn c"n"IIUeOl\. Aeq~
d) The deleclivc hurricdly looked Ihrough thc records. a) We ate our lunch Illearlh,;nverbank\.
e) The peachcs nevcr appear quile ripe. . 0) Steve I,,,,ked lup Ihe number\ in the h<~,k.
I) G,l/Jan will play Ihe lrumpel and Ihe drulm III the orche.slra. C) The li~l"nd ha, been \ fl'~"led.
d) I love [peanut butter and bac(," \andwlch«\ .
3. Each of Ihe (ollowlllg phrases consists of a specifier and a head Draw Ih.
appropriate Iree ,trucLUre for each example. c C) The environmental [m"verne"tl~ gaining mOnlCntuml.
a) the 700 f) this house 8. Lexica\ categ(,rie~ are diVIded inti, ubcaleg',rie~ on the basIS (,{ them
fJ) always try g) very competent c()mplement~. !-or each hf the foll',wing "mrd,. tWh phtentlal compte
c) so witty h) quite cheap ment option are gi ven. FrJT each e,f Ihe words;
d) perhaps pass i) never surrender i) Detennine which one of the two optl'ms beller rruw..h« the
c) les.' bleak j) those books ~ubcategori /..ati')/l requirements "f the verb, noun or ad,ective
4. The fol/owing phrase.s include a head, a complement, and (in some CaseS) ii) Justify you r choice hy creating a 'lCntencc u~ing thaI complement
a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each example. 1'(Jr option.
now, there is no need to depJctthe J/ltem~1 structu re of complements. (Sec Verb Opt/om
the tree diagrams in Figures 5.4 and 5.5 III the chapter.) a) expire " or P • 'P
a) into the house b) destroy ,'P or\')
b) rcpa/red the telephone C) observe • 'p or PP to PP ab<""
c) fuJI of mistakes d) dlscu P or \')
d) more towards the window c) clean • 'P PPlor or ·P. 'P
e) a film about pol/ution f) mumble 'P or 'P I ' P
I) always ,tudy this material g) thro\\ (\ or 'f' PP Ice
g) pcrhap.s earn the money h) paint 1 'P PP",or ' P PP fOf
h) that argument with Owen
I) the success of the programme Noull Options
a) debatc PPof PP to or PP"ilh PP obout
5. After carefully reading the tir\t [wo sections of the append iX, draw phr<l\C b) hamm r
\tructure trees lur each of the lull owing ~entcnces. I> or PP ....." PP about
a) Tho,c guests should leave.
c PPof PP to or PP f
h) Maria /lever atc the hrownie . d) pP.. th PP about or PP PP to
.:) That shelf will fall c) "orPP.... PP
d) fhe gJass hroke.
dJeclhe Optwru
l') '1hl' stUdent lost thc debatc.
tron orPP
( flNjlMI"H .. O 'I I\X 1111 "" " 1\ 1 { I' 1,1
'-t\ I If\jld!1 //1 'H ft l! 1

iI} IUIIII' ~ al,· I/y.

hi III~' ''' t IItt

' t:: hi
NI',,, 1'1'",
I'
,fJ
IUllt'l/
~ thl\\ I,'dr.l "h'. ,.' 1"'."11,11 ",.".
1
,,, III I 'P"t."", /'
' Iii- hflIlJ'" ("I,lt,· .,
ILt,\(·c! UII till" I ILtla
M"L,V;" ~y" Ucturc ru\
r ) 11, .. 11 PI'" , 01 ~,
"J I Jlaw tll'- Ill'" IIUt IIIII' tlu ('",.u h I,t the Malall.)l ~y
fl, t I 1111 '111111\\ IIIJ" ' ,lIl'lIll " ,til I Illl/dlli ['till wild"., , Idll ''U''C IIIi I
l \ l lllllpl"1111111 111 11 \illh 11", ,,",, I"t", .. j lilt ,'lilt
J cu I 11I11t I
'"111'/1 1,1°1111'1/1,,11111 14. ( ' (Ht , iC\"( HII' h,lI.,wtllV, 'w\ayar('-.c «1c11 ••
II) , lit " 'pili It / '11 1Id fil l" . 111 . I\- , ',d, 'lll 111/"" d . 1 ho y. c it> La'):dh ' i 'h w', IIIJI, I B" . . , I
hI , lit " 111"11111 '/1 '1I111~ 111.11 IIII' tlIIlIJ " 'II Y p"JJIII, ·t! Iii, ' hily IOU" 11I'"W y \tit' Bao." ,
I' 1i,1I".II., " 'Pltlh '" 111111 II >; Wr/nll ih }..l' " wlll 'IIIt" "I(' cod,p'w \I,t ' Ba \ CJ It.,,~ tltl' 11IIHICY.'
01,,11 " 11111 hJ Itl a " hal ~ iI"qll 11110
II I I Ii, 1,,/111\\ 1/1" ', "IIIi ' II' , '~ ,ill l' O1l11l1l1 t"llIhl"llll,'" d " " 'Il" Il ulI I I..'o ll a [)'-,t·d lu,u ...,· Ilw
r tl lI"
• t·, "'"III'li'IIJ1'lIh III dJllld" ' II/\,t '- II I"I' PO 't IIIl,II'" il IhUl1) I ) /.1 "" II / "h ·' lllc hCHI ',l' (,:t,l1ap ... lod •
" lIl/lfl/ll ' hll l ', U I, "'''III('lIn ' /t'c
I ,alw'" Ii, ,.." 1"10 Ii lalltari Inl" i 1\01'\0
eI, I lie' polin ;tPPt' dll ' d li .IJ1PY IlIul I~H ' I 1IIIIIII, d w ",dd "! lIl h ' li dl'l
L:)
put IIH)jW Y 11,,- ill t.:. llpho:!nl tlw Ba'-.o
,' ) ''',,' III/h ·t' l ",iI" .. 1111 dldl (H ' ll ), ,, 111"/1 ' pt"'d ,, doW" till'
' B a""J pllt tlac IWlIley IlIlh(! Luphqanl ·
IlIuft,, \ \ .,}
II ,\'"111 \\ ' ))1 111'1 1'"
!OO('t'/H III
" hOIl! \ \ /J l' II It' J Ifll lO i lll)
/) 'I)
Write ,III; X I' rul l"~ f '1ulfcd '''lI1llh ~e !ienlcnce.
"I "~, . ,," V\\ ,II,"'w , ,,,. 11,,, ,·lh,' <"1, ""1111;11111,' <l1I V/'1 W",, ,'~I~
I it I tl ow do III"y ' hi " :1 hOIll blgli h phLl\e ~Iruc lure niles"
ft ' ,
J'I II ~l h"
15. ' I hc fol lowing dal a ru' tr l"" KI"o.:~n Y'Ju may rgnili c III numm bve
I". I I" , " ..,I\·I /II II" 'i I" IJ u~ ' o IlU\\;jJlh' l· rllelli.:'· ... II lvo l Vt~ Ow JIl Vt" "UIII II,ItI' huhjc~t) ;I/II! acCII ;IIlVC (l lire, 1 " lIjccl) marke r s f"r Ih PUfp<Jl>e<; 1)\ lhl
IUlIII .III IIII ( 'I\t' II I(' tI"CIl IIlIdlll,' dlld I l h .,t11l. ll't " 'lllc.llIll~ Jo, " cxcrc,'>e.
"11th
M'lIh ' lIn' :I) 'lcrry ka ku ycca lu i , .. ahanta.
III """111"' 1".,, 11 "" "".11
"I "''" II,,' " lit' Irldlll,,' 11"lie,·"
1'1 ,\1111111" 1/ '" si lldr ll i "'fI"" III,' 1111'1 <11'111'1
' I e l ry·Nonl tli:u girl-AI! hkClo
, Jerry Itke~ that girl.'
b)! num I hakkyo cry ka 1,\.
" , 1\ 111 , ' 11,,' 11 11 ""'1,'" 1'1,,), 111.11 111",,<,'1
IhlSman- om h()ol 10 W ·tIl
I I " III,III'I,I,TI "',11 III/-! 1/"' 1"11111"
'Thl man ent to hool'
II . r l,,' IIIIIIII'III!! MIII""es //IIIIIIe lit,' IlI lcs III IVII M UVI'IIlCIl I alld
C) 'iubm w u c)'k )' ~h:I) ul il s ta
-kd
11111 "'1111 (;111 1/", "1"'1' "/II lilli' ulld Ihl' slId",'I' SII"' IlIl C lUI ";jeh III
Ihl"""l t """Il ,-
m Cn nd 10 book c read
til \~ I III /""d"
1/", dJi 11111,.111' 'Su r d th boo 10 friend:
/'1 \\/II'Sh""/d,,,1/ Ih,'dll"'III" I) d nth d Ll. v,;h t I the XI' rule for Korean)
I I WII.,' I 1".111111', .'"11 ? II) tru lure lor ach of Ih Kor
til \\/'(1 \\llIlhll' 11I11I1I!'IUJlIS /IVC wllh"
1'1 1\11,,'1111 hi ('/11" h,iI, 1111 Ih, p,lIly I lh formation 01 e 1\0 que lIun In
II \\ h;ll II I Alilit'/" 1/I'"lg I" Ih,' 8,,11"'/111 • 1
12. ,l l r lehren
/'I" 1"//,'"JlI' d""IIS 1, .. JlI / '/11', I /,IIIJ.:I1;1/o:, ',p"k"I1I11 NI!'l" II01 ,
II N",I;IIIII IIhll t a h
'" 1/" .I
\\(/111.111 Ih,1I hllil I Ihis
'rhlll \0\11111.111' h n'
/I h
II h,IIIS III I ,,111,' ""/' I "llhl' II ,It I Jill II I lid 11""11 1I"Il ""'!
1/)
')1111 1/11'/""1 "11/111111 11"I'~ /11' Ih IWII I '/ulI'IIIII cs
/ I. / 11
\lJd,I'
fll//I1\IIiI' d,lI,
II
II "(lill ' / ,I, '" y. I'"klll 011 1111 I l.1Il.! "I
(0 1{"Pt lk "1\\ J INc .lIIS' I( ,

d) Lic.:-hr lin 't.UIII dil.· 1'1.11(' 6 Interfaces

lo\"c~ till' lIIali e/lt' \\tll1l.111
• D<l(." the.' m,ltl In\(.' Ihe.' \"tHtI,III'"
i) '\"lUllillg tltOit (;e.'IfII'1I1 IJlilke, U'C' 01 Ihe 'aIBe.' IIIVer,'
, - -,.
tllrlll~III()JI ~I' "lIgll,h (Ll.:
I II I· (.
~JO\O:l' II. to l U.:
. 11)11 t
PO~1I 1 01l'), UI ,"Ill
M ich<lcl DoiJrovo /sk y, W illiam O'Crad .
~Iho\l' d.Il,1 IdJ lI' whether (.erllJ.11l l'lIlph,ys thl' vClh ~"the
Kc1ldmba Y dnd rran( is
u-all,formatloll'1 You 11111\1 1I11.:ludc IIlL' In:c ,trUClurcs for h) ':111~t'It)J!
} Our alls\\.l'1' ttJ III
l7. rhe.' ti)lIon In}! '("'l1tCIICc"" all t,;ol1l:L1I1 conjoll1cd calcgorics. Dr'l .
.'Inlc.'turc for t·'H.~ h of the .'iclIfem:cs,· • \\; a trcl!
. ,tlu~r(' i\ afw<lY'" "'onll' '/{'<lk<lJ.w' /)f'Iw{'('" tht· hiNdU I lle " .. (
a)
The cyd,,' d,.tnk a galloll of waler and a lilre of Coke .f {'Vf'l'J fJ \(j{'(J( f'

h)rhe .tcrnpl'IIlL· will land <II the airporl <lnd t:lxi to Ihe lermina l ,. (). I lof ~t~ldt(,'r
e) The <.log wellt dOWII Ihe Mairs and oUlthe door.
d) Cru.soe "lI1dL'd 011 (In ,sland and ale a goat
c) Jill ,hould recycle Ilwl hook ,md IlWg:lIlI1C. Up 10 this point, the individual components of a gram . h. • .
J) Hilary kllows Ilwl .sprillg will come ,md Ihat Ihe '"0W wili melt presente(I ' · .1'1 l'h esc components howevermar
In some vclal , .1
ave jeach
.'
he.,n
g) Mary IS keell 011 c"lculus hUltired or chemistry. . . R I ' ' . un not unctltm 10
isolation. u es In one component may depend on or afj·e,·t lh .
component. I Il th ·IS Ch apler, we explore some ways in wh·
~
h'''eh In unothcr
.
18. The followin!, .,elliellces c()Jwlin modilkrs or vanou, lypes. h' c' . Ie \ c <llftercm
r components 0 f a grammar arc rclated to each other. These int f . .
,entellcc. lirsl idenlify Ihe modifierh). then dr"w the Iree Mruclurc, uch . d ' I' .. . er aces, a, they
a) A large Iguana .suddell/} appeared. . arc calle d In to ay' Ingulsllc research. involve morphology and phufi()\o
h) The headlcacher mude an imporlanl announccmclll after Ille class. phOnology and syntax, and morphology and syntax. (A fourth Inlerf!~
c) An unu.sual cvcnl occurred nc/ore Ihe gmnc. betwecn syntax and ~emanlJcs, IS considered in the next chapter as pan oj \h~
diSCUSSion of semanucs.)
d) The very hanlrdous waslc seepcd inlo Ihe ground quickly.
c) A huge moon hung in Ihe hlm:k sky.
/) Timolhy drew an enormous map during Ihe afternoon.
19. Each of Iht: /C)/lowing scnlcnces conlains a re/:ttive clause. Draw Illc dec
slltlelure and Ihe sur/ace slructure Irees for each of these sentences. P
Chapter 3 dealt with allophonic variation, which is represented by rules that
a) The animals which Sam saw came from Kcnya.
derive alloph~nes from und.erlying (phonemic) representations. A second type
b) Kyle likes Ihe girl whom June befriended.
of vanatlOn 111 language lI1volves morphemes and their al\omorphs (rust
c) The woman wholll Keith lives with recycles plastic.
introduced in Chapter 4, section l . I ). An example of al\omorphic variation
d) Helen recited a poem which Wordsworth wrotc.
can be seen in the English plural morpheme. which has different a\\omorphs
l') The canoe which Crusoe built was too heavy.
in the words cal[s]. dOI([l.]. and nIlIlChllZj. Like allophoOlc variation, thiS
211. Tn each of Ihe 1,)/lowl!Ig sentences. IIldlcate above each NP whether it '. phenomenon is analysed \I, ith the help of a single underlying representatIOn
suhject, direcl ohject or oh/iLJuC and indicate below each NP whcther Ii; from which the allomorphs can be derived. The rules thaI account for both
IS agenl or theme allophonic and allomorphic variation make reference to phonetic environ,
a) Marie purchased a present ments. including .) liable truclure. There are. however. differences between
h) The class was conducted hy an expert.
allophonic and allomorphic variation. two of which are outlined in the
c) Thmc hooks were read hy youn!! children.
Il)llllwlJlg '<':Cllon.
d) All expert ('ollducll'd the class.
e) 1\ prescnl was purchased hy Maric.
1.1
Morphophonemic
Rule, th,1I account for altemations among allomorph\ \mllrph"phonemll:
,llll'rnatil)I1'-) an~ calkd morphophonemic rule. Th.: major ditTerences
rules h ,t\\ Cl'n allophonic' anJ morphophonemic rule,> can be ummeJ up unJer two
majllr points.
 Tnbh: 6. t Fngli..;h ll h U,\\ UIl(HllOrllh .. klln!.)
·\JJupht)llIl.· nJlc..~ ... an," f"",:c..'plionless - (hi:") apply In the up
.-\lImnorpll: I- ILl Lm'irunmnH
('0\ irllnnh..'nr hl all .... h ..... e ... and foml.. In i.l language. ThC!r,.,. p.f1:>Pri a'.
. ..HlOn
(,''-HUrlt:'. n,l C \I..'c..·pt ion.... (0 ..1rule ··.UL"h as asplr . In. E nghsh
'. Of
"are
v . .' f()r '" hi!'.ses
,top", {'X"l'urring _,,,lI able-inttially in srres!'lcu sylIa.b le.~ (SCe Ch~lt.:ele.,\ blll'.t!' /h,'\ II Ii

;ntrJ'l. morphoph~ne.mic rul~s oft~n sho'A exce:~~r 3,

cnttc hes
st.'L'I;On 5.5). It; . . . j udges
IkrAtJLtI
Id3.'l.d31t1
Thc\ rna). for ('\ample. appl) to a IlIllited class o~ forms, as in Lh ot)\
Eng I'I~h e\\10ca.,. wi~hes
ot. lh~• rule (hal change:". tma . IJ' to ~ . I'n the plural" 01 a few
. ''\:
Iw'J.ll
like klllJ<- and thie/" (but nOl in cough, bluff· whiff. cll/e/. and So on). 'd,
will C\ilmine this ~Je in more de(ail in section L~. , \\.'e
The phonelic form of these allomorphs is dctennincd h the, -
Morphophonem ic rules often (bur do nO! always) JJ1ciude affix bound . Precedes them . Bases that enel.n a stridenl hibil,.,t) . Y ,ogme. ntth.t
. th '· t. Su l:-h boundaries are not found JJ1 allophonic CUI es.. <!rie,
1.2
In eirennfonmcn
with the 1~lzJ allomorph. Bases Ihm end in a VOwel Orconsonant
a voiced ca.\w'ays."PPC"r
is nOI sindent take the l·zJ allomorph. and bases th' t d' <In'onanllhat
I "
IS notd .. a en In, voiCo "1 e"
Deriving allomorphs We analyse and denve . hs in much . .the same wa~y
a IIomorp. we deli, consonant tlat stn e11llake the I-sl allomorph.
allophones. An underlying representation (UR) Is set up. and rules apPly te A fundamental strategy III selecting the underlyi f
allomorph IS . . to c h oose
· th e one With
. the Widest
. ng onns.(UF) 0\ an
distrl'but'
deri"e all phonetic varian Is from the same underlymg repreSentation. Ofl 0
. 0 f Ihe.morpheme allomorph occurs a fter all vowels as well as afler most vo'Ion.d mee Ihe I . tJ
<
the underlying representallOn , . n IS the elsewhere all orn0'Ph-.
en,
. Th'IS C h' . 'III underlYlllg
. representations
Ice consonants,
the one thaI occurs with Ihe wldesl d,stnbutlo . is chosen as b aSlc. olce results th It

1..1 I·v afler all bases (Table 6.2). at show

Conditioned The allomorphs of Ihe English plural morpheme proVI'd e a typical Table 6,2 Underlying representations of some English plurals
. -exarnple
--- Of
allomorphs phonologically conditioned allomorphs. lOpS /top-v cobs lkob·z1 hisses
twits Itw lt-v lids Ihd·z1 buzzes 1h,,·tJ
IbAz·l1
English plural judges Id3.,d7;7J
The plural morpheme in English shows three· way variation in its aliorno'Phs
The three allomorphs, I·s/. I·zl, and I·rzl. are dlslnbuled In a sYsternali~
manner, as Table 6.1 iJlustrates. Once the underlying representations have been sel up, the phonetic forms can
rl
Table 6,1 English plural allomorphs oert·"'atio be derived. We can account for the a1lomorph I-IV by noting that whenever
~~~~~------~--~~--~--------------
Allmflorph: I·sl Elll'irollment
the underlying I · v appears after a base that ends in a strident coronal
consonant. an hJ (or a schwa in the speech of those who pronounce this fonn
laps Ilops! • bases end in a voiceless con~ as 1';Jzi) is present. This reflects a phonotactic constraint of English that is
tn"irs /twits! Ihal is nOI stridenl expressible with reference to syllable structure: an English word cannot
hach /b",ksl contain a sequence of trident cononants in the same coda. We can see that
puffs Ip~f,1 the reference to yllable tructure is a necessary part of this statement b)
momhs Im~1l0sl looking at other structure in which sequences of strident consonants occur.
AI/Oil/mph. I·v Such sequence ' are found across word boundaries in phrases and compounds.
Elll'irollmenl
such as bus shelTer Ib,,-o:. !elt;)/. crash siTe Ikne! §.anl or bu~~ saw Ib,,; ~J:/.
cohs Ikobzl • bases end in a vowel or a vOiced- The\ ma\ ewn occur word-internally across syllable boundaries. as in
'P()stJ;),' VpoJtJ;.>1 for some spe~ers). But \~h:n a sequence of two
lids
lads
Ihdd
Illcdv
consonanl thaI is nol stridenl {lOS;"""
(orona I stridents oceurs U1 a coda (Figure 6.1), It IS broken up by the
dOles Id~vd
lalhes epenthesis of a ~ome\\ hat centralized and re,duced III (or a schwa). SlI1ce the
IleHVI
pi", cl1th sequence is irnposslhle, a new S) liable IS created to accommodate It.
Ipuu)
plUl'" Ipl"mJ/
wUlgs
klll'l'S
1'''U d
Illi:1!
l+rcdul'ed
h~ IbhlC1 ' [+strident] _ _ _ l+stridentJ (J

"ay.s 1"",,1
------ - --
 --

- \

R' c:PL: f~

IF

Pf
 .... f """, J\'t IINtoll/ III

I.

h 'r.I" ""c/"rh ' '1:

rr,lrr't·", .1".""
11).t"tt.(,,1I

'''''I'
'I he underlyillg. ['"rill" lIh"r:."1 ".' Ihe III " ,lektn" I" h
,,-I '" Ullmr rule h",~
"lIowed "' LO rcprc,'senl all ""gl"h spc,'aker', knowledo, Ih' h
~e al I t! ha",.
I'i"tlrllkl anti t' I,'UfI\S I arc allomorp'" "I Ihe "une morpheme.
Thc nexI 'eellOIl CXal1111'CS Slll11e 01 Ihc Inlcracti,m, hctw.. h I
ccn P tm{) ng)'
ilntl syntax.

---------
An aspecI of the phonology morphology interface thaI ha.s received consider_
ahle attention n:cc/llly in the modd called prosod ic morphology, i, the way in
which the applieallon 01 'Clme morphological niles is suhjccI to phonological
''''r.IC ,j,," .111" III 1'111'1,,11, II\' ,',," d"II,,'IIIl' 10,1/ pi "plh ,'I"..,,.ilkl "lid "'....II/I'li/l' Irllll
constraints which relate to prosodiC struclure, It is common 10 find morpho-
11I~II'h ".I'C" 11I1""II.lIII~' 111111, T"j, "1',,11""'" l.11"1I1'" Ih,' '''1'1 lilill 1'11"1"" ' 1 """,'
logical rllics that only apply to hases that have u ccn,lin numhcrof syllahles or a
particular metrical foot struelurl!, As well, affil<. morphemes in ,omc languagcs
h'l..'n!! II lit' till'
I
'n
..
t: . CII~t'r
u 1111/11-' ,1\ \ .tll'lJll~ 01 rhf." '\ 'llIh.' IIltH phf.'lIll' \~'Ultlllill tl
"' \
1'lIlh\' may he rcprescntcd by forms that have no lil<.l!d, canonical segmental makeup
I ,'111.\ III~, 1IIlIIII' Cl.1 ""'''''''
[ I'
h,," \\,' ..,," C
'\111,' ,'II""I'''''l'holl''II". hut instcad borrow whatcver segmcnts an: present in the base to which they arc
Ih,lI "",II').!'" ~ I" \ ""'oll'lh" ,"111\ III \ Iliit
attached . Such aftixcsean \'ary cnom1llusly in their phonological manifeslation,
, I II I The only requiremenl Ihat has 10 be mel is thaI Ihe borrowed segment, mUSl
sali s fy a pre-specificd prosndi.: conliguration - i.e .. the copied 'cgments must
nl in a parlleular 'yllahlc or metrical root template,

/,hl' ',11''''''
"I Ih,' "",,' Ihal ""d, j" A j, 1'1"",'" ./\ um"''' II1g lor, l .ct \1, takc Ihc fiN ('a. e fir t. 'i c will illustrate it Wllh a simple e:<.ample from
/<'''''''',. I' ll .," U,'" 1',1\,' , It 't'lI/, ~ ,1""
,I " jdl'r di,,, d,", jon than Illl' aIlOIlI(II'~~ /I hcomparative
Eng S d" lives Fnglish \, fahle tl.4 ('n page 252 show." the comparati\e degree of
,1r'"1/':,,, "Plillr, III \I \lId, ,u .. h ,I' d""ll'Inl! a, \\\'11 ,1\ III Ih,' 1I11\lIlfi Xtu rlrgrr e a Jce . adj:" ' Iin's IS formed ,'ither h) suf[is,1I1g -a or by placing the wll~d ~'I/Ire
","" ,,\,'1'\1,,<1 , Pili 1'"'I'IIM'd lid,' h", Ih\' a!l,.IIIta).!\· or rl'llt'(',",!_ 1/ 1I11I1Ir,,1 h,: r"r,' thl' hasll' d.:grec fonn. The choice" dependent on prosodIC factors
1'"'1','" pI 111'111111 '01 Ililal l k./ to ", "1'1"",
till' 111 -h If011 I ,owd ur,hl' slIfl,\. 111\1\:11 ,'an he' latcd in tcrn" of the number ami internal ,tructure of syllables.
I( ""l1ld I", 11101,' d(IIIl'II,1I (olllld I'h'}('I'tll' 1I11111Ii1tllllt 1'01 illIIll- Ihlll dl'"lg,',
\\,' (an formulaic the fol\(IWing ruks of Ihumb: Ilonna\l), 11111llosy\labic
111/,/ h' , ~ 1111 II",ilp'"'' II 1(1 II( 1>,'10,,' the' 'lilt i \ til
It " 111'11 " '11111" :111' Ih,lI Ih,' 11111' 11,,1\' IIldlld,' 111\111'11010£""11 IIII'}("',1I11111
adIC(l i\'l's .I1C inl1c(ted \\ lth ocr, and '? ~m: dis) \Iabt.: adjectiles \\hosc. eCllnd
s, I\ahlt- ,'mls III a light rh) mc c('ntatmng an un,tress<,d \OW.:\ \I\,\-:>u\.\-;)\r)\
II,,' '''''lItl/\ \1/ tll\' '"ltl\ Ih.1I (IIgg"" Ih<' l'ilallf," ,jlln' I~I ,s 11Il/
1'"'''"II1I,'I'd ,I' ,s,
"h"lIl'1"1 ""1'1'<,.11\ hl'/ill" 11ll' \ow,'II'1 ill 1'lIg",1t 1111
\'I .t ,I\ahk [1\ , \hlr thc purposcs (If Ihis rule Ihe diphlh\'llg \-~)l Cllunt, as
II 'hI' .t f.K! tho t b Illlt sll'1l\'lstng since 111;111) ,pc. kcr, \\eaken thl vowel and
\I ('I, • j." ,I "h SI""'~"1 S " Pilid ,III/Pili" Ii,':ill 1'" }(IOIIII,',' AI! IllS \I II, alld Ait!., a,
 , fir

4~ 1 at ,he C'nd of II """d , eo "

/I

,.,,,,~ /, t
"'fll",~ftlllllll(
"
hIli , lnug/rct
J, At" I Jl.1)1I0 " 1( M,lh 1I1f'" ' " IIf,l . IIlIl ,l,.
till !Q pr "Ie, d/ftln
/Jallrrwa
n If tWcr tn€ /''''' I
nrla ~/mpla ""bier
~u" mat ra
Icndct , Irndc:t t

n /jab w"h NO '1"1 md. 1/01,1,.

mot Ufill f mr;r handwmc

II mJI' I' (
"'"rphf.lf. r
-- Consonantal er

CV..tler
a

c( (
b

( (
 254

Rt'duplication and h h~" ht.'CIl ,htl\\ no.., Jin,gui .. b work.mg Itt lhl' Jrallll'\H lll u f
prosodic mnrph()Jtw\ th;J( l~l.'nllHl~ unih of proSllll) sUL'h a . . the moru a rhy hPt l)\,~
morpho/og r J:"~ ~ • . of ('J. •. l . _ t 1l1 i , I\:
COITt.'Sfl(lOJllJg hl a ,hon s)lIahlt..· 11 UI..."/t; w. (&.: _l~I Ptl:1 -. """l'lI o n I.; Unit

syJlaolc dnd th\.' ttl\H ()fh..'11 pI;}) J. It.'Y mit: III I.: un dlllonlltg ur UClcrrntS). tht
appJil'arion of IllPrph()lngical r.uh..'s. \Vc ha,,~ .tln:au} oh'c: rvcl.l thi~lng t~
di . . cu ...... ion of En!!Ii ... h l.'llrnp.lra(,,~ degree ~1~JCL'I1\,C'" above: Ihe ~t',. . II} the A H
ali\!..' ut."·rel.- endin!.! un" gne, with aJJccllVC hases lha l do nm c" C:Ortl P;lt grfc nhi.)usc pl uce to grow
'" •. • ',ceed '1\
., ~ IIaole,. t",o Il owers'
¥ Evcn srrnngcr c.'\'iUCll(,C or prosotlic .un its cond ition ing mo rpho b lucbOtilc 'il Ittrgc nythm
pn:k:.·c ...,Sl.· s i., pnH iJed h) a numbcr of . languagc.s Lh~l employ I:)gi~al de fcCl\I Cs o n I'ood ' '~\ ~U\!c tha\' )j, h\ue'
redu plkalion. This phenomenon typically IIl volves ma nufacturing u rPathnl f..!Htherbcdding 'ovc rc lllp loY l'ncnt ' IC..\lhc r heddin g
cati ,'e anix oy making a copy of a portio,n of the basc. T he copyCdUp,,_ blackbird ' the b lnckbird ' b lal; k bird
' ~l\dln~ With h: ,\\h,,'r
pre-specified canonical prosodic shape sti pulated by the morphol h ilS a A,~ e l(l i"s "ho ll ie!'''.\'
'any hint Ihat'!; h\al.:k'
template. 8m il 11;1,'\ 1I great varie ty of vowel :l nd cons~ n a n t seg me nts ogu,,;al
its esact shape always depending on the segments ;tva rlab le in the b'. " 'tn
instance, in IIokano (spoken in the Ph ,'I''ppll1es
. ) th e morp IlOme me a·\C F. Or In Ch3ptcr 4, sectio n 3. 1, it was shown that When d .
'co,eredlfi lled with' is si lollowed by a tcmplaric target which is a" ~tng together to form compounds or phrases, One of the prim'\ry
W()r \ arc grnulX:u.
d '.
containingJ'ust one morn (0' ) while the plumlmorpheme has fo r its te y able ' -. • wnr . . \resses , . .
. .' . . . lllPlatj usuall y more promine nt than the others, Wc will now s"" h, h
target a bimornic prelix (0'""), (By convention the mo~a IS symboli sed by C ' . " ...... )w \ C s\rcs~
pattcrn lllg 0 1 compounds and phrases IS represented nn metrical Icvch
In borh ca.,es the template is satbtied by factOring o ut and Co .".) respecti vcly called the compound level and the ph rase level.
appropriate segments, starting from the left edge of the b~se, unt~y:~~ T he column A forms in Table 6.7 arc all compound' The rul C' \.Or . . tn.!s~
, , , .:'>.
template is satisfied. (In the examples III Table 6,6. the dOl md tcates SY llable placement In Eng\tsh no un compounds places the primary stress over the
boundaries.) leftmost word. Stated In terlns of feet, the rule is as follows"
I)
Ta ble 6,6 IIokano prefi., al reduplication [n Engli sh no un compounds, build a left-headed unbounded foot over the
.'I; + a'l - 'coverecVfiJlcd wilh ' leftmost stress on the compound level.
bu .neg 'buneng' ~ si-ill!,-bu ,neg 'carrying a buneng'
T he colu mn B forms in Table 6.7 are all syntactic phrases , Unlike the
dJja .kct 'jacket ' ~ si - d~-d3ju. ket 'wcaring aj",;ket'
compounds, they have been constructed by syntactic rules rather than rules
pan ,di.lig 'skirt' ~ si-lli!-pan.di.lio ' wearing a sk irt '
of word formatio n. The rule fo r stress placement in English places the
0'1# - 'pJural' primary stress over the rightmost word. Stated in terms of feet_the rule is as
pu.sa 'cu" Q!!!!-pu .sa 'cats' follows.
dJja.ni(or 'Janitor dlii!!l-d3,ja.nitor 'janltors'
kal.dia 'goat ' kal-kal.dia 'goms' 2)
In English phrases. build a right-headed unbounded foot over the rightmost
stres~ on the phrase level.

2 Presented step b) step, the as 'ignment of stress to compounds is shown in

Fig ure 6.11 (tm.:r1eaf) . Foot-level stress is present for completeness in the
P H ONO LOGY AND c\,ampks.
We saw in Ihe firsl seclion Oflhis chapter that some phonological rules inclUde
\YNrAX
re/crcncc 10 ~uhdasscs 01 words and Ihus inlcracl wilh Ihe morphological This stressing procedun: results in a primar) , tress on ~r~e l l ami a
t:UlI1poncnl 01 a grulllmar, There are also rules Ihal u.:pcnd on cen ain k' d ' seeomhlr) stress on hOt/se: Kdt'lliJc)t/se.
I " I' . tn s
(l synlaCl tc rn ormalIon,. Some slrcss pallt:rJlS of bng lish, I<)r exa mp le arc

t1clennrneu by Ihe synlaClIc Gllegory of Ihe form 10 whkh Ih.: rules apPl y.'
 ••
I H)' a"d ~flr I d 11

I"
W(,rtl le\'eJ
·ou: that ea..h tIme a ""'" K
matching
(a. It i. tr, tu!J1 here) Thl prO<.edure
:oddcd
ra. =
~. mu t be added to the or(\( ':' a ~ at ' -
the pare
be c"rree Iy plau:d (The ltabc .. ID f- gtJre 6 1 ~ .ndkate.
that mu," he added It) the other word( I outside the:
~
tIlaIcbi
_

(X) /."", level par~,

Ihnusc/" 1"001- and word-level re,

(ompound tn: J (Xl (X)

"'ord bel
COlllptJUnd leveJ (Xl (X)
IX (~)
(X) Word Jc~c/ Foot Ie e\
(XI
[-00' Icvc:l [black)
IX) (X) [bud\ tne
I/grecnl M, ,hllu",,' HI ~
Compound tre s
(jl/",' HII, .. h<,,,"'. It:•• herhcddrng. ,ml o.her compolJo,h)
(firbl cycle)
!;r" d ~~:' .. rJl·nt In «(1frlfliiUnr h.

Srrc.. 11 "vnmell' phr;uco undergocs .he hown hgurc ".12 (X

In ICPS In ComPOUnd le.el (ftrstcyc1e
(x) (X) (Xl 'Word le'd

(A) (X) Word Jevel (X) (X)

(x) IA) (-00. level
Igrecnl,wl IhCluw:1 ~ [[black] (budl [oe t}

i'hm,c level •• r ~s Compound ~tres

( X) Phrase level (second cycle)

Ix) (X) WI"') level
Ix) (x) foot level ex Compound Ie el >ecood C":'c1e
I/green I 441 Ihou~1 "I.;p
x t Compoond Ie I [mt Ie
(dl 0 Hlue (1(, c. 1c;IIht:r bCddmg. and olher phrase )

lin"'" I, lJ ~II ,d ,;nrll(ltt "Ina

(X) oro Ie el

Ilere. tI. tre sing procedure proVtcJc a pnmary tress 1m hOlll e and a Foot Ie el
liCL'l/Id,/ry tre 01) grel'fI Jlrel'lI f' , h,,"
n lird loe 1 1
'"'''''('''''11 rigur< I>,n
I "'''/"/UIIII It I' \
all
 If'il \ \q"" \'

),,) P\\I\I"'t.~ h:v\.'l t

l.Un'\\;'yI.:\t"
x)
1.3
Pht.IW level Iht.\ I.:Ydq
. - d on' can Icad ro some su~
Stress clash The IOh:rfJIt.~t.~ fx'\\Cen metnc ... an . 'I) ~ ~ h . e Chang _ (x)
(ad,anced) ... ~(!~h rh) lhm. An e"~I~lpk ll~ Ihls phenomenon can ' card Clearly i~),j in {'X. WUI\,lh:\'d
ca.,e of personal name . . 10 English. . _._ th~ (x)
. . . . I ames in EnglIsh pauems like phrases . (x) (x .) "n(l\ \evel
The stres. . lOg of perso~a n_ . _ ",""ord's and the rightmost ete • In that th
firs! anJ IU.... 1 name . . are .~"JIe.'is~d as . ". Fred Smith, Mar\' D rn~nt Of th ~ 1I pol lunnl NI NI'
full name: nonn.111} recel\es pnmlU) stress. . . - eV1ne Fi ' e:
N IWat'''''1 NI Nl'
. . E' 'h \:ord in the name Fred Smlfh IS composed' ona
.1.ft:Cwdt'y. and so on. ac ". r the (sino-Ie) stressed ~ Of 0"
~rres~ed foot; word-lend st.re:SS npp leS to . e . ~l. as sho ,e figure 6.15
· . F' "0 and phrase-level stress applies as shown In FIgure6 I "n
earI ICrln IgllfC-",-+ • . 4.
commonly heard pronunciation ./b -wlII Wat.liml can h' .1 ~ . • 'L.,.. •
Phrase level . II) .. " Ucscn,",,(\ 111 111<ln \
xl terms as (opllona y occlIrnng tn order ll) resolve. ~tn!~~ I'\'" \.:a
. I ' ' " c ~'!\Il, As hm~ '\
there IS a stress on a ower level tor the dashing ~lrcss to ~h' it h' .\. "
(x) Word level '. '. -\ . F' , I ac hl, \\ ma\l
(.x) This adJustment" s lownln Igurc 6. I 6, where the 0 'tand, I·, r' . II hI ,.
. . ) . ~y " < with
no " on the gIven level. The phrase level (first na111") ·,s h 1.'1
Foot level ' " ..... - 0 U iU':l.:.d \0
(x) (x) emph~1SILe that the metncal adjustment lakes place there. Rememher that Ihis
adjustment can only lake place because there is an x over the na111e I" '10 Ihe
[[Fred] N [Smith] N] NP
level below that where the clash oec.urs. The ahhn;viatlons Ie anu 2( stanu lor
first cycle and secarld cycle, respectively.
Figure 6.14 Phrasal stress applied to an English proper name.
x) x Phrase levd 2e
In everyday speech. however. certain ftrst names such as lo·ann, JOhn
Paul. Mary-Lou, and so on, may optionally show an altered stress patte~
X -+ (x 0) x
when combined with a last name. In Table 6.8, note how the stress pattern Of x) Phrase level Ie
the first names in column A changes when the last name IS added, while th
stress placement in the first names in column B does not change. e (x (x) x) (x Word I"vel
(x)
(x)
Table 6.8 Proper names undergoing/not undergoing stress clash resolution in (x .) (x) x) (x .) POOl level
(x)

-
English (x)
l Watson) ) ,,) "P [llJo] N [annl Nl NP lWalsonl1 "I NP
A B [[[Jo] N [ann] 1
N NP

RHinn -> Jb·ann Watson Yvonne -> Yvonne Watson- Stress clash resolution.
Akim Figure 6. 16
John·Paul John-Paul Campbell Aklm Campbell
Miuy-Lou Miuy-Lou Henner Annette Annette Henner We must now ask oursel,e, two questions. First, why h there nil Mres,
clash resolution on names like Fred Smlth '1 The answer 10 thi, l1uc,t\on IS
Represented on a grid, a name such as lo·ann Watson takes the form shOWn easy: there is no other S) liable tn the name Fred for a stress to fall ha,k nnto
in Figure 6.15 before any adjustment to the stress pattern takes place. The second question i more tnteresting. Why do names like Y\'onne ami Akim
Stressing of the first name and fuH name takes place cyclically. (The italic x in column B of Table 6. not undergo stress clash resolution'?
indicates the matching stress that must be added to the other words in the The answer to the second question lies in the formulation of stres'·c\a,h
group: see section 2.2.) rcslliullon presented abtwe tress i~ shifted one syllable til the ldt what'
Note that in Figure 6.15, two stresses (x's) stand immediately next to each possi/J!". All t)f the c\.arnplcs in cl)l~rnn A above resolve stres c1a,h by
other on the phrase level (lirst cycle) and also have correspond ing x's on the
,hifting a "tres, bad, to a syllable v.hleh IS already :tressed on t~c \lxltlevel
(\.lord) level below. Such a contiguration of stresses is known as stress clash.
,ince the namc consist of t\\O ,tressed feet. In the ftr\1 namc\ hmt/It', \blll,
(To see a different configuration that does not show stress clash, compare the
and \1111('lte ho\.\e\cr. thc first syllable is not tre 'ed, and u Joe nul
two .x \ in Figure 6. 15 with the x's over black and Ilest in figure 6.11, where
,1)Il,tHute a pwpcr landing ,ite for a n:tracteJ ,tre s. figure 6.17 how tim
llit're is a gap belween the two .~'s at the compound leveL)
The 'hili JiulIl what is represented in Figure 6. I 5, jo·ill1/1 Wdl.lOll, to the 1111 a t1ll'lrical grid.
 1NtUtfl\( t!. '16
Figure b. 19 shu,,,· . . thilt .h~panc, •. , '
'with thl:," nominuttvl! ~uni'\. -),:U u~ccll il,,:-'U ,mUkl"S a \hrel~-~ay _. '.
xl Phr.s. I ,- f N ,and lhl.:' ~u.;CU""'tl..or ., '\uh,c I.:~ dU'\\llC .
'\ t h e genit\ve
eVel .~ .... pCl:l lcr 0 _ - 1..:. f&- 'lon,
L . • L \lthx.
.. \'" f !IoU ItA -n f
rt"solution not possible (Complements 01 P uo nOllUkc i.l eel'C .... t1' _ -II nr 1\ C\nnp\e 0 (JI(
''ford 1"'1 1I IX In Ji.\pane'e ) men\ ()f '\J.
II Tire Ilominlltive lind Uq'U\ttU\'e .
(.\ .l b Tht· Rt'niri\'t'
FOot leVel
s
~;-
llYvonneJ, [\\aNml ,I '" llY\Onnd ~ [Watson] .,1 Np
Inll
figure 6.t7 Stre.. s cla~ re~o'lJtion doe:. not ~lPP"':

r , A~PL,
NP
Subtle derails like lhese gOlem many aspects of stress and rn Np.....--
e\"eryda\ speech and provide- convincing evidence for an interface ~thlll in N nClIll Det N~c V /"
. • and s)0I3\.
pbonology Cl"e.cn Dct N
I \ \ \ \ \t o
• N
Gakusei-ga kono hon·o yonda
3 student·Nom this book-Ac read kono kodomo_lIo yuuji \
•A student read this book: this child.Gen
frien
MORPHOLOGY . . 0 f th e morphological
Many Iinguisric phenomena reflecr rhe Inreracl!?n an
------------ 'this child's friend'
AND SYNTAX syntacric components of rhe grammar. An ,mportanr example of d Figure 6.19 Case contrasts in Japanese.
interacrion involves case. which indicates an NP's position in sy th,\
Structure Case is usually' marked by inflecting the head of the NP (whlnhtaCt,lc
• •
always be a noun or a pronoun).
C "III In order to account for the case cOntrasL~ found' E \.
pronouns. th e grammar must .tnclude a set of rules thatIn ng Ish . nouns. and
We noted earlier (see seclions 1.4 and 6.3 of Chapter -I) that the En I' Th e fOllowing rules capture assocIate
. - the. eI
noun has only .one case ending ement .·wn'tten as . 's h
w 'Ich marks
g "0
an specI. fiIC syntactIc
' pOslttons.
. . the e case " With
about English case noted above. g nerahzatlons
NP that occupIes the speCIfier posItion wlthm a larger NP. as depiCted'
Figure 6.18. (We extend the system of phrase scructure preSented in Ch In 3)
.
S by allowing an NP 10 serve as specIfier of an N .) apter
The case rules for English NP :
NP
a. The complement of V receives accusative case.

Det
A~ N N
b.
c.
d.
The complement of P receives accusative case.
The specifier of N receive' genitive case.
The subject recei\'es nominative case.
I I I
The minisler's briefcase Let us assume that the lexicon of English includes a list of the various case
forms that each word can have. So. the entry for the third pe('<;on singular
Figure 6.18 The genitive case marks on NP that function as specifier of an NP.
mascultne pronoun. for example. wtll mclude the following information.
As also noted in Chapler -I and shown in Table 6.9. a somewhat riche -/)
system of contrasts is found in English pronouns. whose forms reflect a thre ~ Case fom1:: he (nominative)
~=~~~. e him (accusative)
Table 6.9 Case for the Jrd person SIngular masculine pronoun in English his (geniti\ e)
"orm Name ccording. to the rules in 3). Figure 6.~O shows that a sentence such as MUll'
he
----------------
hIS
hlln
nominari\"e
)lcllltln'
FUllction

subjecI
specificr of N
Ewmp/e
He left.
hIS hook
--- .1'(/'" hl/II t~ well-formed since the pronoun in the complement NP
;!ccl1satiYC. as requtred by rule 3(1).
In Cl1l1trast. ,I scntenceuch as *MClry S(lW ill' is ungrammatl\:al since the
is
aCl'USafl\'C compkmcnt of V or P Mary saw Illm . I'H)I1\)I111 in \h' '~)'l1pkmen\ . 'P has the nommallYe form. in \iolaltllt1 of rule
Mary sat lIeal him. 30).
 (» TE \1PORAR\ lINGUISTI S INHkfA< f1l.
In con tru~t (sec r;igurc 6.22) lh. ·11 I' 14.1
. I . • C 1 tlrnH~U I
*c,.it;ca l Ilu' ~tr In 5) above vU,ll·,1 Ih p lra... ~ ... • ('r,·,
s , . ' _ • c c (',''''. 1- , In\rn rh
not III n pOsitIOn to which ca"c , ... as..,ignctl C 'Ihl:r "nee the NP e ~lrI.and
~ to the complement ofN orA.) . (kccaH that n<) ru\-. Ih~ gIrl 1
e a.SMgn~ l:,,1lC.
//It
~r
VP

/7
/~
Pst P AT'

N
I
l\.fnry
\
I
proN",
I
him
N Oct N
A
/yr DCI
S3\\-
I I \ N
figure 6.20 An example of case assignment in English.
'criticism the girl *cnllcal
.\. the
\ \
girl
Case filter You rna} have noticed thaI Ihe case rules outlined in 3) do nOI Specify 22 The absence of case on the complement of N anel A.
figure 6.
(advanced) fonn for every imaginable position in syntactic structure. For instance a c~~C:
,whll e
. case ( ru Ies 3 a) and 3b)
the complements of V and P receive accusative
rule specifies the case of the complemenl of an A or N. [nterestingly. !h no In order for these phrases 10 be grammat' I h
.
latter positions cannOI be occupied by an NP. esc reall/:ed as a PP, as sown
h . . .
10 FIgure 6.23.
Ica , t e comple ment must be

5)
NP
V with NP complement: P with NP complement AP
criticize [NP the girl] near [NP the girl)

//"A //'A
N with NP complement: A with NP complement:
*criticism [NP the girl] *critical [NP the girl)
We account for this by requiring that every NP recei ve case, regardless of
whether the case is overtly expressed through mfiectlOn. ThIs requirement' N POet Nt><
A P Det N
known as the Case Filter. IS I
criticism
1
of
\
the
\
girl
.1. 1 \ \'"
6) cntlcal of the girl
The Case Filter:
Each NP in a grammatical senlence must be in a position to which case is Figure 6.23 Case assignment when the complement of N and A is realized as a PP.
assigned.
Phrases such as criticize the girl and near the girl satisfy the Case Filter
.since the NP the girl is in a position to receive accusatIve case (Figure 6.21). As you can see. this trucrural pattern avoids the problem found in Figure
(Although nouns have no visible case inflection for the accusative case, a 6.22 since the complement ofP reeel\'e accusative case according to the rules
pronoun that occurred in this position would have the form her rather than in 3).
she, so we know that the accusative case is assigned here.) Sometimes. an NP', ease is determined by its position in deep structure
rather than surfaeetructure. A good example of this involves wit questions,
VP pp
in whieh the '"h word appear- in a position \the specifier of C) to which no

V
/ )Z Det N ar P
/ / Det N a"
case is assigned . In such circu11ltances, the NP's deep Structure positiun
lktefmines its ea~e. Direct evidence for thiS comes from conservative
\ arietics of English. in which who IS associated with the ,ubject positiun and
the ~rccial tll'Ctlsaliw t\)rm whom with the tlirect object po'ition.
I I I I I I
rrili(i/c Ihe girl ncar the girl

1l/1ur" 1>.11 (.1'" .1'-'IIl"llPlt for Ihl' (Olllp/!'I11('nl of V .mel P

 Tf MPORARY lIN( UIS,

7)
I( C;

-
The: problem of an un~er1ying tum, tor the: PlUT". -
varialiOn In gc~cr~1 I!-. dl~cU'oI!-.ell 10 Arnold '/.wick ~I ....lI~hl(, and (It m0fl)h(,
the English tnOeCllonal cnllm" ... · In I
__

Wh wtlrd III "J>cc.: ili c r f o r m'' . e-.

Y '" anlt:1e ·Seu\!.no
f"'1tcMR U, • - -
Ph')nl!mlc
e()oanunl1c:,
\ ... ·h wooJ In J~''' I'H'r cohen and J. Wirth (New York: John Wi\t!y & S. I~UI~II(' H-YPOIht'\f> ed: r Y\n't;.
" (In,. 1915). The acc{)u~'t filed hy \)
fN),,{U)JI
111 (
ornhology is based on. J. McCarthy Fr r
of ( ~ pw.llion
m "- M1T PhD . .' J rna prohlem . S ,_ () tempht
! morphology: . thesl!-., dl!-.lnbuled by Indiu ..\ ,I~ . e'~JtI(' phonoto.
979. The dlscusslOn of Bokano and prOsodic h na Un\Ver~lly Unou, t gy ,and
Ie

10' Who Is" ",II help Mary II'! lin' Who(m) w,lIls Mary help ell'! 1 , 'p.. . m(lrp ology- b
und Alan Pnnc~ . rosodlC morphology' (cited below) F I~ U\ed on John Mc:.C:mh'
I:: ~\C (\un

-.1 ---J of the Case Filter. see A Coune in GB S)'Htax b 'H or a mOre detatleddl"'-:.u. ,Y
dt!l!'p ,Irul:turc po, .. ion (Cambridge. Mass.: MIT Press. 1988), Y . l..a....nik. and 1 Uriage:~:
,kcpslrm:lllrt' pc,,'IHIII
COl1lpleme nl o f V
IIh)t'C:f
hence il~C: lI ..,a tl vc c:.bc
hC'n\.'c." nnllllll ;tll\:1,;' (,'."1..'
Cin4uc, G. 1993, 'A null theory of phrase and com und . '.
24: 239-398. po stres\. Ltn-,!ui.\[i(' Inquiry
In "Iummary thell •• tllIlOUgh case is ~ln , . i~~cclional
(morphOlogiC
'. , nl ',el'" "lformation .. TllI s IS -' ca plured hy !'tIc"n, '11l Dre"ler, W.U . 1985. Morphonology : The Dynamic, of D. .
category il 1'IlCOuCS ·...Y ~ ... , , .' ' . or th Karoma Puhli!-.he rs. ' en\lQUon. Ann Arbt.lr-.
'
I ' I ') Wll,'''h "sSOCHl IC each 01 thc vaflous case fornv,. of E C
ru Ics our I!lC( In 1. . ...: ' -' ~ • ~ . ,. '~, ~ ' ngli~h Gleason. Jr. H,A. 1961 . An Introduction to Descriptive Linguislic.~.
will} " different posi(Jon III synraC (lc.; sl,nl~LUn.: (suhjCCl. "PCcll!cr 01 11.. Rinehart & Winston. New Yorl<.: HOlt,
. ) "" ,king IlllS ,dea ano cXlCnO,ng il "
l'ornplClllclH 01 V. and sO Oil, , ~ , '.. '. .' (~nc ~Ic Inkelas, S. and Zec, D, eds. 1990. The PhmlOlogy-Sym C . .
funhcr. rhe Case Filter Ihe~ Cl1surc~ lh ell NP,.., c~1n on l) occur 1:1 POSltio l1 \ tP University of Chicago Pre~s. ax onnecrton. Chlcago: The
which C;I'C IS "",igncd. ThIS explai n., why an t:JP may ~crvc a\ COIl1PICIl1Co~ Katamba, E 1995. 'Skeleta and the pro,odic circums . .

----
of a V or P (r'lj!ure 6.20), hilI nol of an Nor'" (F'gure 6._ I), . 'I n J . D uran.
domaJOs. d and E Kalamba (eds). Frontiecnpuon ,r Ph
of morpho\oglca
. \
Longman. rs oJ onology. London:
KensLOwicz, M. 1994. Phonology in Generallle Grammar 0 f d Bl
. d K' . x or, ackwe\\
~u"''''lnl: up This dwplcr provides a glimpse {If Ihe "lmc"n~e.' complex inler:Jction Hmoo KenstoW'Cz, M. an "",berth, C 1979 Genera",'e Phonology , New York
Ihe ,an OilS compo"ell" of grallll1lar, Inlemellon helween the ?honOlogica~ Academic Press.
alld mOlphologKal wltlponcnls IS refkcted hy Ihe presence 01 allol1l0rphs McCarthy, J. and Prince. A. 1995, 'Prosodic morphology: In John Goldsm,th (ed
rill' lise of IImlt-rlying rcpreSt'lItalions and dcnvallon by morphophonemi· The Handbook of Phonolog,cal Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. .)
C
noil'.s ~1l,(,(IIJ11ts for Ihesc morphophonellllc allernallol,ls, In some cases pullum, G. and Zwicl0, A. 1988, 'The synlaX-phonolog' interface· 1n L·rngUl,'irtcs·
• .
.. j -'

al/olllOrphy " dclermincd hy the laCI Ihal only eertam crasscs of fo nn ; Tlte Cambrodge Sun·e)'. Vol. I. Edited by F. Newmeyer, pp, 255-80. C~brid ~.
IIl1ckr!!" " glvell Illorp"nphonellllc rule, Dealing With a ll omorphy leads 10 Cambridge Un;ve",,,) Pre,s. g
undellYlllg rel'rt',,'ntaJoolls, which III ltIany cases arc abs tnlct. The Usc of a
tTrlain a1l'01l1l1 "fallsll"cllOIl on untierlylllg representatIons allows allomorphs
wllh d"llIIt't phnnl'lic forms 10 he denveo from single underlyrng forms. A 1, The follotting data provide the possible fonus of the regular past tense
Illr/hel "'pc"1 (,f Ihe phollolog) morpholog) interlace deall wilh involves Ihe , ns morpheme ofEngli.h.
QuestrO a) walked lw:t:ktf I) heaved Ihi:vdl
W"r-' III W hldl pf'("odk phonolll/tv charactcn/ec.l on terms of the skeleton
lIIay afled or delellllllll' the appl;callon of morphologIcal rules. This chapter b) cracked Ikr:rktf m) wheezed Iwi:zdl
"Iso shows how II II "I'holo£ I al and "ynlaclIc structure play a role in c) tlipped nj fined Ifamdl
dCI,'rlllinlllg slll',s ,1"lgnlllCI1I Int'ol1ll'ounds and phrases in Englis h. Finally, d) h;;-.;o;.("l1 0 t1med ItlltJdI
II d(,I1I01"II.oI,'s Ih"l nt\I' marklllg rellerts ;U1 Intcr;ll'IIClIl helween Ihe form of to) hut1<'-d p) butted 1b.\t\dI
\\(ll<h (1I1C1I·phulu!:} I "",I 11ll' '"'''lions Ihe} on·upy in \ynta<.:lil: struClures
n hu,hcJ q) padded ip:rdldl
(\) II'a~ ) rl loaded lI;lUdldl
~) 'lll'lch J
h) lrub 'd ) collided ik;)\aldldl
t) II allowed /;)\audl
Nu',', 1II'"ill') \,II;t'III" (" i!lIlhh i-o'gll,h, Ih"phllllell' /01 ill 110,' t'nd oj a word I"g.,
J) j<'g u) owed ,- ..udI
fl" IrI' If" " " " ,II ,df/'" I" ,e,tlrled hy Ih,' "lIol'hnllc f'f ",'her Ihilll fll ,
"h~ lIll-HIIIII tit slr~ss HI nll1lf)(llIlId IHl' nl d h rt!' h.I' hn'lI ~O11l('\\ h.1I k f\1\\
IIlIl'illlI.:" \\c /r.I\(' IIIIIIHed Ihe It.·s COlllllltHl ri!'iJ( "c,utul noun I.:OIll POUllll I) 1, llh all mal lnn ofm pa lIen e morpbeme
suJII!!i I' mall i/o(fOl. aprl" p(t', Alltlun Idb't' Wllld1 ,lit· fll'\~('d llll llw
dnd
II) ~lll\ h , It 'm t m th be I underl) In); f rm Who
,,,,,nd d<lll{1I1 'S Ihc ~,tld,' L I'II1<jlll' "I d hclnw I. If ,'tl<',""I<'1I1 (II IIl<'SC I
 5. The fnlto.w,lng RlI ... ~Hln ~Cllll·llI.:l· .... l:UntioHn
Pll111()UII I. \,o,.m,',,\,u. "IIIO\:. and 'mit' "era' l\itlerent f
'II) ·'1t.th' UI \\tllth fh,,' l..'t1ndllltllllll' lal,,: hH'" Ihal .IL'I,:nWIl 1t)1 11ll' ) (No,e' Y J, ~ J, and C ~) , (lf1l\", fnr \be
,"111\' 41lh,'II1.lIl''''"II' "llh,,; P:I'( Il'n,l' 1Il00plU,' IIH.' . I t~\C:h\:C"
~,
I'lf~'l""""
NomtllIW\'f'
\,'\\\'1 1I.lInh l l1, '\ .1 th.1I Il',ulh III .111 \'ll\\d, ur U \,. I
"orlh. \0 '11Ift a) ya p00l11layu lllOk
.1 n"l.1I11 ",'.illlh' tll k.HlIl,," I\ftuphophtllll'lIl1\.' ulk· ... 01 \'0\\"
I understand \C~son
.11\' I,'und 111 m,llI\ l,tIlI.!U.l b"'''' , .IIHtlllI Ilh,'11I 'urki'h c 'Irfl}UI1~
(~tlh·o. Il , Ii )) 'I understand the lesson'
11) ya VI}" YOiika
\'",glliar l'lunll 1 sec hedgehog
.1) 'I' ,,' ~()/ !-,!«l/k" 'I ,ee the hedgehog.'
b) 1..lIld,,'" mum IIIl1l11/ar
A('CIlSOf;ve
") '};tIIl h)J1 IOp/al"
dl c) 011 lIvidel mCllya
'Ihll'\c,," ,II ,iliaI'
") ',tw,III1' he saw me
J...1l111 "-Ulnhll
n "He saw me.'
'Ihn',hr 'I' 'pier
'J Ithe gill !-!iillcr
d) olli vSlrelili menya
h) ' halld' <'I cller they met me
'They met me.'
I) I ""h,' "11'"1I<1rph,, r1f Ihc plurallllorphclllc III the pree"'''''g d,u"
ii) Whal rh<ll1111110,<'al kallirc " ,harcd hy 1IIl' vnwel, 01 hUllI Instrumental
<'
llIorph" "I Ihe plural" alt", c) vi po~li sa mnoy
Iii) \\ hal l,h"lIolo"j,'al kalur,' dlSllngui,he" the VC1\\d, III lh' ' I you went with me
t: all)...
IIHlrph.,·' C'"
'You wenl wilh me:
il') I.s il p"",,,hle III lhi" ,'a,,' In p,"'k o"e alloJ1lnrph 'IS the he'IUllderl}l" f) oni pogovorili sa mnoy
fOil II '! ~ they spoke with me
") CI"~l'" Oil" "IInnlOrph a, lllldcrl>,lllg, ;1I1l1 provide a repre'elll"t 'They were speaking with me.'
< lUll
'\SIll!! Ihe li:alure hicr"l'~hy th:lt d~me'.lhe '~Iher one Imnll!, Provide
• _.

,,,"riv,,tIOI1' lor II", ,,,,,,1\

1M eye lind gun, Dalive
g) oni posli k mne
J. I'lln "k dellval,oll,' lor Ihe ','IIowing English ,'ompoulld, and Phrase they arrived to me
Ihe Ill,)dd pr",elll<'<1 ill Figures 6," and 6,12, Be earefu/l S()tn~
IISIIII! 'They came to my place:
ph,.'IM.·~ IlIH, l'OI1(all1 l'onlp()und!\. h) on podo~ol k mne
(~(JIIII1(JlIIld.\ PhrllU,\'
he approached 10 me
a) /1askelhnllllel dnvc·in 1II00'Ie
c)
' He approached me:
h) llI)!ht dllh at'l n ekctri~ pencil ,harpener i) Draw the tree Structure for each of these sentences, and make a
c) \,etsuil desi!!IIL'1 g) ,econJ language kaming
tI) 1\1t'''"ippi lIIuJpic tatement aboul the COntexl in which each case fonn for the flrst
h) Pnncc, Street Gardens person pronoun occurs,
.,. '\CCOUIl! f,)r ,tr,'", dash r,"olution in the following e'"mples, Be SUre ii) Doe: the complement of a preposition receive the same case as the
your an,wn aCl'lllllll., lor the folluwing queslluns, Why docs the strc;, complement of a verb in Russian:
lelraCI a<'I''', a 'vllah"''? Why I., lhere nu reversal of stress In forms d) and iii) ls lhe ca"e as igned to the complement of a preposition the same for
e)" the lWO prepo,itlons used in the data:
a) );\paneSl' Japancse car
h) 1\1lnllladli Mrrilllal'hi River
c) 1'l'lIl1t"!o"" rl'IIIll'S"'C Wall/
d) \Illallda '\1II;)lIda Klllg
,,) 1\ tj"ouri 1\1i"llun W;ilu
 /

B) nrlm:?f their meamng. wun.'" and phr;.t'c, itT\! . _

)f selllantIC rclal1on~ with mhcr W()rds' .1 .,hit' to t:nkr \1\,
Semantics: the analysis of ( .
Ih.'''~c
....
. h'·
• , ,
. ' ,~I\\.I phra....c\ - h
rclatlon~ IpS help idenltty ,he). tn I c language II
~~ a<.,pc\:\';, (It .
0 11 Vafltt
~ lU
Y
linguistic analYSIS. they con . . lltutc a gOod ' t - · . t~'t:anmg rd\!'\',
meaning - , anmg pt.ltnl thr lhi~ 'h ant hi
.. c I.I.pter

Synonyms are words or expression' that hay ' th

. 0 f words in Table 7 C\ PI.!'\ame
all contexts. Th e patrs d me-anmg!\
. \n )tl\t=. (
lViI/ian? O'Grad;.... ,synonymy In. E ng rtS h . . roy, e plau\ibl e examt:l\e'l'. h\
'r

Table 7.1 Some synonyms in English

youth adolescent
begin start
remember recall
• iJ t"\.ItY\ oJ>jt?d there is ine,tl.JlIstible meaning pUfcha e buy
.. Th,JfTl." CJrlvl.. vacation holidays
big large

Up to no\\, thIS book has focused on the fonn of utterances - their Although it is easy to think of COntexL~ in which both d' .
pattern. morpholoeical structure, and syntaclIc. organIzatIon.
" B Ut there issound . th· war S In each pair
- fonn. In order ,lor Ianguage to f u lfil . . more have essennally e same mean1l1g (J spent my holidavs/vQCQlion' h S .
to laneuaee than J'ust I Its communical .... - IIJ r e WIS.'
Alps), there are a I so contexts 111 wh,ch thetr mearungs diverge at least 'lightl
function unemnces must also convey a message, e} must have Con II'e
- - . t h ·
For example, Christmas and Spnng Bank Holiday are holida~s b t th y.
. . lenl
Spea~ing very generally, we can call th,S message or content the utterance's '1 f" J ,u eyare
not necessan Y part 0 one s vacatIon. Similarly, although vourh and
meamng.
adolescent both refer to ~ople of about the same age, only the lau~r word has
ThIS chapter is concerned with semantics, the study of meaning in hu
. th'· the meaningof . Immature 111 a phrase such as He's such all adolescenl! Many
language. Becaus~ some work In IS comp j'Icated arc:a 0 fl"mgmstic analySIsman
Ii ng Ulsts believe that It would be mefficlent for a language to have two Words
presuppo.ses consIderable knowledge of other dlsctpllnes (partIcularly logic,
or phrases whose meamngs are absolutely identical in all contexts, and that
mathematics, and philosophy), not all !l.>peCb of contempol1l1"Y semantics are
complete synonymy is therefore rare or non-existent.
suitable for presentation in an introductory IIngulsucs textbook. We will
restrict our anent ion here to four maJor tOpICS m semanucs: (J) the nature of
meaning. (2) some propertIes of the conceptual system underlymg meanino
Antonyms are words or phrases that are opposites wi.th respect to \ome
(3) the contribution of syntactic strUcture to the interpretation of senlenct
component of their meaning. The pairs of words in Table 7.2 provide
and (~) the role of non-grammatical factors in the understanding ~i
examples of antonymy.
unerances.
Table 7.2 Some antonyms in Eogh'h
1 dark light
boy girl
THE NATURE OF cold
u1ng before lingmstics exisled as a diSCIpline, thinker, were speculating hOI
"'HANING aboul the nalure of mean mg. For thousands of years, this question has been down
up
conSIdered c<,ntral to philosophy. More recently. it has come to be important in out
in pSyChlllllg) as well. COllirinutions 10 semantics have come from a diverse conte go
group 01" cholars, ranging from Plato and Aristotle Ifl ancienl Greece to
BcrtJ"and Ru. st'll in the I\H~ntieth celllul)". Our goal in this section will he 10
In each of tlle,e pail'-. the two word contra. I with reo peCIIO at lea: lone
con"dl'r in a IW~ general wa) \\hal this research has rc\ealcd anout meaning
c'{)I1l[,<)nent of thelr me:mmg Thu .. the meaning.-. of boy and 1,1 are opposite
II( human langu;lge W,' \\ ill t>egin b) considcring some of thc nasic anai)lic
D"lion' used in ... \ aluating lht' mcaninp of words and SCIlICIKCS. \\ ith fl'PC, I to gender. although they are alike With re peel to peete<; (both
 'II t.l\f" .... ,"" ••
l)

I-k\.'iH"l' 1 1/ 'h.' l"(kd " . pl.ln' \q ~"\'P hn ~'\llIh'l, PI

a nd hou g hl il p",. 1111 l10 V hI' "'t"I' Itl 'ht"., \ 'Ktp

Po/Ysem)' and
homophony ~OI)~eR1~ O~. ·cu"
. \\h('~ a wurd has two or mO,re relaL~tllllcanings.I.'
~um~un ... some t:\illllplC's of polysemolls \vord_'i In E ng lish , able 7 3
Table 7.J Sllme poly~('m} in Engl ish

:-1l_'_______
'nl I_It_'''_I_In..:8:..'_I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _il_le_''_"_if_'S_'_B_ _ _-----------
bright 'shining' 'i nt elligclll' ___________
to glare 'to shine intensely' '[0stare angrily'
a deposit 'mi ncrab in lhe earth ' 'money in the bank'
-I)
If you consult a reasonably compre henslve. d ICIIOnary
" for - -h- - - -
. any II. The poll"c cha sed Ihe hurgl;1I
you will fi nd numerous examples of polysemy. The ease wi th whi~~guage, The burg lar was chaseo hy Ihe pol,,:e,
0,
acq uire additional related meanings allows language 10 accommOdate th~ord \
conceprs and perspeclives that accompany technologIcal and cultUral cha n~: 5)
For Instance, wllh the advent of the Internet. surtersare nowadays r()Ununge, (/ , I gave the su mmons 10 ChI'''.
only on the ocean wave bUI also on the Weh in cyberspace, nOI
h. I gave Ch ris the SUmlll(\Il S,
Homophony exists where a single form has IWO or more entirely d
meanings (Table 7.4). In such cases, it is assumed that there are two (nr "linq 6)
separate words wllh . t he same pronunCIatIOn
.. rat her t h an a slOgle
' more)
wOrd'
C/. It is unfortunate Ihatthc team los\.
different meanings. ~I(h
b. Unfortunate ly, the team los\.

---
Table 7,4 Some homophones in English
7)
Word MeoningA Meaning B £/, Paul boughl a car frtlm Sue,
bal 'a Oying, mouse-like noclumal 'a piece of equipment used in c':;;;;;-- h. Sue sold a car 10 Paul.
mammal' baseball' Or
bank "a financial institution' 'a small cliff at the edge of a river' 8)
club 'a social organization' 'a blunt weapon' a. The game will begm at 3.0() p.m ,
plol 'a plan ofa literary work' 'a small piece of ground' 17, Al ),00 p,m .. Ihe game Will begin,
pen 'a writing instrument ' 'a small cage'
The (I) and h) sentences in each of Ihe ahove pall's are ohv lously very 1II111ar
in meaning , Indeed, II would he impo ..,ihle I'm one sentence in any pair \u he
Polysemy and homophony create lexical ambiguity in that a single form
has two or more ~eanings, Thus, a sentence such as I) could mean either that
Irue w ilhoUI the other abo heing Inte, Thu" il illS Irue Ihallhe pullet! dl;lSCI\
LIZ purchased an mslrument to wme with or that she bought a small cage. the burglar, it must also be tnte Ihat the burglar was eha etl hy the \loll"e
Similarly, if it is fabe that the pollee chased the burglar, then It Inu,1 al 0 he
I}
f"bc that the burglar was cha\ed by the po\tee, .(Scnlclll~ whll t: III ',ulIn ~
Liz bought a pen. alt: related tl) ea,h (Ilher in lhi, wayan! alo \0 havt: lhe alii truth

Of ~ourse, in actual speech the surrounding words and sentences usually make conditions , I
1'01 'lllne lingUists, thi is enough 10 JU III Y :I) Ill' Ih.llih • two I!n\ nec,
the rntended meanmg clear. The lexical ambiguity in ,entences s uch as the
following therefore normally goes unnoticed, h;n c th,' sam. ll1e:tOln' , Howewl. you Illay null e that Iher' \If\! ubll
dllt'nl'l1cc' in empha,j Pclw n the a) d hI enl nc In 4) to 8) l or
2)
m st.lI1n:, 1\ i, nalural \0 illl<:rprct 4a) a a t teillclll aboUI wbal\ht police O~~
He got a loan from the hal/k. UlJ 4h) as a ,tat III nt anout \\ hat happen d tu the burglar SLmllarly, )
 , 1t1 N, '~Ot

'f' 'm 'n 't "

1\ • ,-R>II .\I\d
• >11
.~
 S\ MAN lie '\. t\ 1\ ANAl Y\IS ()f

Mr "N\Nf~ l.7~
('II'lt/(,\ I\\Oltll',,) wI ,. semantic ~()m~n~nt thal i, c'pec\a\\y u . . cfu\ for the ,mal ~h.
.. cO which IS used to repres.cnl change of V' . y .. of vt:r\) tncanlno
' hU III.111 S ,. III If, IIl1l'Jl\IOn Illvolves , notIOn ... like 'I'. IS ~ • I h h' anou .... ~n,'o;. A., lh f to
Irs ('Xl<'" 11111 ." I}. Ih,· pht.l\l' I'rum' A-1I11i.\{l'r 0/ 11ft' Ullill'd All C,,'lliJ1c' ct.1 examples he p. sow. l e nOimn of Change a..... 'iociated . e o\\moJ¥'ng,
~"I/I .lIt 1I111,VI I 'I (J I ' , , 'I< on ld. manifested in dlfferenl way~. With (ih C.an he
'J,' It.!· " l tI.t 0 HI I\tJaJor). hut lIs Jlllc",ion "wolve ... lh 'hi\.\
• ,t, n (I,' gO\'l'llIll1.L' parry' c<':()I1<.:.al)
1 ht dl\IIIII.:,1O I '_ , CPt 12)
"I I 11 lc:IWt','n I1I1Clh1011 und exlenslon docs not . II Manifestalions of the concept (;0
l '0 \t' 'Il' '"1"('\"°11 of whal flH.'aning ,\. h simply penTIns lis IO~1 lJw u\ 11
1It'\", \\..I} ""hill illl' IlIIl·n.... 'OI1, ·/ . pc.)Sc it in I a. positional
(>til' \111111' t' 'I' - <t Patel went from Delhi to Sydney.
I ""e--'' ' 1)(11 11111.:11,,011\ I,.'orrespond In menial images In .
1011 '\
fI l\ loU , lIllPIOVc,'lIlt'Uf OVl', rhe n.:fC,.cnll~d thco~y. slI1ec it is PO\s'ihl I~ i, iln b. possessional
•, IIh'IllilJ IlIln~l' 01 a IIII/COrtl 01 even rhe king oj "nine," althOugh til ~ to have The inheritance went to Mary .
.... lldl\.·lI!lfll· ... III Ihl' Il.'jll world. Ilowf..'vcr, prohlcrn ... ari.... c wilh lhe n ~.rcurl! n() Jdenti ficational
\\(IId,,,,, 'II ' I· " . lCilllll
. I( II,(OR, W/1I1'11 cun he lI ... ed 10 refer to HIIJIll.aI ... of rnall . "lg Ii lit Max went from being, a rational gentleman to being, a ,.
·... ,/l· ... h;lpl.· ..... ;jlld C%w .... ",hl' IlH.'uning of (his word COfrcsPonu"i~) ~ltflcrelll maniac. 'tar~ ravmg
11l1;1'~l:. Ih", IIl1i1,1.!e would /lilve 10 he general enough Lo include Chi~ mental
oIl1d ,~, Ik,""",,- yc , ""II exclude foxe, alld wolves, I,. you Iry 10 ~~hua,. This concept i< manifested in many verbs other than just go. For example.
r'l"furc.' Ih,lt ... ;III.... IIt,·."; Ihc ... e Il·(/llIr~IllCnh. you will ... ee .iu ... , huw hard . r~\\ a positio~al GO IS pr,esent III the meaOl~g of fLY ('go through \he air). walk ('go
("oll.";(IIH.:I illl IIl1a1-!I.' I"or word I1lC.tnillg ... of 'his "iOIl. It 1\ tu on foot ), crawl ( go on hands and knees ). and 50 fOM_ Po>ses5ional GO i,
manifested in the meaning of g,ve. buy, and illiteri!. all of which inVolve a
( f IIlI,III/WIII ;.1' hange of possessIOn, while IdentificatlOnal GO shows up in become and 'urn
,>,,;\
.111 •• ."tllI .I/Hlllll'!" .Ipproadl 10 meaning tries to reprcsc..'1ll a word's intcns' ~In to (as in The carerpillar I . .
runted into a bUl!erjly).
I ' 'compnnt!JlI."i.
SOIllCIIIllCS . "00 by
l'C"P"Jllp II do\\ 11 11110 \/twlll'" "icmantlC lna Componential ana YSIS IS most useful for uncovering and representing
('('IIII""... nll,,1 wmllnfic decomposition. Ihis approach haw,o a\
analy,i, <II similarities among semantically related words. _As Illustrated above, a few
~
"""'y,,'. ,,'" .
lIIeanlllg 01 certam types 01 nouns in terlU'
(song . pie features allow us to capture the slflulanues and differences among
S1~c1asses
I>el'1I ""," '0
't'lIIanll(" Il';!lllIl'."i , 'nll' ,"wly\l:\ in "'gllrt~ 7. J for (he words mall, WomaN b S of of people - men, women. boys. and girls. Similarly, componential
W" I );1I/,I/I1"',Ii(" "m. (No"lIlIg depen"I nil I,'C I CI ' 01-reaturc names 'her~:
10iCC OJ' ~alysis reveals a surprising similarity in the meaning of (for instance) 'ravel.
'he all,dy.,i" wnilid \\<11~ jll" ii' wdl wilh Ihe leature ±'+MAI I' as ±MAIL.) , . 'e and become. all of whIch Incorporate the GO concept (pOSItional in the
III,,,, : /10\
~:;st 'case. po ses ional in the second. and identificational in thethird).
However. there are 111mb on the inSights Into word meanmg offered by

1+11111\1
; 1\1 \I I
\N I 1+1 flJI\IN'i
+ 1,\1 L
I componential analysl . What value. for example. is there in characterizing the

mean",
ina of do!:! "" [+A_ l."AL. +c_o\:: 'r.-;E1 so long as there b no funher anal~'ls
- ') imilarly. do we say th at the meamng 'f
. 01. hI ue con'''b
; \1)( '11 \fIll I
f these feature_ 0
O f · ture r+COl 'LR] and something el e? If so ..... hat i that other thing" bn't
the ea 1 , th. - 11 '
it bl uene~:-.,.) 1 - l) men \\ e ul1 hay e not broken e meamng ot 'ue mto
l . -

- )M no- t ' .... n 'r . • .mJ \\ I! are back \\ here we started.

t
1I'0mall $(11<.\\1 er I....I...!
XI/I l

t"III\I\'/
~I \1 I
t \1)( 'I I
"lIi\lA!'.:
i\I\lL
Ill'l I
I
Me"ning and
concepts
'h;1II1' 7.' ~(" lI,tll It li'1't l l OI1~~j-':; llIolllcJ( "'.111, U LN11.",. h ,~ SIf!.

It
hll1.lI) "'.III11<s \
 1:17
, lance. Tom Han~s . Arnuld Sl;hwar/,cncuu. . ,I
eonl'cpt ". it <I,,,,, "ttle gouo to 04u.u" the meaning of "nguisti . ~ e>ecr anu JUlia Ro~
c x alc· of a I m Sl~lr
lOS ,np s fi I .
l'oneept~ 'n the' mino, In Ihe ne,t ,cction of thIS ehapter, We \\,1/ ~ol~rQI' ~it/} . .than Bell Kinuslcy
e'
• h
• I,nl ony H k .fh. i,lfe hev-r
......
S e 'p Although movie Ian ... agree thai an the •. ,
....c actor ... arc ~t" .~
hp \" .... H,r Me:n..\
hUm,ln lone"ptllal '.ISlem from the pomt 01 \le\\ 01 IIngui,tIC Illea Sider u.. . tr c . .
cars the for~'\cr have rccc\Vcd n~()fl~ media attent1on. en' () .t~s.. tn recent
tf} 10 o"lermm" 'orne of Us oa."c propenie" n'ng ""0 y .• lation. achieved greater box. oft ice . . UCl:cs... and h 1 )led fl)t)rc f:.m
2 nulld r I ' I r.. . ence have. d . .
. . u ~) On. h" m- k
eceived morc co ossa ,manclal rewards an" '( T ' ttl\an,d,«1
Hanks. Arn~\d Schwancncggcr. a~c..l JUlia ROhen... bener exam a Ci. 10m
an
THE CONCEPTUAL than Ben KlI1gsley, Anthony HopkinS, Or Meryl Streep, pies III ,I 'tor
S)'STEM E ven concepts whose houndanes can he SCientifically dcf'., "
Underh in1! t.he lise of words and sentence.'\ to express mc.:uni"g ,
Pe of graded mem bers h ''P, A good example of thh invol"e
,language is a conceplual syste~ cllpabl" ot,organwng ancl c/a"ifYin > ~lli'n
- - . " , 'n h Ineu exhlhltth'
h "
(y 2 E
'b'rd' (Figure 7,), ' that English 'peake" alith,'nk
ven assumlllg • , t 0 I'h'
clIncept
Imagma!>le "spect of our e'pellence. from mner teellOgs and perCCPt g vel') J l ' f eath"er~d
.
CUltural and social phenomena. to Ihe physical world that Surrounds 10n\ 10
1
' warm-blooded, egg: aYll1g, vertehrates. WIth
. forelimh, mO(IIf1ed
() lrd." itl;,
to
section focuses on whm Ihe study of this conceptual system reveals ab~~; ~i' Form wings' (the dictIOnary dellllltlonl, they still feel that some of these
meaning is expressed through language. We w,l/ beglO by conSidering 0" creatures are mo~e bird-like than others. Thus. robins and magllies. fot
esamples thai illuslrate the way in which these concepts are Slru SOllie example, are II1tul~lvely beller examples of bird., than are hummingbirds.
extended. and intc';'elated, ' Ct u , ostriches, or pengull1s.
2.1 red
Examples like these suggest that concepts have an internal Structure. with
I best or prototypical exemplars (for instance Arnold Schwanenegoer in
Fuzzy Concepts t )e • b' ' h
the case of 'film stars, ro illS 111 t e case 0
f 'b' , ~
II'ds ) close to the Core and Ie"
We tend to think thai the concepts expressed by the words and Phrases of
language ha\'e precise definitions with clear-cut boundaries that distin UOUt typical members arranged 111 succesSively more pellpheral regions:
them from other concepts, Some concepts may indeed be like this g ~'h The eXIstence of fuzzy concepts and of graded membership III concepts
example. Ihe concept expressed by the phrase Member oj Pariialliellt,' Or rovides important insights into the nature of the human conceptual system.
to be clear cut enough: one IS , a Member 0 f Par I'lament I'f' and only if one'
,celli" in particular, it seems lhat many (perhaps even most) concepts expressed in
duly elected to a parliculru' legislative body: no other person can be truthfulil,
called a Member of Parliament. l'
But are all concepts so straightforward? Consider the concept aSSOCiated
with the word rich, How much does one have to be wOI:th to beelll/cd riCh? Ostriches
Five hundredlhousand pounds? EIght hundred thousand' A mlthon? Is thete
any figure thaI we can give that would be so precise that a person who is sho
by just five pence would not be called nch? It seems not. While One COuldn
miss Out on being a Member of Parliament by five votes. it does not seelll
possible to miss out on belllg rich by just fi\'e pence. Moreover. whereas SOllie
people clearly qualify as rich and others do not. an indefinitely large nUmber
of people fall into the unclear area at the borderline of the concept and it is Robins.
Just not possihle to say definitively whether or not lhey count as rich, This is
Magpies
because the nOlion of 'richness' does not have clear-cut boundaries; it is What
we call a fuzzy concept.
Many hnguists he/icve that this type of fuzziness pervades the human Hawks / Storks!
conceptual system, CCl1ainly. it is not hard to think of everyday concepts
Whose houndaries arc fuzzy in the same way as thc prcccdi ng example _
shrub, tree, tall, (I/d. clel'er. strong. grey-haired. /a,l1. cleal/. genius, bargain, Hummingbirds
and so on.

Penguins
(,radt·c/ membership A sCL'Ond tmp0rlant I:tct ahoul concepts IS that thcir memhers can he graded
III (t'fIllS ollhclr typicality . Consider lirsl a fuzzy concept such ," 'fil m slar',
h l'n "ithin thl' sct of pl'oplc who wc can agree are fllrll stars, SOI11C pro\'ld~
h"tter nalllpks (If this conn~pt than othe". At the tillle of writing, h)r .lternal ,trlle tLiI e of the conc('pt 'bIrd'.
 \ I \. 11\ N h, 1\

\1\." \','" \\h' ,\ ,t

\'1\\ ," \\ III \1111 \\'''\\1 \1111\
1'\ III
, ",\t h, ,hh
'" ' 11,1\\
\ .\ .u\" nh{ h"1\\ ~h~' ,I, \,\
,hI' "H' ,If'' ,h.\\

\.\,\,\~ M
"',\ \\\,\\ "'\et".

' pI n
 -

J.!
l..:l bole 1
"1be bolt!
In. e3d. the moDOIl

==~--------~----------------------------
 \1< \, 111\ l\""I\~'(')\'So <J\
M\ "N\~l. "Lft \
concepts that tlrc .e~pre!-."cl1 ;." ~ttli)l.~'" hr nt)n-h!~'.. ,
have been grnmmahct'l.cd . ICd\ Ci.l\c.\;Uf\t!$ < t
1f
...;\U' ,~,
Some conc~pls .tC~d H:
be hlgh\~_ gr~tl'l\ma\lCi/ab\c in th' .
I , nguuges lcxlcah/_c them a ... alhxl!'io or \ I'\f-oC"' 1 at mh't, If 011\ 01\\
"
Negation an
d conJunctton
" ,
arc posSihle ..... 1aI non-lex,\:.a. \ ca\eg 1l!..
exam 1lr
.' d ' 1I I P e, of conce h
gram mat.tc lze In a angungc .... Contra... ,,, inVolVing \ ingulaf P'''' t at .ne
, d past versuS non-past arc encoded by 'pecia\ aff . ver..,u<.,. -P\UY'l'
"n t not an (Reca II 1h C d"ISCUSMon
-' of Nancnwry In \e .
Ixes In many I,
anguagel\
b
U " ". Chon 6.1 (If Ch' • '
S till o ther concepts are grammal1Clzed 10 a ' maHer numhe f . <\ptc.r 4.)
. g examp Ie f rom thC S·louan language Hidat,,, il\u'trate"
the follo wlI1 r (\ language '. '"

I\,ble 7. 11 Some.' \'I:ro root."i expressing motion and the thing moving in A
-------------=---.::....-:--:---:--:--=-~~~ I'"ge" 'fable 7 .12 Some concepts a~sociated with afflx.es and non-lexical C01teg,orie\ in
luI' for mO\'Cl1lenl of ~I sma ll. sh iny spherica l Objec t (3 hail I English
, mon!menl 0 1. a sma! I Ish.
tOf ' 11 at 0 b'~ecl (hill can 'lone)
be attach
COrlcept Affu
ilnothcr (;:1 stamp. a clothing parch, a ~hing l c) ell 10
f-ael for movement of a slimy, lumpi sh object (a load, a cow d Pasl -ed
swal for movement of a limp linear object. suspendt!d by on rOPPing) More than one -s
shirt on a clothesline. a hanging dead r~tbbit) c end (a Again re-
tJfJUI for movement of loose. dry dirt Negation in-, un-
,'falj
for movement of runny, unpleasant material (manure. gUts
Goncepl Non-lex ical category

----
chewed gum. roUen tomatoes) .
Obligation muse
We learn two things from these facts. First, the concept of rnot' Possibility may
associated with a number of other concepts, including 'path' , 'man 'on I, Definite, specific
Indefinite. non-specific
Ihe
a
movement ', and 'moving thing'. Second. the way in which these co ncc;~r o[
grouped together foJ' purposes of lexicalization can differ systematically ;r:c Disjunction or
language to language. Languages such as English have verbs that si rnuit III Negation nol
ously Icxicalizc motion and manner while other languages have verbs a~c_ Conjunction and
,imultaneous ly lexica/ize motion and path (Spanish) or motion and the tt at
Mthll1g that moves (Atsugewi). ype
The general picture that is emerging from this Iype of work is that With' In Hidatsa. each tatemem is accompanied by a morpheme to indicate which
particular scmantic domains. there may be a small universal set of conce In
assertion f the five categories In Table 7.\3 (overleaf) It exemphfies. (SItU other
~idatsa
(motion. manner. path, thing that moves. and so on) and a small set of OPtit ts (1lorph er11es ~arkers are used for que tions. commands. and wis~es.l . .
for how thesc con(:cpts can be combined for purposes of lexicalization. Unli~s Choice of the appropriate as eruon morpheme IS .extremely tmportant m
the lesicali/ation differences involving snow and light discussed earlier, the e 'd t A speaker who makes an unerance contamrng the morpheme -ski.
HI a sa. . d h d th
difflorences appear to be highly systematic and to reveal some gene s~ w hI· hC " out to be fa! • e • icon idered to be a har. Ha
tum' . e use e
tendencies about the W:I) in which meaning can be e.'<pressed in hurn~ - on the other hand . it would be assumed that he SImply made
rnorp herne ,(.
language Further work of this type should provide additional insights into the :1 mistake. b' .
organil<llion of the human conceptual system as well as the ways in which its While EnglL-h ha. way, of indicating these contrasts ( y usmg expressIons
component notions can he Iexicali/ed in human language. sueI1 .' as 1'<-rlt , I/H.• I heard rha/. and I guess
- (Amencan)). It ,doe,
• 'not
[ have. a
2.4 .gnumn.1l1c,\
-. . -, I S\ --s,
(pm of morpheme that obligatorily.encodes thIS In ormation
.. . f d.
lIlt' -. "'," -..ry scntcille...
. - B, 't n,'e<tigatin o=- the "rammatJ.clzauon
e . . options oun In
n l~ -!'I.'nt
~. I
,1

Of the inul'tillitc/y largc set of concepts cxprcssihle tn human language, a Il1 e 's. I't rna, eventuallv_ be possible to t.de.ntlfy the [actor' that
an"uag
·r.IIlJIIMlidl.ltion ()f
(1I1lC ('ph
rl'latl\e/~ slllall suhset enJoys a special status. These arc the concepts that :Irc detl'nmne \\ c' h c.)n"ept~
II ~ ~hl' , - , are inoled'" out for a_SOClatlon WIth affixes and
l'sprcssed h) affixe,s and non -Inil'al (functional) categOries in one language (\\)n -k:xtCal categorie
III ,11I(lthl'I , SOllle of the concepts Ihat at'L' treated this way in I ng li.\h :U·l.' IIstcd
III l:thk7 12.
 M" II.
.III.. ,', 1'1\'1 .JJ\ "ij'~ I IN',l I II "If A

((
I,
I ,''' ', I o.....:;,:;::::.;:..:......,;...;;,____-,-:::::-::==':::' __~-___ V
(hI" """Art If j, Iljllll ullill 1,11'-'''''111 J Ifllilt I'
"',"11 l,k,pI ~'H II 1/ I"
" .. mil"" 1IIII""YJUlfI/C'I I,Ilc:tpl, •
'h, 'I' "ltt'l "t'/Il t', .Ih, {,If,."w"'/II h,> In" ,
A"
/ 1\1-
/
I'
,-

hUff' I
\\ ,. ",,1..'1" ," .. ,,"tH.·" (.:
'''C''m.II' ""1'0 t,,,,,,~.ltIwdl'II'IJI'"
I If#' 'I" ,,11.1'1 r-('K,uth 11,,- 1/0',.,""", I" IU' "'m''''111 ~1I"'-1/"'1 A
I
;
/\ ( 'UJ
" ',J' .. 111..'1" "-1lI1~ Iwo W,ltt',.t
Ih ". .. "",mwd,h'·I"IlCllh,'Y >fly)
}If
I
Wc:olllty HI I,
I I
:tJul
\
Nt,,,
'" ( A".

I I,, ' '{u(r"","' " hrH/'r/ mlllll wH"'rtlll', III',NII{ 110111 ''''''''
W,1f 1'41 WIll,! fiu:k"-I Iwo /jllw Ilfl •• ,./ r
" ""allhl " n totJd
"
' IIH' "',," filii II:d 1/1(" K,jI)...c "" . IUtnf}lHnlJ •

/h/ ' 1IIIIh oj ,h,' ""IIII'fIII'/l1 i f unJ,.""wII 1111111111 'JII·flJ,.,·r 1111'/1

W;," "U (;Ill,'" ,,,J.a;,lwH Jojl~ I "'1'''1
flu- frIO/II fOi".rrd till" pral(l e d"lIi (J)t',-hap "

------~~-----------------~
\YNrAX ANII '11w two (In'(xcjillg edllJlj\ have I(xu\cd 011 Ihe 1n1!:1I1JUI.' {:unvcYrtJ J,
" N " N( r "III/vll/llill worrl IlTIrl f"I1"'(,~ 'h,,' make "I' a ""IJICIl'C, I" 11,, - ""eillm, \II Y~~
I N 1/ /(I'/(I IAI/ON 10 'he I'f(I"km 01 \c tllcncc JrJlcrplf.; t:d r'w , w"h ;'" CllJph,j ' . 1m h"w t}
l'o\IIJi",jng 0/ wont- ,mrl phr;, " //1 ~y,,';It'Ji.. ,IlIltiure he I,. " 'Ier",,,, Ihe:
mCIUllllg (,/Ihe ('n/lrc I,enlcm:/:, _"""\lenl wrlh Ih~ /""OWIII!' """cIJlle
1(,)
(J '.
The l'rincilJlc /I/' ('l)fflf'/)\ltil)tIldity: "1' ------' Inll

-----
VI'
" I
",c"nol1~' ,,/ a ,t'III"IIC'· 1\ delt'nllltled hy lht: m''''lJin~ 1,1 II tl"IOf.,rltnl
Th('
pwh am/ II,,: ",,,rlller III willdl lhey iJrc aHallged In sytlt;J(.;ll~ lroJl.lurc,

'Illere iJrc many dilkrenl jdca\ ah"ul pred""Jy I",w the mellOlIOg ',f ~
I l' t V
~
I'

sClllcllcc\ comp'mcnl wI,rch alld Ihelr arrangc:mcnl rrr YlOlaclle ~lrlJ~1Ur I IJet I"
ddcmlillc Scnlcllce ",c,,"in£, /'''r f'tJrp'l\e~ "J i/JU\lratl"n, we WIll C'm Ide, It; I ../"
relevance 01 syntactIc Iruclure to Ihree a\pccl\ I,J f>Clllcncc ""clprellotllm I'ltolc wthe peopl flOC ,
Ihe fl'prc~cnlwI'1/I 0/ SlnJclura' amhiguily, the a~,jgnrncl)t ,,/ them:"1c n,t,! ,
,wrllhe Itllerprclalj'l/l ,,/ pmfl(,UlO~, h
I.t
1'1'
..---r Inll I'
\enlcnr;c~ arc ~trUClur"lly llmhigulJu\
~,
,\ Iru<lura/ •• mbiguity Some lhat Ih" mcanlnl(' (,Ilhell
"I
"'1It/potlc", words can he CIJln/),ncd HI m.1t( than em, 'Nay, A ~itnjJ'c example I' I
"I thI S J\ trlUnd in Ih~ 1'1"'1\1; WI'(J/,h) ItINt (Jflri Wl/ltJI'fI wlJ<; rc 'WC:lflhy' tao
he ecn ilS ,I property ,,/ hoth the me/l and 1/1{' Wflffl(:n (,r 01 /11\1 Ihc men :,111111: V I
'hc~e Iwo Inl, rpICI<Jti(1IJ or r~ading.s arc depKI~J it/ hgllrc
conl"tl( lieJII).
If (,,, • ":1
J4;ole the
/'Igurc 7,3rJ co"c~p"'llh 1(1 lhe re;,dillg In whkh ~/'f/I'lry 1II'"Jlllc IJ<Jth
1111'11 1/11(/ k'III1It'IJ,l hj~ I~ i'(Jwn "l' haVing Ih' ,uJJCCIIVC ",mblnc wllh a flgun 7
lalCgOry II,iI[ Hlcludc~ b"lh "'11m, In hgurc 7,3h, "" lire other hand the
 T['tr(""~\I\' 1I lll'" "
;!iJ
The magician changed the haH Into a rahhl\
\gt'lit Tht'lrle (;o(d

\Vhcre do
.
thematic '
roles come frum. • and h ()W d(lC!sthe
. _
npprop~a~e the.mallc rolc , ... ~Ss()C,a\t:d With each NP ~r-~mmaren.,ur~\ha\\he
rolcs ong Inate In word meamng !Table 7 IS) Th . In a '>entence) Tnc~-
. . .' . US,lfthe.. .._he
ball coni am, an agent and a theme, II i, bec' h senlence Hurry h" rh
. I" aUse t e verb h h ~
mcnning Ihatlmp Ie, an entlly that does the hill' (. " a the t).·~ of
. h ) S"I' mg anagent) d y~
gers hll (a t erne. Iml arly, If we understand IlIvern ~n an entlt~ that
].2 Edi/lburgh as a goal In sentence J9a/ it is bec ~H as a ,">ure< and
. . . . ause of the d ff
mcaning of the preposlllonsJrom and tothatoccu . h'''' . 1 crence In the
Thematic role- rWlt u.e'iCNPs.
4\nl"'U1Cf .I"'pt""~·( ('If" 'm3nfi~' inrcrprcr:Hion in\ol\c~ determining the
the I'('f'n.'m:-- l't ~'Ps pl.}) in the .-jfuauons de~cribed b} :"Ientences rol e\ that
Some words and the thematic roles imph db h
in lhi_, n·~.:lrd (hi' s(.-'nr~lh."e in I. . 'I.
Table 7.15
.. COn\jdet e y t eir meanings
hil <age nt. lheme,
I -/
walk <age nb
The lalfu "cnl me ,:tlm,"'n fn,m In"~m~Y~ {O Edinburgh. <goa\>
10
It '''>!lId I'<' mlJ'l"'ibl~ rn undersr;md this ,,,Ole nee if" e could nor id . from <source,
'aim 3.:-- lh '" pt-'n.l)n \\ ho IS rt"~pon=-IL' e tor .<end
'''1' ngi '~omething. the s.al
enlJf,. "'It
••.
near (location.
rh> rhmf th3r " ,eOl. ;\OJ "lO. The. renn thematic role i. u.ed 10 dmOn
the r.1It rl:i, ed b, 3 ram.-uttr enol} m 3n e\ent. In mo,r hnouistic escn!,.
Jr k~bl Uk' rh"lluti.: n)k, in Table 7.1-1 are recognized. ~ anaJ~~, These roles
. are !hen assigned
. . 10 NPs based on meir po".. t'Ion In wn\acIIC
srructure. wllh each NP recelVmg one and ooly one role. .
Tab" :.14 1bemall-n,l, As a first example of this. let us consider me complemenl of a p ..
. repo,ltl()n
A.,,'D! me l"ntit~ lh:u perf('lnns an 3ction ______ In such cases. the proce s of themallc role assignment can be summarized ~
lben> the enul.\ undergoIng an J~l-jon or a mo'-emem fonows.
...- lUr...·e the ~l.lftjng POInt for a 010\ emenl
22)

-
G..X1I ~ end J)l)inr ior a rno\ ernent
L n", the pI 'e ,\ here an action occurs A P assigns a thematic role to ill> complement. 'l'.

The operation of thi con,'ention is illustrated in Figure 1.5.

a PP b pp
J /
'Jh.> I ird
A ,ml
DI the ~mon from In' erne. _ [0 EdinbUn!h.
Theini' Source Goal ~
P
----------
I
from
~
.'l' p
---------------
to
~
:p

Edinburm
TIle BMb:uidll, prarti ed a[ T" icenham.
r.I U>cGlion
<:ourxe>
l <~,------,j ~
.
'Tbt- nolton of mm ~m~D1 u,ed in [he defimtion of !heme . Ou~e d
'~,dIl.~
In! I .1O\ohe DOl onl~ JC[ual ph~ [cal mOil on, but al 0 chdll 'e~ a ,1l:rvnent bv prepo_tions.
Figurt' 1.5 Then
In :0), JIJd.d mi[). in : J). • g In
\1 Iter'> re bghU) m re ompb ale<! m the se of \ Here :e mu t
fem ~ 10 1111) . di :tlm:U1 h bel\\een the theme role. \\hi his i-;ned to the \. romp ement,
Thnrte Goal andth- g·nlrole.\\tu~hi 19nedloit 'Il eel the 'Pimmed1atel~under
 If PO ,

II
-\ \~ ... ,~ ... thelItc"n'lI"'{lfUh3...-.onejh."lihl,."Om.plemcm. ·P.
.-\ \ .l...... 'l~, gent r\.llC' (rflt h.1' ()fie) ltJ it.;. ..;ubJt.'=t :'\P.
Tht... J... e,err."," ic..""J :"1 Figure 1.6

s
"
, 'p- ----~
InO \'P
1 This ~entcn(:t! has the deep "ilnlC\Ufl.! dCrH~\\!d \n l~\gur~ 1 R
S ..
P,r ,/ :-.;p
/ I~ J----....
Del \' Del
I
:x
NP 111\11 V~p
The campers boiled wa[er
t <ago rb>
LJ l'--_ _~.
the
J ~
The m'lJl should
\~
bring what

Frgure 7.6 Thematic role assigrrnenl by \erbs.

t~'__________<_Jg,t~
Thematic role assignment in a \\h question.
In accordance wim :33). the theme role (where present) i a;.sian d figure 7.8
. I' . ' d e e lO 'c .
\"5 :-.'P complement while the agent ro e IS asslgne to the Subject Ihe ".'"
assianed !be theme role - which IS typIcally the first NP that follows th :-;" Since the theme rolc is a"igned to the complement of V (scc 23) anu
- is ~orrnally referred 10 as me direct object. e verb Figure 7.7 above), It follows that the NP w/tar in the abme example recei,cs
The structure in Fiaure 7.7 illustrates me assignment of thematic I this role by vinue of ilS posilion in deep structure. not surface structure \ where
D ~~.
a sentence mat contains a P in addition to a V. . In it occurs at the beginning of the sentence). This allows us to dm\\ the
following conclu ion.
s 25)
~ An NP's deep structure po ilion determines its thematic role.
;I.'P Inll VP

I ~PP The relevance of deep structure to the assignment of thematic rolcs is

imponant for two reasons. First. it shows that syntactic Structure not onl~
I I I~ ~ represents the way 111 which words are orgamzed mto phrases. but aho is
N Pst V P P NP
relevant to semantic interpretation. Second. the fact that an NP', \lIlsition in
I I ~ i ~ deep struClure determine it thematic role provides additional supplm for the
Terry gave the keys to Mary

t'---__<?' tJ <gOU existence of thi underlying level of syntactic structure. This, in turn. lends
uppon to the claim thaI there must be at least two types ofyntactic rules:
phrase structu~ .rules. \'.hlch form the deep structure. and trans\ormattotls,
which com' en It 11110 surface structure.
Figure 7.7 ThematIC role assignment in a complex sentence.

Here, me P to assigns its goal role to its complement NP Mar>' while h 0\\ kt u: recollsider the passi\'e structures tirst discussed in sec lion 6 of
b · . .
ver K/I'e assIgns 115 theme role to the complement the key.l· and its agent role
Ie Passives (advanced)
to the subject Terry.
Chapler 5.
:(1)
Tht' thief \\ a arresled (0) the police \.
Theme
 f 1ItJIl Jr'y lIN(.#III~"( \

__ s1
N I' Inlt
I
P .. t

1'1'
Nt'
/'
I' NI'
/' \ L. •
hy the pohce
<ag>
Pa",c"ivc V ctmn(Jt
L j
'i a~'ign agent rolc

NT'
r
1,,1/ VI'
Figure 7. 10
I
1' . . ,
/r
/ VI' In oruer to form the correct surface structure for passIVe "'nt' "
/ a tran,formatlo ' n tI1ut WI' II move the N P hearing the theme
' cncc\,weneed
role f ( h."
V V NP . . to the su b"Jcc t pm"t,on when the latter"
obJect posItIon . empty,' r )m t C UlfCt\
I I
i"rc~(cd
./'
Ihe thiel 27)
nl~, Ih " J Nl'Movement
l' --_--' Move NP into the subject position .

IlgurI' 7. '/ I if'f'" ,I"" III... lor "" ' lh"'1 W.I' "'" "II 'd; Ihf'
\11,, / ) UtI/if ,11f'" 111,lt Ih, · ,IHI'MI te,/" ,...... uppn ...... flll
',m' th"'"gh Ihf ' " '1;' 'ymhol h"II" ,II tI
' 1 li'
This trans fonnation ~ppli:s to the deep structure in Figure 7.11) to gIVe the
surface s tructure depicted In FIgure 7.11,
S
S llll'l' 1Ill' NP 11r(, lhi,,! apf"'lIfS a' complemen l (d lln: 1 oO/Cet) of Ihe
(/IIf', 1i11i dt'l'p qnlt'lufC alld ' "In' an NP\"
' .
dcl'p ,qlUt'tlllC positron (ktelln~~

Th ,
' ., ". Inb
1/.' thellla/,,' role, Illo/lows Ihlll II WI/l Ol' .Issigned thc theme role ,1\ de,srre!/
HUI wh", olllll' agellllfl/c'/'l he crucla] assurnptJOn is UHIt the pa'\IVc forlll 01
iI vnh low, Ihe ah rlll Y 10 as,,,!!n all a!!enl rolc . ~hKh IS why the 'ag' 'Ylllool
hnll'alh Ihl' H"" III "'gllle 1.1) ha, a IlIlc Ihrough Jt I hi, " why P",slve 'entcnce\
.fll' pl'rlixlfy alTl'p/ahk CYril when thl'fl' j" no agellt NP (forc)(ample, lilt'lhief
11'</1 (///('II"r/), Whcn an NI' heHl Ill/! the agcnt rolc docs appcar, it OCCurs not '
Pst / ~/
Ihl' ",/lWl't po"iliol1 hilt falhl'f a, l'(ffUplel1lelll of the preposil lon hI'. Becausc t~~
NP V V NP P NP
WIll IS ullahle to a',sr!~ n Hli .Igcnl rok. ,01l1e othcr c1emcnt mUst take /
the Ihu:f
I
was
I
arrested
\
e
\
by
~
the police
Il"'I"",srh,llly fill IIll' as'W""ll'nl 01 tim role I1v tS that clement. heing unique
amlin)! 1" l'I"''' I 11111, III havill/: Iht' tYPl' of /1tl'uning that assigns an agcnt ml ' )
llll~'. II" M' lfll' lIn' Ilri'lll'</,' (/1/'('.\1('" /'v 11t(, po/il'e has the rll-cp stflfctllle~
n",
d(,(lIl'lt'd IIII'I/:U'l' 7, 10. (TI", hI' ~hou ld not he confused wi th Ihe hy in / /e ,l/ood FlgUrl' 7.11 SIll f,1le ,II II{ ttlft' rcsultinf: from NP movement. (\n this figure e stal1(h for trace which was
hI' rh(' III'", \\Jrldl "ssi!!I" a Im'atlve mk. ) III Ihls s lllfl' llfl e, lite passive vnh 111tlmltll I'd in w( t.OI1 ,\.4 01 Chapter 5.)
(>1'<11) flllf',III'II."si!'fL' It,~ Illl'llie mle 10 tis l'o lllplcltlcni (Ihc NP 1/11' Ihit'/) whl l '
Ih,' slll'nal P'l'pII.srlll1n hI' as" iillis ils a/:l'ul role to Its l'olnp lelt ll' II' (th~' NI' 11r~ III ~1lt11, theil, the transformational analysb of passives makes use ~f both
/'(}/'f(' I, 1'I,,~ l'U,~ lfIl'S IJr", Ihl' Sl'IIll'fIl'l' has Ihe CflITccl IIIIl" )1'"'tatloll, with Ihl' lkcp struetme and surfacl! structure In order to account for th~mallc :ole
polin'dofff).' Ih .. •11 Il'.S ri "!! ' ''Id Ihl' IIIIl'Igl'tlln).' HI'l'sled assignment. the P that rcceivcs the theme role occurs as complement 01 the
 2 FM"NIIC., lin ""'A\)'51

the tree .. trUClttrc in HgUic 7.12 I fJ'n

(Jf M'A."',.... ~
,I NP . InC)\Ih~ are Ire:, d
thUI hcuu .... to ~a\'e 'pace. Urne whrd \ 1 a e UN-type CiIIe
noted in the prevlou.., chapter, phSses u; ~v~!I. C"leghry lahel are: flnlU'(1II1eI.
""llhin larger NPs.) \)CeUf In the Pt'clfier ~ A.
31) ...."."Mlft

The boy's uncle admired him,elf

3.3

The interpretation of . eludes \\ords such as he. she h. s

The ~~regol') or: P:-o=~;:sar.::rerized by the facr thar their inr~rp~f1Ise!f. ~
pronouns
(ad,anced)
her"'''IJ· The,,, \H rd. I
be determined b\ another e emenr I
'0 the same sentence. (This
_ _
b tatjon <,.
Ot er eJe ""'It
~
~---
NP IInn VP
~
'aJI d th~ a-;'tecedenr) Consider ID th,S regard the fOllo"in "lent \
I- c e ~ g t\\<~ NP, N Pst V NP
~emence.s_

,:?,,"J
.LS.
The boy's uncle
\ \ \'
admired himself
a. lim' friends admire him.
Structure containing a reflexive pronoun.
b. lim admires himself. Figure 7.12
In the firsr of these senrences. the pronoun him can have the same referent Although there are IWO NPs in the same S as himsel'f( I
the ;-.;p Jim or can be raken to refer to someone not mentIoned 10 the sente <1.\
. J. . C th r) In the second sentence. rn " contrast. .
the pronoun h.'fIIsfleeIf lire bov 's unc Ie) , on I y one ( t h e boy:, uncle) can serve name
.- pronoun. Th us. Ih e per~on Who was admired in~31) eee
.<
ant ~. dIhe hoy
f and
lsa) 1m s.a e .
I~ po."ibl refleXIve mUllenth- or the
must' have th e same referent as Jim: no other . InterpretatIon
d th I . e. ~_ "Je the bOY'S uncle, nOllhe boy. ave been
former type of pronoun is called a pronomlflal an e atter type a rene"he
The principle needed to ensure this interpretation make' U· f h .
pronoun. fl . I c-command. which • •IS defined as follows. > seo I en()llOn
The interpretation of pronominals and re eXlve pronouns a so diffe" in the
fo/Jowing sentences. 32)
29) NP c-commands NP b if the flIst category above NP contains NP
a /l h'
a. [s Clare knew that [s Alexis trusted herJ].
AJthough c-co~and might apl,lCar to be a rather technical notion. the
h. [5 Clare knew that [5 Alexis trusted herself]]. underlying tdea IS very Simple. FIgure 7.13 illustrates the type of confIgura_
tion in which c-command OCcurs.
Notice that her can refer to either Clare or someone else not mentioned in th
.
sentence. but that herselJrefers only to AJ eXlS. e
The contrasts illustrated in 28) and 29) reflect the fact that the int
pretation of reflexive pronouns. but not ordinary pronominals. is SUbject to ~
following principle.
30)
A reflexive pronoun must have an antecedent in the smallest S containing it.
Malters are straightforward in 28b). where there is only one POtential
Figure 7.1 3 The c-command configuration.
antecedent in the sentence containing the reflexive pronoun. The sentence in
29b) presents a somewhat more interesting case in that there are two NPs that
could conceivably serve as antecedent for the reflexive pronoun - Clare and When trying to determine c-comrnand relations. you can either use the
Alexis. However, only the latter NP can serve as antecedent since only it definition in 32) or apply the template in Figure 7.13 to the tree Structure
occurs in the smallest S containing the reflexive pronoun. heing analysed.
We .:an nO\\ formulate the constraint on the interpretation of reflexive.
Principle A called Principle A. as follows. In order to keep the discussion at an
A ~omewhat more abstract feature of syntactic structure enters into the introductor, level. we con ider only the version of this principle required for
Interpretation of the reflexive pronouns in sentences such as 3/). which hal simple. one-clause sentences.
 .?,

Pr;""il* \ :
\ n<'~\I\ ~ pro \ In u' t h3' :tn acre '1..,1....0( (h~( ~..•........)mmand, It

NP, I \;
N;.
Th~',uncl" I
admired 1
hun
StrtIC. tun." containlng.:\ PS OOOffiR"lal.
7 15
fig ur• .

There i, much more thaI can and 'hould be . aid about.~ .

d
Pronoun,. A more etal'1ed e,\anllnauon
- . of thl,; . \e~ ' coulelnterpre\.aItOllot:
I
•J
\" ould reveal the need for e'en more ab,trac\ principle< mp ex phenomenon
ref' .
. .' , emng to addiuona1
Pro nPrtle . of S) ntacnc UUcture. However. the e ample,.. ~_.
t -
'on'ldered ,uffice to '11 . ' . ~e U'''e
1 u,trate the CruCIal point in all of '~'I ' hi'halreadv
. .
... - . - ' _ Ul s,. \JW C 1 that
,,,ntaCllC suucture pIa? , an Important role m the inteq>fe\.atlon of both
pronominal. and reflexw e pronoun, .

Prjo . It'S
'<)\\ lei 11. 'on"d r the mterpret tron of prono.mmal~. A, the f01l0l\i o
---- Syntactic suucrure prmide, o nly pan of the infonn:ui.on needed to detennine
the meaning of a emenee. Other necessary infOrmation comes from
pragmatics. "hich include" the peaker's and addre:,ee', backgt'OUnd
attitudes and behef. their understanding of the Context in "'bieh a sentence
is unered. and their knO\\ ledge of how language can be u.-.ed to inform. to
example h,)\\ '. Ih(' mr rpretauon of the prODomrn I him oonr:ra, b 'barpl~ persuade. to mis~ead. and : fonh . TIu- !>CCtion focuSi'. on the role of
lrh that of the rdln.1\ e him,clf m the ,UU,'ture that 'II e ha\ e ~ pmgmatics in the mterpret non of unerances.
('011 Jdenn; . Thu .. him ean refer to the bo). bUl DOl to the 00) '. un Ie _ tht
oppi ,it oruh I u ob>om ed for himrclf
34
~
Ie of beliefs -\' we : " in the preceding ,ceti n. the grammar include. a tructural
The b,,)', un ~k dmired Inm Thera ~rin.:ip\e (Prin'irle B that regul teo the imerpret3.ti D of pronominal,uch
and attitudes 3.' he :md d1.. y. Ho\\e\er. the follo\\ ing senteD e:, ,hoI!.. non-linguisnc
Ho'll aT \\ to (" Unt for tbi>e f aCb'" The rele\ ant .::on ITaint. called j hef, -:m 0 pi ~ an important role In ele;.,"ting the
PrincipJ B. I ' ' !:.It d rn 35 (A" lth Prin iple A. "e pre-.em onl) the \ ersion
f thl. PllDtlpJ I'd, \ ant 10 'impl one-clause. cntenLe . .)

JPrincipi B: Th' Judge ' med the ri,

pro nuna.! mn. nl<C'edcnt thaI <,-command. it. b. Th J c-ni"d th pn, n r', reoque.:t l>e-c:J.use be
Th in the
nte e
 o TfMPOR -\R\ lIN<JUI S TICS

\en;us d(wgt'n)lIs in the ·.. cl...·llndL Yet, mo!-'.( people feci that Itt! re~. A" noted .at the beg.inning uf lhl~ !-.CChon. th~
Judge in 36(/) OUl to rhe pri<.;one~ in 36h). . . '. Cr, tu ~ se ntence .1I1tcrprClatiOn can IOc.lude knOWh!u. pn.~g'nallc fi.\l;.l()f r~, •.
The.'ie preferences have nOlhmg to do with structural pnnclples. R: cntencc IS uttered. 1\vo types. 0\ Contcxlu' I' I~e uf the cnn\cXl' t!.......n\ h)
crudal factor in\olves our shared belief!» about different gro ather, II..
,first having to d 0 WIt . h 1h c physical '-'!nviroit 1n nrm'. allOt) afc .H)VO\ In 'Wn h
.... 1 h h.: .\
. . more I'k I to be caUt' ups·'" . .) d h nmcnt 10 whoIe h a \entencl!v~ ere lh
societ\. ~fOSl no:>opJe belie\"t~ thar a Judge IS ley \\-lth . (the setting an t. e second haVing to do wi h is t. e
- . ,- th . th 10US ln , l" t the other Ultcr"n' U\lt.:r~d
sp....pech event (the. d1scourse). In this..stlb'... cc
pnsoner more likely to be dangerous: More to e ~omt, ey also belie and a Ion We . I .. c.c". In th
of hoW information about the selting em " WI\ COnsider an ~.
a plausible r~a+"on for i.l judge's denymg a pnsoner s. requeM IS mOre li~e th'tt '11 b . e r s Into lann
\!
t!Xatnn\e
be caution (on the judge" part) or danger to the pubhc (on the Prisoner,:I) 10 d iscourse Wt c exammcd in the neXl b . bUagc U\e' the I"
. l' h i '
examlO ed from a s Ig l Ydifferent perspect' " "I 'CCllon B h '
. Ot these "'U" . . '" e <>1
than ,ice 'ersa So. the} take the pronoun he to refer Lo the JUdge in th Parr) lYe tn chapler \4. . C:s are
sentence but the prisoner in the second. e r,1\t

A ll languages have forms whose lise and illle

Presupposition of the speaker andior addressee within a parf rpretation
I de pen d On the location
There are man" other ways in which a speaker's beliefs can be reOe
J
language use. Compare C II
in this regard the ,0 . two sentences.
owmg Cled .In h f ·
dCIChcs, t ese orms are exemp lfied 10 Engl' h bar setttog. CaII ed spallal
" I ' · ICU .
. '. h IS Y words s. Uch. as.' thi .. and
!Iere (proxlmlly to t e speaker) versus that ad,
·
addressee andI or d Istance from the speaker) Th'f n Ilere (pro xlmlty to the
37)
'S itling across from each other at a table each. w us, ld I fSteve andB'na.n are
a. Have you stopped exercising regularly? . .
in front of him as I h'IS plale and to a plate' in front ou
of th reerroa
h I dIrectly
pate
b. Have you tried exercisi ng regularlyO ·
distant from bol h as I h al piale. WIthOut an understa ed'ot er perSOn Or a plate
in which a sentence IS . uttered can influence the cho'n 109[ of how the'<;etttog .
Use of the verb SlOn implies a belief on the part of the speaker that the r
,. .. . . IStene and Ihat, .It wou Id b e ImposSI
" b Ie for speakers of EnIceUsh 0 words Such
' . as Ih'I.,
has been exercising regularly. No such assumptIon IS assOCIated With the ve~ these forms correctly. g to use Or IOterpret
In'.
- The assumption or belief implied by the use of a particular Wo d As the preceding examples Show, English makes a two-w d" . .
' . Th e JO
C II . r Or . 0 f d'
its expreSSIOn . contrasts. However, many langua ay IStlnctlon
elctlc . to
structure is cal1ed a presupposItion. owrng two sentences prOVide
another example of this. of forms .\t1 t h'IS part 0 f t h elf
. grammar, as shown in Table 7.16.
ges use a thIrd set

38)
Table 7,16 A three-way deictic distinction
a. Nick admitted Ihat the team had lost.
Language 'Ihis' 'thaI'
b. Nick said that Ihe team had lost. •thar Ove r there'
Spanish este ese aquel
Choice of the verb admit indicates that the speaker who utters 38a) . Korean ku ce
presupposing Ihe truth of the claim that the team lost. No such presuppOsiti IS Japanese kono sono ano
is associated with choice of the verb say in38b). The speaker is simp~; pa/auan tia til~cha
reporting Nick's statement without taking a pOSIl.lOn on Its accuracy. se
Turkish bu J 0
Still another type of presupposition is illustrated in 39).

39)
tI. D'Arcy McGee was assassinated in 1868. An eyen more complex system is found in the Amerindian language
Tlingit. which make~ a four-wa) distinction: yda 'this one right here'. hei 'this
b. D'Arcy McGee was murdered in 1868.
one ~ll~:lrb)', lI·ti e 'that one oyer there'. and y60 'that one far off.
l1l.'ll.'nniners 3J'\: not the only type of element whose use and interpretahon
Notice Ihat usc of the verb assassinate in J9a) involves the assumption Ihat
D'Arcy McGee was a prominent political figure, but thai no such prcsuJlposi rl.'qutrl' n:ft'n:n<.'e to fl.'atures of the setting. In Engli h, for example, deiclic
lion IS associated with Ihe verb murder. (For the same reason it i, all right 10 nllltr.l,b an: abo crucial tt' the understanding of uch commonly used ,erb ...
say 'jolm Kl'l1l1cdl' 11'£1.\' ass£lssil1ated' if the John Kenncdy referred to is Ihc as COlli,' and gIl otice in this regard thetriking difference III per;pectlw
late American preSIdent and not a Dublin docker.) found in lhl.' following twoenten.::e ..
 " ' "
I ,

... I

I I VUht'
PnlJX·ftIC, \,f,llhcf un "'r.ln~\.·' in the s~lrnc"iJX'c,.: h lo'Vl'nr Uh\.. . di\c\lUl, ....
l-'nh,'i.II tll UfHll.'l~tanJin1! .1 seurclll't'. \
n:'f) slIuplc l'\ampk ,~ f th l'} .lrt· 111'0
rhl' Intl"fJ'In"r.Hil\tl llt• dl' lllellh
...
sw.:h ~l'" Iw. If.
.
and rlwl'f', \\ hu'ic h,'fcrl'' \lli111\ I
.. \)\\"\
J"'c('nuincd h~ .1 word or phraSl' III it pn.·~l·dtng utk'ralll."c.' COIlSider" utt.,,'n
J '~ard rhc t(,)llt)\\ in!! ra~\.IA!l.· . In Ihl\
-Ii)

\ "hild 1\ ,'11/ ("r ,I II ,lik in Iht' pilrk, Whik III,'''', lit' ';1\\ a rahol! '"
inJun'd, h"Il><,k /I ''''"It', ,"l I n c e.' il
\la,
F'k'h (\f rh,' italielfed II "rd, ill Ihi, Pel"iI!!" rd,c, 1'0' it. 1Ill"rp""1 ·N)
' f'
In .(lmlMIOIl
, a prl"l-'c.·( r1Jl~ Sl.'nCt..'l1cc. n
~·III.:oJed In ·
l~IS. \\t Oi l '\In \
..' I llll' rp rl'l flrt,/'t \ ,In /I, T he poli ce chasl!u Ihe hurglar
,
1\'/.:""11,'" 10 /II Ih,' 1"lIk, ht' wl!h relt-ren,'" 10 (I duM, mid it l\ ilh reI" " Ih /), T ht: h urglar WUS chased h ) Ihe po lice,
a fabbit. \: r ~ nl'l' In
In some la n g uages, a 'pt:c ial affi l< " uscd III illcllllty Ihe lop,,:, The
fo ll owing senlt:lU;es from Japallc'e IllllslrtllC Ihis phcnnlllc"\l" , (Nn", =
Old ilnd nt'1\ nominative, Ihe sllhlct:lmarkcr: To p IOPIC marker: Q \lucsIIl", marker)
Ont'of rhl' mosl imp(lrtanl COnlntsls 111 Iht' sludy (If dist'ulIr'l' IS Ihe d i,,( "
inlornMtion
belw,'"n 1It'1I' and old illtllrmalioll, Old (or ghen) infor mllt ion cons "l ,nclIIOn 015)
"11'\\' it'dgl' Ihal Iht' spt'aJ..a assulllcs IS u'ilIlunlt' 10 Iht' addrl'sscc al Ih' 'u Ih'c
Speaker A: Dan:ga kimasila ka']
" t' Ihe 1I11l'1'ancl', CII'h ,'r "CCallst'
L '
,I IS 0 shared ) hOlh or hccame il ha, 01 c lillIe
" .
Whtl, om came Q'1
L ' ,,' d · h d'
"t't'U /llln"'Ul'e 11110 I e ,scourst', In conlrol'I, ne" information in" I ..
, rc,ld,
I
"noll','I d gc Ihal" IIIrn'
' d uct' d WIll
' Ih t' d"!Scourse hlr Ihe lirsl time, Consllierlh'
' O'Cs SI','aker B: Aklra ga k.lmasila,
,'l'nlra,,1 belw,'t'n Ihe foll(H\ ing 111'0 st'lIh:nl't:', C Akir.l' 'om came,
4:!) \klra\\ a J,m:·to kima,ila·ka'?
0, The woman IS al tht' fn>JII duor. \ klra-Tllp \\lllH\ ilh camc'Q'?
'\\ 110 Jill ,\ kil\1 ,ome \\ ilh'"
b. A W(llllan IS al lht' fronl d(lOf,
rile lllpic- mark.cr in Japan,'sc \tht: sutTi , ·11'11 ) i, di 'lin ~ui heu tfllm Ille
(h(lln: of Iht' ,Is the dt:lernrill,'r for 11'01/1111/ in -I2l1) suggest.s that tht' rcJ'e rcot
suhlCt't Inar\..t'r \-1:(/) hy ii' ust: III mark o ld or hilt:k grullllli \IIh'rn~allnn Ihls
\lf~ht' jhr,lse IS SOlllt'(lIlC "ho has ht'en Illentloned III the previous di scourse
is \~'I1\ s{,,<'akt'r 13 re'pl'ntt- 10 \' s first ljUC,1Il1l1 ~y US\tl ,lhc SIIOlc' l marker
lin IS I ll:rl'torc alrt';~dy "n(IWn 10 the addrl'ssee (old Informal IOn ), In COnlrasl,
"hl'll'" of ,Ihe dC'll'n,lIlnt'r (/ in -12/1) implit's that the referent IS bt' mg intrudu('cd
<11\ tl\l' P \ktllL Bc,'<lu,C this P pro\ llk' n~w \tlt lln~'I\ll\l1 hen: (an un ~we r
Illto tht' dlseour", hIt" Ihl' first lillie (nt'\I lIIt{lllnation). t,l \', qlll'slllll\), Ihe lopit' malkcr \\l'lI ld hc \Il,lppmpnalc IIl'\\'cv r, 1lI1\:C It
SOItt'l' Ihal /loth sentenCt'S III 42) Use fh .. as the d"tennin," lor lroll! 1/ . ' I1,1' I"• l 'II c"'sllhlishcdlhal
. ,\1.:",1 IS the ""NHl
,• , \ hl' C,lnlC. tlk curre ak :""P
, \l<lIlumg
J'l ' I ' . , (//, ,',In then lX',II thl'lt'pIC IllJrh l, Ihis is pn:.:i,d) "'h,lt happ< n ' III pe er"
m IS ,<,<'aust' Ihl' 't'tllng lilr thl' t'olll'l'rsation prl'sumahly lIIL'i udt', nnly (llll'
 SfMA.N1It.S: I\lt
('ON TfMPORARY LINGUISTICS .... "'A.l.... S 1\ ("If
. " f'Ioo\lA.N\t<.lC
The MaXim of Relation IS c r u c i ' l . 1Il,
responses to teh " a \0 eva\
question '\-\-'ou/d \'Ott fk ua\lng the ap
final utterclnce, \\.herein the NP Akira (which is now ass ' e t~, go to the C."ln PtnPriatene os ()j
pre\'iously established infomlation) is marked by the topic sUffix~~~ted e ....-aonple given at the beginning of· lh"1\ I sect emu to " h
'~Cl, "ith conversational contribution!\ of others arc r~~n). Becau"\.e We a' ~:.:: I?' (the
4.4
able to infer from the response '/ have I eVant to the tOpic at h. e that the
Conversational is unable or unWl'11'log to go to the mOvie 0 "",d" fo
S" ". r all exam' that.t..'and "'0 are
strategies .
In addition to background beliefs. the setting. and the diSCOUrse c
. th at enleonte, a connectIon . between commg b' one', hair. .m.I'fly ... _-
d be· ,vo.;ause.\t h. 'peak
isu.c d er
rype 0 f mJonnatJOn
. C
J·udge the " response '/ ha\'e to comb m,~nh . ,1ng able to go t~ a:; ~{)!\ee
.
f.Ci at lea.... t one other major : t. ther
interpretation of utterances. This infonnation has to do With th~ • 'nto t~ inapprOpriate, -
, air to be . O"le We
Irrelevant and h'
Con veNation " our understandmg ~f bow language IS USed in rul~s tOt Of course. the Maxim of Relation can. . cnce
situations to convey a message. If, for example. I ask someone, ,\(,an' CUlar .
speaker w h 0 wants to create a pan.cular im SOmetimes
. . be S"spended b
like to go 10 the cinema tonight?' and I receive as a response "Ita. aUld Yo For examP\e,.If someon
pre'''on.d. Ya
. d I" " le la asks you 'H ave you ' . f inrs
' Iled thai essay vet"
for an exam", I know that the ~r.her perso~ IS ec mmg my invilHti SilidyII . I r I r I, h "?' - . ' , an )OU res~ d e
raillwg a 0 a e). aSIl t fl. , you viOlate th M.' 1"'"n 'lfs been
thouah there is nolhing in the IHeral meanmg of the sentence tho On eVe" . 'mareI eVant way. 0 n the other ha d e bax,m
eo , " at Sa, 'j respondmg " of Re \.llon
. by nOI
Moreover. even though the response does not contam an explrclt 8Os\Ve }s "'. signal to th e 0 th er person that you want to n , 'Y glVln th response you
a
e"
invitation, I recognize it as a perfectly appropnate \\ a) 10 respond rIo Ill) 'conversauon
. th at h as been raised. mme away from the topic of
that the same could nOI be said of a response ilke '/ "m'e 10 Comb ;,,(Notoce
or '/ enjoy reading books ',) J ha",
As speakers of a langua~e, we are able 10 draw inferences abo
The Maxim of Quality requires that the slatemen" . d'
meant .bUI nOI actually ,aid. - . th at.s
Infonnal1on . com'e) e d on
. this Way'
Ut IIhU I..
s • . . '-3 u..\e m convers.ati h
some factual basls. If. for example. I ask 'What' h ons ave
a comersational implicature. The ease \\ ith \\ hich we recog IS cUlleo
' . ,.- '1 e d ' how peopl n'Ze someone respon d s '/' ',
r s sno",,"~ . I. s r e "eaLher
will nonuallv as th . like.? and
mlerprel Impllcatures stems /Tom our IU'O\\ ge of . and . bl . f . , ,ume at this State
lingUlsttc commulllt} use language 10 commUnlcale " tWI h each other. e In 0Ur provides reha e in ormatJon about the current weather. " ment
The general overarching guideline for conversational interaCtions' In order to achieve tron~ Or . 3rCa;.m. however it is s o ' .
· f Quali ' , meUme, po. "ble to
called the - Co-operatiu' Principle.
- .s oflen abandon the ~1axlm 0 l) and "Y >omething that one 1_ be
. I Ii' . th . "'10\\" to fat e
Thus, If twO peop e \e m e rruddle of a swelterina desen and .
46) . kin·,·" ~ one per,on
inSISts ~n as g e\~ morrung Whal s rhe weather like?'. it might be
The Co-opera the Principle: appropnate for the other person to respond sarcasticalh . Oil, roda- . . ,
Make your contribulion appropriate to the conversation. snowing, as usua /' , perhap. \1.1· tah · -
pantcular facial e"pre"ion Or mto~atlOn
\ I( S
to indicate thaI the statement "'"3., not intended ;b a true repon of the facb,
More ,specific maxims or guidelines ensure thaI conversational interactions
,"ctually satisfy the Co-operalive Principle.

Tabl.7.17 Some COlli cr. atlOna! maxims Quantity

~~--~~-------------------------------------
Iht'M<lXIIN ({ Rt'/alivn'
II<- relevant
rhl' lIfaum of Qualm
'0
fry make your conUlbullvn >fie thaI I true (Do nol say Ihmgs thaI are fal'e Or for
"hi,h }'/lU lack t.ie'i!lJIC c"dence )
'ht' [.lI/lIl ( {Qu(lnlm
D, ""I mal" }' jur mnlnbul.oo 1n(lre or Ie /Of II"allYe Ihan re<]""", 1
I1It 1/1.1..1111 'If I/ulln I
, lid an'!>1 'UII} IW<i obsclllltv toe hrl t and orderly
 ,t()2

Mannpr rhl~ j\Ja\IJII llt 1\l.lIlIh.'r .Imp.. "l" "'t" l~rul l..'OIl,lr"lill". 011 J.lI)gll.l~l'
\\hJI..'h \\," boc..~ l"l'mpl,fit.'d hl"n.' Firtl. 1Il1i.1~IIH.• lh.u I n .."cr I U", .. t.....
, . I·
pcr.tm .1' rhc-- ""UJ U /lI)ftl HI1I1
.
/tn'-, u'lI"- \ "h!lll'r \\'uulcJ
'1' I
U it
1... _
.." III . '~I
II
P'If'1,. 'If
L'lll1cluding (h.1[ thl." man 111 qUl',UOn I .. rIf.lI I" uf) .., }u"thallu. I"tll\ _ "'hf1~(j.q.
h} ,hI..' .\l.I'\illl tlf J\1.lIlllt'r. d hri.~t~·r anti Ie ... .., llb."'l.'urc U\:\ChPI, !\ hcl'i.tt, If)
hll.\balld \\olJJd h"l\,,' lx'L'1l u."l."U It II t'ould ha\.c corn.·clly de, .. ~ln. AI"
.' • '\,'!'..:r1ucu
cvmpanton _ ~ ...').
t'L'und. imacine .,hul I ~Im wriring a ll!u~r of recommenda _ '
l'mplll) er nnd. l,htl(l.,mg my word-, carefully. I sa} about U forme/Ion lu q
mine. '}im ~d" ht'liJrlwwle indeed ifJ'()U call gel Henry 10 ~V(}rA r. ~tud~nt Ij
, . b' d . J()r \'t} • bl
d~libt.·r.lleJ} w~ing, a sC,ntcncc! Ihal cun ~ e tnlcrprc[c 111 two dram. l' h~ 47)
dllferenl wavs (')ou \I ,II be glad to have Henry on your Slaff' , '11""11

. ,,' ,
Vcr,u, Y Did yowenjoy Ihe 111C.. I'1
nor easy 10 gCI J
Henry 10 do lilly wor·k') . I v'o
'I
ale Ih': Ma:<lJn
'
of M, s II,
IJllrbam:
UStng an ambiguou:"I slrucrurc. Since (he maxIms are vlO lHlCd on ly l" dn'lcr.hc
Janet: The soup Wa' lumpy. Ihe 'leak wa, '1'1\,1
- , fQ ai" d'd ' I'Jr,,,.. , (werc(lJlked and Ihc descrt was l1\lIS\Y~ y, Ihc V'l!.tl"h\ -. writ
purposes (as when Ihe M'lXlm 0 u lty IS sU,spen ~ ,10 YIeld '''rca., I~c"i,
pe rson towhom the leller "s wnllen would be JuslJficd III Conclud·
I.~
1ll),lhe Toe inf.ormalion cuntamed In lanel', 1,,1 pc<){luc'. I u
choice of language conSlJlUles a velied wamlllg .tboUI Henry, (Sec, I "'illy ' h h d e , Ilr ".,h'In Ihe
effeetlrom w h Ie s e raw, the llnpllc'llure 'Nt 1 I I " ."hl·XlII,,1
• " . III not enJoy lh~· I'
discussion in Chapler 17. seclion 5,) <I Sl> lhe We arc asslImlng. "I Course. lhal th"u"h ~hc . "''<' .
I J 'be' . , " nil' a'''Wtlm& ,I . \
nonetoe ess anel IS 'Ing co-operallve ,md provuJin' retev'lnl lIetl y.
The maxims in other The preceding maXIms represent constraints on conversalion Ihalm' Since we know lhal lumpy ,oup grislly 'leak '\Od I!. \. 1"1<"11\".11""
. d b d·' • UVtru)(,~td Vcucl hi
societies an inlegral pan of l'lllguage usc in all culiures, This is nOI 10 \' ay WeB he followc Y a musly pu ding is nm anyunc', ide' ([ 'I I ",I ~,
, II I' .. ay Ihal L 'd· a 1 ,I <>ve Y meal Ihe
maxims are employed in exactly Ihe same way III a IllgUISltc com ' I", inference Ih al J anel d I nOI enJoy lhe meal is justllicd. .
mu
however. In facl. we know thaI the circumslances under Which nlhe~, I low do we as~ess lhe degree o[ relevance lhal ' P'rt·, I
, ~ Th a a H':U i.1f P'C(:C Hf
appropriale to suspend a maxim can differ, A good example of thi,. II i information has, e degrec of relevance h i an ullerance II 'n,. I
' ~ra I areas 0 f t he Malagnsy Rc . ld I ' . Cy".O( ." On .t C(~t-
the Maxim of Quantily as II" IS used III u v"
Invol benefit a na I YSIS, whIch rna',
, , , ea . Iy, an Inlerprelalion
' . ,ml / e~ C'>I1le~lua\
(formerly called Madagascar). the large Island off the cast coast of Af ' ~ bite effects and , mlmmlL.eS Ih.e processIng COst IS. preferred
,. A simpl c e~amp1·1 C WI I
,
Because rural VIllages 'h
to I e M a Iagasy Rcpu""I'IC lorm
<
small ne,1' make tbls,
clear, Suppo ..'
e you
.
al a cheese-and wine part-, whOle"" I. part ()f a
inlegrated socielies. new informalion is rare and considerable prestigd, lIghtly univerSIty stu~ent recrul~mcnt laIC. and you nOlice a beanJcd. halo \lCN>I1 wh.,
to its holder, Speakers are therefore often reluctanl 10 impart it to jUst accrues is wearing a kIlL From hIS appearance and altire y()U infer 4X),
When asked aboul a particular evenl. then, they may reply evasively a~n~one,
mention of the information being sought by their conversation~1 ~Idlng 48)
Thus. a visil to Ihe market might be described by saying simply 'Ih/anner The bald. bearded per-on In a kilt is a SC()t~man,
many people there' rather than giving any specific details, This sugg;e were
The cost of am\ ing at this inference is minimal a, the clues are obvlou
only thai the Maxim of QuantilY can be overridden. but that the eondSl~, not
.: happens may b
' h ttJJS '" and require very liltle proccs.,ing ,
un der wh IC e intertwined wIth the cultural praeti IIlon\.
'1ar socIety,
partJCU ' eel of a Moments latcr. you art! introduced to thi man and J()U are lold hI name
is Mr Hami,h MacTavish. From his name you con1irm Ihe inference m 48)
s ,OOB as you c~change grt!elings and hear hi~ very trllng Glasgow accenl
Relevance How do we interpret utterances in context? As we saw at the beginning f' h
' " 0 t c you gel further confinnalion of -IX), and you al,o dra\\ a further in!erence:
(advanced) prevJOus sectJOn. e~nversatJon that appears superficialJy disjointed may he
qu:te well-ordered, IlJaI'e 10 studv for an exam' can be an appropria te rc I -IV)
to ~ollldyolll~ke 10 go I~ Ihe clIlema IOllfghl?', Why and how docs the hc!/r Mr HamISh tl.l11CTll\'ish i~ a Scol'oman from GI go\\'.
dra" from the addressee s response the Inference that the invitation is he
declJJled? Ing :-;\l\\, leI us uppose thaI you arc a foutball Ian nd adore the GI w
It is this problem of drawing infcrences that Relevance Theor y i\ designed Ranger, UP\Xll e you al 0 have other interests. You are in ted In

In address, The essence 01 Relevance Theory JS that When !nterrr'!' h;1l1c1 a'1J \(lU kno\\, Ih I GI go\', i the h adquartc f cotu~h Hallel; you
utterances. "C focus un mformation that is relevant. as seen frol1~ :~~ .Ire hi IUD. {If \e"hnol 19y nlhu iast and \asl mght you a\\ documentary
fI-f (IJI\.JIIMI'UI-',AN"t IIN(.IJ/\//r 'i

Where do YCJU want \CJ gc) nc:::xt year'l

H,,,, que!ottion will nht be vague. Cf", bench, ana'
this is a student recru,tment fair and Mr M"·t Y'" WIll uE¥e "'_
Ii d h • . <Ie aVI\h'. ·\I,\) .. - IDee
he wants to 10 oul were Y'JU w."nt le, {t I. 1 \f. recrUit hul_
t;,cJ tj unIVer~Il'J
where you PI an to gil f'"Yl,ur 'urn mer hohday,.
"Mo.II;
' 1Ie.1)t:ar rather than
~r () f,um up, relevance lit a f.;.ognlt\ve princlpl lh l"
Proce"ing. From the mUltllude of availahl e .a\ 'C~ hehmd Inf(,rmat\tln
. . f e plt<:e. "f
potentIal ,n crences Ihe h earer ...,ICCls Ihe Optlmall I
I
In (",rnat"", and
I . . Th .. Y re eva", l>rIe
SO) Re evance e<,ry" not WlthlJUt ,t. critic, Wh I .
.
menls, ,ome pragmat "'CISI~ h ave critlcil.eU Relev' . I C Of1\. dl~)U
Th ntlnt I
Mr /1m",,/) MacTavish is a Scot 'rom Gla.sgow, home of the Ran ' 'ded C . f . ance elK)' for be
. h· b ·Id· gers a ()ne-~I . ummun'ca "'" IS a tWll-way 'tr<:et. Bein I . inK tQo
OIllhe Clyde. whichu,cd l<> he a major s Ip UI "S?g c~ntrc - Where the'ro t'ly Ji~tener at the expcn<,e of the ~pcaker/writer'. '" int f ~ men\e(\ towar(l the
Ui:rtbl'lh " was nwlt; it i.s Ihe headquarter!>" . COlll,h Ballel and h """rPI, does not <,eern to. d ea I ~"~,, .... , 0
~uately with Ihe ways 10 whICh
"'ew
Relevance
~
The,>ry
SlnJlhdyele Unlversily (which was created ?y mergmg the ROyal C()/'~c "I the lask of encodmg their c•.,mmunlcative Intentions wh h pc go about
Science ,md '/Cchnology (whose alumm Include John Logie Bai lege I'f communication. ., Ie IS a IlIlqI)r pan of
iuvcnlcd low dcl.inll,oll te/evi,jon and James (Paraffin) Young. wh trd "'hI,
Ihe wI . lIlelU'lry.,II Scotland and Pcnn,y I vallla)
.'. wllh. the SCOll;sh COile
0 oUnd
,td
('OIllUlt·,,·C; unfortunalely, II " also a clly where plraled VIdeos and. ge I,t
. . I syn d·Icatcs III
prol'rallllllc's arc sold hy enmllla . th carras.
B compu'" "'r sern~ntics and pragmati~ are concerned with complememan and ov .
lappmg aspects of .tudy of meanmg. The boundary betll.een the' er
tV.l) canllO\
til printiplc Ihere <Ire" million and one other p,eces of inform, r be clearly d rawn. A~ a ru Ie of thumb, <;emantics deals with a b ._.l
. I d' h rv,"" range of
coutd pmcess ahout Glasgow. Hut (Jne wouldn'l. The scnsible thing a 'on 'lne phenorne~ Ihnc u mg I e natu~e of meaning and the role of S)lllacUc
10 ,klemllllc a sUliahle eUlOff point hecau,c processing informalion c~'~Uld he strUCture lJl t e IOterpretatl~n 1)1 sentences. Pragmatics, on the Other hand,
,mel efJiJr/. (In real life convc""lion we do not have all day to S, lIrnc investigate, how the mearung that the. peaker intend to communicate b"
"'["IUlUlioll /wt(lre saying \omcthlllg to our IIIterloculors) The bl' prOCe"
. gger Ih
using a panlCUlar uUCrance In a particular context i under tood by the
(,(In/ext li,ken '11(0 acc!)unl gels, the greater the number and compl . e addre see. Although nou problems and ob tacle remam in all th~ are
p,,,,,hle IUfercllces hccomes. Therefore tl is ncce\Sary to determine e~ty of work in recent. ears bas \e;c begun to ldenuf) the ~ pc of relations and
Ihe hCllcfJls ohlilillcd '" Ihe processing of various strands of infow ~thcr principle_ nyohed In the unde tandIng of language The include the
""IW('igh Ihe eo,1 IUvolved '1 he hearer selects for processing the c'>n: atlOn nOlion. 0 e ten."ion and inlen ion in the case of ord mearung. thematic
yield, II,,: greale'l conlexlilal effect for the least amount of proces' Xl that role a 19nment 10 the of ntence mterprelallOn, and c-command In the
I 11 ollr c'.xiltnp Ic, Ihe eml 01 processing 50) .... h'ch is 0 complex and u.,mg . Clllt
..
'. ' .. . nWleldy case of p oun 10terprelaU n. Other factors known to be mvohed ill an
wOllld lar exceed any likely bene/II' '" lerms 0/ Yleldmg a COnteXlual effect. ' UlleraJI:e" 10letp laUOD I lude the peaker'~ and addressee' ground
)UPTH'''''g you arc III th,s che c andwII/e·party because you arc Ih' k' bell f ( ted, ~ r example, in pn!'\uppo itions), the onten
II houl C hII,,,,ng · a ul/lvcnlly . 10 ~Iudy the ml)sl relevant inf" 'n 109
. (If whIch .
II ormalu," pro\lded b !ling and \he di (our-e, and the maxim soctated wi\h
w, plllhahly h Ihal 'irntlhdyde Unlvcrs,ly whICh b'I</,ls of som ' I·.
'1· I· . e aml'"1 th l ,p Prl Ipie Ftnall), rele'\ an\:t play a ey role In under
., Iltnll' .(illI(l w "'h I IlIeStIIl/ahly" repulable lO)/ilUlion) i, in ('1'1"
,. ,gow. II. Ih,.
pc, M,nlllllllllt'l'IIIg YOII IIIclI say"
~/)

"" Mole I,m It,~ III /)lIcelll, 01 Adllli~,i,,"s ill SIr.'lhd}d('

SI tlldytlc: (lIIlIlI~lIy /ll()(/U c Ille 0lc··1 I I I
.,.. COli I 1.1 C IC'1 1/1 1111
III lIOn \0. II lI.oulJ f I/Iore n"lur.·11 It Ih I
neXI (,011111 1111011 10 lhe
,, ,,~ ''''

--- 1. 1"\\0n:\;J.lio~ . . in\,\,')htng \\\).rd n)ca.t)mgs are :.\nlOn~'m~ and '\non\m\

Wh,,:h r\:l,mon " l\luqnll<:d III <:a~h of the pc,i" of wO(tb ~Io\\~' ' .'
a) tlouri'h-lhri\' e) unde-aunt '
b) inldhg':l1I-slupld n intdligent-able
.:) .:asual-ll1f,'m1<'! g) Hog-\\ hip
d) yQung. )1..1 h) drunk-'o~r

2, It \\ .IS n"led in this ~hapler thaI a single fom' ~an hale 1\\ , or more
Im:,mings, Depending on \\ hether the,;e meanmg, =
,'Ih'r, this phenomenon ;1\\0\\ " poly,. 'my or h mophony, \Vhi.:h of
relaled I" 'ad,

Ih's 1\\0 rel;)!i, n, 1$ emphti\-d by the fomlS belo\\"

ct) gmss h 'rbag' \b~ f,'r gr.lLmg alUmak mariJuana
t'» Ie 'h a 1:>1- )J,ud..ing \\ rm: a hanger·on \\hoe' ,a,i\anlage
., rang~ :.l "\.) ing. ~h")\ ('. ;.} 'erie ... of nlount31n~
d) '\ an tn'lnIm 'I\t u,cl 10 Ilpen a I~ -k an an,\\ er shn!1 f, r a
t "' ... t or "'~\gnnl~nt

R"\ a 'IX 'I I, r ph 'Iograph'" til1n: round de\ ke at the t-un

'nd ,I' a fi'h\l\g R)J for Ihe hne
n r,t" It ",'t,,' run1\\l\g ,,'mpetill\ely: peopl' bel, ngmi; I' th'

'11\( \iii d in
 '5.I:M"""'11
UtE "NI\\'y ,
01
S "'I" "1
I)
·\ I ... r J '1'('11 rn~lI 'r\\Llll(her. (Co" dud1ng )')U)
~l1d I "f'l n mal .~ l'U (h~' any rx.e'
~Inll VP

I)
III)
nl
..
mUlU.
~rd {'''I'"l" rn.a1 ·lho_. . e th.r'et.""
I ... , p..."f"llft r1ur.ll ·u ... (more than th..ree. includ
r'l 1'<''''''' plurJI 'u, (more th"" three, "xclu ',ng Y""r
2nJ 1'<'"'''' plural ')ou (more lh"" three)' (li ogy""
3rd 1'<'",," plur.1l ·th"m (more than three)'
1\
P,
\
P,l

V
/\
\ 6
NP • 'P
" ~ brother gave himself ~
"~ ..."'l. n '\.."rh .lft" gramma(i(,lzed in the Fijian pronoun _, Jack s a haircul
\ h.'h .. ~hl( !!"r~lmmJti\.·JleJ in the English pronoun 'SY'S(~rn~ern
\\lll; lJ "nUh (hem" Ca,a 13. In the fo\lo"ing senrence. the pronoun ~he C"oIn re~'
I) \\ hkh ""II" 'pI I' gramm,ludzed in the Engli 'h pronoun or the secretary. cr to ttther 'he ur(h'~CI
11\( ill Uk' FijiJn'~ 'Ien.-,' Y tern but The architect gave the secretary a ri<oe • f.· h
10. E ,h :\1' in th' 1"11,',, Ill': ",men.::." h;l5 J themJtic role that rep a ~r, e typed the rtpon,
p..trt thaI it> ~f '~nr 1'1.1): In the ,iIU;)lion des.::ribed b) the senl:~,:nls Ih" u) \\'hich imerpretation for "he comes \0 mmd f" t~
3 Th' nun ch.h,'il Ihe Intruder. ' b) Why?
t» TIl<: 'al Jumped from the .:hair omo !he table, c) What happens to the pronoun's inrerpretatio 'f
,.) -\:m'n WR'IC a !ellerlo :\[.uil\'J1, secrerary to janiro,~ n I you change the '"ord
d) TIl<: pn'lII.cr "m"named the gues!> in the lounge.
d Hellr: IX ,I:-J the lIIanu..,cripl from [meme:s, In the following pairs of semences. one of the (w
l',tIIg 11,' t"mb J",,,ril><!d ,in this, ch"plc!r. Iarel ~he themalk cole of presuppo irion relating to ,the truth of the comple;:~= COI:lIalm a
men"", and Idenu/) the as '.goer lor each thematic ro~ a) John regrets that ~1ana wem to the graduation cer
E., "
P III the"
t'. Bill \\'R'le a flL>l'd in liz,. par. "
e, John belie,ves that ~1aria .... em to the graduation C:;::;"
Lag,~ <IU b) The capllll1l thought that the hip "as in danl!er,
The captain realized that the ship .... as in danger,
c) It is significant that the criminal was sentenced.
.

1\ is likely that the criminal was sentenced.

[1. 81'b ,'I the I"n,)\\ IIlg ,e",en -e, has undergone a mo\emenl Iran fClrtn:!
u~ . For each pair:
) \\ltat h;b Lan: giwn 10 the bride'? i) Identify the sentence that contains !hi:; presuppo-,iuon.
" \\ n..) \\ ill Chn, Ij, , ii) Locate the word that is respolbible for the presuppo;.ition.
Which h:>ll, ' \\ ill the group lea' e from?
d \\ 31 ha; Hm forg ,nen on the bu.>? 15. In ;"lalagas~. the use of the deicti cry 'here' and ary 'here'depend
e\ The 'I ce \\ " Ilfen b~ the burglar, whether the obj<!Ct ill question is ~. i' 1e to \be speaker. H 00es
t The differ from the Englhh \be of herel;here"
a) E~ nyrranoQY, 'Herellllibouse(, -letoilie peuer:
b) A~ nyrranon~, 'Therei hi boose tlOl·..isibletoUll:: peaker:
h '",1\ '0 .. hu: to :' (' bride
... ~g, th> • <l!oal> 16. rioo II "as that
-L-: u-.ed in eru:in di!...'"OIlI"-e

3
B.
nreox') B,
rei t lO\ooran
B
if au -h~", hi
 I
II J
J h B's fl· ... pnll'.C' l·qu.ll1.\ th.:t:~p~.lhJt: I.n aU ~hrcc InterneIIOn . . "
C'JU}('''C (lnl.· of rhl.' th".:(lllf';l.· ... In \I.. hlch B , rc,'pOIl,t,! i\ a .
Historical lingu,st,cs~ the
new and old ~~;()Ptia~
Ho\\. Ull Ih,,· unut.'rltnl·U part:-. c(1rrt.'\pond
(hln"
10
()rnla~ study of language change
iii) for Ihl' c,.J' ... COllf'C In \\ hlch B', ~\pon,e is unacceptable .
no\\ ""plain \\ h) i( i .., unacceptable: . can You
,,') In "ddll,on In Ihe deft conslruclion, idemify the Way in wh Robert W Murray
mt()nnatHln 1.\ mark.ed phonctlcaJly in 8's re~ponses. Ich oe\lo

17, E"ch of Ihe 1'"11,,,, Ing ",,,mples cOnl"in, a conversational imp)'

,,) ..t H""e you \\ «shcd the t100r and done the dishes?
'ealure.
B' ",,,.shed thc 000.,
1',,<, Many men sayn that ;n sweveninges
h) I' Did you gel hold orO,rl yet? Ther nys bul fables and lesynges;
B' I tried 10 call him yeslerday, But men may some swevenes sene
c) A' Wh"l did you Ihink of lhe film? Whiche hardely Ihal false ne bene,
B, Well, the supporting aclor was great. Bul .1flerwarde ben apparaunl.
d) A, Oil you have any pelS? .. Chaucer, The Romance of Ihe Rose(c, 1370)
B: Yes, I have IWO cats,
i) What is the implicature for each example?
Ii) Fllreach example, which m<lXim oflhe CO-operative Principi .
relevanl to the implicalure? e 's
Language change is both obvious and rather mysterious, The English of the
late fourteenth century, for ~Jlample, IS so dIfferent from Modem English that
18. Using Ihe vanous dImensions of pragmatics, including Rel - , hout special lrammg It IS dIfficult to understand the opening lines to The
Theory, explam the peculiarity of the following extracts from RI~~~ce e ;~~"C11lce of the Rose cited above, Not only would these sentences have a
Lederer's AflglliJ/tu/ t."ngli,l!t which are all taken from records of sni ;d f 'gn sound, but words and structures such as swevellillges, lesynges, and
orel Ile bene are umanu'I'Jar, I Teh ' f h dOff
of ~xchangcs from American courtrooms, (Q = QuestIon; A = An.,w PPc) t\ fiau I eXIstence 0 suc I erences between early
, your blb ' I aw ' ? er I"
a) Q Whal" ro cr-In- s name, an d later variants of the, same anguage rruses questlons as to how and why
A Boro/kln, I uages change over tlme,
Q What is his first name ? an~, torical linguistics is concerned with both the description and explana-
A I can'l remember, , I~ language change. 10 this chapter we examine the nature and causes of
Q He's your brother-In,law for 45 years, and you can't remember tlOn ~a e change and survey in some detail phonological, morphological,
blS firsl name? lang ~ lexical. and em antic change, We also explore technique, used to
reconstJUc t rI n!!l1.istic
A No, f tell YOll I'm too excited, (Rising from the witness chair syntactIC, pre-history and briefly discuss interrelated research II1to
0 " " .
and pointing to Mr Boroflin) Nathan, for god's sake, tell them languag e a cquisition and lmgm 'lIC uruven.als,
your first IlUme!
hJ Q Plea.se stale the location of your right foot immediately prior to
lInpae!.
Immcdiately hc/()re impact. my right foot was located at the
end of my right leg, !---- Of d chan"c oyer time, Engli h h~ undergone continuous
c) Q Whal is your namc"
THE NATURE All langua~~~_un :;~roughout its three major period. Old English \roughl~
II Erncstjn~ McDowl'i1 and dr~\Il1.\l!\ ~~~\ tiddk ~English (from 1100 to 1500), and Modem Engll'h
'e- .re,ent). While Chaucer-, ~1iddle English IS at le~t
Q And what is your marital status? LANGUAGE
\rom 451: to
CHANGE
\ Inml I :-00 to th P t>l' xl' Old English looks like a complete!) foreign
pal1iall~ ,comprehenSi. <.: t~ a),
Th' It)lIo\\ Illg l ' an ex
tract from an ei"hth-centurv Old English
". p
languagl. <:, "~)f Bcdc' Latill Hj~tol) of E'l~lalld, IThc letter
d,x \IInent, a tran,lanon l h '91 in Old Enoli. h: here and
I ' . 'pre'l'nteJ the P on~me I l:
t'"lkd 't lllrll " 1<.: , k, u long vowel in the onhography,)
'I
l ~l'\\ h, re 1Il thl' 'haplI.:r mar '
 III', , I I~" I ,, \ I I t II II 1\ " \ I. r. \ \ II

,\ \ \ \ l \ t '1\

Hid\: 1\.111"\ I' ',',-",...111

Illd', "'1\ "h ' h 1,11\ ",III
\ \1,' th, ,,,,111'\ \\ ,'"lh,' ''''h'I' '
I' \ "d.1II hi II 1111 .r!,'lI"dlol,',1I1
Ilh II ,' llI,he\ rhlllll Ilh""'II~"'1
I1h lIlh,~, ,,'III Ihlllh'.1 111,·",'11 '\'I

A '" 11I1 ~' ht Ill'p t'l ln\ 1\\0'\\ 0\11\1\ ~ \\ ill\)'\ '" h 'VI' \ I"
l', I
" ' II 'Y .\1) "Vh il\ hi .
h ;H\~'t "" l y pn't' Y It \1\1 11\ ,\llil \11\1lmy ,
I ,
' IKh '-IOIIIHt I. II ' .1 111. \
'I111P I h'lllI11\ II I
11 ,'I{htl tHlHll y hn'l1 1\ LI''''! III thr uk .1 "I '\\' , ,. 111 \ "\ \I I, I,11\111\ . I\\\hlll\
" . '! \ I;\V
I
/,,1 1"" I , ",II\lull III I lrI"\1 1''''' I ,I' l y "'to " •III I ,\I, II I
v 1II'II1t' y
~'II\1
,
I,lIrlll i'\OI Y " ln11"'"lhilh"n 11\ \1\\1 \ "T I YI \.I Y I" " h n " 1\
"dfllt111 01 a l'Ull',tllh\1\\ 111.1 lO IHP'"
,1'1 '\
I III ,If! 1\\ , lll Illlll ''',1\1'\ \ \hl" I
,I
III h ,I' I'
~ 11\
\
01 it vnwrl III hll'ak UI' II l'oml'h l ill tu • \ "\"n

'1\1hl<' Hl-:-_===___. ;. _________________

PI'/f'luHI oj rI f f,""m,III'
/11111>1 Ilrl 1 Iljlh '

fll-\oll"noltl\'"ud
1,.,1111 II 1

I I

" ,/1'",.11" ih I" \ "Ilk III , lOll'! .lh,,"1 1,111 '1111 'C dlall ,,' III gl'IIl,,.,, 1 " jh fl'''' I
,.III/:U,II{I' ( ,.,111):(' ""l'III.IIInl ,1'''1 n,lIlIpi<'. Ih d \~I"pIIllnl 01 ,I 11\t'd 'Ilhl"CI " I "ill Hy ,'1111 t
I ' , VII) dll" 'I
"'1"", (S\()II'a"I' I'PIII"ldcI III !or I ''''h dId 1101 ,,1"'1'1 111\1 'I I'" " I C
, v VI'I ),' 'III
1l'1'" III 11~lrfll Iflgil h IPPC,II h hlle /,11111 I Ihall ,,11"1 Ihl' ti'l' 'I I "
, I '
"111111.11 ,Ihl" h.1II ,," tlfc'lllff' 111' vowci III Ihl! w",d "(/1/1 dId II ,tI "'I''I'I ., '
I \'(lld 11,,1 Ihn l,p'eScnl 1111 I!' IlIl.u dl'wl"pIIII'1I1 0' Ih,' Old II 0" III III
11,11 hi I
'(1,\<,1.1 (/a /1 (",' I Ihlt'll I I, gl"lr

I til II II" 1/ IiIHIIII/ ) Ih,""1 ' ''11111

fa II/ I'tli 11,,"11 / ) / ,,,0/ '1I11I1t'
II~ II/
------ /" "I
 III"'l()~ILAI IINC,lJII\II( S 1111 'llUtJY III

\I\NC'\)A(,I r""'''lC,f '"

t· g unts , Although horrHwi"~ l:~m aftcct a1\ .
three hundred years ago). spelling pronunciation Can r",ntrOduc tInxico n i s typlca
. II y most ~t It cctcd. Hng\I'o.h. f()r.
C(l1n{kHlCnt'i t" h
t c ~r;lln"t;lf the
lIOn that \Hl .... earlter altered through sound change. e a Pro c d ' . Ich ., .... P '. t:Jli.tTl\ple h'\1 h< r
French war S Sl. ~ - CIrelli, ('oU,\III, unullal, \UUr, c:"(;ur ) f()~C:t~ In<\0"f
ore ~llsll tha~ changes inuuced by spelling pronullciUlio, tlll IlCfil,.
teauand blll.\e. In North Amcnca m'\n'-l A ' • t11a.)or, Cltl tru'
t~e nOlonous arbitrariness of me relationship between spelli n .tend to ftd 8° '., I' • J me.nnd'an W{lrc\
Canada, moccasin. 10':"" Wnw llI\-\'k, c-hulook. mlJfl\e ' d . \ndud\n~
•

tlOn which is a femure of many names. For example. the ;~~~prOlllln~~ been added to the Engh .... h leXicon . • an '1kullk have a\~,
Ilen:i..... \\ hich used 10 be always pronounced [mqJlsJ Or [men IS] ISh ''''''~ Among the effects that borrOWing can have. On the Mlun
nonnally pronounced [menzlz). The same applies 10 place IS no","<la he introduction of new phonemes Or allophone, ' d' _\ d "),S\cln i.lrl!
Frirhsd,,11 (near Berkhamsled in Hertfordshire) is often pronou n'lnles. 10 h td'stribution. For exam. p ic, some English speakers' nran C lange, 1.0 thtir
rather Ihan [fnzd'lIlJ. and Cambl/slang in Glasgow. which r::;=:
[f~le'<l.~' I classical composer, B {Ie I I, With
t he ' . t"' fricaliv
the final velar ooounce. Ithe.\ 'nam e () \
[k;)mzl::eIJJ, loday tends to be pronounced [k;)mb"sl::e1J1_ espec"1 onginun I .
he German plonunclu . , t'ton, If 'ere
h .IS a slgmhcant
" - n h._ e x "lUnd. In
Who are not from that district of the city. I. Iy by tho Y tfr om another Ianguagc, thc bOTrowed foreign segment Ulnucr c'of horroWln,ll'
Spelling pronunciation may sometimes be triggered by social ~ '<
become a new[f] Pboncme. h \In\ t he early M~ddlc
. .
English PCriOd,an theeventually
I"'muon
ut I;Ot fV m wOrd~I~l\lal position. The \v1 was latcr
is obviously what lies behind the change that has affected Wo d actors.1q;
dialect had
origin such as hUlllan. herb. humble, humour and horel. These: S of Frenc~ 0
introduced as a hresudtd contact wit Other English dialects and with
stan with a vowel sound, and had an initial 'silent h'. as the Ords uSed 10 French, in wh,c It I OCcur word-mitially. As a rcsult of this COntaLt
French. But mOSt of us now pronounce the initial Onhographi~ :tl l1 do in a contrast developed between IfI and Ivl word-initially, as found in Mode"':'
'dropping one's aitches' (as III [ousJ for 'house') is generally n'e becau", English pairs such asji/e and vI/e.
evaluated. gall Vel}
Language (as well as dIalect) contact also results in another minor but
Analogy and nevertheless important source of language change, hypercorrection. Hyper-
reanalysis Cognitive factors also playa role in change in all components of th correction occurs when a speaker who IS attemplmg 10 speak another (perhaps
Two sources of change having a cognitive basis are analogy and re grarntnar. more prestrglOus) dIalect or language overgenerahzes panicular rules. FOT
Analogy reflects the preference of speakers for regular pallems Ove' eanaly'SIS. example, many speakers from the north of England have the vowel (ulin
ones. It typically involves the extension or generalization of a reg r ;rregUlar words like cui, grumpy, and Slump where RP and other dialects have ("1. But
the basis of the inference that if elements are alike in some res~ anty on there are also a few words such as pul, sugar, burcher, and Buddha in which
should be alike in others as well. Both phonological and semantic c~ts, they both RP and Northern Enghsh have the vowel (u1. (This is becam;e Northern
istics can serve as a basis for analogy. For example, on the basaracter. English is conservatrve and dId not .take on board a histOrical change that
h
p onoI oglca
. I SImi
. .].
anty WI'th such verbS as Sling/Slung
' and SWing"s IS of lis urred elsewhere whtch resulted m the spht of the short lui of Middle
.
some dIalects
.
.
bnng has developed a form brung, as m .
I( 'vel brung,.1'1'
Wllng .
~~e
, In ~~CgliSh into the phonemes lu! and IN in certain words.) The problem is thaI
house. Chtldren create forms such as goed by analogy with regular past . present-day English there IS no way of dtstmgUlshing between words that
forms like played. As we will see, analogy plays a very important rotl:nse
morphological change. In
~:IOng to the WI (lkAtI) class. which underwent the change of /u/to /A!, from
rds in the put (/putl) class that evaded the change. So. somelimes speakers
Reanalysis is particularly common in morphological change. Mo hO- ~fo orthem English wi hing to adopt an RP accent. overgeneralize the rule
logIcal reanalYSIS often rnvolves an attempt to attribute a compound orp th t makes their [u] correspond to RP (Al The result IS the hypercorrecl
+ affix structure to a word that formerly was not broken down into compr rOOt
h
r~nunciation of a word like butcher as [bAIJd), although thi word is an
morp emes. A cIasslc · exampI e 'In Eng li s h'IS th e word hamburger who
anenth p., tion to the historical change of [u}to [t,,]. They may also pronounce
originally referred to a type of meat patty deriving ils name from th; cit Ie f ex-cepII '[rubel~]) as [r"beld]. not re al"IZlng th at wh en thoIS word was borrowed
I
Hamburg in Germany. This word has been reanalysed as conSisting of ~:o rlIU' O,
from Latin (cf. rubel/liS 'reddIsh, " )'illth e atel mneleen
' th century, thL' e atm
comp.onents, !ram.+ burger. The latter morpheme has since appeared in many rOl1unciation of II a [u] was retame~. . . .
new forms rncludmg jislrburger, clzickellburger, veggieburger and even as a P A th~r
no ~ ' -
example of hypercorrection I the use of I m constructIons such
. . f h \ h I
free morpheme burger. Note that the reSUlting reanalysis must not neCessarily H ' . J >/111 and I. This usage is an overgenerallzatlOn 0 t e ru e t at on y
be correct. (There is usually no ham in a burger!) t1~ l S(III ( -. . . th' , I J h
Id
I S \lOll l·e, '" used in '_
SUD,' eel pOSItion. never me Accordmg to ru
. .
IS. e. 0 n
LallgU<lge contact
. II ' ';Il" is correct but Johll and me/me alld John are ~()mg IS IOcorrccl
till< g( ."
'tl n 'n.'ttk.crs ' h~ . re,u Ite d '111 th . f . th'aI all
Another cause of linguislic change is language contact. which OCcurs when F,)f 'OI11~ ' •. -
h,'n.>rcorrectlon
, • -"'-. . d e 111 eren~e. I
speakers of one language frequently interact wilh the speakers of another (0.)[d ' lOa
· . t>t phra<e< ., ., contalOlO"e me buch as JollIt an me) areb 1I1~urrec
' haevenh
language or dialect. As a consequence, cxtcnsivc borrowing can oc,'ur, \\ h en th c\ 'e~'~ . " as the direct object tcomplement' of the ver I .• ole t I t e
partit'ularly where Ihere arc significant numhers of hilinguals or multi ~rson \\ 'h' 0 _ HI: s, \I'}(,!rn allill would nOla) He ~aw ,
ays
 II"
nbu (.h~cu",'" one, common lYfM; ot ~~mt nlu' I..:h'lIl •
tion ot an at,'ncalc. In aUOtllun. 1ft hrl\- ~ • to vu \"lng,1he, ,
cr to "I(h Illp \nl..~
Ol
n '- H ~"'Gf A/thlll/gh all L'<'0lp'1J1""1' <'flhe gnunll~ 'U1icuiatory factors playa role In OUIU\ '\ '
~
l;.j,1C th", IHtlt.- 1\,.
.. 'al)~eo we
... ound cha~ge ~).a~ed, on ~'Ul"lOry tal:hU 5. 1\\\' lin WI,' 11\ 'II l\ c.
1 ~
'
II lU \
u\
:\l)Olc'" 1)0 J:Ie' of I,,:'h3n!!~ ,} lelJ more ob\'lous results than others ~.t! ?ver ti di ...eu ...... ed 111 tl'l1''' ,cetlOn and rcfcfn:d 111 \ ptJtl..tnt OUnl\ "'""--n
11\ ttt l:h'lPl '-1\01. ll!
I.'hangc :tre paI1h..~ularl) Ol)lil:eahle in (he phonology of a I. . ,ilrialtofl~' catalogue of sound change .... prc",clllcd in 1unle ~.3. . CI an: "'Uhlt In
Common l~ re . . of sound ~hangc can be distingujshed. anguage. Se ClOd
v
\!thl sounJ ch~UJg("_' hegin a~ sub[le alterations in the So d elitl
language In particular phonenc environments. The ling u,n, . pattern
unJerl) ing ,u.:h phonetically conditioned change are iden~~~;C prOce~~a
t,'unJ In the phon%!!) of currently 'po ken language, (see Ch to the 0 ' The most common type of sClluemia\ change" a\'\m'" t\
(Il. The application of such processes usually brings about apter 2, \ett~ errect of increaSIng the effiCIency ot articulation th I a on whIch ha In
roug.h a "\lmn\it' ..
"lIlp/ilrcation anJ over time significant changes in the P::n artlCUlato~ . _
articulatory movements. We WIll locus here on the f . tl.:i1\Hm (It
language can result . Ology of : in the catalogue.
I'
(Jur rnam lYi>C5 in(\tcl.1\1·(~
Although all aspcc!., of phonology (for example, tone, Stres ' • partial assimilation involving p lace or man ner of art· I \
qruclure) are subjecl 10 change over time, we wilJ restriCt ou' s, and 'Yllabl h' h ' .cu at on I .,' 'cry
common c h ange W Ie • over lime. can result 1n lOla\ a<' 'I
... r aUenf e • , ~ "'\in" a'l(Jn. in the
to change In\'Oh'ing segments. Since most sound changes involve' IOn here Spanish and Lalln examples en fable 11.4, the place of artlcul,t r h
of,egments, the main focus will be on sequential change. Howev:eqUence, assimilated to the following consonant, a '{)"" t e nasal
r, "'e lI'ill
Table 8,4 As,imLlalion (place of arlIculabon) to Spani,h and Lahn'
Tab/e 83 Catalogue of sound changes
<emda

-----
Old Spanish Modern SpaOl,h "''l...da 'path'
A'lmi/alion Early Lalln i!!£O",bllis Later Latin 1~"lh,1t 'llIIpQ&Olblc'
Place and/or manner of artlculalion
PalalJ.lizalionlaffricalJon
:-':a.s.aliz3tion The first of the Old English examples to Table II.S ~h()1", voiceng
l'm/aul assimilation and the second shows the assimilateon of nasality,
Di~simiJation
Epenthe,i, (segment addition) Table 8,5 Assimilation in voice and manner of artIculation in Old Engl!>h
.\1etathe"i!\ (!\egment mOl ement )
Earlv Old English Larer Old Englilh
\\ "akening and delellon
\ bweb sl;£~e '~Iept'
\o\\eJ reduCU(lfl stefn , lem(nfatreef
Syncope
Apocope
Con,onant. In the Italian e,ample In Table 8.6, a top a imilat~ totall~ to a follo\\lng
De-gemloauon stop,
\biClng
FJi tIon Table 8,6 Total
Rhcra<'1.'rn Italian
Latin
IX-ktion
Coosonanl lren?th~ning ~o« = 11..1) OljO 'eight'
~_G .. d~ tn'n~thenrng ,en'
{' --------- - -~-
"'Elem
~ ,um <lanno 'damag

Another t) pe of urulall 11 palatalization - th e lee'

bas de n
nd lh palatal Ii IJ) lyp Jy ha~e \elar, ah Iar and
n
maklfl th if pi e of arti ulauon more palatal If cornp;sre
 Table 8.7 Pat..t(;]Tiz;]tit)(J/atlnL';]uon mduL't.--d b) fronl vo\\el!\ and Ul

~
I'
~ D issimilation. the proce" whereby One <;egmem " made 1
.
-egment in " .
1".
e~~ b.e CUlOlha-
l~ enVironment, 1:-' much less frequent than a!-.~\mi\"';
U} O
. II y occurs w h en 11
S f change typlca
d · I
. would be difficult 10 i1rt1culat
. .
.
1",0 SImilar soun S In C ose proxlm1ly. The word anma '",ur ',n'"
Th'
~uon. "I~'pe
I! or pen:.el\oe
..
.

for example, was modI'fiIed to all11a In . Sp"';ish.-thereby

' ......Ie '-"lin
aVOIding tw~
consecutive nasal consonants. LIke assImIlation. dissimilation Can al",
operate at a dIstance to affect non-adjacent segments. For instance. the Latin
~ nlum (k/
~
Latin Old French fent [I'J
word arbor 'tr~' became a[bo! In Spanish and a(OO[O In Italian. thereb~
WOn ,enlum [kl hahan fient" (IJI • ""'''<j'
one huod . aVOiding twO Instances o~ [rl In nelghbounng yl\able,. <By contrasl.
bun m<!liu., (dl hah.n mego [d' J 'half' fed dissimilation did not occur to French ",here arb[. has retained both in.,tance,
_La_ti_n_ _-=Il~e_n_le_n_'..:[g:..,I_ _O
__ld_F_l'C_'_n_ch_ _ _,;:Il_e_n_t___I_d_'l_ _ -.:...:: pie'
peo of [rl·)

rion of
l'iasalization refer.

• rhe \o\\d In
10

. (lur ",ample. un demen!

the nasalizing effect thaI a na~al consonanl
<'n an adjaccllI lOWe! (Tanle ' .8). Thi". change occurred in both Fr~:hale
PO/luc:uese. \\lth Ihe suhsequen! 10" ot the na.,al con.nnMl. (The pro
. add"Illonal changes in~~
and
h' .
----- Another common sound change. epenthesis. involves the In--en1on of a
consonant or vov.:el into a particular emirorunent ~Table .10). In 'orne ca.ses.
epenthesiS results from the anticipation of an upcoming sound.
and lelhene" In Frcnch.) eIght

--
TableS.lO Epenthesis in Old Engli:ill
Tallie H.S Earlier fonn Change Larafarm

--
l..mn Uf'.'ir Frtn( h YnrV > Yndr\ gandra 'gander'
g3!l0l
b<1l1' 1x1l1 . i.mle YmlY > YmblY "mble ~alv.."3~ .:
: lxiJ tx.m Ib5J 'good'
"mll > re~g

-
un urn remrig mplV 'empty
[OJ un [re ] 'one

In these e-.;:unple-.. the epentheti.:: lb], ld1: or {p] h . the pi of

articulation of the pre...··edm'" n al but ~: "'1m the foUo~lng '<.~ent In
tenns 0 t· , ." °t ::e and n - or.° • Th epentheu~ "'!!IDem
_ •
mere\ore
•
<;ene, :;, a
t>ndge for the tr.lIl,iu n t>e n the ,?menl> on enher 'Ide (f 1e .l').
 H' II,

hh ,t

\I,
,I, h

\,

h
\I,

II

,I

, " ,tt· "

,. ,
I \ h \h
1, ,',
l'\ 1
I I

' I$,bh' k . 17 C fllI'\II'lo.1,,1;,\ Wr.;'I\r

h'hh H U, J,;yrOlIll;l1l1/11 (II ,....,

VPltWU. (1" d,
",,,,1"1,,111111(
IlIlIlff "/,,,, / .. ,,,,1
,"oc.llIon (tt '" ' "
( 1I11,'ttll""""'" 1(1/111"
1)I.k1100 (f)., 0,
Ipml ' I.tt!:,·
Ir .. 1 ' WilfUl '

Iv, .,

",.., II'" vowe l lC'd"dlOt1 "UII 111" ,dcn,Jlll'd a" iI

~
Wl·jl~.,;nllip PIII(,'
l,plC' " /11 \ 1111 111If"llIlI"d'Oili' ~It·p on '''t'
PHII!wuy frOIl1" ,.dl VIIWt,! ,,','" "hI"",
pI IIIC' vPwc-J, ">" "'04 oIl1l'il/hwuy., 01 con~t'tJnunt w("Hk ..'niut. ht, j I 111'1,'1'1
,., I crill' '/.
('.1'I III ('uu~(UUIl1fJlJ kln'f1u,,. .. hoWII III "'J.!W(' Ii. l LMI I, It"l It
u/,'nl"ywjl (il"'(· ... 01 Wt'JJkt"'lillV It 1"'lpllil ~
(io/hu hnscll\ft (,f·,.-m/.m SWf'dl\h
( '''Il ~ mil''I','' "ftc'III""

1
rnl,r,: nlehr 11lCT.
(h;(:.r "l1(:r (ilUr
\ 'HHli'C' v W(,("/l" \,., :0.101'
hf)aro II .. "
VO l( (,.'k,\ InCi lll ye,",. YOKed ~top l\
YOHt' d Incil l; v,-',
".",11, In M,><lem r. . ngll h, r~"t4C1 m I the ,urcc hr th" ahernatulO betwccn \1\
1"1",,1
and Irlln waf and ","'e, In" Ir\ re~uhw frhm earher 1/\ which IN' nn!1,mally
w" •• ~.l" ' IlI"II',
Intcrvoca\rc
(No/I', (i"IIIJ1Ii1fC u",.,Oll i llll s life ~ltollgcr th,m
,"ell lHHI 1" IJlllljlh~ CO IIJlf t:fJ,lltl\.)
Ju~t as con .."nanls IAoeaken. they can al'>" trength"n . elide <;trenl,>th.n\nl!,
I '~I"'·'J. I (,I, t,' (("I'>lIntnl,.J ~frI·lIt:lh. on3nt31 (the blrength mng of a !;lidc t" an aflnca",) i~ p3ntcularly cmnm"n,
COtlSgt/lening c~peclally in IAoord-mlll.11 po'>ltton. In the hahan "Jl.ample$ gtven tolahle 1\. 19,
Al"C'IIIII'''l'fy, ge,,,,,,,.IC wCilkl'" I() tll'/I gl:""l1alt.. , Idl:l:crniJllllion) sIren the glide \jJ ( pelt I ) ha been trengthened II) 1<1 1.
WC,,~.I'" ,,, I,it .,,'v,'s ((ric-alilm), and v"Kcl,' ~ s'oP' <>r V()fccit\, I .' \!"P\
'" n C,lllve
wr •• kl:u In v",n'" ~Iop, /I ' VO'll·d Irr""'ve~ ICSpcl:flvcfy (vule in") ~ .
\ ''' .. k. ~
VVell ('n
'''1; ell/I ulJ'"l d lcly 1(",,1t III Ihe (kkl,,,,, 01 Ihe (IIn~',""" 1 F'l!urc k'l .
Iyp,nd p","way 01 Wl'akl'lIIn I . 1\ it IlIUdlllO
~/) gtOvane

II • I

."
IiI:U'~ II. I IYI',•• I ,..• llrwJY III I ""y,,",,1 Wf Ik fllflg

((lfl ",""I Uti' p."I,(ukJlly ~11"if'l:1 I.. wcakcfllIlll ,n .. /I '1I1'·'V I K.II"

<'UH 'II"'II,,,I l'.",~ ,flli' pal"way .. 1l:flli ..".'fllirl WC.lktlllllll.rr,' C~ , IlIp"I,r.d
WII" d vd"l'm III 1/{)1I1 II" kll,,,,.11,,,' lilII '" c
I<h,,' (j III I ,rI,ll,vely ,,,mll""1 Iy" "I w '.I~ C""1
Ulvulv tli (.hll' 011/110 II) (III" (Ir"'I' III I 1" c'd rI hy ,I la'
IIIVO/VIII' til VlI'llll' or I I IIIII1 Wllflll! IIr CJ rlllllll' I.IIII"Y 01 /'111'"
 .t. I .t.!I( l U (UI 1H
l" l l UO't If \

EM ~'lfc.. rs

-:i::... ..:,,~,/,.._"_'_'_F_r.._"_,·h_ _ _ _ _ _....:.'•.::..:::'tan I f .. nch

Clt)<;t'(/n-/l(lbJ~
[,itl [\ tt l
[1i"~1 llth'1
[<, utl lekut\ ' h ' l~n'
Il'us ] 1"'>-1 'thumh'
Opt'"Y,y llanit-
1\ i I ·ltk·
llil 'he<l '
[\ u] ' you'
IhJ~m F",nch rn
~lier £h3ndelier [Iu] ' wolt'
.:luutfeur ,"hautTeur

~~------~~-------------- \Vherea" Canadian French .has the lax vowels III and l l ' .
, E F ' hh ' " In do",d final
2.3 sy lt abk'j' ~o[pelan renc ~s kbeptlhe tense vowels li1 and luI. Bolh dialect.
....'I'~ to 'ea:>e, of a~1
'-'culalOl)' faclOTS (particularl) relating relmn [I an u tn open S) a Ie . ThIs suggests that Canad13.n Fr ' '
Auditory-based moug h ~u . d'
.
atiOO') developed the following rule. enen na,
are of cenrral importance in sound change as In lca~ed . In the P!"ec\!d'
change . " audilOry
di ,cus>lOn. . faclOrs
, also . play a role. SubshtutJon is a h. III
f ' J pe Of y - [- Lensel ' _ C(C)#
audilOrily.based change Involvmg the replacement 0 one segment
.
ano!her similar ' segmenl
soundmg
.
rion invoh'e; [I] replacing
.
'
eIther
(Tabl e 0.
[xl or u.
<, "I A
__ • common t}.pe, 01 , uh .... Ith
[n) Earl ' . h hi 'lltu.
ler In t e story of EngJi h.
[~:~~; 1
[t] replaced [x) in some words: today [I] replaces [9) In the spec,h of sOftIe
Londoners who speak !he Cockney dIalect. vawel laxing rule in Canadian French.
figure 8.5
Table 8.22 Audilorily·based substilullon While this rule clid introduce an allophone not present in European French, it
~~~~~~------~--~~=-~'~
[x) > [I] ~liddle English laugh [x) Enghsh--~~~-------
laugh [I] did nOI create any new phonemes ince there is no Contral.l betvoeen \a:<.
[II) > [I] English !hin [e) Cockne) [flO) vowels and their tense counterparts in Canadian French.
~~--~----~--------------------'--'
So far we have trealed sound changes without consideration of their effe(1
on !he sound patlern of the particular language as a whole. Bul. in reali!). Sometimes ouod change can lead to changes in a language' phonological
since languages are integrated systems. a phoneuc or phonological change in splits system by adcling. eliminating. or rearranging phonemes. Such pbonological
one pan of the system may have implications for the rest of the sound system change can involve splits. mergers. or shifts.
Thus. all of the foregoing sound changes can lead both to new types of In a ph onological pht, allophones of the same phoneme come to contral.l
allophonic ,·ariaMn. and to the addition or loss of phone mic contrasL~. with each other due to the 10 s of the conditioning environment. with the
Examples of such cases are presented in the next section. result that one or more ne'\ phonemes are created. The English phoneme lUi
was the result of a phonological plit. Originally. lIJl was simply the allophone
2.4
of /nJ that appeared before a velar consonant. During Middle Engli,h.
Phonetic Io'ersus The sound changes outlined in the previous sections can affect the overall consonant deletion resulted in the loss of 19l in word-final position after a
phonological change sound pattern (phonology) of a language in different ways. Commonly, the n3s31 consonant. leaving [IJl as the fmal sound in \\ords such a;, sill~ (Table
first stage of a sound change re ults in the creation of a new allophone of an 8.:!4). (1 ote that this change did not take place in the area of the midland' and
already existing phoneme. The term phonetic sound change can be used to the north of England stretching from Coventry and Birmingham in the outh
refer to this ,tage.
 11 II
1' 111 r ~ II I t
l t I (UA. . t

""II'

I" .II \1.\ \'"\ \1111<1\

I" \ 1.. "\ 1111,
\11' .1\ \ \ ~\I 111\
1,'0' , I \0' \ \' \ \~, '\
11\11\\ '

\' \ \1\ \" .\

~t'l:
\" \
1"., ,· \ \" \ \ .. \ \~" \
"1\'

\1" .' k ,,,I

In,\ 111.'1
\.' \
\.1 \
",\0'\ \ \IIW\
\1'1\
\hlnll\...'I\\
\11\'11'"
\\".111\....'''\
"t!I M)

'hUlk 1\
n,U1\C'
1\

/1/
II
.. 1\1/ ,:
"

1\ , I~'
'" 1',>11
• tl
("" I"
III .Il)

I
:'I:
J
,I

11~IIII.ll.l\

)\ rhl' <':Im,,', ami n '1\ 111<' d,'I'111s nr till' {Ir~at FII!,!lish \Il\\cl SI"rl slill r"l\la\l1
IIpl"itllng III",k;11. In la,'\, Ih,' 1.'1\ U"'" of phllll"IIIl!i,:\1 shirl in g.cn~ral m~ mil I\\:\1
phill1t1I()~II'.\1 shift IIl1lkr"\\I,,d. ,\ i'1I,,,,"k 11I1111Valll)1I \11 'IIlHl.' (a~~~ arp~ars III inlllhc lhe ""Iinll
III' phlllllll''.' II.';11 '11:1 '1.' \I ilhill phlllll.'l\\l( S\ ,1(11" \s 111 II", "I'~ 1\1' 'ca,e lIf
II ;llt\\'III'llillll', phl\\\\II'\'''' :l1 'pal.'" I" dllli,' ult til Ik\illC prl.·,i,d . hit "\II
pmpII",.", an,1 h)('''sin!\ \III 1\\\I,'1s (1111). II,' ,an ,'I)lIsi,kr tl'" ,,\\\eI 'Ira
1" 1\111\' t,l ,dWtl\;lIil'i atll111 1)\ till' I\\al.:alit~) as th~ I'h'III"llIgi(,I\ 'P,I,C Ihal
1,\1\1'" n\\I,\ "(I,'U\, \ . \lIll\)lIl!h th,' \ ,\\\..:\ ,~,t~I\\' 1)1' \;\\lgu;lg" .:an \Ie
'I
,\I ran:.",l In ,111\)'" II '\)' (,,',' <.' h.lpt,·r \}) . \h~rl.' is ,\ tcndclll') fllf Iall"!;' ,,"
 HISTORICAL IINGUI<;flCS IHF StlJO't ()\
no ((}Nll>\1PORAR'Y ',NCUISfICS I I\NC,UA.CE. {M "Nc-
" 33,
The diphthongi~ati_on in the~e two languages difter
English Vowe l ShIft In two way~. The mid !I. from \hat ()f tn. G
:rc affect~d. a~d different sets of diphthong~\I~e~:~: ~:~ not the h\~h e"f):~\
a Typicill di'itrihurion of vowels in phonological space
honologlcat space all these cases of diphth ., . enhe\e~!i.. In term f
P h td
esult: namely. . of an overcrowded,Ong17..a\\on .at:h'leve the ., m
ere uctton "
rowel system. (Of course, the Greal Engl~evhe~-,v()we\ '!\YMem \.r) a. f1V:
v
complicated b Y oth er d evelopments.) IS vowel Sh'Ift ·IS further~
b Atypical dIstribution of vowels in phonological 'pace

,,\7 - -- e
j,i./ chang
~~d . g
.....--~ descrihing
and
language change, it is olten crucial to'de 'f
hrono1ogy, or times at which different changes hI ntl y the relatIVe
_

Cnportant changes in the history of English can be g' ave OCCUfTed, Three

LiI /'
50~ rderln
(,Ie 0 ced )
(I d
va~
\I . '
.,implificd) rules presented In Figure 8.10,

I) Voicing
lVen as the (
someWhat

figure- 8. q Vowel distrihut;on C 1+V<Jicel/l+voicel __ I+voice\

to ma.101Jze the ,,,c of space in the trapezium. Accordlllgly. if a lang 2) Syncope

V 01 C>I
only thrce vowel rhonemes. the) will i1kel) be Iii. Ia!. and 101 Or lui Uage ha,
" .. a. Iangunge has.ll\c-, vOwels. they. nOt [-Mress]
t'xamr'e) Iii. IL'!. 11:/ Slmll,,,I}, II W' (~Or
distrinllted Ihrou~houl the rht>noloclcal space. t) pIca II) as Iii. lei h1 1111 be
rather than IlI/lo/,/a/./o/. ,md hi. t~r example. • , , ol,IUI 3) AssimilatIon
I~JI1gll,,~es wllh se\cn (or more) vowels (the case in English at the, , C - [H01Cell C
point of thc Gleat f'nglish \'0\,,~1 Shift in Figure 8.8) often ust~rtlng [ - Ot el
diphfhongizulioll fbi- can t>.; seen as a reaction to the overcrowdingno;rgo
phono'ogiclJl 'r;h.C Its dfect " to rcdue'c the seven-vowel system to ~ the Three nAes n the
\Owel'y""n. ( IllInk or th" tv,"!) d Ip · h tongs
h " as not .to f'nnglOg
. on the spa nVe . Figure 8.10
lilt' sil11p/e Q"'ek) aCe of
1,Ihlc f< 26 hows thaI o\cr,mwtltOg appears to have resulted in d'
Ilttl" 'L.lt'lln 111m) bnguagcs, mcluding Old High German and SpanishlPh .

u u
-
II Ie we I)
P'
, cJ :'J

I /11/

I
 11I ... l\lKn \( \INt.~J\"'I\1 !\ 1\1\

II ",l ,r ,,
\ \1'_'_"_"_"_"_"_"_'_"1;;.."_'_",;.11:;:1\:;:":.:"..' '::"':':":::":.::',\\11
,.""t IhllhHI ---_--'_"_11_,,_"_''',;.'-----------------

,\l1\UI\' t h.\\x',) 1\1\\,',,\ \ \\\\\lu,."

_\'''-"'\' t h .,l~-t\'\I' \\\\\\"\'1\\\\
________ --------------__.:..:.~~______~~~.~~~,I~II:,,:S:<'~_____________

\to ~PHOt l)c.:; 'l .\l

(H GE
I"

-\ddition of .liihl!'
... htl'l''':" ' "\(' ;\",,nt, '\\l.n:~ahk' Imm /1(\1
·pk;\s.ur~'

-+- '1\l l ~' -, N ' pmh.'I.:\(lf ' Ifl...un mlUhl'pru\~~hon'

\I is als" very c,lmmon for anhes 10 he It"l lhrou"h '1\"n" ' h. \'
~ '. . eo' U l: .mgc . '~)r
c'stnuplc, Old English htld a comple sysle", of tllli,cs "'"rising CaSl' allll
, ,,,,d"r
g.... . . Nouns
. . . . wcre d\\ Ided UIIO three e
"cnder
ocia"",
, , .... , - 11I""'ul,·
u........ n'\.:. neuter. an\:\
feminine, sSlgnmCl1l,lll a cia" lItis not hased on sex (natll!",,1 gellder) hUlllll
grmnrnalical ~cndcr: tor C':l!Ilpk, the word fm Slplle (Old English .\lUII) "nil
cvt:n 3 word lor u'o nuUJ {W,}lUO'III).\.\Crc masculine. the. \\'ord for ",WI ~ .I)WUlt")
wus reminine, :lnd :l11~thcr w(lrd lor \\'0111<111 (wi!) \Itl,s neUler, Each gemlcr
class was associated wlth a dlt!crclll SCI of casc endings (scc Table 8,32),

Table 8,32 Old English ca.e ali'i,es

Alascu/ine \ 'l'Ull' r Ft'mil1iut'

llibl" 8.1S Fu,,,,"
-----------------------------------------------------
>
\hlrU \\l)ru + atlh (sunh;nic'O l
bJ~t.· Sill,~IIIC1r
hund 'dog u~(lr 'anitnal' gid 'gih'
\\orJ \\ON > 3tli\ + ~."t" tprefi\atilm)

-
Tal>k .- .~Q ,hOI\S that a nUIIlt>er of :-lll<lem English suff\,es arc derived
from .:arlier \\ "rde I>~ 1lI,'an. of fusion,
NI...')tninatiYe
Accusative
Genilive
hund
hund
hund..:,
hund-e
d~or
deor
d~or-e:s.
d~or·~
gief-u
g.id-e
gid-e:
Dalive g.id·e
fable IL!9 Engli.sh sufli\c, resulting fn.>m fusion
I'/lIrtll
Suffi' Old Eng!i,h word hund ·dog. dh1r 'anunal' )!oie[ 'gIll'
,")tninati\\:~ hund-;\> Mllr )!old-a
-h,,,>J (cn,IJh,>t>J) hJd 'Slate, condition. rank'
\('(,l1~;.\ti\ '-~ hund·,,, d~llr g\d-a
-J,'", fR't I,'m) d(ll11 'l:onliiunn. pO"t:r'
tll'nitn t" hUIIJ-,1 d~I..'r-a g.ld-a
I~ (fal1Jal~) tg c-lIic 'similar, equal. It~c'
hund-1I11l J~l\r-Um ~\~t·um
Pat;Il'
AI1<1thl'f c'as,' of fu.silln j.. th .. dl'ydopnll:nt of thl' futun: Il'nSI! "nixes in
haJian II hic'h ,If\: defiled fnlJl1 I'anous fonns of thl' Latin word h,,/Io,' 'to
h,1\ C' (1,lok S ..l(}),
 III \I 1)'1 / AI Ilfjl,\J1 III 1111
,t If f I, , I til

·u J , '11 'IU 111 1111

II f 4 III \. l "~to III ,,'I. ,II (II II '111 1),11

II Ifllli ,'10 II. "h. ,II .It!

II) Ihl t"" IIlh I tllIlI). J "#.'" II 1,1, j nellllM ,.,11 1 ,1"1',. ,, I
'CIII<lIIIIIIII',lIlIlIfi tI"f,jllllh,ltI 'i 1111111 I,nlhllllll"'",, " I ,hI I\: til
,,", till ''''till ,II \11"1' I 0111. IlIlfl 1111 III, 1111 III ,"I rI VI)Wr I 1,II1y PIlI)
(lItllll
,
\\1 'I I ""'1 d h,lIll 111I1I,d \,'\\.
I I .J I (y, ,It. It WII, 1.II1'j
'I'll
It,1 I
,",
\.,
\i1 I I d." ,,,"1) ( '''''''1/111 IIlh IIhlll)'
,
"I Ih. 1',11111'
I,, )i H
111",,'
I
'1111 1 "I' ,
11111111
Illr qll I
j
,,",, \\ , " II/Iflll I ,/I d I I h. f \,lIllp" "' H I I .1 !'in IIh IUdl ,I "III
Ih. It.l I 1111. ",,, \11\\1''''' I Ihl /1 ·,,1111111 \'11,,011' I"tll 1':r.'1 ". lIh 11I1!11Iv, ;;::1'(1 t
" ' 1111011' H..\01
, H'II " \11\\1 'Shill) 'II J
hUH".'
h;ultLl vuwd 1t',lI" 11'111
It hUll",,)
IIiIlU\ apCK'(li"'
\ n~lIld'"
11111111.!lI\t. 111111.1 IItllI.I hqUHrl

tlH( hlill" IIlIlId hlllllitl Ollv""I,ly, 11\1'1\ Ih,' M",k'il 1 ',I1~'I"h plu,al 11(11,,1< ,annl,1 h" Ih' ,h'",:1
"
11111111\ 11111111, ... 11111111 (I) hlllllid l'tHl'1l''!lH.' IU:t: 01 (tuud ~ha"Y;l' Rathn , It, \h· 1l'~\1h tit rarhn i\I\OIlq~'Y \\Illh
I tilth IlIIlId I '!lwei {(.) h'"IIII, w""h "Ilh '" M"I,II,' l'IIVIl,1I 11II:"I ' I"'"n'~' (,~c Tah\c \\,1.\) w\IIch dill I""n
II,,' plll,"1 wllh Iht ' ull" ,', I hIS MII\t., wh,,,,, earlier I""n III W:t\
J'h",t! 1111''''>1111","11 'Vl'n III Old 1',lIpll,lI, wa\ c.lI'n,ktl hy an"h'IlY I" all I ',n~h,h
111111" .,-. hlllld
IH)llIt,.. wllh a Ic.w cxn'rttOI1, ((H{'tI, "11'' ', J{IJIJ,\I', C\t,; ), Othcl plural fllnn"l
(I')
N'lItlIII;III\1 hOli llt '
1/''',''1\ I' /lilli" "lind It')\ h 1111 II"·
\1 I ;1\
Iw",(I" /""Id, lhal WI'IC ,n:all,d IIlIlhe ha'l~ III all"\<lgy mdulh: """ """11 In
fulllll\1 hUrld ;1 IlIlIId II'J hnlllltJ.,
Middlc l \ n~lI,h) anrl "It",'.\ (I'"lllclly 11<11111'11),
";ill\l Ifllllllllill hlllld (t'l /1'11111"
(',)lIlilllllll)' "lIal"~'y alon" Ih,!,,, hnc~ " rc'p<lI1'1ihlc I'm Ihc ,lewl\)l'm""I "I
Ilw plUlal i<lIJ1l \'III'V" (\t01l1 '/li t) III 111\1<' 1~lIgh,h Ihalc~t~, hKh general ill"
01" "III""" 11:1<1 I,v,' """III I ,,"'X," "" ,,"", M"I"It'I, 01 I:nrll,h 'p<:aKIII I ~hildrclI t 'llIp'"allly "''''lIlb Ill\' amll"IlY "1\\ IUllher by
",ll'W'"',,';"
,,,IIv III" ,,,II '\t'" I ,lIltl n IIII"'h, willi Ilh 10" "' "liw'
III'
01, \\oUt'
I"11
plodlll.:inl' 1(11 til, .ud, a~ ,11",'/1\. XOII\I'I. ~Ind tlWIIII'1 'I'll date. hllweve"lhcse
Jl:\lII~ul:II 1I111(l\IalillnS have lI1lt heell accepted hy auult l!Cakers 01 Stalll\ar<\
,,11"",'h' 1""",,'''',,:1 IIII'''' ,,,111.", ,'III"",,, III MO""III I 111'I"h ,tJl Ih\.
1'1111,11 III" lilt' I""" ",\I IIII' II'I'''''''III~ II III'" al 'X:IIIII''' 01 It"w EII)'I"h and "re evenlually ,,1I;lIIullncd hy yllung lang"a!!" \earn I
dl,III~" ,;111 I ('!<ol'" III flloclll" all"It 10 lilt' '
flhupIIOIIl~'h.1I n)llll'Olll'llI
''''I ltdI
,
U I h'
1',11111111,11
1,\ A, 1tl<'I1I111lled in 'c,lillll 1.2. IcallalY"ls ~an leMlll ill a new I11l)lphol"&I<:,11
J ,
~e'ln<llysIS ~lItll'lUll' lot ,I \~lIrtl \lc,ln ,Iticcl hqtlt hllllnwet! Wllltl~ allli. parltl:u\ar\y 11\

'I "'" )""If·I/. '"

'1II,lh ,,. '" ~y""""'(
Sill,,' 1:llIit"aJ"" v;"Y v"',lIl y III lit, """P"'\'I)' 01,1"'11 ItIOlpltoiollY, IItIVII ""
"'h'" '":Ik,' a ",,' "It ""11 lI,o'w""1I 0111,11 Vi 1<' :lIId ~)'II' Ih" I< I:IIII'''''~'''' hI'" ('h"ph',
l'aSI" WI1\'ll' lilt: IIllllplttllo '1<:,11 ,lIlIlIlIlC 0\ Iht: woru" 1I111oll 'cr 11,1\1'parcnl.
nallVl' \\,1111" I{c.lllal)", t:all IC,,,IlI11 II<:W prmluclIvl! patlern" '" 111 Ihc ,a
"I WIll",',,, :llIillY'1< lalll'lI;III" ilav<' \1" Y kw all IX,', (i'li "'\'"''11''' M,ltl""1 o( ( Ihlll,~,'" (M'l' 1''' '': 'IIJ "hlwC) ,,, it ,all remaltl 'lllll~ 1~<1I"lcl\ alkt;lll1&
I "l'I,.,1t I, '}llIil,'I" 1""1''';11'''' Itlt v, ,":llly I"" ",\:111111"', I ,:1 '111 , Old "'IVI "h), Pl'lhal" 0111) 1\lle Willi\. SllICe Iht Iypt: <11 I :tilalysI\ l!\CIlIPhllcl\ by
I I,'" II"h, ,11",'11", 01 It"""WIIII', ',IIlIIld <'11;1111'" :llId 111',11111 ,'II,,,",, lta',iI"I I' II< III Ii II II II'" IS 1I1l1 ha III \)1\ ~I c0l1l',1 an,II),,, 01 .1 WIlI\I ':" I 'a,\ 11(\111 a
",In""""" II" II"I"'III'''pholo,'y 01 :11:"1"":1)'" OVl" "lIh' A, W,' h"V<' ""'ll, h,,11111 ,II 1'1'1 I'I'l'lI\':) ,Iml do('s 11,11 lI'lI,tll) IIIVII\\ I CIIII 'llI\I III "dalled
.III" 10 III, "", "I ",\I' ,"dlll)" ,III"" 'il ,,,",,d 1'1',(11)" hl~'I"h 1,,1\ d,'\,'I"lh'" ~1I11" "I Ihl' \\1\111 1\1\ Ih 1';111 LlI IIIl' 1"1'a)..Cl, II "LlI"'1I c.llktl ftllk ~tyml)ll)ltY
II "III" ) IIlh,'l< 1,111 '11"1'" II I,IIIII,III}' ,"11," "",,,d ,11I1~""'O:l1l :111,,1 yl It OIl<' w"h \111111\1 .h III Ihl' <:.1 C III /ralli/lurger, the (111) IIklle til lull; IYl11ol ll ') I
1"1\ It'IV. IS,II, .11"1,,,.11 ,'IIS'''''''''"o''IISSlh 11."11,,1111'/111<1,,':11<,, Ihl 1'1 ,,,IUtll\\' U sill ( )1/111 ,,'f (11\1 ampl,,, ullllldcpcmlc111 W ru untlln
11\ """" I", ''''''''1 <'IISI"" ,II<' ''', III "" II SII,IIt'II< !til III " h"I'1i1 1':111 It.. 1I
111l 1"'tnlll Il\ Ihl 1)1" /1 hhurgl'r), 101k lYlI\lIlo'y CllllUtl 10Iy mVl)lvc'
"It" II, dill '''Ih' ~t"d"1I111I 'IIsll dl:lil"I' '" !tH'IIS Ill'll," "I/I1d" (1'11",\:1111
III. ( 'IN II ,,,'C),, \1\, IINI,II,'l",

1 ,\..I II lh r l 111 11 111111" III

11 1111 llYII I,U IU \ h' III }'!
111111 IIIIIJlIII it ti ll ,I'~ t i ll

11I0!ot' (OllllllclIl Wi1

UN(J ,
i)
s v ()

lit' ifl"'l'"h l}(IIII" 11Iantl

III' ~aw tht" rllall'

-----
JllLI.,kr.:,'
"oJk dyltlolol-!} III 1111:1,,11

Muldk ' ·, lIgll ... h h~·,:It'~'''~'11I (IIml'lal~d 10

Old i'.111.d,\h "nd
'\I~tlnrltJiilll
hrule and t.:"l11a
---
(Ilall\'(,' wp,.d~ nlld htHIUWIII~r!ol)

)(100",) kUI1 I)'

Illun )

IIlll\lfUCHh (IInrl'I.lll'd 10 l'ulwi mll\A III' 'til)

•
I !Ill
I IOWl'.V(, J, WII('H tilf ll.1I1 ~\wl'OIl1w1thHl1 I"IH( Itt .lI l hhl'"
111(' vl"rb {J( ,u n ,tim tiIIH! pn 'tlltll lilt I P"'j .,',," H,,' "h,,.
-I}

IJa
v S
lIi! C)'fIlli
Ih 1\ "r,,, flIIt

wooddllld. ;\Jgonqulilll Oft II('/.. (wlrl'I'lh... d to "'lllIl'! h'ond til ,"lUI, /.,) the \a/l'
Ihe/l "'til
" I hen Ih~ kin lIC/llllt
Allholll.h
C"
"',,nillpi,. 01 indlvldu,,'_
wlJId, IS ~01111110n, l1f1IX~' C'II1
•
'II
t "i0 h.
Although IhlS worel order I 111\ tuunll In M.,\ III
:dkct,'d, son,,'/lI11<'S W IIh I1<'W flJOtlIlCl1VC nlOi pholo~''''H I IUIe, "evel" I" C lim lIed and IIbJCCIIII peel,,1 r \11 Illm unll\(e II
lll ~ '1\
:1 Il'sull Th" " 1/1<' <'ll'" 01 th,' Modern blgl"h udwlhial SlIflh ..
(d(,Vl'lopUlI! Inllll Old 1', lIgll,h !t('I"))' 111 Old 1',lIgllSh, udjccliv~s could I~
5)
V S
(JenY,," lrolll IlOU/I ' hy ,1(lcllllg the ,ulflx lit', Adv~lh', In turn, could hI'
cll.' IIVl'cI hy a"""lg Ihc \u/flx ,'10 adJ"~IIVCs (Ilidudllig those dcrivec l I l{afl'ly ha he
Wil ,
fI,.), us '\111 Il!' "I'll lII'lllhlc' H. lfl, When the dlf I ub pn tun, \
1),l'kJl
(,)
IOlllllllul/l 0/1111 mljedo"·,'O/tl II fllllill
S 0
Ill.l/lI~ + lit Icl<. 'I1cl.. 'J,u/y' la, 111 "",/,' "h"tlI/It, }
I 01 lIIul,,,,, fit an olin rb jm'" all IIdl'" IH',
,,,, "",. t I' I" "I I.. """,/v'
n
I,,·
,hi' rllll tluily )

CIIIII ''''lIplt II ullix h, I,· was I '"I,dy I Ii ,I ,III

III"" II.uhll Ih.1II a 11 iltl,C~11V I III1,X Ilf pili IIll1d~rdll,d 11111
d by "".110'), to cI TlV "Ivel" """1 "II' IllhM III /.'1111
d helUi • f uhlllg III Mud In hi ·1, It .I"I"'Y 11111 olh r
 III ,,1t( l t \ li N ' \ ,t 'u I, ,," III \
'. \ \ \ \ "

v)

",d,' 11\ \ kl m ,\1\ \' 'll\\ \'I~kl

1' ~J 1' I ) 14 • ,I \ "Il'
HI :-.\'\ " "\...1 P"!-.ItH'" \1\ '"WIH\""\,\n\ ,:\,nlW)oi
\t \\\1\\,,\\ ' til' Uhl \ ngh'h "'\' nh-Ih'\.' "I -0)
HI II \ S (\
"" , ~
lh',l\'I"
",· ... 1\.·hL\\
hn1\,· "'Il ",,' \I\\, '\'1\
h .I\\ \ th'ttl,,\.·
' \ h .Hl th) tUH\.· "\"h'ld,\~
tI \ l\ I' \ )
" S ()\ \1\ ,' tIIIl,'d,"'d d ,.. ""s
II \ '1111',11 ' .1\<' I )1.\ 1 ; Il ~ h'h ,,'111,"1\',' III 7) )
S 1\ \
\1- ,'I ,h' Ill\l.l1Il1 ' ,Ih
\\ Iw\\ tw tl\l' tn .l\\ " i\\\
.\\ 11\'11 II<' ,.1\\ Ih ' 1tI,III

, tl
1'\", \'11.111: <' 11\'111 St\\ 1\\ S\ () " 11\\1 '~'ln<'I~,1 1\\ \-.1\~I"h .\l\,\ ,\lhel
t k t tl\~\t\\I.~ 1.\t\ tJ. \h\ ~'I.· s , \ \w ....'."w \.~ hi\t\ ~l.~ \s ('\ \\.\('nt . h.w .:'~~ml'\c \\\ ~"1\\l'\\.'kh
11111"\;11"" 1 !1tI ~11.lll'" "I"h ,I' Ih,I,,· "I Ih~ Ihm" 1,IllIII) nl \lnc.l . Sm,',.
hll!\lli ' I ' :111' ,1111 ",\I .'\11 ' \\11\ hlll!\Il:l)l'" "h'I1l!l" 1'"\\,, "n~ ')1ll:1~1I" 1\' In
." ,,' II\l'I. Ill ' ... .11"'" "I '~I"h ,'h,I1l!!" \\ III 1111.1""\11,,.11) [""';Im .11l1111I"'",ml ,lI~,1
"I 11I\,'sl1 ~,ll \\"l, "'I""'lall ) ' 111':,' 11ll' 1"':111\" '\Id~1 ", \"Ih .I1l.l "hi"" \l\\
\,'''11' \ 0 \ h," \1" "11 ,'hI",,, lin\...,',1 \\llh "Ih,'r \\,\I,I ,,,,kr 1',111"'1" \,~"
\
t ' h,II'I"I 1) \.

Ih'II\I,I~ 1"'01, 1.1\\ ,d\,

I ,'llh'lI lh'rn n1. d\.~
'/ III l )hl .111,1 l'.1,,1.1l, FIl)lh,h 11ll' Iml.'l"\\'1\ n:llbf,'n":lI\\'1I l" '" eh.ll'lt.'r ~I
111\ " " ,'.1 ml h,' f,Wtll:lIh'n "f Ve.' /Ie' qUt."""II, ",,,1.1 ,II'I'I~ 1\, .111 ,'rh" 1"'1 ]11'1
\ 11 I 1' 1' "f ," I,kne,' I~ r 111,'.11 h,'r S( l\ 'Ihkr" f,'"nd in " " IllI"'IIIl,1 ,Ill lti:l1i '" \ id dm)! t,WIl" Ii\"" Ih,'''' 111 II\) lr"tn Sha\....:,t't.':U,' .h.1l \\"ul.l II<
I """1111 '111 III IIh' kl 'Ih" , n III' 11I"llIh , ·""l1n.''" '\111 ' 1,'11,' 1'111 '
,c.nh, UIl:I"""I'I;I"I' 111 1\ I,,,krn rn),!li,h
I',", '11111," , ,'I\{' . ' ,111'1.1,,'.1"'1 ,'I '.lIha ' \ Ill," Ill,' ~ ) \ ""1111"'11 t
" I1UlI< II 11\ ~ \1.1 t I: ,11 I.h \,.'11 ,I' in :\ h I 'In hI); h' h\, \ ,'n I'I\'t\I~;; 1(1)
'h 0111 ,\1111,'1 ,1,1: ,' .'1 ( \\ \\ "Id "da.
\ n,1 \\ h ,IIIl\,lk,' ~ ,'\I fn'tll \\ 11I"Il"t.'I)!., \ Il'la\i,\'~ /I,lIn l I, " '1 I ' i \
" Sp.l\'" ' \ " " \\ ith hllll'~ (I ( " , \"1 I ' Ii

m,lIhl,lII!!hl"', hllll\kl' I tllIH' th' ' 1'1.1 " Hlh ,"hi ,,'\ \'nt"I'Hlh ,"'Hl\lno , Ihl' 1m ~I . I' n ruIL
'.ll'l'kt '.lnn" h,I11::' \ " :1\' \ 1\ ,,'\ '1\ h' .Ill I ,.\(~ \ 'It-,.
 -', , ' h " '\ \.\ \ \h \\\\

\m \\\
\\\h\\ 1\\\h\ ,,,' "
"'t\\ '"

, .. , h • \
I II ,\>,11 ~ ,1\

\\\\\ ,,,-. tu\\

'", \c{\u\
,11\",
,I\\'b,,,"

\,
\
\ \
.. , I ,,
" I

'""oct
4,.'.\U \ea'
.. hl,.'\"l' I1\\Hh'Il
pI' l"\tk

-;;'111''("111 f'ng/",11
- ----- •
''''\1 h,tJ~ - --
",ul" ('ntH,n
n' ...·tH' ',uh\\ a~ •
.\\lllW\"Hlt\..· ·hig.h\\a~ (+ nll*'£'\\~)'f

Tnble S.+'

t \, fl~\t!'nlJ('. g \ mD)(:"Dl.n')ll. ~tJrC'. r.lfli~lJn('nt. a~

pro '. Juk~. ,13\~.1'<'3'3Jlr .'
R bgon pr.!),'r ",bglon, e1ul'd, ,harIJin, rnar
<'TIl1Oll. <.'f I I~U ~" all',1 1<1 \ l'U I. l'C' \ f

JUdi'llTI ludf, ~ ndant JUI) "d"0<"".J31 \crdi,'I, ,rim~ fill the h;"k I ~ar' ,uch.: )1lt~(1 tn~\ lab1
m< , ph) ,I Ian
an IptIIn", f shlOn,. 1m. fur, rub
4ITI1). n ,\ battl Idl~r C'lem), capram
1t,IIt,Ul
~p'\lll'h
 3 44
'1<1-,
Tuble 8A9 Semanltc ni.lrw .... 'ng
. -\lrhl1ugh htlITt'l\\mg hJ' ~~n ~l r1('h ... oun:-e ot new \\0rd ~_"_I________O_ld__
\"e,
\(.1") m_r_un_._"_._____
It IS nll{t.~"onh\ thJ.t th~ ml..l-ir tOC'~u "nll) u,ed \t.,",-' hul3.l} item ... ha Ita Nn.. tJuoQI1UlI
t;"und "any dog"'
It::"a,r 'u ..~erlil't'_e- (0 n..·r'~h.'Cml."'Dt ~~ h.l.3.Il\\ llnf:--, Thi~ ~ntX:l! ·.hunhntbr~
'an) type of h,lQd'
lend~n\..') f,~ hl;hl) f~qucn( \HmJ .. (() be relau\el~ re, i~tan; t a g~ meal
"an) bird" IIesh or an IUUmal
... UO.,lHUtlOn.3,....... tk..l\\71 h~ T.1.brc:,' .~. 0 ~ f('I\\ 1
"any unfa-.:our.lhle latc· "~Ibud'
di~a<..e
'anll\~'
Tabl.S..I6
In amelioration (Table 8.50, the meanmg <>1
po,itive or favourable. a "'O£d btto~ lll<xe

Table 8.50 Amelioration

FiN 1000 Oldmeanint:
Se.:,'lld 1000 9
nurd 1000 -tricky. ~l). cunning'
II prellY "dttracli"e"
Fourth 1000 knii!ht 'boy'
II 'a man 01 honourable IIItlttary ran
Fifth 1000 9
5.2 ________ The oppo>lte change. pejoration \Table 8.S I). also OCcur;.
~~----------------------------------
loss of le)(ical items 1u" a,. "ord. can be added 10 the I."icon. me) can aho be 10. I <labI Table 8.51 Pejoration
lo, ofa \\ord frequenrl) OCCUl" J..: a resuh of changes In 'oc'el'.. ~
\\on:l Olil "",anin~
in Ibe c"-'" \\ here the o/ljoci or notion 3 \\ ord refers 10 ha.:. become '
ole
·haPl'~. pro'perou.';
. girl'

:151m<"
\."'OIl1pt'C ...
'hunting -pear'
"ten or oolif!lOon
'3
tion for \\ ounding'

(0

"Iood Ielticg m,lJUmenf

£M jng to ~\e~ good.:'oI"
---- Given the propen ity of human being to exagger.ue. it i, not ;urpnsm
that !he ~eakening of meaning frequentl~ occurs. For example,
Sooll used to mean 'immediatel~" but nov. 'imply rnea.ns 'in the near
v. d
ure'
Other examples are bown in Table "S~ .
5.3

" emantic change Jlhough change, in \\ord meaning !.he place contlDuall) in alll~ Table 8.52 Weakening
\\nrd., rarel) }umpfmmcnemeanmg lOan unrel3tedone. T) picall).lhec~ ,
\\on:l
~ "ep b) "l'P and im oh e one of the follo\\ ing phenomena,
, mantic broadening (Table ~ ..i ) i the pr ' e s in \\ hich the meanin \\Te$ ·a,·enge, purllih'
"ordre:-omesIDOO :ener.tlormorein -Iu l\e!han it hl>(oricall~ eariierf" I cruc~ . 'n b~ O3llin" to a _
quell . ·'11. m!lIder-

manti hift lTabl .53)i proce in .... hi havoooH me

nner m anill£., "r." on:1 paruall, DeV., • re ted., me:llll!lb
'3D) fea.lhered ,enebr.!le ",lm a be
an) agnrullUraJ bulk!; g'
'f;ubo- or IllOIher' I ler'

49
r I
 III II" II 1'\' I It" ,I l\ II' IIII
, I
I "I 11;1.( '1'1 'il' lf:

"
1 .11

11111

III
,II
',1 ",,"
\~/
H~'
• I
I
11,1111 IIIHI IHII" I')I~I
lltnl
Iiltlh tl II
IhtU" ,H II
II ".,
\1111 IlIhh I Idlhl ./11\\11 II. 1'1 ,01
\ un '1'1\ 1I.1If! \ In I , lilloill
III 011111 'IoIlulild
" PII .IIII!'

h
11,111'1 Ii \, I 11'\)(\
, .. \ I
'ttl ~" f\ t \ t' " t 1,111 . '1I1~ .11 ..
I\,~
~" '" Ii" { ,.
I..,
11'1'1
tlll~W~l' 1m 11\1 Like

--------------~----~~
p1 lf l lll.lIh l ll
II ,

II /f,,,j,'"lh,,,,, ,It
~"lIh'IIIIII" 1111 'III III .1"" .... III I ",~,,,Io'," II dl III I 1"11 ",".1, 11 111111
Ih. I III 'u"'; 11'11
'I ,'/11.111 1''' .111 11111'111'11 1111 '1',lIhlll.lI I'IIII(·I.IIII'II,IF' 1111 \ l' IIl'II I ,' 11
" ,.Ii"'/ 'I'\k,.,
,Ii/'mill" \ 11,11 111",,,·./,, 11111'1, III I 11,,1,,11 111"11, •
,lit 'lllllJ.-' 1.'11,111 tl III 1I1l' \llt' p.lIlt'llI til
J
,.
dl,,)'l.lhH' \\Iud, Ilh ll II"; t/J/II"."
'"IN"
t", 1111

" 1111 II, .111 I .. II "d ,1\,111111 111111111 III d Ir,b \libllil It 1111 " I" " ""1'1111111;
Id/ 11111/11' ,,· ... '"d~, 1/,1101, I,' '.1101/, 's III h' I,.t! '"1"~"" y, III Iii,' 11111,'1 IlitlllIl
1111 1\1,', IIIIt 1,'1111111 1111 ... • ,",11 1111111 , "",'1.
"",/,/11, dlld ,,'1 "Ir! ,'H II'" III h,.
/'"'111'11111 ,'d II lilt 1111' iI,'~ "11 1111 111\1 11,110" 1\ 111'11 1''''.1 ,j\ ""111" \ IhI'
11'11" !l II tllli II 11.',. illI\ II, ss ,11111 1101 " I lI,kol III ,"l 111111 "'1111' 1IIIIIIh\'l
tl' \\llId 11"'llh,~ IH \1 d\, hh'i

II", I h,1II ",It " '1,1/ 111'1 .11/111 ,'./ Iltllllll'li 1/1< ,"1111' III' "ltlll. lI 'II I loti '11 h
11111, II< 11>1'111 I IiiI'll Ilid IIIlIIIl\ II/ Ih,' ll'in,1I1i 1111 lilt" It 1111 1'1.111' III<'
 ,
f (Ut~ .11

Ihi, Itlk h.h ft·,ulh.'d in l..'h.Ul1!{·,' ~lh..·h ." rhthL' l'\.('mplitll'd 11\ l'.\nl..' X ~b.

11", clf{'{'" ,,1' rh,'lsl ttllhl ch.lIl~t·

---
l"Hhk 8.5,.. Spalll,h lh.lb..'h

----
III .. ,lI1W

\'!.md,lnlrnmW't·,.m'/I,t

I 1t-lbIl1l,.'nh.' , 11<'I.hlllt'lI'",
",h,iloJ
-- 'h,IPPIi} .
It".,uJ,'J "y!'<"

---
1,·",,-,,·· I Idlp.I.!I.11 'Spain'

, i ... l'nfln.'". n,.',1!ular..lff't.'\..'ung .tli in . . . (;lIh..·l'S ()f iol \\ ,r,

rhi .. Ch.II1"'l' l I
I1H~nl.ll
" IIJhk~ti';;'II'lln Ih,' '11<.'l'l'h llf in.!" idua" II h,' ,'dopt it,
, \""'I'."hn.'!I~. ,,"I t~Il<.'~, "I 1a~lgU"g~ ,'!I.IIl!!,' l..1Il h~ ,Ilit-nltril'" Olll"
,'wmpllftl't! h~ Ihl' ,m',,, ,1I11t, III "h~ lIa",,' Engll,h nnll'h nllh~ t~ pc W~ h'll~
d",'u,,,',1. ,Ittl"" IIldl\ Idual IIllrd, llnC.i1 a tlllll' and l!ladually 'pr~ads Ihroll h
lilt' 111<."'''111,11'1 of till' languagl', rill' other. c~l'll1phfil'tl hl th~ l'Ons" g
\I,,,.k 'lling llf ",I 1I.I"k~lin:III' 1101 h I in "'llll' dialct:t, of Spanish. 101 lllve~"~
.It'n'''~lh,'~ "".ud dl.III!!,' that apphl" II ithollt 1'\L','pti"1l to all words, '
It• .!

Sprt'.ld thrnugh the 1'", a 1,III!!Ua!!I' Chan!!l' tolakl' pia",,, Ih~ panil'lIlar 1I111l)\ ,ilion mu" h'
p U l'ul,diul1 ,Il'Ceptl'" 0) a ,i ,'ahit' Sl'clHIIl III' Ihl' linglli ,'lit', l'Ol1ll1lUlllty, For l'\"milk',
,Ilth"ll~h . ," 1Ill'1It11lJll'd.
, dltldn',n acquIIlng blgllSh 1\' p'l'alll• I<lrlll til"• I)3M
\\ h 'n \\l' <.'\)I1\I',m: Ih' \\x';lhu!ary it~n" \11' \anous !:mg.uag.es, \Ie Call1WI help
h,'Jhl~ <<It g,1 .J'" X()('d IIblt'.td llt ,,'('IIf, gOt'" ha\ ne\ l.~r l'I..'l'l'l\'l'd \\,idt.'sprt\ld hill Il<'li<." Ih,' 'tiling. fl'Sl'mhlanc" c'~rtain \\ ords ~ar to each "ther. B\
.1,',','I't;UI"I' !)tlllbt/t'" thl' '<'I'h form in he ,1m'.'" (I/I./il/llt' \\ollid hl' <'qllilll\ s \ ,1,'\\I,lli,' ,Ill) c,,'\\II',lri ng. Iatll.!U,Ig.l's, \\ e <.'an .:,t,lhli,h \\ helh~r t\\\I 'll' 1II,lr'
un:Il',','pt,lhl,' In IIlllsl 'pt'''~I'I' Illda~, Inl',"lil'f' Fngli,h, hmH'll'r, 113" ,h"",,, \;\I\"II.\I! 's \\,~' 'n,it'd tnlm a (,'ml1l1)n r;lr~nt ,mtl ,If\: thl'rd,lr, gCIlLlKal\S
11ll' P,I'I It'IISl'1t11'1II III '"ril' (rtlllll'arl' dril'!'!dI\II'" I. AI '<lllll' pOlnl ill thl' P,IsI, ll'\;~I' I \s ',' eh.!11 '\' tl) rh,' rOll\pal'l\ti\~ method rdeT 10 th pnlCeJure
thcn. till' ,1</\ d hlllll 'hmn/lhd rl'L'l'i\(' gl'lIl'ral al'l'l'jltalll'l',
 tIiS10W:ICAl liNeAl TI \ Hit luO'i O. l"
CU"Q ( " "
,
:::.=----d-v-.--- dO
tWO
--,,,,--__ _ _
thre~ tri tin Y11
bro.her brat hhai wde I
~ . The 11K' Ie _ "0 of fami!} relationship, i~ /he e'<.i.·'ence Of sy
b nO-,.e nO'. nahi' burun
.....- : . . . .;dences in !he mcabu!ary lIellli of ddTerent I S
I ~~ II<vrr...-po,~
....... _n be found and Table 8.57 sho" , a anru;, ~
,"""_pon",,nce. <~.
• - ., E I"h Dutch. Gennan. Dan;sh. and S" d a"'PIt Once the existence of a relation hip between t
e "II. alI Of
"
3l) "errb from ng I>. 'c family of language,. ) Or lllQre 1""",,>&
h

.: !In." member- 01 !he Germaru ., .

been estabh,hed. an allempt can be made to reeon~tnl<:t the C<'>m ~-..a. bao
Th is reconstructed language. or proto-lanonaDe ,. m"A- f mon """ree
. . . . n-,; • ~ up () proto.r
Table , .$.)me Geml.1fil\: cognates which are wntten with a precedlOg • (for example "hand ' . ...,.
. I c h arac t er a, recon'lrucllon, ) to IOdu:ate ''---'r
h> potheuca .
of earlier.form, that have """
~
Guman Danish
U<.!i.s/t Dkrch recorded or are not dtrectly obscrvable. _ been
m;m man ~Iann
Hand
mand
hand
~
Iwld hand
FoB (8; is]) fad
h..nd
(00( fO( Reconstruction can be undertaken with SOme Confidence becau (•• d
Orin; """
breDg~n bringen bnnge
bnng. oJ • ueS of '.
in the prevlOus .
sections) the proce<,sc underlying language change- are'seuMem-
sed
$olJllTler sommer rec~Il,q tiOn
mwner zorner <O m11lar atic. Once the processes are uncovered by linguists. they Can be r;~ersed
IlstrUC
rrc O

-------
allowing us to mfer earher forms of the language. Although it is possible \()
S - !he re/ar;onshlp bern een the phonological fonn and meanin
reconstruct all components of a proto-language (its pbonolog). m()tpho\ogy,
" mo. t1} arbl'-~
syntaX. leJUcon. and semanl1cs). we wll~ focus 10 the following on Phonological
"aniIDe U~." the exisrence of sl,remalJc phonetl·c gCOer of a
reconstruction. the area ID whIch linguiSts have made the most proyes .
'JX'flde~"'" in the forms of rno or more languages must pointto"ard\ e.
~
< mmoo 'o~
"'ce. Con~erseh· -. whe.,
,e languages
. . . Th'are nor be •. ~a
related. theIr \'Oc,....",
I ary" ,tern... l'3J'j r0'"~ho""' s}·,remaric
- _
"nulantles.
..
I, can 'iCen b} CO~
• liPan"
.'
word.:. from Turkish (TabJe 8.:>8). which IS not related to the German! Reconstruction of a proto-fonn make use of two general strategie,. The Ill()M
,
"
3ll"U3"e. c , with their counterpans in the languages clled 10 Table 8.57. important one is the ph onetic pla usibility strategy, which require that an~
chanoes posited to account for difference~ between the prOto-foTlll' and later
Table ILS Some .. ord.> in Turkish. a non-Germanic language fo~ must be phonetically piau ible. Secoodaril~. the majority rIDes
~~~==~~-------------------------
"man"
strategy stipulates that if no phOnetlcall~ plall5ible cbange can account fOt
the ob erved difference,. then the segmen found in the majority of cognates
eI '/Iand'
hould be assumed. It is imponant to note that the fir t trategy alv.-a. tak.~
3Jai: 'fOOl '
precedence OVet the ~e.:ond: the '>eCond 'trategy i a la:>t re:on.
gem ·bring ·
]32 . umrner Consider the following cognate" ( omewhat simplifled) from rnembe" of
~---------------------------------------------- the Romance famil).

\\ord, that ha\e de. cended from a common source (as shown bl
Table 8.60
,) ternalic phonetic correspondences and. usually. M!mantic similarities) ar~
called cognJlt~. Cognate are not alwalS as obvious as the Germanic Rumanian
cUI1IlpJe lfl Table 8.57. Where languages from the arne famrly are onl)
distantl~ related. the ) temauc corre pondences rna) be con'>lderably Ie
ruiling. 1111 i e~emplified in Table 8.59, showing data from Engli h,
Ru Ian. and HlOdr. all of which are di umtly related 10 each other. ronn
from !he unrelated Turkl h are included to emphaSIZe the Imilantic among Th rut '<rmplif, rre pondence betl!. n l-l and in before the el 11
the fIrSt three language To - ount tor thi , \\ e uld ume nbet t Rumaruan lIIldent;ent a
 III~ Ie Wit 1'" 'INI ,~JI'i' Ie

.ftht~
."tt l et.'
",,, ." ..If"l
~I' IO·tt O IIl.(' l:1I).'Il,lh· s

~;':;;~--;;;:;;:7."-------;;:;:::;;;;::;:;:---;;;;;;;;::::--:7"-:-
11
o
" ".H·o;,-;,.11
11
K01l • ____
S'," I0/11 III 111,,,,"11 "m'''I><III'\" HUffltJlII".
(Jr, ,
1""/ live \HIV\ Ilh;, . ,1(1"" ~qnl"k
.'tj.'"
. . -:-. .i·" lUI
111"1
IInllt:,1
,IIlltt' IUII\I\
I'
'\li".,.11 np:\ "t'mhl1nl"nent'
'h:n I t
UHlpC ,.upi t:0l'" \,:uI"K1 ,.. e neild'
tIJ 1"·\ ( Upp" I I \.:\I{l hi'
" t!.outtc 'ul VOl" VUI, c=t
~ ~ .~
.)In

1'" ,,,,,'rHo; Ik \111 all Ilk' ahovl' CXU11lpll'S :iIl\! H.UllH\IlUlll II n,'flre clW",I"1 lUI
~. "~ rl'Ptt: . S I I • , u 1'\ a hllahlal
r
• I:
IWllll 1 r vl)l\,!(,'dIncal,v " Ollie (('hll, III vowel l\lIallly hllvc \x'CIlI \
(Jllhl'~,IUlld 1,,1 ~I
• V'I.' H ~l1un~I.)
,·,,/t . '11 11 \'t:
I, ."lj,11o- Our ~ulIl here I~ In Il'~nnstr\lct the pnl\()·h)rm ... for th., d
\
,'Il~ I(OlllUIlCC, the par~nI IanguHt-!,C tit Ihe Mmk'rn RomanceC"'c\ang\1:\ 'C:~ . )~
W{)r !-o In Prot'

,tant" very close to I.alln g ,wh"h

I c1 U'" fir~t cun!-oidcr the rCClHhtrUl:tlon or the Protu Rc n t.
S""IIHI (h;lfI,I:!'" CR"''',III1,11I ollly)·
' •. ~ •..• • 1I an<.:c Hrm tor
'e mhankmenl In rahle K.62. SlI1ce Ihe IIrsl two seoments 'Ir' Ih
. e • C c "'~unc: 1n a\\
Ihe CU~I~latc lal1gu.agc~, we. t.:an rcc()n!-otnlct Prntn-Romancc. +Or and *j \)n the
Ix,," ot the majonty rules strategy. In the case or the second consonant rrahle
8.6.1), however, there arc dlliercnccs hetwcen the COgnates.
P,ntn l()Im ,
Tuhlc 8.63 Sy~ll.!malil.,; corrl.!!-opnndcnces In the ")cconu cl,."'msonant t)f the l:l)gna.\c~ for
OJ >, I 'emhankment'

SJlOllish Sardilliwl /;rt'"dl Portuguesl' RUftt(ltliuti

R"C(lII\lrUd/otl .lIIff
1/", ..,11,1/0,&:11(' (If
'"lIIlel, 1t,lIIg",
p v .--~--
P ,b· p.
·\Ilholl/!h 'hn!' ,In' lil<"I"" Illill c';111 <"<>lIlound our Ullc'll1pl In dl'lCllllinc 1/ '
/c/;lIn., plall"hlhly 01 IlinOIl.\ sOIl"d chanpes,lhl' druJlgcs h'lt'd In I~'. (( is most important lhal we first Ih\l1k III term., of phonclic plausibility. In
"1('11"1'''1' III h"I\' Il I .. ;I" "t'lle/,IIII he (ol1s"I('",(/ hlphl} pl.IUSlhle '1'. h C Ihe ahsence of evidencc to the contrary. we will assume that one ot the
" , , " ' . .1 I"
X.h/ 11.\1\ ""lit'
I'laIlSl"'I' H'I.'", It',.' plauSlhle 0, cvt'n 1I11plaUSlhlc changC\ segmcnls found in the co,gnatcs IIp\: lh\.lv\, or \(.\1) shoul? he recon'truclcd
"",,'d (Ill ,hal I·"I;II.)!!"" for proto-Romance. l.oglcally posslhle changes ranked with resp.:ct to their
phonetic plausibility arc found in Table 8.64.
I"h'" 11.61

---
dMII),'l'.' lllhic 8.M Changcs t",'ed on phonetic phlusibllity
Rulr -------------------------------
1't~lIl1l ' oj .\tllllid dumg" ill ,·a/aIOHUt' ClIClIIg., ;" I _ I '
I> 1'/ i pa lalall /illum/all rit'ilowl \ ('Ii(mg high
P h
" tnl II ;1"IIIIII~lIinll (phil,:,,' of ;)11lrlll~llioll) \ll\l"lI1gIp > hI ami Iricallon Ih:> \ I high
011\ V \"(lIl'ln~
P
p > II \llic\I\g II' > h) and Ineallon Ib > ~I high
() 1\ " l'IHlo.;11I1:I111 dc.'It'1101l I,)w
h I'
IOII'I".ohtlhJ/,"r\ II P 10"
" 'I , «hk'.' 1101 l'tlrll',pond h) i1l1y Ij'h,'d l'hllll~l') P 10"
III "I h (dlw., lIot l'Olll"PUlld to any li.,ll'" rhullllc.')
01 ,I \ \'
II k I \' ,I
(dllt', "0' "(1""'lkllld 10 allY 1I\II'd dHIIl)!I') \11 I,'rnl, of p\,llISihiIiIY, the \1111) f'O ..,ihle recon lructiun lur PrIlIO-
«(/Ik" "01 rolll"IKHilIIO a"y h"1'" dlll"p,,) R,llllan'l' I " R')mance *1' under'llCs no change \l\ Sanbman and
*/>. \'1',)1<)
 III"IOI-Ill A l lIN(,U\·>lH ... 1111 ~l\H'Y
• 1\ \ ~Nt'\IA(.l
f ""Nt.,
RUIll~lI1lan, hili in P\lr!U!!lh: .. I.' il lIllI,h.',' WI..~111 Ullcl\'(l\..'ah\.." VOicing ;'llIll
J( lIJ1fJef\\l'UI ~(Hh \ (lll..'IUg .Iud ""... ;(11011 (th.11 IS , \\I..'U"ellll1g). (W,. Ih ~Jla .\'urtli,, ;wl 1''-('11,11
\oll..'ing pn..·t...·l.·lkd fr h.:alhUl ... 111 ..... 1..· Pnrlllgul..·.,e SIH1\\~ \ o Il. ."" i IIg bUI C .1!)\1I111l,fll\.h l'fllrU/{III'\f'
k-
It . \\e..' ;t."UIllI.' Ihallhl.'lIn,l'
. . r·· %r
nl\\I.·1 (,f thl..."" pn1l\1 orin \\:1, MtI' JlrC't, .rtc;'ltifJ "I
~ y'
\\ ht.'n lIw C(llI'''IlJIlI d1.;lnp~' h"l(l" plal.·l'. we call condudc thai III In " re fl.,
.
fncilllOlI . rtllo,;. language ;1', \H'II Sf.::l:.1
{l\.'I..'IIITl.'d III "I'· hI C K65, (Inv,,,' I.:Illg , ;, "'h Once again. since intcrvoc;.\\tc VOiCing I' '.. . . -
tllnn, ,.i!"(~ r\.'lalll' ~I'i!ln 01 ,hl' t'~lrhcr reduced H}wd tt".) Thl'.s\! c~~,\ \lrlitt~~ 'bl h ." . . fle.\hon and. d \
icully plau s l C c angcs. It IS most appropriate. to '0' -. e Chon afe tlhqnct.
rhl1nt.·til"lfI~ pl.lu"hk ;lt1d (hu:o; c:\pc ..... lt.'c1. ~lngc~ art! (sec Tahlc 8.69). P "t k (lIT the Protoh>nn

Thblt.· 8.6...'\ SUIllIll,II) III rhe..' dwn!tc.s illl~clillg Pl'Ulo-Rol11:llll:c .,J ~rnhlc 8.(,9 Summary of the change~ i.\tTcclin~l P D
o rot\)- "nmance . k
I' > p/\ \ 110 I..·h;tngl' Itl S;\I'tlilli~1I1 or RunulI1inn /..(UlH"{IMl· (,lllllIge (ill V V)
<r>/1/\ \ voicing 11\ p{lrrugllcsc - - - - -'k-
>g
nlll'ing ;1I1d IriC~lIi()n in Sp'lnil'ih POI1l1gllC~C

----
" p "'> h '>LI/\ \' voklng
Spullish ok,> g '> ~
° 1' >11> \ 1\ _ \ ' h"1l\ llil)ll11l French voicing and fricallon
French ' k,>g'>~'>0
VOicing. fricalion, and dt!\l!t\\\n
Tumrng 110\\, I() f/1(' filial \"o~'d. \\e nOle lhut three. lan,gu"lgc!-. hav_ '
,owd." RUlllalllan has/~/ , and French ha, no vowel. mec VOwel rc C lUI/ In the case of the final vowel, we have the same·t .
. Th e fuII '
\owel .,s. found .til Spanish
.Sard·
" uat,on we had in th C
and apocol''';'''' lucllIlf,cd as phonCIIC"U) plau"h/C change, in Ihe cal"~'ction Prev.ous form. .
. I· F ' ,man, and Ponugue,'
II js "ppmr"aIC to pI"jl a (flU "mel tor Iht' proIa-language, FUrthca ogue, but there ,s no vowe 111 rench. We can lherefore assum' th f II e,
, f . ' th e e u Vowel"
sInce Ihe Illn'C I,Ul!!Ua!,"!I" \\ ilh " fuU vowel aU have lal, we can rIllOl'\!, lor the prolo- orm, w. ~ub~equenl vowel reduction and apoc . F a
Hl\\d on Iht.' naSl.'i, () f11C..'
l ·IIlJ.lonl)
. . ru I ' t t' \ d' POSlllh'1\
(;!'I s ra t:gy, f ccor Ing ly. th\ Consequently, we arrive at the proto-fonn "ulllika. ope III rench.
, . . C recOI"
~rrw.'tt'd pnlhl-hlnn L' l"If1d. Finally, applying the ~ame procedure to the cognates in th' ~ I
. . , C llna two row~
of Table 8.62 y,elds the proto-forms "kappa 'cup' and "gulla 'd 'All th
. th d . h . .. rop . e
ntb'e 8.66 .sul1ll11i1r~ (If fht' dl~lIlgt'.'i alll..'~ling Proto-Romance *1I languages 10 e ala retam t e 'OI~.al consonant of both proto-fonns. The

------
('''on,l.:l' (H'on/:/iltaIJ Nall/t'o/change!s) _____ vowel * 11 IS reconstructed
, on the basIS" 0\ the rna]' only rule' str"t'g ...
.... .... c 'i, ~mce we
have no phon~ttc grounds for ChOOSlOg e.ther lul or l01 a, the older ,·oweL
RUIIl,mi;m ·,1> " \'O\\'cl rculiction The systemattc correspondence. II1vohmg the intervocalic consonants are
I'",neh
_ ________ _ _'>_" _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _vowel
-,I'>,' ___ reduclion
_ _ _ __ and del .
::.::el'on given in Table .70.

We ,'.111 nO\\ oUllllle to Ti.hk S.b7 Ihe dc,·e1opmcnt of Iht! Word in F Table 8,70 y. . tematic corre-~ponJence~ of the medial con~onant~ ot *kUPPd and
\\ Illch has Ih,' 1lI1'" "omp/ie,lIed dCH:lopmcnt of Ihe live languages. renCh, *glltto

51'(1/1/.-11 Fn.'nch Portll~ue.\"e RUntlllllan

h
,I

"
~------~--~~~--------------
eltam.',

I' h \
\

,>I
0/
*rJPIl

\
Sa"l(-- ofdllllu:e

1/
\
\

m
nh.r
rrnl
fl\,'
\"lul'lng
Int'ul/un
vlI,,·d rl'dUl'lion
,111tl(.'('I1C
-- -I'
-l-
pp-
-\1-
-p
-I
-p-
>\-
.p
-1-

11/ Ih,' 1,1',' (1/ Ih,' 1.·I'£.J;iI,'S "" 'li:II1,IIt' hWlld' (lh,' ,,'<'(jilt! nm 1" J', II COL'
'(' I . ,Il r
, I. /1,' III I (/lI"e "'gll1"I/I' ,II,' JlI,' S,'llll' in ,./1 Ill(' languag," in lit" dOlI. tlII
,,'II lOIs
k'l'ldlllg h' Ihl' IIWlo1l1 IUIe, '",'I"g), \Ie ,"111 n'COIlt;lllId 111<' 111" Ihll:,' lh
, ,\011 1 t'
d *41IU III lit rt',PII'lllIdIOIl(J1 111l' ,,'nmd COII\"II, lnl , 1t"'\('\"1
'I'~ '31 (0 ollr '",11c ') 0/ phOIl,'I.1.' 1'1,111 iht/II} . m J nl\ 1\11',
 111 II 'f l ' A I 'It H I li lit
1111
1/
I I Iii

-'I' HIlIIIIII II I PI' "lI hl. 11'11 \ 1111 1111' I II"

1111"111 I I It II Iii I I" 1IIIIIPdl,III IJ iI .l\ \ Ihl 1:.'111 \tUIH 1.1 It h"I».IIU
,4 1,,,.""'HtI01l 'I til + 11111\11 ,lIl lll v , I ''''''IIH""II W SF. V 11
I. '" ~I II , ' .I I II 111<111,111 II 11 I \n, 'n-'
III . '" I III ~I V 1"11111 h, ,I 1 I""IIIHII ~ "II.1t '"
1,1\ 1111 1 I II"wn'nl
,411 1t1l 11l l plill I"" I II lIlIphllllll H, \ .11'1111 I 1\11\1 l h'!lIV 1\ '
I 111111 I 1.111 n: ,.\. 1111tl1 I I" II h
,II I 1111111 1 II I 111 1111 liP'" "" I II t I l l ' " 1\" I, U I \ I
I 1 111.1111 "hll ,.. I ' 1'II,h,
hi I ml . 1 II II 1\l11t 1 " 11I ~' , "vli II I ' hlhll \I 111\ \afll" \
1111' h
I1111I111 1\ \1 ,1111 II .1 I III hllll,
t, '''V''hl''g,~\
n,hh' }( . " III 11l 1 11 l\1 1 " H Uilt III.
"' I" '" h
IInl ' U 11 111,, 11 11111 \ 1'
I' ''' I I ~ 1t "'11
11,11 111)111 11,1 I' Invlt hili
111 ....,H III"nil 111 '11 11 ' IV' 1111111\ 1111

r •f dill ,illl I ,lnl '"h Ihlll II I 11 III I 11 11 11 1111 1IIII I plWI1I1 1111 ',11 It IH W I ' ''I\lIl t Iw I
' lum . 111\1" l' 11Ihu V II I
I tllllhl, Ih t 1t11l111 1111 IIH ld IIr", , II ' Illn 111'11 1111 11' 1 ' IltlIIl P 111 I I '1\'
I I\ j\ll\! 1111 ,hll,h 11111\
q
1"111
I 'PI
I"
II ' " ,,, 11\ l ll'
In th.
IllllI l"' "l ll lh l ll l l ltll u .1111'IIt,,, IWI III " ' 'III ,11111 t III I 1\\1,11 III V
1 lI , hUH .tHy • Ill! I
' l llllf l1 111 ,'II"" lIill ,HIIII'ldl. 1 1 .1l1t ill! II I IIII' 1.1111 11111111 I\I 1111 11 1\ IlIql I wilil y Itl " I I 'II Ofl"
PI) \ 111 I • 1111 \1hol\l'II · \\
, '" hi h', tHlrllh' Id"It 11111 11/11 1111 ~ III I II }'. 1 il l! ;I\ ' \11111\ 1111 0,,· \~ \"1 \hl \.11 It,.IHI I t. q Inll'n By 1111\11• ,I Y
\
II II 111111 111 1111 '~ ' 1'''', 11 1' '' II II' I 1 1,1111" ,\1 1""1111 11I1 I ' ,I
11 ' ''j.\ \ II11HI1 ~ \h 111\
ti l" III" I" ~ Wll ~ 1IIIII h' d \l 11l 1"1 II H' 1111\" " \' " III HI! "Iuh Itnl\l "
I I I' Ie
r ..- II We 11\ \ H \I\h A
Huh 'II Ik /I ,,!!lIk I
1111 11 11 1,"1 /11 1111 11 1 111111 I II I ,11111 ,III ,,1111, ,II I' II I ( II" 1\ III 'II ' ''1 I
' ' 11 . Ih" \ W ,, ' \ ,1\1'1
~ "1'1 1 1
Y"
'111'1" _." lIplllll 'd h i " "" al l\l' I I \ 111 ,111111 ,1111111 ) 1\11 III 1111" I
• ' 111111 I l 1,111 )tl' , >I",
1111.\
111i1l11l' 11I 1,lI y 1'1.111 " "'1 111111 " ,11 ,.1 III II" , " 11.,1,,,,,,,, "' Ill1k U \ 1\, I
"IH, 'nv, \y.
jllh ' ll\ l\ lI V~ tHI'II II U"llIllllI \f t" n l, · th 'II III ,Ill ", llb " 1 11tHIII", 1111' II
' I 1'1
I
''v," IIpnl\"1\1 n\
11' 11" 111 Ii 1111" IlI" I 1I " "1'I W I1I1 ~ 11\ 1 1\"1" X 7 ' \" 11'\\'1\ III nll " l"""01\.\lH ,ok

h' 111,'11
\ "",
fllllli
, '1'111' 111 11' 1' 1t' lI ln 111 11 , 1' 11\11 1 , II 1'1"
I V Ih ,ll ,11 " ,,,11111\' ,111\ 1\'111 "I\I~ II" III
IIIdl ,l ) WII', 1,' lall" II) I ,,11 11 1:, ' 'k ( 11'1111.11111 ', 11111 \ ' rlllI lev ll \IIII1I1I1/ ... 1
,,'
", " 1' III 11 p l',1I1 11I1f'II' III IlId,,' S II \\ 1111 ,1111 1\lI1I'., ,I 1I1111'1t JIIII '" ,\I"l Ih"\;11
"'II~ 1I1 1' III II "h, I, 111111 111'1 1 li p 11t, ' 1,11111 11111 IIl1pl" ,1111111 1111111' hl1lltll III
III ' I IK!I ,1""1' • III 1111 HII "I 1,1111 S lI' l\'l y III <' ,II' "II.\' ,I 1'''1\ I I """11
'11 1111" ,

III 1111111101, I 11110 '1Ih, 1,1111 " 111111 ''''1 III"" 1.1I1/, 11.1/, 1 ~ 1",h 'I II 111111 IrI,IiI'11.
\" \ til dllllll ' h 111'11 hll I.lIhltl II' , h I II.lth ' I'''n'h Ih 1 I II h ' 11\111I"-'h I', 1\1
II' It.lh !\ hlllllllll\lll" 'I'tllllh ' lll"IIIIJ'I'III"lIhlt ,dlllt, ' 1" 11 1\1 ,llIhl' dl li\,'d
hI 110 III "1,,111 '11,110 .11/1 ,.',111 rllt. 11111'" I h ,III 'I 111 ' 111 III ,iI " " ' 1,1"''' Il'\h "I
1111 ,II 11)\,n 1.11111 I' \ CI,II ti, " 1I1,'s 1111111,11 \I. hi 11111 .11"1111' I II~
' 111111 "','Inll,," 1,111 ' 11.1 '1 .11, l ,ill''''01 ""h" 1111 " ' .11 11 111 .. "," "'"11\
,.' .•'f h 'lln \
t
Hid ~ II I Ilfl 11th II d 1111 ' 11.1 ' , I I" dI u IlIu~n" I' I
\\11',.. IIltllll 11111"'"111\ 111\ III" II I III 111111 .11 1111 III II , .1\11111 ' 111 111111 IIlh
/I
,~ ~, IN I .IJI lit

'n..ble 8.75 Some example, (If the con ...

. , nnant i-hlfl!-. under\Ylng Gn .
Slu!' in Cit'rmcmll' Stm,\krll Grt't>k r mm!. '..a~
..(Ifm
pud- pod ----~Ii_\h
1_ r _____
tanu tanu6... fled- . fOOL
~ :> x ~alam hekat6n lenu" thin
centum
b :> P hUndred
da~a liJbricu~
d> l de•• 'Iippery
ajras decem
g:> k .gr6s len
bhrala ager
bh :> b phraLCr aC.re
vidhava fralcr
oh :> d eitheos brothel'
hansas vidua
gh :> g kh€n widow
(h)anser
goo,",

Altho ug h Ihere appeared to be exceptions to G .

. and could be tracednmm's
they turned out to be syslemalle t Law
.fi
(Tabl e &.76)..
. I 0 SpeCl IC enVlrO
For cxamp Ie., VOIce ess stops were not ~ubject to Grimm's . nment,.
wt:rc immedIately preceded by s. Law wben lhey

Table 8.76 A sy>lematic exception to Grimm's Law

Origillol s + "oiceless stop
Latin ~u -o Englb b ~il [spl (not [sfj)
r:,..rt l.Juill f,, ~/,," Latin g are Engli'h ~tand [st] (not [s9l)
Latin pi~is Golhlc fi~
L'lhl L',lh'l I.u/,,·r [5kl (not [sxl)
Ird, I, IlIrt'l'

-
II ~.h'U ~ t"HllIIlI hUfldrt~d
A particularl) impon'illt discover: \\as made by Karl Verner. \\ho traced
a group of exception to Grimm" La\\ to the original accentual pattern of
1111- '.11",./ ,,/>, 1\,I/II'n h Ih,lIl1h"!l"'ngh,h h;), 1f/,IOI, '1I1(llhl (h
ProlO-! ndo-European. In a generalizatIon that came to be known a., Verner's
" "rd 11111"'//""111"111. ( .,r K ulld / 11'" h n'lp),lr), ilnd Ik l ( iril111t1lah~m I La\\. he prop<: , cd that a \\ oni-internal voice!es fricative resultinl'. from
• . : U alcd
I' fI" P/ ""'''''II.1rll '/lIft, /"1 ''!"to ( ..~rlllilm, \\hrdl drltn"nlirucrJ /I f Gnmm'~ Law unden \ 'Ul \ oicmg I the original Proto-lndo-European~accent
pl II I III."/ , 1111'/ ,III /.111 'lUI," ( .TIIlUII'
'" rllrn
1 .11\> ( /,lhle 1<.7·1) i, Ihe nall1e
,lid m)t imm 'dI3td) p~nI ' I mce ·tre" came to be f,xed on the rOOI
I \ Ill' Ih ,·(I,,,.'lIoIIII ,h/f" 1\ /udl IIx,1,: 1'/,1 'c ''''/wel:lI I'wtll. Jndo."ul(
md l'r. Il> (, '101,11lI,' • 'P'';ln ,,1l;Ir.k in G 'nnamc sU\>"'Qu '\1l to he change, co\ered b) Verner', La", the
,'n '\\I,ll ,'\1\ ,"'IHl III \\ l'r. cun.'li. However. an,krjt pro\\de, uirect
"I,kn" 1<'1 \ c I'r' d,ULll inc.: ·an,krit was \cr: Clln enaU\e \0 it-
\l1,unt '0,\11,'" ,'I t " ,ngmal P- 'tnlndl-European accent. Although the
Fnl! Ii h I" nn, ,m.' (,'I lpli t d b~ o ther de\ el pmem,. the effect- l'f Verne,'
I .I~\ ,1 ' I P III til th' nh k ampl, hmn \U Tabl<!-~ \ veri 1 an
th' ~ 1\ thl \ rd fl r mIll r, PH: *1 ttc, me: ( 1 cord1Og t Gnmrn- La\\
\ IJllpJ "~I th I IlIlfllll hlp' l<lplllrcd 11\ Ih,
luff, .11 \\ h n' 10 th' \\ ,rd f r fat l 1 10 ac rdan e \\lth
1\ 111 l'rull I Indo / urol an lUlI'"1I 11
II crt' lIlt I
.nmm' lid rn r' La
 III 11l~11 '" I tNt-II! lit
1111
1 1 I i'W I II

"',
Sl1ln ,II ," t KlXhi. \\. 11\"1 \ l h , I n ..:t1 u 't\tUi. \1ulIl)t 10
,,,I lIu.'ul't !\ h .we Iln llll1l1l.,tn l v ", I lIt () I,,,t .. , lil t
' '''11 1111\1 II I ll "or'.\I' ~"
' '
l.l Ut!IHI).'''·S ,
. I.
'h l'- , .. 11 \ I'at l \lU I' III Ihl. ''' 11 10 ' 1111, II Itl"""1
'Ihl\) lin Ih (" , C tIl d
'1 "'IO ,tI,111 III )""'!!Y \\'hu. h I U lU \'-T llh: tI '"- Ith II. ~, 1I1 \1\~ \\I0 lu,l! I
\llihe ll 1\
\ I,t \lI,
nl\ Ilf
11.10\.11'1 ~"HH\!l tan '"a~\l" 1 I.,~. tl tth·\'. 0 ' \\Ih l.' 1'" t ~., IIlH It\ \lUt hl,,,\ U'llI.:
'1 •1.1I11·lhl!"· ... I IhH ' , I0 n u l tI t ' I,~ Y 111\' • • Uhlla ull
',\.' Un )' 1\1 II,,: \. \11 • I I Ih"II 4...\\\ 'Y h \ ' I •
r 1 .1 \l ,\11111 ), tun' \ '4
\ .I 'tl! \I\~HI
I
hH l""mil \.'. tI\ <1\.\u llhm I n , 1Ml l'<\ Wu I I H \ II
. _ It_ 11111' 1 patt _ 1\\ 01.1111
( ' h~l pt l' l (l,l . S() V \.UI g ua gl" \:t'1H11l11ltI v • 1'1 t 11\ I 't~ • -\'lIn " '
, l)" \11\1 i\ 111 " \ 11,
I"1!h tIIlWllll g mOlp I IU " BY tol ' Y1W n l l:o l1\l' "
J
I )" ~ h' IU\"III ~ \I
~r ' I ' I 'x,.t\I .... ilhon ..... ( .1 ,..... OU(\
Il h o n u lug tt.:n " pH ll· .... ~~ ,,111) \\ 1\ iI ... VlI Wl" 1\'1.11 • IlIl\ y,w hl' n · '1\\ I
' 1\ ' .lltl . .· \I} I . I I
' \" Il'
I
\I ~ ,"'
'
Il'"'h.'d 11 0 m o nl' ul tw o ... "", ... thut ' \I t' III .
, • l ')1\\patlhl l- With ' .
' 'Ie " " Wt:'h, In U'"
"""I(
I
lI ont v ... hac k vnw l'l i-t. lUll1llll' ll V1-o, Utln, HIIl.lc I I , l',U h t)\hl'\ IMI{ I,
' . ' (V l) Wl·" C\l., )\ ~~
111'I• Y 1\1\ IInpOll ant U\tc H\ the- 'II\ n lll "' I '~"''' ·'1 t ' . ' Y PO\t)~lC'\ hh\I '
. . l"" " I: .\1 l \ \\1 UIlI ,," \ \
:.. l ah; llu..' nt , w hi c h HI C ' .llI C for alllal1 ~ \la v,c s, \.: 1 ~a " Ht \;U\ i! IMV'
T he cxtc n:..\v(' inl o lmati n n nn ,hl' t hI'"'1,l' p.l' ~
p-.. r f'<.'t/ fll.'·,k ... rfl;UI
Itloti e rll
' ' - ,
h ",gUt 1-o1S W.IS, 0 1 COlll sC, nut
r"-
av',\1" \. .
() the W()r\ 1 . . '
( ,IV,lllahk III
1 ...... 0 (l' IIII" r (' fltH 1 U ~ . I' ,
• •1) l' ,It the tllnl' 1\ •
~ .Inah ~
I'l'(.'()1\ ... l nt l' tt llll 0 1 rutn Indo ' ..urnpc'l1\ W' ,o., lin' " " ', nt ~ \I\a\
k>h 1,.:, 111.1' . . '" ort"~o n M, " I

-----
Invol ved lit clHn patall vC rcconstnl clion nn w 1' ,k ' ' k . ll l:rn IO)!.lH,
· antI 11C
10,,"::11 SIUl IICS
I rolc 01 lypolo~ic"l plnuslh'I'1
• C.I ecn ' II\ICIC" 'In IypII
Th~
ilpp,lrcnl 1;lIlur,' 01 (or/111m ', La", here ~ 1<'ll1s Irolll II", filer In "' , . . ' 'I Y In I'C Clln' !ru '1 c
hCCOIll\! an Important WpIC. hlr CX llll\plc '1 linou'l I Id ..... C 11m 11:\'
' ~ s W OU tno! Vcrv .\ '
!:neli,h ,,,,,.I, ,,,,rt' norroweJ dlrcclly lIolll L.UIII or h"lIdl Illanv . ,II In
, 0
to propose a reconstrucllon Ih:\I violatcd 'I univcrsal . J re UClanl
- lh(' ... (lund .... h,tt.,
nht.'r , ue.., . . cnhcl I h} ,( ',rUllln ,S I .•' l\.\.. h'.IlI WI\I.'I1
I
pl.H:cJ cenl"
I q~
.
that oad no purallcl In any know n Ianguagc. ' . property III hn'"
• eu,lge, I)r
offt~l'<)!],'rul'ljt)n cun olh. ·J1 he (,.'omplll: alcd h) " w: h horro\.\.ings. he t.l ~ SUI'\l\! linguists havc argucd Ihal the tr'ldilmnal r"CI I ' ,
, ' . ' ~ lOs ruelllln nl the I'll'
ohstrue nt system (given In Tahlc 1l.79) should he rCj'ccI"d I ... h , .
typo log .ical pl auslu'
·... ·1·Ily. ~ • n IIIC a, 1S 01
.
Subsequent l3y Ihe miJd/t' of Ihe nineleenlh ('elllury, Ihe sludy of lall!!Uil!!l' h'ld III I ,
dellelopmenh slrides, c.'pc"in'.'} ill ~he Ikld 01 phoncl"'s: which . Opl' l1L'd Ihe
del", led companson 01 IIIlg illS I1(' forms . One Influenllal hYPOlhesIS III til ,Ih
w,,;'
l'll~rl'.1 '1Ilhlc 11.79 The Iraditional reconst ruction nl the Pnllll"Inun·European ub" nlclI"
"ii' Ihill sOllnd laws Openlle!I WlllOUI .I '
e \ccpllOn '
..A, group 01 ' 11II!!1I1S1, kn ,Ullln , P t k k kW (voiceless slll pS)
. .• I h' '. '
Ih~ Neo~rammartllllS auOplC! I IS luL'a .iIll maul' I " Illany IInp0rlant
' e l "I\.n'l• \ (h) d g II SW (voiced SlOps)
. \ 10 Ihe I1edgllllg SL'lenc,' 0 I' I'IIlgIlISIJC'
11011. .. h y apI' i )'lIIg
" It 10 Ilew lind I Iltnh"
dh gh Sh S"'n (voiccd asplraled SlOps)
bh
complicated datil, Allhough such factors as !c.:x it'a I dillusioll an " ntore s
. u ">Clal
pres.,urcs were 1lI0re or less Ignored oy the Neogrammanans, Iheir hyp h '
rcpre.lcnte an Important anu uanng lI( vance IJ1 t le sCl entil ic stUdy of Ian ot . ell,
d . .1. " I . I ' . .
'fl Ie Ilinctet'nl
' h celJlur}i a so saw IlJaJOf ' a d lanccs III the da" lficat' gu,lge This reconstruction is typologicall y questionahle in al leasl two respects.
languages. A Germ,lI1 scholar, August Schleicher, devcloped a d:lss irl~.>n 01 First, reconstructed forms with PI E *b are extremely rare, almost as if there
f·or (hc I neI0 ' europe'lIl
'" Ianguages In I t·
. 11C orm· ot a genealogical tree G, Icalion
wcre a gap in the labial system. Such a gap is very uncommon in the
c Iassl t-IcallOIl
. IS . u'ISCUSSC(I In . llIUC h more dctru'J In . the chapter on .1'1 cncllc
, nguagc languages of the world . Typic all y, if there is a missing labial stop, il IS the
typology Ihal fol/ows . voiccless stop that is mi ssing, not Ihe voiced stop. Second, the trauilional
. Wod. iu compara live H:collstruclion is far from finished . In panicular n:construction posits a seri es of voiced aspirated stops but no correspondlOg
IJllgUISI.I arc now consldenng the poss lotltly of supcrfami lies. Ou ' ,. scries of voiceless aspirated stops, even though some typologists have argued
• 'J . N . " C slIcn
propose(I f :11111 y IS , OSlrallc, whlt'h Includes Indo Europea n, Afro -ASiatic that all languages w hich have a voiced series also have the voiceless one.
(1111 nample, Amolc, l!ebrew), Alta,,: (for example Jal)'lIIcse K
' " . . . r . . orCUIl Such facts have led some lingub ts to propose what they believe is a mme
l urKlSh). '.lIld UralJc (tor exallll~le, Finnish, Hungarian), Conrp:mlli ve rccon' typologically plausible rccon ~truc ti o n Of . Proto -.lnd~-Europc~n (Table \I .tI.O)
S~'~lctlon IS also plaYlIlg an Important role in determini ng the genclle tIlvolving a voiceless stop sen es, an cJccl1ve senes, and a VOiced slop senes
ldatl(1llshlp.\ of the hundreds of North American indi"ellous hngll '\ '"
toJlIe . II Ilit' h ,II'JJ remalllS htghly
' controvcrsial. '" ' . ges, II (as wcll :,S
· s us in the traditio nal reconstruction).
 III '(. It I ' INt '1 't(

1 l ~'"

,,
, \I
\ ,\
\ \
('hi t 1\

t'h\ "'"."" h
,It h
I\!(l~
I J\ h h
-
U'II
I' nl h l\Q
'''1 ,
'",'\ \ \ , \ ".I\t,U\
I\lo(~
'to I\\,UI

\'\ 1\":":-'--::--~':-:1\-:,~-7-=::;-~~:::::::":::":"2~~~_
l '\ ,h" \lk,)

11 " 'k," ~ h,'" ~\1.·1" lh~\t \\ " \n:\ppn'pn,-\\~ \0 \a\..c 3. ,nnph'tlC \\e"," af
"n .""'l\1: th\\\t1~\h\l~~'. l'l'll~ .\1\\l'k. M"'\"'C "l,'' IUl\d ~h;.mg.e, proJuce k ... n tun.\
,\ 1\,lhk, \'11\\"" 1\"'1'.... h,"
Ih~ ~1t1'I'1 ,II reducing. ,I '~qucn~c "i C\'C\'c\
,\ 1\,lb',', h' 11", II'" 1I.\I\\r:l' I.'\CC\ ll"I,II\) in ,u~h ~a,~,. a dlikrent
11\\11\\ ,lli,1" ,' an hI' "knllft 'd, ,"~h ,b Ihc I'ld 'I"nc~ for ,h,'ner I'h"nlliogl I
"" 1\1' ,1\ 'I ""I,' 'I f"on" HIU ~i\ en Ihe emnl'\e\il, of human langua~e. 'nOI
hI 1\1,' \\\1,,\\ hllm,In l'<.'h,\\ 111m 11\ gene'-,I\. \I ,hould no' he 'Urrn'mg Ihal there
\1 '1\\;\1\\ Ihlkl '\II 1',Iram 'I 'r, ,'I Imgllbll': "alura\\lc" and Ihalthe ",an. in
;111 1\ , k;I~1 II' .11'1 '\l,'nll) 1" lntlICIlt\g eh,In£,6 in hnguage o'er ume. It remain
.\1\ 11II\"'II:lnl I,h\.. "I' lhl' hn£,llbl II' IMnltf,: r,m\... and u\ti.m I~I. e pl:un
1<'I;\II,'n, ", !it\glli"Il' \\,\Iuralne", . The ',I\l\i~ "t hngu ge eh nge V.m ti.nue
h' m,l\.. ' .111 itll1'<'II,ml "'tIlo!>IIIl<'n 10 Ih" af'l.
 IU"'ltHU( AI IIN(.!!!"I\( S 1111 !illJ\)Y
1M (l
l), I "Nt.lll\t .. i
(li~,,<.t '\4,~
.:xcclknt "'OUh,:cS tor h.'It.-renl'!.". h.·!tthIIK In );\111
. - • l h..'d 1''1\ (he..' IIn,g,lII,ril.' t:t)lIlIlllJllil,Y ~\l I illlponalH lor prl'lvu.lll\}! uc:t.uled I.h ...l.:u ...... 'on' t (\11,,1 tupH.:!I., H()(~ ,
lmh'" .ltlon IS ulllnl~ud~ .tdl r _.- 1~le b)' It,k'lIrif) In<> Ih iJ.rg\.. ~ typology II) feconMflictUlI) ~I .... yntUt:h\,; I.:ha.Oi!l' ttnd P~f\II':U\ilrtv
langua.l!~ ...
l.·han~l..· -. l' It I' pt ....... "
I.' '} ,h: m.lIl I'
• Ji I L'Cr • -
.
h.I' t1lltf\!,fV\.'IlL', In r.cL'on"lr
eo ..: ch.
a~g~\')Ifl(:
I' • Overvic. ws of hi ... '.Oficul lang.'\I"tlc", .'" H' \ tIt: T(,Ie 'Jt
a p.lnl,.:uJ.tf tlfl~U.lgl.. O f .
t::' lief I '1;\,
eVe I)pm~l\l tIt En h h
"fit:'r fom)s from ""hh..'h later f IOglli\ '" b( k b · • .Ipp It" Il) the d. \
prcst:nh:u 10 _the Xl... 'i Wilham ... , I)yll: .... i.tnu AI Cl
hl"hl0 .tnd ,hc..'f\.'o\ f~"H rh~~·.I~oJOpnrllth e reconstruction al~rnt\ h...~'~ lod Strung cited below, g '. Ha.U~h 'lOti ( 'Ihle nnl\ ~ \\ arc
c\ohc..'d. lr . . ,ug 't.'h (It COAn~ I" p-lO:nl or proto-Iungua~e 011 [hOW\ 1.1, Ie ~ The catalogue of ,ound chltllgc, I'" tu,hntec.l 1- • 'I ~'o\ru
f'e ....·(lfI...rru ...·( rhL' propen.ic:-. oj (11,;" '. ~ e ba..\i\ () 'h 't,·· '"
Vennemann, til .' e arlle e LlOglll'o.ttc typologies an hl ..torh:aiu~ pn'tM1SCd hy Thet.)
rtHl\ cata\ul
. '.. 'sponden(es . . Of
.!t."stematlc ph~netu: t:o~rt!. _ '. _ ~an pro\ ide valua.ble 1Il.,)lghh int /i1H:ui.\',ica 1I111WrUl23: 87- 9\ (\l,)8~) lllld u nook e ttl U f hnglll ..t\c,·, 5;u(',,"r I
StuJj(.' ... Itl hISh)n.:alllOglll.sU ... ·... hc.J light on prehistoric d. 0 relillio S';llcture and 'he Explanation oj Sound Chang n{IAt:: >rt'ff'ren(:l' I"(HV,\ jm' S.,,,::~/
. ~ hi· be . IllMcrdam: M .
,hip .., among language" and '" ' oSf eu cVelop tnenhn. t' t'
language arc of great impona 1988), Sectton - as a so nctitcu trom unpuhl h c.l . Outun (It: (inlYlc:r
Furth~rmt)IT.~. hi . . wrh:al '\IU.JJt:S, ~tl" competence, In fnct, it has on ce to 0ll, manuscnpt . 'L'Ingul,\. " ICC h ange)• k''tn d lymadc·\V·utabt.h. \!o, e
'T'I..
malena\ (p antcli . 1arty the'
.
ofMumch)tot h e aut I10r (R 0 b ert M urraY)dunnghl~Ma'
," c uy 1M . . ann n.] nlv~r..\ty
nco Vennem'
unul!rsrandJng ()J . h um,1I . 1 ImBu".'.bS < onc of me most dJrect .windo..... ' f ten ... V\!'en The data on vowel laxing in Canadian French ~rc~.tn ~nlchtrl)m \I.)K()\(\\,)~S .
" 'h'lJlge pn.n Jut.: • "YS Int
sratcd Ihat Innguag< ".' nind Furthermore, the study 01 language c 0 the Tire ProIHmciatioTJ ojCalladiall Fn'tlch (Ottawa: Un,rom , Ou~\a..,c Wa\kcr'sbo()',;.
"orll.· n~' 01 the hum,lll' 0'- of how social. cullural, and p'Y'h hang, The diSCUSSIon . 0
I' b orrOWtn,g
' and semantic change in1Verslty E. I' h0\ Ottawa P res\;" I9&4.)
- d Nan 109 . . colo .
conmou.tes to our un.. e .
h lpe languo .
ge Finally. the lI1tegralion of 'I . glcal
. , Ud'e
. Old
on word order 10 , an dMtddle
' . corne from ng"
English .., well
the book b a, lhe J: m.al~na\
.
fUL"wrs IIlremct to S ~ . l'tl'Oll and language universals re ........ ~ on Origins oJthe Eng/l.I·" Langill/ge (New York: The Free Pre", 1975; ';:'~Ph Wilham,
language change. 1anglingc acqUlsfacillO"• linguists ' coday, . '"al n~ one
8.46 on the on gin 01 the 5000 mo't common Words in Eng\" hi' dala In lable
of rhe mosr important challenges ~ of the same book. IS a so come trom p, 61

Figure 8.11 depicting lexical diffusion of the stress change E I

--------------~==---------
.
denved from ver b S .IS ,_1-
Ul.IIo.en from t h e book by Jean Anchlson
'. \0
cited bel ng ish
. .nouns.
Notes . r The fT3n ... Jation tor the!<oe lOe.s is.'
a ... follows: d th
remarks are base on e .n,c . Ie b y M. Chen and W. Wang 'Sound how. Allch"on',
. .
Many men sa)' that in dreams, . . . La nguage 51: 255-8 I (1975). The data ' on thec rea.nge,
and implemenrallon I' actuatlon
. f
Thel"<' is nothing but talk and lies . h were provi. d e db y Herben \7.7.0 of the Univers,ty of Calgary.
a Izallon 0 [sl
Bur men may see some dre,ams
as [hl in Spal1ls .
\Vhic;h ,Ire scnrcely false The Genna",c c.ognates used to ,\lustrate family relationships are based On
B r' fterward come rrue. . h h Leonard Bloomfield s clasSIC work Language (New York: Holt. Rmehan & Winston,
pIes throughoul thiS c apler. on ographic forn, 1933). The data on sound change m Muskogean come from Mary Haas's book The
I~ Ihese 'IOd hO~I,er .~.,o~), reflect the sound change(s) in question. If req~' are
U ..
2
Prehistory oJ Languages (Amsterdam: Mouton. 1969). The quote from Jones is laken
glvcn whcn: I t:se C ea ., 'd d Ired,
. f Ii hone lie lranscnpuons are pro\ 1 e, . , from A Reader in Nineteenrh-Century Hislorical Indo·European Linguislics. edited
panllli or u P I occurs between VOiced segments, l! can als and translated by Winfred P. Lehmann (BIOominglO n : Indiana University Press. 1967)
3 Smce I'olcmg common Y a k " . 0 be
'd I 'I type of assimiJation, h is treared here as a we' enmg Since it is ofre and the quote from Rask IS tak~n from HOlger Pedersen's book The DiScovery of
consl Cft''- l ' f m~ ~f change involving various weakening processes. II Language: Lingulstrc Sctence III rhe Nllleteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana
pan of" lurger Pfj,lldehore in IWO respects. First. we ignore the fuct that the Ve b University Press. 1959).
We have simp lI Ie \., . h th d r l)
he and htll'e can unuergo Inl"erslOn even w en ey 0 not fUnction as Question 2 is based on data provided by Dr George Patterson. whose generosity
auxiliaries. we hereby acknowledge. The data for questions 3 and 4 are from F. Columbus's
AI"<' tht'\ here'! !ntroducrory Workbook in Hisrorical Phonology (Cambridge. Mass.: Siavica Pub-
Hill"r y~u no sense" lishers, 1974). Que tion 10 i based on data provided by David Bellusci. The data for
Second. we hove not traced Ihe emergence of the auxiliary verb do in the question 18 are drawn from Source BookJor Linguistics by W. Cowan and J Raku'an
formation of questions. . (Philadelphia: John Benjrunms. 1987).
5 Classical Lalin was the literary language of anclem Rome whereas Proto.
Romance I"<'p~sents un aUempr to reconstrucl the spoken language of the Romans
which spread Ihroughout much of Europe and which was the SOurce of the Aitchison. Jean. 198 I. Lunguage CIlange: Progress or Decay? London: Fontana
\ariou, Romance lunguages. - - -ndedrea
RecO mme
- d'109
6 Anttila. Raimo. 19 Q. Historical and Comparative Linguisrics. Amslerdam anu Ne ..
Eiectives ure prouuWd by a closing of the glottis and raising of the larynx. (Sec York: John Benjamin •.
c"lwpler 2. section 10.)
Arlotlo. Anthon~. 11}72. llltro<iuctioTl to Hisrorical Linguistics. Lanham. Ne .. York
and London: l'niYel">lty Press of America.
Baldi. P. I Q,' 3\11 frltroductr(1n 10 tile frida-European UIl1~ll<IgfS. Carbondale and
This chapler is basco un a chaprer In the original edillon by James M. Anderson Ihe
Ed",;\n:!>"lle: outhem llhnol' University Press. .
adl"anced le\lbooks by Anuila. Hock. and McMahon (cited below) provide Illuch
Rilllch. Alt-ert C .. and Cable. Thomas. IQ1}3 A History of tile Engll,11 Utrtg"u~e, 4th
rnvrc dClatled discussions of mosl of the major ropics In Ihis chapler. They are aho
<'dn . London: Routledge.
I ,

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V)
,I) ,",'PHI' I,', .It," II) ;" ~', llI ~ ' 1rt;1~ r. c I,",,, '
bl J /1111111' ,) \ It II Y ' \1;111 ,"'II \ly Cill\ '
,) 1'/1"'1011111 ~Ittllnhk ' lI\llIl1l\H t n1.\\(~ \IIW \11\11\1\'
P
oil 1l1''''01 I) , III" .... ,\ ' ,kPI"V'("I' WH kc'\
I' )
I)
(,Ill \'C'lIttl

N,'w/l"IIIIII,1I1I1
')
II')
ll1ill~1

orck,"
1'1 II., \\ " I II) \,11\\11'
Itl J lJl IIIJ11f'/111I1I
0) ~ l'(hH '
II f..1'III·I 'Jllld'l ·
1') \11' "
/l l<c t 'IIJI Jl f btl~t 'it ' I.;
II Ilnl,v
'I)
,)
H. ( 'IIII1I',IIr, Iii,' (11.11 lI/l il , 1t ~ III 'ld,1I . lIl1ll'lllIoIll""I1 ~ . )

S/I/ '/1/,11 /'/11",/ Ii

111,( Itt'l ' I".,kl )' II)

,II ' '',)~( ' I VI

1I1111l1r" 1111' elid I II~'" II ,,10,,1 II,'VI 1111 1I11I/.II"I'III"d (" .. III (lid I I W)
'11' I 1-:'" •l:"",r/f "I'SI' • 1 1111 /I.,,"k/II 1.11 ,II ,II d" 11111 I XI'IIIIII,III'hllw
""
' '"11 I
Ifl, " (hilll~'I ' JIlI'IiIl.d ',,'III. lllfJIIllJllld lI ilv t" I flliit , lhOIlI
II .
II, \~ r ll''''"1 "' II" I"II"WIII' UIII' III '" Shllll,' , a ","d"111 1111111'
' II "1J'1I11~'r
' 1""1'1/ III ZIIIIIt,IIIII'I' II,,· sve) wPld 1111111 (Nol, I III' '111111,1"" lit ' (ll/tI
111,11 ~ s I'" 1111" II " 1
1I1IJIWO
\I)
V "',""" ~ d
1I11"II ~ fI rlllk" 1111',1111111., !'VI/lnlilll II
 c) piSC1 :o;. ph.cine
tI) tcnuis l CnU(l\l '"

d cornu cornucopia
n duo dUlII
~) cdCf C cdihk
Transcription h) v.cnu ~ gcnocH.\c
Original/ext [sum or IS Ikum<>n III i) up.cr tlgri cuhul'c
umer is I-ClImcn in:
lu :d" slOg kukku 16. J\ \I ~ l1lpl 10 reconSlrUCI Ihe Pmln,C;crmanic \'m\l1 l'm .. '
Lhude sing. cuecu!
Growep sed. and blowcp med,
gr~:w"O sc:d and bb: w~e
Inc'd cog.nates. Fo~wa~g nn the vl)wch., dc.st.:rihc the chan l . ' :a~~ l' . m n\
and spflgg e (l" wud" n" :1 '
v

And springp pe wude nu, the O \d English tonns. (NO ll': y \y\. '" = \Il \ and ' _ gcs wh,ch al\cclcu
Gol/,ic Old ElIg!i, h J - \.1\ .)
Trallslarion cy n
a) kuni 'kin'
'Summer has come in;
h) hadi bed 'hcd'
Loudly sing. cuckoo'
c) d6 mjan dre man 'Il) judge'
Seed grows and meadow blooms
<I) sakjan Sll!Can ' to seck'
And the wood grows now, '
c) hu gjan bycgan ' 10buy'
a) What affix converted the adjective loud into an adverb in ~
English? hddl~ t) n ati nel ' net'
b) What accounts for the difference between ,the M idd le E ngli sh ,
Modem Eng lish pron unclallon of the vowel III loud? ,Ind
c) What olher words in this poem reflect this general shift?
d) How has the re lative ordering of the subject and verb changed
this was written" SInce
e) How has the third person singular present tense suffix changed ' si si
Middle English? Since nll!
riso
14. The following Cree words were borrowed from French as the resul t miei mclc
contact between the two groups on the Canadian prairies. (Notice that of hierro ferro
French determiner was not treated as a separate morpheme an . d the piedra pcdra
carried along with
, the borrowed word.). What " Was
types of consl'd eratlon hierha Cf\ a
could one plaUSIbly assume played a role III the borrowing o f these S uso ur~l!
into Cree? ' WOrds
Cree French
a) labutOn Ie boulon 'bullon
11) /TIlot les bolles 'boots'
c) lamt/as la melasse 'molasses'
11) lapwil la pocie 'frying patl '
e) lili Ie the ' lea'
15. The ",I/ow,'ing Lalin roots arc found in words that have hl"' 11 h()1 .,
. f' I " ~ TnWl' u
ltIlt> !ng Ish. Slllec Ihese words were borrowed after Cinml1l \ I .aw had
 1111 I I
II, 1\ •

ltllH.h IIIHI
1".llIh 1 1 11Id ~
Ilt~ ",!lld

II. \.1 "I 111l~11\'"'

, Wllltl" Ih'
\.11,,,~III~·d'hlll ~\I' ''''t·,t
1,·"I.l ";"114"\. t:lutr<l. ... 11 n.,iH" ntlqhllt/I & \~\lll!lhlV' , .IlI. III.h,,· II. \\\1,11 t\
It I I I•. ltl<·11
,.",
I I 1 UntHHIpt ~ IlhH "Il !'IlIIII"! \1\ huh ,tHy \IIUIl lit" . . ,Hllt .IHq" \til LIUtu" l.' tt'!
PIIltll'I."It td pd hn Blld lilt ~t.1\1' \11 III lot,·,,,,.in,Uy Idah-,' Ihl .un.~II)I m~y\
IIlhth,,-d ttlllli h i t ' b. WIHkll \II \1\1' Llllt'"~It'" \\.IV" hi. tI ... \1 lq''Il'I 't\ I.It
IlIl 'M'1 \'nt u"\ tit ttw l'L1"" , 111 \ _lIlt\), 1.11 H IIhl \u' n I,'uul tllu lui hypu'ht\\I.~\
'Ii pl!.ltn tHlltHillr" hI! ",hi\. It "" Illlgl".lt h' I~ l , ... , lot 1':1 t\\. l,l l hit Pll1l1.) hh\1)
l i 1l111t!I 'l llll (i, ' lle ' lll llil .... \ttl .llhIH L .\, l \I':\~"II hlltlll'1 ill ,' . . tllill ,
t\tthl.llI}-'h Vt""dtl..tH Id,ul'! LItI~IL\~'l'~ "\\11\ h,u, ltlll.hll.'\ l\h\h\tb.~1
I I bth:~. Itw)' I.hl Illll Ih"u ' :'llttlt hl.tt.1 I. hi'" ~lllh.. hlh'\ II ltHh\.ml " hn
" 1,,111''' 1,11 \1,11 1 ,ltIll I lI~h , 1t .11' "'II' II',III~ 1<'1,.10'11 (1t ..111 tI,·.k lI.kll
It. \10.11 ,hUh lilt hi ",I,lllIlIh \\Ih!llt I"'" Illi '111 III "tltlIHtlllllh.., I' ,Il
Iplill Illdu "lIt",,1 .\11" hut ,hell \IltHph 4Ihl'i1..t\ ~\ltll\Utt~ I ll\l\h. lh'hltH' Au
I I
,fitT.r.lu 1.111 'H.h'. IIIllhll1\ ,II'II'III1I,I.II,I'\,I(lh I '.tllh 1,11U.,·II.lIh
. . lll'
I I Ir I
I' lip Ihit ,,'nkl\l'1 11\..(' // /111 \ It) I.. /1 gil" 01 '''''/111<, , /,11/1, d ,.\1\ II<' C lit' .1 til
I~I.IIIIII~III 111'.1.,.1 .... 1. Ihl 1I",.II,'Ih, ,"Ih'lhlll,.IIIIIII Il'llhlll'llllllhlllt\
,,' .1 1.1I1I!II.IH' 11111 hi HHd,'I' Ithld h, 'I": Il· I 011\ Iottl hv ,1,111 I. ",.tl.1
I 11\ til
,hh'~lhl\ \",lldlH'lddll!'li,fth'II"1I nil 11I'1l IItllllHHhHI Ilh'lll I! II hi IJ
,'1 I .hll/tIlI·1t lit. III Ihlt •• 1 1';11" 10'"11 lit. I" ,It h ,.1 S,d", \ I Ill<' I 11'1 I
L' hi
I' 11,'\1' It. \
•• , 1(11 11110' ,,1101 lit. I II 1t,1t ,'1; 11,11111 '1IIdlill II, dLtI •• " .. , Iltl 1I1111 Ittll~I;II".
l.ltll) tlnl I ••ItII,'tI'. (III
\ 'll I'" tlllh I h.Uhl, II '"'' ""I" 'I"II~ 1.11111\11 Ilthh , ... I.llId 'lilt' 1IIIIIIIh'I 11;"11
'\lIt,1 \I. Ill' "'Itt ,.I.ltll
till '111,1, IloIlllI,tlII ,,'110 1".1. IIt,1I 1110" ,II. '1,,·,tI'tll' .11110'.,'111 loIlI~'""y", lit,'
III Ltltll" 1.1,,,.111,111.11 II II It .11' \'IY ,It LII\II¥ Id.II"I"I\I,II,tIl\\lla. \llUi
1I,IIt,II1 ,'I I t"I' 110, UII,I lit. I .. IIdl "I 1',111' iii" "\111111''''' "I \ ,II it'1I1 ""I "1'1'1', It
,II' ,,\11\, ,h." 1\ 1.",,1 w,lI I 1'11,,11 h.II' ,I I.II~lt II\IIIII~I "I IIInlall\l ~
IIt,lilll, 110'1 1111 III J.i I II lI'h'IIIl'lit"
101 ,I'Lt' 1111" Ih.11 ~~"" 1,111 liar." Ihll\
I ,.ltllo tI ,1111111.11 s,', 1.11 It"",,,. ,II 111.1 .. ·It '10"1' I,ll h'" ,,11,111111,'1\, Ih'lll
tItl lit, .11/1. I It.llld II I
". 1111 III 11111. \.,\1 tI 111.1 1111, \111.111'11)1'1'1\'" I Itu I "&h h 111\11
lit. ,I" 1111111.1111'11 "11111 '''hi I< 11t'"l1d.III,', I "I I 111111'''' .... ,·tI" .111.1 1'1,1.111,111\
:\\ IllIh \I 1111'1\ .11\ 11111,1.1\1"\ III,IIt I 1111'10 IIltln I ~ .h ohl" \ wI1I11 .1I1k! 11\
, n, II 111.11111,1111 Ih.1I 11t,'\ 'I" ,Ik d,tk .. III I.,,, '\I.W,' 11,111,'\ ,'I '\ ,' 11 Ih""yh
Ih, II hl'h'lI, h 11'1<'11, ,111.1 I" 1I11'~' \ 'I, " " .11110'1, ,lllIldlll d "'!'litllill ","01 IItll'''' tI, I II ,II t\ I I til It.,
1,\1101.11,1 I r",III.1I1 III IIlltlll.tll\ 11111'111 'Ihl, til lit ," III 1111 'tllIH' '''"l'lIttV',
 \11\ (\
"'·....,n It A\\(n" t 1\
\ ~N(,\ "1,\
Ol'\o T( tPOI\' \10:\ liNt l IS I Ie "'I thut all 1.loguag\...... ha\,\.' I)J"I \low'\ , ""',
huVl.· nasn
\ v I 1 " P \\11\\'1\\\:" wi \t Ito 111\\-; IIIH ~
owe p lOn~1l\C' MOll'I)Vl't tov'"
o(lth. then: urc u .... ui.\Hy fcw~r n·'!',I\ ~, 'I l n HI l\w \.\\\\1\\_1 \""W:\\;l e
.!) • .• "UWe ... \h\\l " . \U':?t ~'h , ,
('A h11,;h nrc con"'ldcr~c.l hl he I\liIIKClI) . \ \ \\1.,\ \IIW . ' 1\11 I( \ \.,...
~f~uia ani.IPl'nJ.I/\li complex than oral vowel, (whll:h ' \1" Me )o\h {'Un ~\lh\ \'hll": \ .,1 n.,
"'WIN'\
·~I.tri" like, All' . . ~ C 1I1mlar\...cl\l I IlW\\ "\\'i 1
The fol \ OWing. ....cchon ... present . . \lIn. I \ \\l\le
For thc . . t' ft.·~)"'l'lO"'. a ... c!~oncJ app":);JCh .I~..J~nguage class.ificatioll i universals that huv!.! heen P"'I)(y..cll II" tIllIe 'll! tYP"h)~\I,;,\\ da~ III'I.: ,\\\11\\
J...:.nt.H\-n ;J~ linuubtic
... hpolo(T~.
' . '" It classifies languages . .1- S rCqu1 '''<I
aceo rUIng ',nd syntux.
'IIC·', I L
• . H Plltl1\q\(I~y • 11thI'finll L ,lUI'
\

slru..:tur~J chi.~.J..:tcrisric... \\ tlhou[ . regard for _gen.~lI~ . reJationshi to their ~ ()gy

tynOJOl-'IS[S IllIghr group lOgerher I,mguages with similar sound
• "

,
e-

.,.
.' ddT

tho
the lanl!uage~ of the world. We return to IS type 0 c asslficalio . aero
I . I
alternativeJ), on~s \\ irh sJlndar wor or er. ypo ~gl~a studies aJ~ m\ Or'
identif\ Jinouistic unh'ersals. structural characlenstlcs which
fl'
Ps. lh
patte u,

OcCUr
0 'ieek .
to
-
I n this section. we rcprc~cnt a\\ vowe\ ~\1lll .
. . \. fi \.. .
Thts stmp tiCS tllC prescntut\()tl note h \
. . . '. • •
l:OI\~onall\ ..,'-I"CI
J
I wever, th,\t lh'
h
1), P 1)l\\·1n\1.;·\\1
• '/.
., ~ n In ~ecr \'1 rcaill-atton ot these system . . may vary in the. indO ·ct . " C cJC.ac\ ph(ml.'\h':
_. . ' . ~ 'VI \1.1\ \.mguagc,.
Finnlly areal classification identifies charactenstlcs shared b I
.'. . L . I Y angu·
whIch are 10 geographIcal conracl. anguages 10 c ose COntact often b ago,
words. sounds. morphemes. and even syntactIC patterns from each Otho"'o~ Languages arc often dassilkd aceordin"" to In"~ ,,t'I.e
. an"
., pallern 01 ~ .
a result neighbouring languages can come to resemble each h Cr. A, syslems. The most
•
~
common vowel system n.,uS. ,..\Ve \1110nc.mc.... ·t"CIr v"wel
.
• . dD m~, vowels. twO mId vowels. and one low v(\wcl (Figure <,) \) Tn' (WI) '''~n
though they may not be genetically relate. ue to space considera . even
chapter will not deal WIth .
area I c I assl' f i'
IcatlOn specl'fiIcally; h tton,.. thi, arc unrounded, as IS the low vowel. and the hack v( lwe\. ' e [mo( Vl\wel,
S .uc. rounded.
. cd" I2 d oWe'e
description ofborrowmg can be loun m sections . an 5.1 of Ch apter 8.r. a u

e o
2
TYPOLOGJCAL As already noted. the classification of languages according to
· .. I Ty I . .truCtu I
the~ a
characteristics is known as I mgUlsllc typo ogy. po oglcal research ra The most common vowel system.
CLASSIFICATION
together languages on the basis of similarities in their word order group, figure 9.1
. h 1'1 . Pattern
morphologtcal stmclUres. or P ono oglca systems. An ImpOrtant· \, About half the world's languages. including Basque, Hawaiw.n. Japanese
research wilhin the study of linguistic typology involves the se at~a of Spanish. and SwahIli, have 'ouch a system. .
linguistic universals - structural patterns and traits that OCcur in all arc for
The majority
. .of the world's other languages" have three four ......
'IX ce
.-, 'Jen.
human languages. Palterns or traits that occur in all languages areor rno'l
eight or OIne dIfferent vowel phonemes (disregarding contrasts ba,ed on
absolute universals. whereas Ihose that occur in most languages are kcalled
length or nasalization. ;-vhich can double or triple the number of phl)nerm~
as universal tendencies. nOwn
vowels). Languages wllh fewer than three. or more than nine di"I\O~t\Ve
Many typological generalizations involve implicational univ
vowels are rare. Some typical vowel sy,lcm, are prc .. ented in Figure 9.2.
which specify that Ihe presence of one trait implies the presence of ersals.
. ) F' J ·th f . . another u u
(b ut not VJce versa. or tnstance. anguages WJ ncatJve phonemes (s h
IfI and lsi) will also have stop phonemes (such as Ipl and III). althou u~ as
reverse is not necessarily true. g the e o c o
Another way 10 analyse linguistic universals is through mark e d
theory. Within this. Iheory. marked traits are considered to be eithe rrn~ ness a a
compIex and/or universally rarer than unmarked characteristics. In add' .
.. . II . d . . ilion
a
a marke d trail IS IYPJCa y loun tn a particular language only if its unmarked
c.'ounlerpart also occurs. Thus. markedness theory is closely related t h
.. I' . I . 0 t C
stu(IY 0 t Imp IcatlOna ulliversais. Four vowel system Sl:ven vowel ySlem
An example can help to clarify these terms. Nasalized vowels are said
he marked, while non-nasalized (oral) ones arc said to he lInmarkc~o • "1\ aho (Ari/ona) G~el (Uhlopla)
Phonologrcally. oral vowels can be considered less complex: oral vowc!\
allow
. . the atrstream
. to exit only through the mouth. while na~al
, vtlwel ,t' II ow
lIJr to escape from hoth Ihe mouth and the nose. Cross linguistically. we lind
 '" I, ,
I I 1\ \,

tilil 1111\101
\\"\1\1 11 \

\\\\I~ I
\'11 II 'I, I 111\
\1'11
Ii, I"'h,\\
III h
hh\

\.,,'-

., \ q \ 11\\\\,\ IIHt!

.11 \, \ \ 'Ilh \l\Ul\h 1\\\. \\,\\\\,\ \tll

I\UU\ .\\ 1\\\\\I~I1\'\ \H'\'~"III\
\,'"1 III.' I I'~ III. \I \
 1'\1 "
IHlN lH \ -"U

"" I~
\n\h \
\: '" d\

-
l,hk-').S

\...\\.'
~\" k'
\..."1 hOi \n
" \\\.\~I.-'
" \\\.\~~,~
',,\t th~, ,\bg~'"
Irl\\r.,\)
ll'lur.\\. ~('n\t'\(',

\ dill '
 \I

'J t I ,n"".f I I,
",,\1('111 ,Ill
1)
~,,\, (lul"-' h1
I'" .\11 ,,"'til II ,,1 Ih"
1 t., ,UI l. \ buy P.\
' 11.\ U\ ,,.,t! ·hl ttl\" ,,1(, •

8)
,VI>II nl'1I,h1
1111,.' uthkh hl"~,\' \h\* Ill'''!
1011.1" It nu II
un H.·f!\ .1 ... "n
V,(1 (w I 1.1
n. "plh)Iv '\ It J.. nTtI.J~h.1 11111 fIPfI.d.dfl"r!lli.II\\-dl.ld\l,nh"\Cd"·',V,,llhlt.tl I l,uh""I" Y Ihh ,II '. Y llyn
f "' O1pl~'11 ,It II 1101 I1l1h h.l-' III,h.'dUIII,d .tlfl~l·'i II h ~ alktl Ih,' d, i'~")" til\" 111.\1\
f 11\ ,.d .llId plllhl'\ , nUl II It! 0 lUn~llJI, dl'fI\llllCllI.t/ 1tl'I t:
I hl Ih l'i!(11\ \.-llkd till' 'Him
(UIUwl'l'l,lmHtllllt'd) IIIH.I I\' ('lUll Uh\/tm/)
" \\t1flf h,l'Io hOlh.1 \kll\/lllolI.II amI 1111 lntl"L I toll. a! 1It1,\ I '''hI f), SOY, SV(). Hntl VS(l IM\tt'II'''' have IlIU' PI\l\lClly 11\ (,h111111[111 \1\ \\ the
dl-n, Wililul "U" i .....:It",-., lu Itll,.· ,pul rU I" d--n\',ltl0I1..a1 Ilr. I;~ht .. ,"c-. lhr ... "bln t 01,.:1..:\11 ... hdhl It"" '\If 'ct hhwct 'he \1ll"Vil\l"l1 chi th, \ Ie
mtkl,.lh 1J1al.llfi, ) .>llmn!,: 11l umy . 1\"" IlOlll'\,," \I'~\ l\ml \he Uh\l' \ \I U,\\\l"IIU- I • Yt
\ . . " J'" 1'411\1.1 tu the
ttlI'll (what \h .." "t'nh:ntl' I i,hhU' (h"P\Cl ~' . CUII1I1.\ '>,11\1\ ,hI'{ hlf ,
I Ioh'·/.b

tllf/Hh
fn~·IU.f .. lui>
,,"on JJ I 11
.. .fnrmJ ~ "flip
Rillil 1.1 () I
-- nHlll' \I,d "I"t.\11 I.'july pUll" III titt' "1\Uitll\C

Allho'l)!.h itil uWfwhl'll1l1ilV il""I\llIy hi Ihe WIlI\(I' \""¥II,"" place: In

\ l\ltl\'\'1 1ll'IUrI' Ihe tlm'cl u"I"L1 11\ 'h, 'f h.1 I ' WUIII UIIII'(, thl P",d,<.c" "I>I
I1I1'VI'r,a l. '1lw(e I'" illall Illl/lIhel 1>1 V()S IanVI1"vr • Ill' he I
l'xaillpk of whid, I' Mah'g,,'y.
'''nw"
lurA"h
Ij III kl ' J! I [I /0)
\\lHk 1'( 1" "ur1 ""
1'1 ..r VOS (Malagl,syl'
I, I I', I Nahlla ny lllpianatf" ny vehlvavy,
IJI /.I

-
NrJ'" /«11'/
o,lIW Ihe student Ihe WIlIl1an
IJ ., '''II~u"f'l' h,,, 01111 ,,,lIht'S, II will "I'll h"~c 1>IIIy PI"II)()"IIt>n~ " \ he woman saw the slLllknl '
•
1I"'nl ;11 Ch"l'lt" \ l'o'II><>\lIiOIl\ HIe Ihe l'l/UI\'"lclll 1>1 PICPI"III,," ~n
1
As we ll , there lin; a very lew OVS and OSV \"ngll"Sc" "II 0\ whlh mtu
lallcuagl's th.1I pl".'t, till; ItC,IU at IltL' cnd 01 lhe phnl\L' ,) lurkl h I he , poken in the /\l1lllll>n oa,in 1>1 Sl1l1th Al1Icrlca,
"
t'\ IJlJ/>k
•
h,,,
onh 'IIJ/i,,'\ ; a\ C\pt'L'lt'd, ,It a ISo h'" 1'1>\11''''11;011 (II
, . . . .
' lIr
II I r
11""/ prt'/><)\IIJ1>f1s. II",,, J1lu,lrakd III Ihe rOlll>Wlllg '~ntc ncc , II)
61 OYS (lIixkuryana);
"Iullel ajIe IIJill kil.lh,UJ "I dIU Kana Yllilimnn biryekollH>
\hnl"1 I\}sht' 1t>1 bout. , L' huy P,l It,h ci1ught b(>~
'1\IUIlt'! tloughllhc houk lor ")'\hc ' 'Th~' \loy caught iI II.,h •

m
,,1,,\ Ik" ,lu.\t' l\t' la('k dl'laikd desnlpilon, lill (llusl of Ihe world's '"nguagc~ (lSY (Apurina).
much of Ihe II Ink IHl sy"t"clll' univcrsu" h"s tlcen re,trit:lcd 10 lhe slIIdy n; Aflana not" "P'I
II nld oflkr In "llIpk dCl'lal,III\'!: "eJllCJll:cs ,"Ul'h as Tht' WIJIIlt'II/JIIIJllhp /WllIf pil1c,lpPIc I Icl~h
1'.111,'111\ .m' ri""iliL'd in lnll" of lhe mdc, ollhc sullJect (S), dUl'CI 001,',1 '\ ktt:h a pinc\,ppk:
«()), .lIIt! I t'ro (V) rtlL' Ihll't' Inns! C\lm illun WUlt! "Ilkrs (in d".,c,'nding !lfdt,(
 'ti,1 (lAoS It'(~nt)

1ft} { n~h ....h

S "' OrJ.nem"
H.uui . . h hke ... h.\ggi,

b. PP h.")\\o\\ ... 'em-

Ge()rg.ma kft \ Pi' on Sunda~ \.
~1.\nn('r 3d.,erb:-. o\er.\he~mmg\) precede the
!?-ener;>lI) tollo\\ the verb 10 YO language ~tb In ()'" hnguag
17) Jap:lne~e (S-QV {Xlttem. a........ecn \n ISa)}:
l\ tanner ad' ern precede ... \ t!rb"
hu) aku hasiru
•• u,.' lH" n , mh.. rh.lIr fa..... l run
.... \ Ill' nk\fh,,"r
1<') Engh,h (S-YO panem, a, ,een In 16a I),
~ tanner adverb ro\low, verb,
:m, Sail) run, fa.L

With respect to po,~"ive ,tructure., !here" an ov'erwhelmin d

enee fe>r Genitive + :-; order in OY language .. and a (,orne" ,-" pr er·
preference f or, . + G erutne
" . ord er'In YO languages. ~u.... '" erl

}9) Japane,e (~Y panem, '" ,een In 150)):

Genitiye structure precedes head,-:
Taroo-no han
Taroo-Gen boo\;:
'Taroo's book'
201 French
a . 5-\,'0 panero
11\ e. ,~ Ch tee 4. .....1:i
Pierre aime ~1arie
'Pierre likes ~larie:

b. GenitiYe 'tructure follo'A head.':

ta mai;;on de ~tme
.h from
the hou..<.e of Gen) I.me
'.I.arie' , hou..-..e'
, mm 0\ I
Engli>h, althou:h an \,'0 language. eiliiblb th Gen - " and •- - (;en
r:lttem,:
:J,
a G n .... ·p nero,
1..1J) ', file d
 ... Yl

rilmmati<al
hi rarchie

SubJ<"-"t
Duecl obJ<'Cf
OIher
4{OSI mLI~ nI ,

. Among !he /Il.1J1~ lypolDglcaJ ~oomen- ~I rompl. "'"th thi

L yero agreement. first menuoned Ifl ChapleT .. (secuoo 6 -I). A
example, sho". there are language, Ifl "hi.:-h !he \ em agree
!be:
lib
>ubjecl and there are language I f l " hich II agree> "lth both ~
!he direct object 3 = 3rd person. ,g = singular. pi = plural. P 1=

:!:!)
.-\gre~""th subject only (Sparu'hl:
Table 9.; Ob'l:rUenl' founJ oro '-hnguhticall~
SlIbjl'CI
Juan parti.o, P
I ..
, 7

luan lea\'e·3/sgJPst b d ~
~

'luan left,' h
f
II
:'3)
Agreement" ith subject and direct obJect S a/uli);
SlIbjecI I Dirl'CI "bjI'CI
lurna a· Ii- "'a- piga ",alOto
luma 3!sg Pst 3!pl hit children
'luma 1111 the children,'
Ho\\ e"er. as predicted by the hierarchy. howe"er. there are no lanl!U 0
II hJChthe "erb agree, with just the direct object. ~ a_c, In

1.4
Explaining u~nhh~e~rs~a~'~s-~L;"mgu1'l5
::::-::'-::=:--.~-----:---:--------------
are sull uncenam about how 10 e.\plain the eute f
lin' u ' .1 . ' nee 0 maUl
~UI' e Uill,'ef'a . '\onetheles'. a number of interetin" propoaJ h .
been made. and It I \\onh"hlle to conlder some of them h;re. . ale
 1111 I.,IIIl. (II
\ 1\, I'\\~I'

Morpho/Oil ~
1~lrhl hl\\I\lhtl\~ (\I(l)
"I
'" ' .d \ hl,"hh lll\L 1t1 V.

VI'
VI'

V N I' NI' V
Ih' l N I h,t N

N
;'
N
/~
V AI At
I I I
tr~," ment
flgurt~ 9.6 Tlw .\tlULtlJrt' of.1 wOld (on/.li/llng tI dl'riv.lIioll.lJ .llti, ~lIlcl.Ir)lnfll·( (1011.)1 tlllix

Syntax At le;!sl some SYlllil,'tic lllllvers,,', may be e'plailwd III tenn, of the H . I
- , . ~'I) 11'11
Ihe humall nUlIn pron's,,'s M~ntl'lll'l' slluclur~ (oJl"dcl Ih,' 'lllnlnary III '
order p;!lIerns ill Table l),M, which is based Oil Ih,' Jlnplicalional lIniv ~I"d
3 The wllrld, langua't" can I,' loupc,l ill"l a le"'"vely 111"\\ lIurnlt<:1 \II
dJS(;ussed ill section 2,,1 "s,Ii, lanvua!!C l'IIIHIi,", liLI\\C\CI , 'ellcllC CLl''lllcalion I~ 1l1l\l'II\IIl'~ ,\rIll 1I1L \ ..1
,lIlUIIlIK'lllllca")(l,,
Table 9,8 Woru order paJll'f/lS P"lhap' the higg"si {'/llhklll I~ IItlply Ih" ,lIlll\lllll \II ,Iala that 111\1 I I
( '(}fHIItIlt'n/,\ Onlt'! III \ '() 1l/II,1:IIl/I(('
,'(llk'tt'd Iwl"I' Irll 'lll,ts call Iw 1I1II1t1l1'III ahuut Ill<' lOll", \II ;1 '''HII' III
(J"II'/' III IJV I/II/lillllli"
1'llIglla!l"s, \I "'lItl Lli th.: Lt,llhlce '" IllllI,k~,l!k" fUI t:~,IIIIJlk.thal (11I1Il ,It
I',~ NI' I"l'posilion NI' NI' pmlpo' Jlioll itlllHltlallll1l ha, hn'l\ ,1<:l:lIlIlUblcLllll plllpll'" a L1,'Llllt',1 dOl'> IIt';'IIIll\."1 11L~
V'" 1'1' vcrl> 1'1' 1'1' verh till 'Ilag'" '1I,\\t i ....1 1.ll1 "I lit" lallgll,'gc 01 Suulh 1lll'lIla ~\lI 1,,1111,',1
V '" ""I11/ler Alh wlh /11(11111.:1 Adv Mllllnel Allv velh IIld .\lI,lt.llL:l ,ll" ,ltllll'lalt\l'1 ' lI\1\..l\ll\\lI ,
(/"11 '" N
---------------
JlOUf) ~(,.·lIilivC'
----------
!!l' IIIII Vt' 1101111

Olle 1,'n'lI! nplalla!IOII ~s !1I why thl' word mdl'1 prop"I!i," 111 Ihl' ,emil"
alld Ih" d COhl/llIIS ,lusI,'r logethel illvol Vl',\ ,'llIllrast hl'tW""1l 11~'hl hi andllll~
- , III lIl,lll\ l'ol'" S, Ilil 'Ill I I,ll; lit" 1'1 "hk III III .; I Ihli IUllg III Ie I IIf I:lll lIa
hI hI' usnl III 1'1\)1'" III' ',lIl'llC: I lall)" 1111" , I h I IS 111111: til ,l'l m III
'\\l'1" II \1;: \c.:
"1,' ,II
1 \:
IIt.Ll houhl • I IUIl :1II 1;111 'ua 'e I tuto;"
 1111 1\
'tilt 'H I
\I

11111""" 11" , •• ttl"" '"," \ "" I"Hq In

It,." ,\,,111' ,III lUll\' 11\' 1111\ IIh IH\. , Illp "\
I 1'" I 1\11 " hi 1\11 \ I,tt,IIII'\II)

~ ., 11\1,\11\1 I', III 11\1 \\\1\\11

\\\\1\\\\\\1\
, ,\\h ~\1\ II
\1\11.1\1:\1\
1\1\\h "h\" 1,,\1\1;\1\

t 1\1 (i\ 11H.Blh \\\\11\1 h \11 ""hl \·\111\\1\.\1\ I ~II\ 1,\ ,\1 -"kl\ \1\\" Ihl I ,,\
I" ,\1\1 hi I hi I 11" (II I "';H'" \II,\\h h \\\1 \\I,kl\ (,"Ih" • Ilh n\,\, \ '" ""~\I\\\
Il,1\pWIP' "" \\1\1\ h , lIH,'" II' h \ 1, \ h\;\\1n~ "nIH Ih, '''""h \\\\\\\1" 1'\
(~,'lhH .mal ;\Il\ ",h, 1 \;ll\r\\'\~I' "\'\\11\).'1\\' \1' ,\n' ""\H, " "\ (,',m.\1\\\ hl\ \
\,HI t b, ,'1\ \ '"'" '\h' NIH!h l1\'''\l i1llh \'" S,.\\\,h11;\\\"", "1,\1\, h ,,\\ \1\,\\\
IIh ""kd elld h"lI1\.- ()\,\ h \'\,\1\\\1, ). ;\ I\\;\\r\\ 11\ "hi," \\.\ PH\.' 1\
Nnl \' (lth
h\ l\h ' ,"IHP \ 'I litH II tk \ ,'Ihkd h \ \'\lhh .. NI" wq,l\I\\\ .• \"'\ \ .UtW "I""'!...,,,
nil 1\\1' 1';111'" ",',\lld', Ih"'\\ "~I '\"'\\;\1\1\). Ihr 1l\\"'1 NtH'h \ '1''''',lm\ \.m \1.1 I.'
;\1\' S\ nh h ,Ind \ l,\HI"h
ttl\" \\,'''\ (~\"I\\'\H\\_ "11\lh h \1\\ hhk ~ (1\'11\\.\\\, \)\I\I'h, \\1\\"";\,, ,\'"~\'''''
,\111\ \ '111',,".1\ \)\11 It \.1\" ,,\1"\ 1'1.-."'",\1,,\ )
"'1',,\,,'11 H' 1\,,11,1111',' "',."
\1\ Ih\~ \ ,,,,,d '1\ I ' 'I\H\ "t \\\ \ ' I\m\ , \\h, I ' l l I' t\I\\'I\ 1\\\\,11\.'" h';1 "k"" h
\ ,,,'1;\1\ '" l'l'''' 1\ ,\1\ '\H 1""\" Il,,,, ", Un\\,,,,,\ \1\\\ ,'" 1\", \'1\ I,m \ \'\1,,' ,\\ \
tIt t \hl' I l,," •• ' \\," ,\ "11 ttl\' 1\\11 th\\ . h 1\\ \ \,.\,t \1\ l,\'\1",\1\\ \ 1\ ," h
d\", \'1\\' ,~, t"'UI 'h, PI n hili Ih, \1\\.'\ .'.\ I'"
,,\1\\\ lull' . (,,'''''.\\\\\ \O\'\(
"h" 1\\\' \\ 11\ ",,\th .,,\ (,"ltl\,It\ ,H\ 1 \l'H\W\1\ \ nun,H'!.. l\1\ ,\1\ ;H',\ l\ls\ I..~.\ \
,,\ \\'" h ",,1\1' \ 1-,'11" 11\\ .,.111' • \ IId.IIII\ '" \h" \,\\h ,'1\\\11 \ ,11"\ '\1\111' h,',

1\,hll' II I.:.II__________-:-_ _ _ _ _ _ _~::_:_-::_-~----

(f t ,' I \

(1\\\\\,\1\

p"" h
\111.\"
In .",,,
\\II\...\;II
,,\,11 II
 1
I Hi t '/It. 1,,1 tit,
. ,... .., ..
'"~" ,

( ,.,1/. f II ( "/ I" III

I', I', " III III II

I f' IljiJ U lI1 dill 1'1 I, W I .111

1./
II,

I,d.,. I) 11 "", I II,. "uHlI r

-=~-
1111"1,,,

II I I, 111 ,11 I /11 ,I, I /,/1 III I

HI, '1111
f( IIJll h l" (MI/I/ / ""\'1
' II", ';II.VII' I,nllil I, ,,\ " 1.11"'1" ,," C""
hI' .h~II11'.I,,," J 1\11 • ~Un'- '-nfi.t.nlnc
,-"
I ~:' '' ( , "'"",h, ,11111 We ,I II,.. I,.' I Sh~l~ l"iI'" h, 111'"\" up ..1 Ku\ 'all la\ ,
1""kJi (,,,,,,, 'ill ~\la llJ. I/I" ,.IIII:JI' ,JlIII Byd"'lI "aJl (II' WI"'e "u \
' " ~~"U')' I lC
11,,1/, II" /f" II. I,wll/ v IIllplllldly, 1111 " /I'd 111.1 V,/l il Iy III I.II')! IL'I" '1/1 / , I"" t' l " 'I'"f,'UII' lI y. ,."" _,ii, wh,. II, IJI,' '", "I "I)rlh~1II PI)la,ul.'1hcWe \
.111,' 111111
'''' 1IIIItt
l"nli/wI' 1I111fdd y III IIllId, III d"y ILll y , III III V J ~ UI • III , HIli', , ' ' ;llI VI' III '"11" 1/1 ""\1- ( l el l! Slo~,,~, I'.. h I! ,,,,.1 \.11 al,an IIIIe \- I IW" h"'II
II" lI ,dl, I.J/llil y .111 ,,/I .I,'" "I/I/"d 11 11111 I ., /jll . II" 1.1/11' " ' /"'- '" II I /,1 I p"~' - 1I111 1',,1;1111 1) , ' \ h.' S,,"1h S\"v, III Jldll"d"," . \lul~allall M' '\"lIIall
, " I III!
J IIIJIlI' IIIHI ,III flu Ji /, ,11 1,111,'" 1(lJIlliIIW"- I.UI~jll.'}'l fili II II'Y, 'III I I ',1/, S" ,t ", ( ,"att,,", i.II.1 SI" vc lIl! (II' SIIIv' ''''"11 \ h.' I"" 'r Ih'ce la"lIlla' ar ull
JIIIIt ,i ',11111111'111 JIll Jill' illHI ' ''' ''"Mtil It •
'1.lId,III'1I1 illUI C Iii It 1111)
'11I "I /
I • I Iv,". ,,.,,\ l·" III /111 It",,, , 'II 'Ii lav l" III' Ihal 1,llh'lIlWh 1\\ lla..,kllh (,real w"
f lll"/' {, IIti h/llW II/ ,,11'"11
/111111'11111,1111.11 1/ "lId ., W'·""'IIJ
11 11 1"1
r
• ("f'
IHI "1'/
• j

III W " I M," Jill'"" IK'\(C I kl\ III (;, 'I , ,",, ISlav, I Mill.:t.lo0l3n,
III ,d/ii/l 1111//" 1'111,,,, '/11 ' 1.11'11" " 1"'_ III, W, .1, /I, Il' 1111" I Ii II IIII'I "iii VIII,'''''' I~ f>lilVIL. ~ ,. ,'~ 1111' 1111 11,,1 11,,1 ",,,VI! 11"" IIIl' ,11c.:,. llIlIII v 'Ial ~enlun laler
/I" III 1<111/1/1111' (\1',1/11'" 1'1111111"" ,I' 111111 (',,'ill.lIll ,11111 I~ (j"""
II"
1"ftH/II,'
'II II' ." ',1111/,,11'"1 .. I Ih St.." rfllll' III \. "!!''''' ' I "I'" \lied III lahl'
I> I " , II 1111 II/I/' IIII' ' 11//11"1/1 1 lillI l%II" """klll III " 1"11" "lid '>WII 'I .) I I
'III '" '" \ 1'0111/1 ', , II "~ 1/l1I ~ 11 .. I, ',j III /.d,I, 'I I I, /I I illlIl

Wdl,\llJ\l1
I ,II' ~1r"'11

It II 1111 lit" ,\: 11 ( I h

(/tillu /l ulIlI OJt "
S, l)l ( ' , 1,111 11 SI\)v,~
I J~, 1111111'
lI,dl.", ~ ,,,,,,j ,Ii 11 dOHlatl \'1" h
' 11' /1' II '-';111 "1111;111 1\ '111111 Ian
, IIH II,IIII.III J'IIIIIIJ' II I.I' 'J' l l t l ll (I •• 111111 lI u\ ,IlIi.IJl Lu all n
1 ,11 ,.1 ,,,. I IIIlIdll.~ h
 1\\1 (\ t\'\S\\ Ie AIICIN (1\
\ "N{ '\JI\(.\ , ,"\
1'hcn.· ,\If.' a.hf.l:n t\'\\r'~'. ri\l~ \~\Hcrct" tnl.\'I\.' \an 'u. .
:-.ptl~l.'n III l\(ll t\ll::r~\ lndl,\. :a"'htan, .mt\ ".IIl 'h~l1 ,'It\:''', Mm., 0\ the \"" .
nw hh1,)·lt.tni.tn N '3 Ih:h ,ll hht,l Fur\'1 '.lIt I' dn id\.'d 11th,) lral\q \ 1'Ul") Fun.l pc4ln.I' Smn~ nt 1he tl\\)~\ w \. g c!ih \)c\\,,,\!, \0 \.hl I.. ~\l.\~
,uh bl.ln,.:h~', Ill\.' le.lm.11l ,un t"or.l1Kh \.·,In(.Hn, \Ih..lll( .l\\U U -11 1l11d 1 d LI , u . c~"rc'\d (" nral\\.:h \
:\ ' ,
~u~crs) .\~ \ 10 1- n.lu. Bengah Pun\ah M'
'~l,!.'"lJ.l~\.·'. IIldudin~ \ k,·k 01 I' ·r-i.I.1I1 \.t"~l \.·.llkd Pa~l '.lr h~~n Ijillt...~ I .'. t.
In h:rll\ n\ Tn 1... ()
ara\\)1' \,....
1hndl and Un u nrc two <.ha\cl.::t~ u, the~. 'I. • ~\nf,: "U}lI.fi.\\\. 1\\\"
\n\I)~=f n'
lroUl). P;.,hhl Ilh\.·I'nn~·IJ'-11 tH1~1I.1~l" \l' ~\t~h.II11SI.\I1l. ,..llld l\.lIrdj,h "'~)~1.!'1'l. flt . . . ,. I
uifh:ren\ wrttmg ~)stcm~ an<. ~\rc ~\s~od~\h.'d
'''''e
. angu'\\' ~ \..
n' ..' Qt!, \.ue)l h"~e ,\u'u~h
\ . II
Iran.. Ir.t"l. nlr \.'.\ ••Uht S:" n.l). l )lh ...·1 1r."II~Ul 1.1I1!!1I.1~t:" .In..· 'PO,,"CIl {loUl\d ~'l . . l\.. P'lk,' h W\\ U\\\cr~n\ \ llta 'j
sl")('Ikcn pnnc,.pa )0 tn • "\an )' Mu~\in" whcrca!-. H\ " eu \Ure~~ \J{l\U \
",00h\.'01 J'..tn:-.. \.If rh\.· (,'nnet l SSR . •lIh.ll"'hlll.l . In flak.ht~ in India hy \-1mdus. nUl '" "l'Kl\;.en ?tim<\{\\
Lcs:, wen k.nown us. an Indic language \~ R.n . , 'J
were an entertainmcn\ eu:;,\C m,m~, '" G~P'"J' I\ '\~ ~hc""\!d
l*,f\'e ~.1" Ilk' Inilil· lr.ulI.HI 1~"Ulltl~ .
1ho\ the Glyp~lCS 1 \ d',
, h' M'lIdl' E . , n n la "'no were' .

-- ~ P errorll1 tn 1 t: ' \b l! . a~tII some

Invwn In.lll ttme in the M'ddl m~\\l!u to
e I\g", Tn,
returned \0 I n d lao u\ lr,lVC c.d , lI\!\\eadI to Turkc" ... d . e'i nc .... C{
f'~f"ol.Ul J= Elf'.IJ Hntdl · l ' l\ltI 'b ' "n I , eventuallv Europe.
Romany contains many orrowed words _ Pt\T\\cu\. ( J.
Pu .. hru Hl.~ II~.111
,vas ~pokcn In , T urk cy · •~ll t h c" ltn"\c 0\ thcir May. '""Tab\e Y rom 9 \Gr••" " Wh·\\,;.h
11
organilUlion ~f Indo-lranian..
wd"h 1n
"'. .f. " . -\ deplcb, the
\1.11.lIh i
(rUj'r.UI
Figure 9,8 I\lustrate, the geographIc location of \he Ind E
itlenti fled in this chapter. 0- uropean (amil,,,
R~"I1l.m) [= G~T''''-' )

Although no introductory
.
teXI could bope 10 present a complet
" e~q~~
'
o f the world
.
s language
... . ....
famllte" some fUMer
.
discussion
~,
of th' .,
\~ t091(: 1':'0
warranled lD order to Illustrate Ihe extraordmary diven;it) of human I,
{see Figure 9, 9 on p,"'0'1 - , anguage
Cdtic
Gemlanic
-' Romance The Uralic family (see Table 9,15) contains aboUlIWenty language and ha>
4 Hellenic approximately rv.:enty-rwo million speaken;, Uratic languages are spoken in a
.5 lavic UlaliC band across the nonhero pan of Europe. all the way from nonhero. 'o[\\a~ 10
6 Albanian Siberia, U ralie has two major branches: Samoyedie and Finno-Ugric, The
Amlenian Samoyed branch co ntain a handful oflanguages spoken in the Arctic region of
S Indo-Iranian
9 Ru sia. particularly in areas around the Ural mountains. and ahoinSiberia,
Baltic

1Sble 9.15

FilllllC
l't!nc

Finni, h Hunganan gan~~

f~h. nian O'tyak Selkup

\' gul ~ ·enet~
: .1.lInc \ L"pp)
K;\ r.: 1i.\I1 Enet.
I t\ ,)nl.\I1

r ur 9.8 l
 '" " .,

"'1<

, .
II ,I~hl I \ II~'
, III \,III,h I .JlIt tl j,m, ","" If '11/lIltllh
Ih", .. \ II,~ "
1 it ,1,,1\1111
, 'ill\
I" ~ I IIII,,·II·,"

'" ,II IIIH '" tH,., , t {,ff

, . . ,\1<11"11\11 I I II W\
1,1 Ii.

II" ', u"" ",I I'" J ttl II if

li"~l II h\ 11\ I rI , till h 1\
,1,,'"1 III I' I ,"11 "I Ih. I'• ,\",
• I "'1\
,q
II Ii"" II" I" ""'11

11.11111.1 10 II 1111111"11 I" "ph

Ii h 1,1t1'11.I1'1 III 111111111111
I' Iku .,1 11111 II II 1,111 '11,1',

"lit 11 \ 1111 •\ ,11 II Ii 1\, III

 98 t )NJIMP(HlARt IIN<'lJI<';11I ';
1 he.' SitU) Ilhc\illll.u1lII 'I

JlWllhlll} SO\
~lJt" MCUU/lJ'I1l
w"
Mal1d~'rln Wu Hukku
fuhh-".'H IhI!J)•. "Hh,lIlt.lIl1ll) uunllC'C \alwallc
I'iI')Cli I11 AnulY
('an\(lne~ - " ..~~---
,\'lIl1lh 11'1111111
,\"nlt .\"/IIIIJ, Shurpa i-\{)\.:.I.tIl
Kuru\ Kol.llI" h'IIII-'u
l il/IIII
Ncwun hl\l.\l..tn
SUVlllil
M .• "II N.II""
Kond .• ~'II;IYillillh
Ulahul 1',111' 1\.11 111111\1;, unintelligIble languages. Yel. the 'peake" th · I _ -
()lIulI MltIldll
KIlI. 1 nOlmally call them 'dialect'" for h1stnrica\ an('~c~~IC \'~I"" a!-. we\\ a~ hngu'';,t"
(;omll .. , U tura rca~(m' . •
C),uJ;lhH n,dit hccausc lhe _same ,W rltll1g s~!-,tcm i" u~cd acros~ China and .. ... -10 pan\CU\ar
Ildll by speake," of dIfferent
. .. Chinese lan"ll'Ines (,
., '" - . ee.. Ch' Can
apter IS be undCN(){ld
'
_______________________...:K.:.-':.:.~hIVIJ Il ttwever, the S 'nltle branch contains several d-\t'f crent Ianouaoc
' "'c'l<tn 4. I).
. (

------
which may have a multItude of dillerent dialects)" _ " ", each of
· Icell spok en'In Pekinn0 (Beij'ino) S. ,. rOr
h tnslance •.M'andann
-
C hinese has d la
. • o· I.ee uan and Na k
other major Slnlc languages arc Wu (with dialects in Sh 'h' n mg. The
Min (which include, TaIwanese, Amoy, Hokian. anda~~k~~~nd SUthllW).
(spoken in I long Kong), and Hakka. ), Cantonese
The Sino-Tibetan languages typically have SYO Or SOY WOr d order The
,Sinitic languages. are"aII tonal (a, are many of the llbeto-B urman . Ianguages)
.
and are predominantly Isolaltng. Morphemes generally consi" of a sin \.
CY(C) syllable. gc

The Austronesian family contains over nine hundred (and according to some
estimates over twet-'e hundred) languages whiCh are spoken from the island
of Madagascar, off the southeast coa.st of Africa. halfway across the world It)

Mulltla
Silllf;11i
Mllmilln
II"
ftltlll khmt"

V,l'III;IIIll'\l'
('.lInl>"d',II'1
M(111
Khlllal
Nicohurc'w
Ca,
-- -
Num:uwry
---- southeast Asia. Hawaii. Ea.,ter bland and New Zealand, Some of Ihe
languages of Taiwan abo belong to this family: however. Taiwanese. wh.ich
is spokcn by most of Ihctsland's residents. is a Sinitic language (ee aoove).
The large.t branch" Ithin the Austronesian family consists of the MalaYQ-
polynesian languages. These include Malagasy (spoken in Madaga'>car).
Malay (which;'; es cntian~ identical to lndonesian). Tagalog (the basb fm
"lIa\, Philipino. the official language of the Philippines). Javanese. and hundred, of

-
/L,II",,, other languages p<.)I-.en in :-'lalaysia. Vietnam. Cambodia. and the islands of
Illdonesl". The Pol~ ne'lan, were intrepid ocean tra,eller, and eoloniLeu
H~\\\ ail. Easler bland. and :-;'e\, Zealand. ,ome time between :?OO and 1000
,t), \\.:II-I-.no\\ n :-. \aby~)·Poly neslan languages in the PacifiC include Fijian.
illu I ibt'l,lII III ,,'JlII' III 1I111"lwl' Il/ '!,"ith'", Iltl' S'IIt> l,h,'lall LlIlJtly (S\'t, Table Y.20) i\
Iltl' l,tll'l',1 lallgllag" 11I11ItI)I alll't 111(/" FUIHpl'all , lit,'", ill,' IIhoUI Ih,w I\)ngan. Sam"~Il\. Tahili.U1 . . laori. lind Hawaiian \whieh now ha, fewer than
Itulld'l'd S'II1l I,hdall 1;111 'lIa!;t". II lilt ,I Iilia I 01 approxlIlJ;lIl'iy M'VI' II h'll,dlrtl ,)IIl' Ihl)lI,and nati,,' spcal-.cr \.

IIItlllI'li '!,,'akl'l' Iltn,' ,,"' 111(1 IIla.l'>l h',lIIdll'S: Ih,' I till'I(I 11111111;111 bland, S"nll' I 'cl'nl rcscan:h has cl)nfirmed earlier attempts to hnl-. the Aus-
,11111 Ihl' '11111111' hl,lIIl'll 'I" lite' ""I hl,lIIlll h,lolI' Ihe Ilh,'lan lallgllag"1 tn'l1l's(.UI famil~ \\ lth lhe ,\ustfl>-:\sialic' family of India ami S"uthea." /\sla,
1111111'" I" .111<1 111,1111 (liitn I,III~II,' 'C' pok"11 III Iltlrlltl';"II'1 II Int/1I1 N"IMI' ,\n,lllns rl'1,ltH)1l hlp is 11<)\\ VI Idc\~ acccplcJ, .
111111111, .lIul 1,11l'1. . 1)1l,' f',ltlltl' ch,u"Jetcri tic of Au If ncslan language I' the use of
I itt' SIIIIII,' hlHlldlltlJ'I,IIII\ litl' lallgll,1 'l'S Ih;1I In' l',tli '(, hllll""' , hlllll., r d\lllil',IUlH\, tall) l)f thc,~ langua,;c s at 0 use inti".:s, a phenomenon which
I'llIl''' 1111 'III II,' 1'(1'111 III I h'll, ( ' itlll,'sc l'oll"'ls 0/ "'\'l'11I1 d,<;llIll t. 1I111111all)
 ,," \"\
'"

;;::~'" •. n) ( hadH.:
S\'\lu\t l\t.\re~
On'ltl\t) r~\m~\li\!h\
:h\\h~\ ..
tt.\1\
).;.,1,,1.
Ha" ~
\1",,., Len.\g.\
,d ~n

~--~~~--------------- \ ~ .. ·.."lud ~r.ln ~h of . \[rn- \ ... lath':: ,.;,. Cu . . hi.tk. ",h\"l... e: m ~,,\
" h" d £. h ' , " em"", ""mage are
'l,,)\..~n \\1 l C ~U ..m. t \l)P\~. S,)m~\3. and l\.en~3. A ,hird b{:ln~h" B~
\l\I....\ud~
. ......~\er.ll \..\n£.uJ.£.e~
. \.11 A\'i!~n:.\.
... ,\h.'f\lCcC't
... and. "\","" ~\.. 3,....... luare<'
~,...r• .... Ul...\\ r~
.U\d T:\lnaI\~hl.
• ... . ull. another branch .,- 0\_ Afro- ."-,i3tiC
, . Chad"h.:.
- cont n man•
l"lf th~ lang.uage ..... o\ Chad and . 1gena. ~uch a~ Hau~. \.:'nh e ~f~
'-\'iJ.ti~ \angu3g~!'oo. Chad\c \anguag.\! . . i.lI'e tonal. .
The tifth and large'l br.:mcb of Afro-A>i3llc lin tern" of number of
<pe,\kers) \$ the .'~nul1.:br.:mcb .. lan~ \n)\\ extinct) language, men,i neoi m
the Bit'll were ot enUll': I.)ngm. ,ueb a<B3b~ Ionian (al 1-n0\\I\:b .-\" nan
I.)f Akkadian). lOld) Cmaanlle. ~Ioab\le_ Cl=ic:li Hebre\\. and Bibhcal
Ar'J.l1ui..:. Biblic:" ll'r. P:lic>tmian) .-\rJ.ffi:llC \\as the language 'PO en \1\
p"lestine at the ume ot Je,u,. and \\-:1, probably \us naU\ e lan~ua\!e
Classical Hebre\ b3> not been 'po en :is a nan\e I~!u;\!e (Of \'>;
,nilknni3.. although it h:b been n1:llntamed :b a wntlen l:mgu;ge -b _ Heure\\
s..:holars. ,,[00 m Hebre\\ d hrae\i) i, nl.t dire..:tl~ descended from CI "ICal
Het-re w : rather. it \ 3.> :realed f re-.:re:lled \ at the beguming f Ihl, C~~
\1\ regularizing~, m 3S -{> of Cl:l",ical He re\, :md adding t\ 90
\.~"'. ~ IOOem Het-re\\ h:b nl~ ha~ ,mmuni~
F.\~t f \\ d -ad :"~ .
::till an theT ~ un.: langua e
\\ hI' are mutual'~ \ t -lligi 1. arleo\!' (If .-\r3.bi.: en:ill ,
,"th fri -a and. throughc>ul the . ti J.le Ea;t .-\1.\ f the>e are d
C\.h,,-.ll .\r.ili,-. \\hKh :l:- th hngu ge of th Proph t • \
1'1. \' J -, 1.,1' \Sl~un.. d l' th - language of the • ran. the 1:
.:;;: uti.: I ;ua~" are.:h t'rued b~ a '~'temo ll'I)Il."Ql:I:ult3.
n \ t d ~ , m'UlI ,1\\
- t an m,
tnft
n (1.\ an Ch
 '1 I II II l'ff I 111111 1
i
II .. Iii
11111't I,
"JIIII HI iI··/'{ A111111/, '1/1/
/ " ~, I ' ''''H H " / IW

~
I 1,1/111It!
,,. ,I
11/"11 /1 i , ,." "
11 ,,,,111,,1 11
,'j ll ·' 11"
I t, I,,~ 4 t till ,
~ I' ,111 1
~ ,11 1.1 ,
W"II<'
It Ulf
1111111~ I

IlI dl ·,
P\ lo ,p l , u l ~ \I

111M'
~=======I·'r\.-'======_

"

i ~'I' III\""' \ '" •

'" ,I" \I ,111\' . ,''"'
\ ,,,, Ii , • ",," \ , " "
 ,llll3th--
~ 5.lhl plill
Cl-itv111l3
re nutJaJ'1
~ ~lg nqU: 3 J'1

~ ,ou3J1

aa l;oq:;oiW

~ Deeoan

B _tay=

~ Ch. han

F un! Q.l0 lu<.,IUUI."'"


24/
IDellooniendl 76
I len! illD him.'
In ilddiuon. !he na/He languages of 'orth Amenca te nd to have
eJaboT.ue sy\lem of pcro;on and number marking a.~ well .,
'J ' a nOlln
4. as fiIe.. Ion syslem hased on ammacy. For In lance. AlgonquIan lang .
l 'e Cree do not classify noun~ as masculine. feminine and ne uter as ~~~o­
£u:upean languages such as f ngll h do, but rather dj~tJng ui h betll
animate and Inammate nouns llJth anImacy being treated as an eli5Cnti~~
grammatrcaJ concept so that men, pIpes and duck all count as anImate.
Although ~ingui~l~. ~ave ~ucceede.d in plllC1ng thousand, of the ~or\d'
e isolates languages mto farmlle'>. there are ~t11l many other language thaI cannot be
l~ua g
classified. A langu age that I not Imov. n to be related to any othet \I'i~
language is called an i~late. a~
Bao;que. ",hlch IS spoken in northern Spam
south-we. tern France. IS ~uc h a language. Example~ of other lan!!Ual!e i<;ola~
throughoul the ",orld include Amu (northern Japan). Burusha!eki \"Pakistan).
Kutcnai (Briti. h Columb ia), Gil yak (Siberia). laraskan lCaliformal. and
Yukagir (Siberia)
Hm\cver. in recent years ome lingui,ts have claimed that all language are
an
ultimately related. Advo.:ates of thi po,ition have attempted to t up a f~
large macrofamilic. to .... hich all the languages of the world belong. Should
thi' claim tum out to be valid. the Idea of language isolates will have to be
ahandoncd (. ee the nexl cellon).
---

relatiOmhlP
!j -41, It.. II ,t I "

I iii l 1IIIIUll Ih.1I ,IPllluJI;ttlhlh'ly 1.\ thl'lI' .1111\ 1'111\111 •

. r .IV" In. '''Hl II m It I
I ti l lY ,,11I1U'1\ IltllIl I II/III
I I 1Iy'1I1' , 1.f"IHlhj~t,.( (II r/,,' 1M II II I ~ WI" 1\
o 1..:, tit, II l\lI rlhl \ \. "
(1I11In" " (IMtI.1 ... UII III Ii I II tlluh' III lilli-nil \II ItHUh II. ~
II tl~ t I,IIIt l\idl I.m\
11111'1 hlilldil" I n I t I 1\"11 I ,HlVII,'!-,,," h.w " ,", 'III' 11111111 I 1\ " v Y
II.
Mt I III II ~ ,\\ ,nt) M)f
01 I IlIl-IllI "I H- II'
"I 1 f.,h"t- 11\ III",' 11I"l-! it II IIc' 11 \ S"\llrl1thtl \,t'J\ "\~
II ilth~' 1 ,II "l l! " loll ,.\ t lI(tuI~t'lnl LtIlVH.IVI' ' h\lJ \01: \t .11I_ I " I 'I l'
"
1 \ In
.lJ'HIIHHI'I I,
11. I"''')
IlIt'!'i'·I. I~'HIl)I1II1\'"1 III. ty,lq\t) 'Y I--t.;tw i)\llbla1111"I\hl~\)(tll~ hyH (Iltll1\~ \fu\
I (lIITlthl'l~ ... ltn\ hdi.'w It u·I,..,H\11\loudt·,\ Il#;U"t\~ ()tIki "I.Ih"n.tl \III I\u lHllII
l-'tlllU'''I 1t11"1 lOlli' A I 111 M," " I., ,,'1I1I\I'V, elhh,"~ hy V \ 1I1\l\~,\1t (Nr.w '{PI\!. I\t;.lllrI1Ul;
I'H'NK, I ')7K" I I Llwkiutlo " ,lI\1l \to On tlltptll il1lona\ and dl ,lllhll\l"I\;'\ I1I\1'H~1 tl\' "\
WOld Ullk" '/01",,01,.1 1.11' till'll" \ Ih \,H 2\~ (\lJMHr. M, \hycl'~ .\t\\L\t:' 'lu,~
(iH'\'tlI1l"I)1Iitll wuut IlIdq l.'Ulh'\.lIl\lIl " J,WI1{IIH1{I' ()~ MI \ \~ \ \')I)l), 1"III"tn1 01
SOllf/fh hy 1 ",1.1,-"111' IlII ((\tl1\h1H\~'l" (',lIlt\lIh\)H" Vnl"f." Ily PH· I. ")~\I, M
\(llh",-'1\ !"I hut',," A (,'HrI,' '" III, 1.JlIlglitl!o:.·c; 01 tit.' World 'L;t1I~\I.t ,\'l 01\'('1 ,I PUll 1,:\
SllIllllHd lI"'\tl~t\y. \l»7hL III \.\",Id$ M'JII" IJUll.!lIfl1,Wl, Cth\l:,\ hy \\ (lImnc
l(hilHlt thlwd \ 'Il1\t'r 11 Pr ,.~. \It'Hh. Illd t\k InUI \,I}hlln~ 1.:11' 1 1111'I'ntlI111/
1

IIlff/ 1t1ll J .J1tlr.'Hl~I. du(d' j III ~ nh I I ( t.llltnu! ( it\ttt)II\1,~ 'tanh}I" \ 'IlIver~\ly

"",,,,1'I7Kl
I hI..' dIM. lI~ lUll 01 1BUI\'" \" t al l
~1.'1I1\1I\""II" 1..\ he\u,".
('Ut1\1Il"'''' l\tKl\..: t
(I' };l) 1Ill" ""1111,11" "I III I 1.,11 C
llll'I.'l(h"S thl.· dll\.~~t "hl'-(.:\ t ha n.1 lItl 1III\1111\II\H'I11 t\l the hunk ~
H"llllllllell,I,',1 I I,,,, I II ,\.,';\ llll (), S \'"" (lSV I.", 'lI,' .<~, [III'" Oh, 11,,1I1al
I .111 l\t,t~l' • h) n l)l.lh hilt; .lIll1 (j \111\\\1111. IIII'ltlllllllll,1I Jourtlal oj AIIII'fit WI

""!""'I\ "'" , "I,~I'" II I \ I ~I I\)'... _'IIII"};I) III< ,II ,·u ",,"OI'"I""lh'"IS J MClli '" c·""" 2 I
U
lilt' I,,. '" III 1/", ,h,'/lI'" " "" 1/" ""1,',,.1 Ih,'l II' ,1''',,1
/""I'''''~''''. _11,,1 ,II, Ih, "11"""""' 1.1I1l'1~ III I.'"~·II·IV'" /l1l1l1d Ihllll,phll'lI II,;' t h.\ '- ,\ tn\ Phnt\ h ... UI\I\\!,l~l.II, til lun,\Ol1ant !\)~I \\1 • h H \ 11Illhhllll '1Ill\ ,
\I"dd I,,, ""," """11'11111'" 1111'1111'1 III ,/,",Ii~ "'''~'''''I'''' """'l'
11,1,',,", III ~, HII I I III
\ 1",,'1\ t1...c
'ul' '( ',tl (" Ja ,IIfII ",nti Stu," , III 11,1"'" IV \11 fill hi I rflmklli.
••
l'IIII," I' I 11 1"'" 111/ l 1.1. 1'1' h' 7 (, "'1lI~ K'''IIIc~1 e
Ih," Sf""I'"" 11,,11,'11"," lI'hl ell/I,'" "''1'1 (Ih",,, III ,,'1111', III Ih"11 1I 11 f,tll lllll' '" all P u\
/1/'"/"ltl I \".,11", "I """ III, '11111,,' elill" h." "1"""'1,,,1 ., 11 II II I "l'I III I'll'S)
J", '11' III uuh"I,,,I,. ,,,.I,,
,1/11' • iI", 11,11" "'111"""1 I h;oI.I' "" ""n III hll'I),,"
4'. ,~ d'.lhh ~ \\u ... hm .",", liltC')
\l

.\
.
u
'
\'

~ .

,\'
U'

\"

\» \W \ "" 'rth c\\ GUl\\c ..\)

U

¢
'\
" " ":t (i

"

m n
1'.'/,IIl,m Pabu bland.,
I 7

m l)

I. 1.r

n
 1111 (II\,
\ 11 II 1\1 II,,,,, I Jl
.. I .. \I\t.I(·\'>\CI\
l.-) tanuna nay
cuuntry our
J) lUte (Stluth i\lt'\.u..'\l) 'our country'
p I k ','
7. To whi~h fa:nihc<.;, do the fo\\uWin
~ \i.\ngu;.t~\!, ht!\hng'!
1 .
J ~ a) GUjtlrnu j) Yuma
h IJ b) Hakka k) Korean
h e) Lapp I) Kabardian
d) Uzbek 01) Koa'>ti
e) Sandawe n} Aramaic
m n f) Huasteean 0) Flathead
.t De~('rinc the morphological characteristics c:>f each of th g) Faroese p) Telugu
languiJg~s in. rerm!'i t.he ~our-w~y system of claSSif1cationeofOUO\ljlll
?f h) Twi q) Javanese
."ieerion 2.2. (lOdh: = znd,ccHive or slatement) Ullll1~d i! i) Santali r) Navajo

8. Make a list·ct of up
. to fi fteen Ian
' guages spoKe h f'
iI) Swahili
anees an ct t ent.fy the language fam. n each
' l y to wh.ch Y nend,
~_I
and·acqua.nt·
.
IU- Ii- sOITI- II
He ong\.
we pSI read indie
'we read'
b) Lan'ian rakst-u
las-u las-am ralst-am
write-I sglPrs
read-I sg/Prs read-I pllPrs ~Tile I PIIP"
'1 read' 'we read' 'r write' we wrile'

c) Japanese
gakusei-wa homer-are-na-i.
student-Top praise-Pass-Neg-Prs
'The st udent is not praised.'
5, Do a morphological analysis of Ihe foUowing data from La! .
you have segmented and J'd enlt'fiIed the morp hemes, describe hoVlan . AftCr
refleci the implicational universals in section 2.2. (j=[j]) w the dal~
a) lidotiijs 'pilot (nominative)'
b) lidotiiju 'pilot (accusative) '
c) lidotiijam ·to the pilot (dative)'
d) lidot 'to fly '
e) rakstTtiijs 'writer (nominative)"
f) raksutiija 'wriler's (genitive)"
g) raksrTt '10 write'

6, Nole the following data from Malagasy. an Austronesian Ian u

spoken on Ihc Island of Madagascar. Does Malagasy comply w ith gage
word order tendencies mentioned earlier in section'") 3? all the
a) Avy any Amerika izy. - '- .
comes Ii-om America he
'He comes from America.'

b) cntin ' ny lahiera ny mpiasa.

nrings the beer the waiter
'The wailer brings the neer,'
 o , ' 'I , .t t.;, l' I\' I.t 11 ",

11111 Iliull , III 1111,,11111111 1',111 pi ,1111111 I h 1111 I h'

Il' II 1111111. "',.111 1114 1 111 tll.d III "II ~ I"II'II 11111
I I'h 01 ,"'111\ IIhl ,'"11 ' I 1I"d I lillII'll I 1' 1111-'1111).'1 '

"n-'''''4 tt' tI."

( (I' It \,
iii

.'pI'cd l Il' , 11 PI.' I ill III l'

I ), "'~ "' It lilt 1\ rlllt'lll '(lI'l'"
.11 li lt" hdd~ IHt"'tlll'
I " ~'l'

AllglIl lIl
n""
I "".d
I 1\\(llt·

h -1II1"" III 1.. 1,,· Oc·d"IIII'I .. ,1I'

\lhilllt1l1
VIS II '" III "' !-S~ "II'
~I III'"
'i II "' \

" III 1/1 k'l'. IN "IKIf I 1I11(,,"11t Jill <I.

 B~ I
01
ilknlif) ing Ihe major componenls \If tan
In general. thc amounl anLt 1\"" t guag~ In the braut
• ' . ' • I ·' n apha'I ' d
e,hlhll depenus on ho\\ mUch the L C l tUrbane .L.
. .
There are man) \·anellcs nl apha ,'ram
·. "I dam ageLI and "'here
•....1
'II h'lUl - " j - wlft'd tcl the nght ear. w h\ b It po . ' .
des-:nhc some 01 the more Imp<>nam\lat n lhe 1QII Wing <ctiIII
II ...: " . ' 'lIt.: ltc' [h ' I ' ft ear' Th re are [w 0 ~:ll;on :'Ible to C .S. 'to" \ 'I ' . h \ .
SS\ .~apsy~ o ogN\lhuL,
}pe,. , e \111\
s .Or !hi "
Ihe brain are not ('omplet~l, '-1lle
"" . .. t · -.
' t ... ,
t/ul " , . .
I[ P th\\ .I} - !ll
h h . , \ ero, He Ialer wrote a ...,,\.ov
~~ .
~ about \he C\n.>rie "':came
. "ph 'I, U quenl I
.. 10 ;If\ In ' '1\\ e.: n e:1.:: errusphere and the . :>eQ -IL . II " . ,., n,e ~mltled R •
,, ( - . . th· . earon ••. '"'<l! The to owmg IS an excerpt from that book: -COltnllg I\lIh pikula.
'... xl' The - c 'clOd I' Ihat aller nght henu phere ,. "'" S.,~.
>
1 UI - .............. l'el:el\ es .""Ie \ re.::o\leci I" ing 10 read the headline, of Ih C'h
In I Ih ' kft e!IT. Ih. t In Ic'mullon ' ~~ lJC !rail' lerred 10 the left h In!
." . rpu .'~llo um Ihe bundle 01 fibres that COllneet · the t\\ oelllisnL any ,en,e .
to me .at aI\ . I u·Idn.t haw difticull~ ~ /(." . T_L ' """" but Ih<} didn t
U1· ' C ~ • he ""Ie indh·idually Dr in combination didn'l hale ~ "':\I.lng; It "a Imph!hat Ih< e
End n.:e ,:,'n,'emmg [~e ('ru~lal role that th~ 'orpus Callos Illi,~ L. h b'
only a tri 11e ",-11 ered } thai fael. ..
meaning 3nd
"
• ..
elen I\h)re alll3Z1ng.. \ ""
00 nu• l'
1 "r;un fun 'l1omng come from the stud\ ot patient'
- •
h UII) Pial. "
0 \\ 0 ha The ,econd week I r-an 11110 a coUC,!!ue "h ha
, _un'ic.Jh <'\erect ludles that h:1\e In\e tio"ted th leh.d ,cr, fruslTtltinl! for me to be apha<ic 'i~ce p . 0 Pl"'ned to menuon!hat 1\ m t...
p.l thl' . " .: . . '. ~u e ell nOrJO lIIai \ ha.JI' ,,-
,, ~ ,'n .:c)gnJ!l,)1I are reterred !O as spltt braID exne";~ eels OJ [11 •\".Ier to\lnu
. - \. ..
myse 1 lIonderin u why il lias \. '-.m.n,• facile
'f' • uuenrs 'h..
' lll'1 ... - ... ''=I
\ ided Jr;tma[K Iliu tr:ltlOIl - of \\ hat happeo w hell the he . . •lIel relall,dy sImp . I l' l h
e. I ad lost the ~ .
ahllil\ nul. Illlnkpanorlh<
10 con. . e'Pbnotioo "
prt' rrusPhe~ '
.. mmum cale \\ Ith one another '" c .hili" 10 engage in self"lalk. In other "~rd" I ~te "hallh <JIhtt., \ h3d:d lost Ih<
.. - - . • 1M I< Ih< bltm 10
It appe!IT from the beha\ lOur of :plit bram patlenls that ruth the luture - 10 \\ otT). to antiCipate or percelle il al \ .' about
•. d I . - e"'IIlOIWIIII"on\,
hemi-phere d~ .ho\\ some Iangu.1g~ und~rst~di~g. it i. mute~h ~~; It too" • great ea 01 etlon 10 keep an ab'lIa ·tio . ~ ... F
wllh the speec· 'hth erapt.I I \I.Quid be" In \Q glle a' d.t"· nm,=","I' 0«\ mple In ,
m;U\\ , pili bratO expenmen!:. a pattent I.' bhndtolded and 1lJJe0(. · . . B. ' ~-oan ~ . but
as I held \l In mllld II lIould s,m of fade. and chane"" " ere tha \ JUld ' em.
ex.~pk.!1 ke~) b pla.:ed in one hand. When the ke~ i held in : ~ a simplified ler>ion rather than the "ne 31 the "n"~:d lei \ If '" endup g":ng
the patient ,"all ea. II~ name II. be'au.·e the nghl hand is direetl) co ' t e " ellllCepoon. II "
though glYlIlg an abstraction requm:d '0 much of 101 adde.l lDlellig~nc< th:u half". ,
• • . . 0

the left hemisphere. \\ hl('h can .:omputepee.:h output. Howeve nneqed through the definition I would run OUi of energy a,ailable 10 me and re~, 10 . ~
. h d h . r. \l he
ke~ L placed I~ the Id~ an . t e p~tIen.t cannot a) what it i,. The n . concrete answer. '
hemLphe~. whK~ n:('el\ e. ~n~omlatlon hom the . ~eft h~d. knows ll bi-
there. bU Ilt '::In nellher put thl. Into \\ ord. nor Iran ter the mfonnation A consideration of ~!oss·s recolkcuon · lead> \0 some pm\ ' 3the
theelered corpus .:allo. um to the left bram. ' question about the relation hip between language and thought. I'll pc Ible
• plit br:un e xperiment.. ha,e pre:ented ne\\ and imponant knOll that the ab i li~ to think about the future is dependent on language' Doe-;
language support abstract thoughI':
about the fu nction ing of the brain. In tenn: o~~ overall in\"e . . tt :-
The type of aphasia that ~!o, · repons in'ol,e, a 01l ture of clerlCt -
methodolog). ho\\ ever. the~ are not quite a: e ·Ouc as they seem. In f~ u~
speaking. listening. reading. and II TIling c'me othe.r. forms of aphasia.
logi(' ofplit brain ex periment 1. Identical to the lOgiC employed b~ Br howewr. are much more pecific In these morepeclllC Coons. particular
in I 60. In both ca. the re ear.:her endea\ our. to learn how the noma! skills are 10,1. and olhers remain intac!. The ,tud~' of the ~tflC apbasias caD
",ork b\ e anunrng " hleh function are 10, t~· a result of the brain dam tell us much about th building blocks of language In the Nain. 3I
In the ~ e of plU bram tudle_. the damage I·urgi.:all) induced. In thei~~ and 3.2 dis.:u" the til 0 men Importantpe.:itic aphasia>.
of Broca" patient. di ea e .:aued an experiment in nature. In the follo\\1r:;
section. \\e return to the e e xperi ment In nature and examine what th, 3.\
re\eal about language repre . entatilln in the hrai n
Non-fluent aphasia , 'on-fluent aphaslll • (abo calk d motorapbasia) results from _ damIF _ -of ,..
..
. . ' I' h "Iltral
l,f the br,u l1 III tront l) t .:ll ,uleu
'
'. Recall tbat an ......... -,...·
.. IIIdtbattllebollom .......
ffllntcll IoN: IS l"'IKt'mcd ~ ith mc'tor acnV\~bIe for tile a1i:-= aI
of lht' front31 IoN: \BflX'a area
I I res~
'l'e Fi,'UIT lOA) .. lIt surpn IRgly, there _ _ _ 1111 • • •- 1-
aoe-ftII:Il"" ........
uffer damage 10 particulJr part tlf thm brau!> \. ~ . he the 1I:nII.-,-
ause of uch brain damage Is a stroke (alsQ called dfortful pet'.:h produ':lIon ( : . . - . .. IIiIlJIIIaI .......
_ _._aIIlar8Cddent). language d licit caused 0) damagctothe: of lll)n-t1uent apha.. la I gIob8I.... ~t~_1J
........ TIle study of aphasia 1 by far the 1110 I Important I compktcl~ mule. Of the WR
_ _. ._ . of language in the brain. B\ ob en Ing and docuffi(nung Important. •
. ..... ymptoms. neurolingui Is hale the Ile I chatK'( ThC'pee.:h of Broca
 II ' t t 1"
Iphd II
1111 II Hili

'I
,1\, \ 111. II I. 'I lip
" 1 hi Itll, 11\1 111'11

It 1 III" II \\ ,III I I ' \~111 " It .. II' H "I'

" h If I I "illi' ,I 1111 11", 1\1· III' ,\t. ,~,

"
1\ hi" lit t\ltM."
, ~It I
'IIt"I""
It U HI
h " .."
hI! '"
"I 'It I'
"" II"', Ilw

., 11\, 1111111 " 'I\" 1\"11 , d h y Iii,

I, ,It, .\" 11 ,I I IHI \ d II ,h, \1
"'It
III.
II" \ ,II \' jl , Ii ,I • " (1\ 111, \0'11\ .•
II", \\ ,,,.!,, I
\1 11 1\ )" 111\, 'lUll
,1,u lI ,alt ,I'11
If t It 11I1"1I1~ 1+1 1111111 111.11 Ih. 11111' II! III, III ,I'
'ph,j I, j I III I "" 1111 ';10 I Ih.II HIIK ,I II, ,I I
lit II I tlllIllIl IIld\, lilt III II' Ih, LII 1,1' 11111 1\' ,

II 1'1111 .. I • 'h,1I d,III1.1t 11 ,.1 IIlth I II! I II " li lltt l,

" Ikllt" ,If III, 11111 I II .. 1111 "it j ','Ihl ill ,.I, III , I II I\ II ~

111'.1 'II'
1111'4.1 ,

II,... . .."h.1 I. ' I .1 1<" fIlIlIl1l1 III Iflt IIlh I ",., III ,/I) 11111. 111,11 1111 p,JIII III I I II 1111 111 ' .,
I IIIIIIII ~
\ ", ... I.. . 11 ., •• 1. t ,,",.1 III II \,dld.l "'111",,11) Itt II ""I 1111 ull, IW" I I" 1\ ", I I , " ,
' 11.11
il11I11I. d i l l / f\ I, , fl 1111 1111 ft' \\111" 11.11I \\t 11\11 \ 'll d" It. II~'" ,III
\ Itl 'HII
II \\, \\. II \' 111111' Ii II ,. fl.utl (hI, • • 11111" I 111,1/ I \"" '" ,/ II n",
I, "11" 1,
/,"1/ I If" I l.t" 11/ ,'II/',III/f' UII<" I I IIt 11111, ,II, 11 11
I "1 1
'I
/11. I
"""I,
'nll( Ifl lt l nun l lilt I I II. II "It II Itlll 111111. I I I " III J "l' h ,I ' 11 I I ",*" III 10" 11
1,1,111' I 101 1', " "11'''1''''
I ,If'" I (\\ \\,11 ,,1111" 10, tI " I,
III 1111111 111
I
f I II"IIIIIIIlt \\ "" 11''''111 lit ,'111, 1 If I III. t I "f filII. 111111 ~ " I d· Ill' I I I" III '\ )
(itl, I 'ot· tI ,I, ." I , " 11" "' "" I" I" ,I II'tI, I "1"111" I I It II
IItHIi "I IltH1.'"I\ "' I ifill' fll"""' 11"" I \'1\ . 111 11 1111/ Itil III! "
';IIlt,ll
, II "·,,It
11,lilo '" ~ ",/" \ II , .1 I, \ \\",.1 ,I ' I'd , ,hi, I", .11' " II~' I, I, " lillil \
• F '11 1'1 ',
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11111""
" II 'II I I" .IIt" II" Iltol' 1'"'"1 ", I d, I I" , , III" ,It,,, I " ," 1; 111 ' t 'II \' 111.11 lit
I fUlIlIl"I1 lit \

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III''''' I, ~ ( lit! I" """1
,"11, """." "II" 110 It I ,,, , (,' 11101 rll III
,'f. \1"
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 xiUl'IiOIl deli!:!t at ~I "l~T) Ul'Cp I
artk'ul~ltilln JI..'th. ',f It j .. a pn, e-VClllf I
pl.lUnin g • . .h ....··IJan~1 and wrilinu U.... t-I ," itllglJ;k.
. . h- . . · tI"l1" 0\\ ..... . e" e- .... (.;lls lh lit
.~\ ~nll.ck~ ......lp ... I:h"';n'o Jislt.'ning. The writing of Werni~kc.at 1110lh.:h
dell,'lh
,
In sp".tl..ln!, .
xl The\ t) pIC. ,
. "Iii'· retain good s~'lIin
~~ g and ' k up'- lh.i,
....." .
tOfl1.wll) \ ~r~ gl)( .., •h .,'cr like their speaking In L IlUn(j\>. ,I..: q
. WUI..'lIlHl O\\t: .. • a"cs r ""1)1
Their \\ n[(cn pr . " , I '0 severely impajred in We rnick " . ' HUe l_llJ~
. ,.. IprehcnSlon ,.....1 "" e S aph ~n
Looking at aphasia in term, of hngui . . llC th ~
Rea d109 ....
\.tln , _.c> we letters and \\ords. but cannOt ,il'siil l'~ .--
Otlry gIve, U
C:.s. \f11:"':-'. r~lIl.·nls ~~:J:;I~~ion £0 be drown is that Wernicke~ilke an}' ·~1~ , h b ' '.
on la nguage to t cram. LtngUl"iltc lh",tlry h he . 'i a new n.-f\""",
ot them .-\ gaw the I I I - ill disturbance of language c , aph""iu n.. .... <1-\ en t . d" r"'" ,'-\We
with the structure of language, not with h . U H\i"l\\a\\), l:~mCt d
, h-'· IS a ccnln ompet . It, , k' d' - Ow \\ \ .... u ....cd. in h me
Broca "i ap d:-ota. . I age functioning. In s uch ence ~ listeOlng, spea lng. rca mg. and writmu I 1 C f>n)Cc~~. t·
I . h' t umJerltes ang u - cases - !he . .. c' n comrm.l th' ' , t)
~no"letg<. t ,I . hatevcr impairment the patient has In I:. Of c.nl~, looking at aphaSIa has been in terms of wh' t h .: e tf'.Ul\mna\ Way,!
language dIS{Urb3nt.:e. \\ . rcadinO' and writing. Istening .. <tj ' I f h "
The tnvO vemcnl 0 1 corCl1ca\ hngui~\s in lh ' d
ate patIent Can'~nd cannot u())
speaking will be malched III e anu , ' h fi
minor revo I u110n 111 l C l c \d. Aphasia rcsearch
e stu y of .ph', h
h 1.1.1a. 'i, ,ca.m.t:d. ~
4.2 the defiCit 111 terms 0 t le oss of knowledoc rc erR ave .hegun t"v th Ink ah'lUt
, ' I' I I
, .. presentatton, such.
.' d' g and wriling deficits that accompany apha ' k features, phonological rules, and perhaps Ryntact' t . as scman.tic
Acqu I'red d ys le'a as In addmon to the rea In , 'd " ,. Sta.' ,. IC rec Structur . Th
XI , h' hthedisruptionofreadtngan wntlllgabllnYisth ~Iere,~ linguists have also found that the Study of aphasia off . es, eorelleal
.
tn e d amman! man}'cases III w Ie 'd d edo~ ' ~, , I d" , ef', an ImpOrtant , I
. , ' I I follows damage tn an aroun the angular . ""nant testing theoretlca ISlltICtlons such as the one betw d" arCa Ilr
language deficit symptom, ThiS tYPical y's of these types of disabilities has led t gYrusOflht ,
and inflectlona I su f fi'
Ixes. een .envatlOnal su Ie"XC.'
In thiS section we will look
anetal lobe, An ana }SI 'I>" a sOIll , . " at some of the a '
.P ' ' boutthenatureofreadtng(at eastmEnghsh) e,~ which the mamage of theorellcal linguistics and neurol' " rea.\ln
mterestlllg theortes a ' . ' , f u I ' Th'IS [rUlt 'fulness has usually meant a mgUl',ttcs
~ e proceed to discuss twO contrastIDg types of acquired d . moSI fruit ' . has" been
B . , ' f th " n mcrease In the
, e ore w. h while to rellect on the abilities involved in the YSle\ia.. sophIStication 0 e questIOns whIch are asked about aph " I h
It mIght be wort h d fi read' · f ' >l>la, t a, aha
d U to this point in the chapter you ave rea over Ive thousand n. g Ot meant the d Iscovery 0 new and often b,zarre aphasic phenomena, .
war s. f Ph ds (such as the function words) are very familiar t "ord,.
Some 0 t ese wor. . 'h . a You,
b bl ecognized them as wholes, But ot ers. such as {/JIll' I and
you prOd athYtryou probably read for the first time. How then could y' Qr 8Yru., In the area of phonology, we have found that the phonemic parapha ' f
are war s a , b I' th ou kno j,t ul and ' II d' ff f
how to pronounce them? Many theortsts e leve at readers maintain a .~ eS r es' Broca's ap h aSlcs usua y t , er rom the target phoneme by only one
SIaS 0

' -to-sound rules Ihat enables them to read new words alOud
a f spe II Ing f d' b'l'
rules are important in the development 0 rea 109 a I tty and In the add' .e
. 'b I
of new words to our readtng voca u my" , ,
Phonological dyslexia is a type of acqUIred dysleXia 10 which the '
., II' d I
seems to have lost the ablhty to use spe tng-tO-SOlbln" ru es , PhonOlogical
dyslexics can only read words that they have seen elore , Asked to read a
word such as bIll' aloud they either say nothtng or produce a known
" .
that is visually similar to the target (for example, blue or bug).
Surface dyslexia is the opposite of phonological dyslexia, SUrface
dyslexics seem unable to recogntze words as wholes, Instead they m
process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules, This is shown ~st
the kinds of errors Ihey make, Surface dyslexics do not have diffiCUlty rcadin~
words such as bat that arc regularly spelled, They read trregularly spellcd
words such as yacht however, by applying regular rules and thus producin
the incorrect fOfm IjotfU, The most interesting aspect of s urface dyslcXics~
reading ability is thatlhey understand what they produce, not whatthcy sec,
So, if Ihey read out a word incorrectly, they assign it a meaning that is
appropriate to their incorreci pronunciation, For example, if the patient read
the word ,1\1'<'(/1 a., Iswi:U (and not/sweU). when asked whal the word means,
they would answer: Ihe Opposile of biller.
'l'c set
feat~rl '~g forllls distinctive feature (recaU section 3,1, sentence 1): 'with' ~ ('wIn and can
, ' 'nes under yl
therefore be eaSIly descnbed by phonological rules, Observations such as
ilion these lead us to believe that phonological features and rules might be good
tools to c haracterize how language is represented and produced,
pallent
In the area of morphology. the study of aphasia has offered empirical
support for the theoretical distinction between inflection and derivation, As
we have di cus ed. Broca' aphasics how a sensitivit] to this distinction in
Word
their omi ion of affixes in speech, Inflectional afflxe are commonly
dropped. but deriyational affixes are usually retained. Perhaps most inter-
esting is the tendency of some aphasics to produce underlying fonns of
morphemes in reading and repetition. Asked to repeat the word illegal. for
example. some aphasic will produce in/ega/. using the underlying fonn of
the negative prefix rather than the aIlomorph that should occur before, a base
bC"inning with IV, Again. errors such as these pomt to the pOSSlbtllt) that
h~nolo;ical processes such as nasal as imilation and the notion of under-
p ~ I' '.' b
lying f0n11 arc not only an elegant way to repre,ent IIlgUlStlC competence ut
arc also rele\,ant to the processing of language III the bralll.
The study of aphasia abo ~tands to shed light on the nature of semantic
representations, Most of the work in this area has concentrated on the many
 '1 h'~ \..·harh.~r t ... ~l\n\"·C'.rnl.'d :- 1lh n4.l\l, langu e
the.:- hum~U\ broun, I),ehottc nst~n'n
IUd
---
\ ~pr n,~
,Ill'\\ n Ihal Ihe left hemisphere \lllh" h
, - '.
.". aM pllt '--
C r."u, ea......
~~
"'.-..Il ....
'"
(or languag.e pn.'X: e ...... m~ tn nght -hJ.ndC'd It\d "I~ t'no1..\ o( the r -III ~

"I", .,,~d autops~ ,IUd."" computerized a~tdua" ~~\,ty

blood ·flo" ,Iud,e,
"
10 d.,lcnninc Ih"\ a\
cfl.:;).\)onhl"~
~ t""""'....... ._.
Itav.,
..... " ..... I\l ~.
the lett heml~flhere and ... ~dn~ \annu' -,' t' ,v.t:en pan\Cu\ ~--"WQIIl
•_ ". ~ age tunctl()~ \ \. at area,. at
Broca ~ area 1~ pnma.n\) r~"'pon ... \b' .. t • t HOi; ~n I
. '1 . " <>, \'Octh ~A· <lUnd Ihal
area , ... pnmnn::, respon:-.ib\c for lan"u' pr"UUC\lUn W_..... ~
... ilgC cum h ' -.•~'
surrounding the a n gula r ~ ro., play, ~n lin na pre en Ion, and the ~
our knowledge C'oncemmg. lanau~~le rcpr'" ,PO _m ~o\e in rCading M , f

.
° I"
·
'.
... e
the slud) f a p h as.a - language di,lurb ..n '.
.
c. cntahon m th" b .
I . e r.ln "0", f-",
,"~ re u tlng f d
"0
."
bratn. Neu ro mgUlsts, tmmel! tn hoth lin"tI. I'. . TO", 31l\age to ,,-_
· h"" ". t:c ~ 1(;'\ and neuro" ~ UK:
exan11ne t t: nlunner m WhlCh hn\lui~\\c co . 'Sc\en\':e.~ carduUv
. I . ~. m\'Otence " an
~ ,
6________~~__~~~~==~~~~~ danlagc. ~etr goa . h to _\llCrca.....e OUf under~'andin~ . e\,:\ed ~) bnun

~
knowledge" coded m hr,un ma\ler and ho... tho kn e ot 00... Itngui tic
\\ HERE 'S rn th" ,hJprer \\e ha\" (luumed some importanl finding,
mere d l'ur undersl3nding of the Iypes of language disturban ~c
proce:\~e~ 0 fl
.
- anguage comprehethlon and"
production.owled",,'
e 1-.; U-..ed'In \he:
'GL AGE? · well as ou d ce, -,,~"':"Y
re,u11 fmm damage 10 the b raIn. 3!> r un "!'.Iandln· '"
•
:L,-,XI3tion be£\\ een ,pe.:-ific are35 of the braIn and particular f Of !he Canos~mectom'Y i~ a .rare surgical procedure ~ to \real. ~\ .
function,. We ha\ e ,een thaI Broc3's ;)re3 plays a crucial rol an~. epllep,,~ It prey enb epllepuc ,eirere, from .preading t '- 'lhh . ere tonns of
;u-riculatil'n (If spee.... h 3nd in Ihe abilil) 10 cre31e syntactic repre e 10 !he . .. th ,. . . - 0 uv em"phere
It \!'I mtere~ung to nOte a.t .. ermcke patienb have di.fftcu\ .-
. I h ' 'en!4.~
"'emlde', ;)re.a pia)" " key ro Ie man~age c(lmpre c: n. Ion. and the an.. executing man) type, of sequenced behaviour ,uch '" :; planntng :DId
surroundin~ the 3ngular gyrus pia)" a ,peual role m readmg. atq getting. home by bus. or doing a w~h. ~ pure a"mg gr~)Cen~
On the "Other h3nd. \\ e have ,een thaI. in an important selll
. d fu . ' " f th . 'e, no",,_,
language u,e inv(I/\ es the Inregrale nCUQmn" ~ e entire cone~ -~..,
righl-h3nders who are ,trongl) lefl Ialerahzed fQr language 'how ' E'eQ David Caplan's 1987 book .\'~urolin~uisrics:md Ungui>1lc Aphasio/a",: An '",roduc,
13n"u3"e deficil in ca,e, (If damage 10. the ngbl heml'phere. Finall, .' 'Ollle lioll .s an excellent mtroductlon 10 neurolmgUlSUcs. A more pracncal al'\""'lch to
all ef(lnn.-
"
of aph:!.,i3 are accomparu'ed b) WQ rd - t-m d'mg difficultie, - ' 'InuaJl.~ aphasia and Its rreaunent" 10 be found m the Rosenbek cl 01. Ix",•.~rltasia; A
obsen ation suggests. th31 the slorage and retneval Qf wo.rd fonn, ~~\ Clillical Approach. The diSCUSSIon of the PET technique dra"" on Sle\en Pinl;.er",
199~ book Th" Lan~uage InslillC! \page 301) which is cited belo",.
diffu,ely repre,ented In the braIn. - be
The discussion of :lgramrnatism \\ 3> drawn from the rich litemture that include,
There j". theref(lre. no ,imple :llbWer 10. the que. tiQn: \\nere is tan
M.-L. Kean's ediled \olume A~r<11l11Mrism \. -e\\ lork: Acadenuc Pre .. 19 '5) and
E,'en if th~re were. the l:lsk of neurolinguistics w~uld be fa: from do~r yo,ef Grodzins\..,'s challenging propo:.ab in Theorerical PaspeCliles on Lan lUl~t
!be tnlly Important que,oon concerrung language m the bralO i nQl: \\beor D€ficirs (Cambridge. 2\1:1$".: , {IT Pre", 19')()\ ,-\11 alleman\e ~ch to Grod-
IS il? bUl: \\'har is ir? Indeed. the an, wer to. the firs~ que tiDn rna) have ti re l.insh·s is "ell represented m David Caplan and. 'anc~ HildebrMldt's boo\. Diso.-.u"
10 do with the an.W er ro the ,econd que,tlOn. CDn'lder. by analDgy. th uJe
of understanding Ihe Briti.h parliamentary sytem: To. 'I hat extent d~
knowledge thaI Parliamem i. 10 be fDund in LondDn advance the U d
g: o'-Sy~r.ICriC Comprehension \Carnbridge, 2\\=.: \\ITPre;,. 10 ),
. C.S. 2\\0:'" :J.Uwbiographtcal account of his aphasic experience" 10 be found ill
R.-c",-av ,irh.-\phasia (Croana.lII.: em\en.t~ of UllUm> Pre;.,. IQ- c\. Another boo\;
. tanding o.f how Parliament WQrts? n er, thai offers an e perienlial perspecl!'" on aphasic dis\llrban.:e t, H""ord Gardner',
Ultimarel), the gQaI of neurolin~uNIc !'
to., unde.r.,t~d. in neurolOgical 1"'- SI,<l:I.nd \lind(. -ew )or . Knopf. l'l':).
lemlS. "hal 13Ilguage I.'. The field 01 neurollOgUlS\)C. IS ,ul! a long W3\ fr The 1l13lenall n a -quired d~ Je\.!a h drawn from the wlum", Deep Dv,it'XUl and
.being able to 'rc:cify ho" ,ynta\ is coded i~ brain matter. or even how ; "~~ SlIrfaa Dy,·'.lia (see Re-ommended. readin,gl, as ""U Y Zouenu:ul, \)1:1(1
rs repre ented. 1 e"crthele,s, as Dur dl.'cusslOn Qf agrammalism ha, revealed [)nl. \la: ."ronal. Ce'. n,riH' and lin~U1Snc Aspt'Cls IO,f rd: Pergl1llQn Pre.
recent wark by neurolingui,rs ha, re,ulted in importanr ncw pcrspcctl\ es o~ 1Y, ~\.
the nalure of langu ge comperence.
 l.0 TEMPOR-\R'r lINGL'ISrICS
5. What do dlchotu.: h"',cni \ #\,?-.r.\J,,(, l
cerebral hcmi'phercs') c~g \C\h le\\ u'" '\b( . ":n
. ' '. l1n you th k .~ )U\ \he
Recommended reading ------ tntcre~llllg "to present dichot'H:a
"\\ . \n 01 \)'pc, r ?Ct;:.\ a1i/ <tlH
y~
,q~'" .\t'II",J'i'.~UI.,'rip ~
. () !<obI'''uh tha. .1\ hI l\tc.
Caplan. D. "".1 Lin,l;!uislic Apha.'fip/u.l(\'. C . 6. Do you thmk It " pl",ihle to lea t "'''''Ill ""
bridee l'nih·r.-;it\ Pn~,... _ . . _ 'lnlbr!(Jg
Cap,Jan~ D. IllS:-; , 'Thc t"("O~h,:.l~ N~'~ for l.mguage~· In L!,"t:lIiMiCt: 1".
SU':'r.'Y. \ (11 . .'. billCd vy F :'\e"nte~er. pp. _37-5..:"1, CaOlbrilJ he C'u'ttb
~. c., s LUdytng braIn-damaged patients";'ho,"" the normal b
abOut normal language Compel
.
.
ence'?
hUl Can the "tud rain fuo<.:\u:m '-.
Y of '-'?hasl s. u:y
L nl\ e ...... f) Pn-,.... .. ge: C'arn "iq~" 7. Contrast the dIfferences in beh . a tell \I
Colrhcart. \f .. PJltcr;on. J., and :\I..tr.'hall. J.C. eds. 1980. Dt.~t!p
D\,. { brtQh aphasics. What could explain the a~'~ur between fluen .
RoutJedl!c \,.\. Kecan Paul. . ~ e.tiu. lo..-, . ' sc dltferences? t and non-f\
Ja('kenJl"'l'f.- R 1~3. Plilunu ill tltt .Hind. Hemel HempSleiJd Ii -.~. 8. Descnbe the dIfferences between . \lent
. phonological and
Han C~h:r \\ hear ... hc.Jr. . Crtford,\h' 9. Re·read the tntroduction to section:> 'urfac. dY,lexia.
Palle"on. "E., .\fa"hall. lC • .lIlU Coftheart. l\f. eds. 1986. SUrf«," ''''
tells us about the relationship bet . What do you thInk M '
Hilbdak. "1: Erlbau1l1 • ~'I ween language and OC;,!; ~ account
Pinker. S. 19Q... Tltt~ ~"gua,I,'c Instinct. London: Allen Lane (The PengU' e~ 10. Many researchers have claimed h thoughn
Ro,enbek. le.. Lap'"nle. 1•. 1... and Wertz. R.T. 1989. Aphasia: A CIi"i('~~ p,." l. syntactic knowledge. Imagine a tt at agrammatism inVolve
Boston: College-HIli Pre. . :--.. . . . . APPl'oqr phonological knowledge. How w~::;'dof aphasia that Involv:: of I;,,'
-
Seealowirz. S. 1983. nnJ Sides (1} tlte 8mm. Engle\\lXxl Cliffs. NJ: Prent' h
~~
behave? patIents with this t a "', ()f
ype of \lpha.",

Questions 1. What distinguishes the human brain from a non-human b~

2. In what "a)' _ ('an the cerebral hemispheres be conside red t0be
separate brain," t\;o

J. What are the re/arne ad\ antages an~ disadvantages of the \. .

techniques u,ed [0 1m e,ugate the bratn. ConsIder ethics. COSt' 'lriolls
ness. and type of infomlation yielded. . Intrusive.

•1. Follow Ing " an unlabelled diagram of the left hemisphere. ChOo s
('omm.-nng colours and colour each lobe of the cortex. Use arr e fOUr
p.linr to the centrJ.1 ,ulcu,. the lateral fissure. and the ano I Oll,s [0
Finally. Usc a pencri to indicate area, of lesion that would resul~' at gyrus.
apha.la. \\emicke', apha ia. and acquired dysle.~ia. Label the Inl BrOca's
e eSIOns .

~ront
 • I
tn \ Irlkt hl ~t.·l a lOth,,' \Ot II I, "'"
le, t Xt t \
... UOl·,l1l 'C llHI' , uu Il\\~h\ 11) the 1H II lI .... H\. \ \\1_ '1. \ ,,1,,\\ \ n
.\ ~U\\g

Psycholinguistics: the stud

Ie" to n." ml SIIC' mty ,\od M\ OPt}
. ' . • _ u t\,,~ h\\11
f r ",,.nL! ... eye ... '\' th\: )' tnll'. C ,ILtH," t\Il- , • v
I'
l:: t', 1

l r h\\\
tnc.l\t\
II \ 1"
(IIV
ftfO{;: \n
t:.,
'
fJ'liJ.,
t1 t 1 \:~\ lUll~ \\ 'i \'\1 (
HUn'CO .... n u ')u \. \ ) n,lIn ch \0 r\ gh' Out 1<'I\ht." h \ I\~l"\,; thai C )tJ\J,( In
of lang uage processing }' saccnd.es. Like mthl 0\ u ... . ynur tn""
.
that h' . . or her eye, an~ mU\'inl1 \ " ,
• . _
,'
e-
hi' ~eel' In
... u prll .,h\y h
"~the un] "
I.:f)
n tit 1'je
t"\'\:\\h
I\.
dot\l)t
' \\t;d
\/e\ll\f\t
.. u hJ1ct:tI\ C lmprc . . slOn , ... mcorn:u n'"
" h uman, 1\.J .\(;h 'S,ti. lh .. n.,age Rut \hU""
~onSl nlc tt!d to be able to munitur m "'n y I • ~t:n\.'i. lh", ~.e Ie . at
. " II mu \Ut IO,p\" IV\.
language p n )('cssm g. . om'UK ac tl'. t\le \ 1 .......\
G..m Libben . I "d" • I\Clu<\,no
>

A substa ntia au ltlOnn\ cha\\~n\" C t·, h . C

e Ir I e pS~ ' h 1
rese nted by .thC fac t that mo,,\ \i\n\lu '~\I n. c l) \n~UhtK H! .tH.:he
P . eo "~'- prlK:C\ "lO:J I ' I
Le::\W' "'(,.¥k" .. ~\\ 'th tIJt,.,tu!tYolhlt· IHt'o;tlt· observable
•
. llcm , bU\ fag \ (l~~
P h ) stcal e v ents :-ouch a:-.' eye.n,o',yC1 ~ .
nh\ In' I
.0 \Ie
\ \ th \Ulfl~ J/)(lnlt'JrWJJ.:' events that cannot be ohservcd d\r~c \\y. R' " . \ 'et m",o\",c~ tl\ n"'1
. C\c.\n.:h lheref ~
language proc eSSIng e\'ent s in lh~ mind ~_~ . t' Ore rcqUlr\! that
. C . K! 10 erred f
,. b. fior beha' 10 m'.. on~eqllent l y, a large. \)un of p h I' .. mm I>h"'''ahte
":-'yc () tng.ul\l\C >.. .
cerned With Ihe development 0\ new ('md • oft en very de, rc"'arch
) " C1)n-
\\(" ~n~'Ta"'t' in languae(' proce . . . slOg almost every day of OUr I ' uncover how language proce ~sin g is uccomplished S er technIque., lu
- - - - . I .' r IVe,
rnx.~c., ...ing take~ pl~lc(, whc;)'n \\ e \\ ~lfch te eVISJon. , I Men to (he radio . Ihi ure presented in Ihe followin g scclions. . orne of the,c Icchmqu
ra., :-.ing signboard ~\~i.1e dri\"il~g. ~"nle a Jet~cr or have ~ c()n vc~sation. U~e~ q
(he~(" bngui.lg:t~ aCU\"lut:s arc L:amed o~t "Ith great ease a nd I n a corn lJau~
,1Itx:onscillu. manna. We mighl someume, be aware that we are sear~h;lelely Some of the earliest and m OM influential "udies )f I
. d h . . . ( an guage pn><:c,
a '\'llrd. l'olllpt)sing a sentence. or stratnlng 10 understand someone el ng fOr c,mTIlIlC I e spontaneous slips of the tongue prod d d' slOg
. I' f uCe unng S""e h
W' are neler aware of Ihe actual mechanisms and operations in I'"' but S poonensms are S ipS 0 the tongue named after the Reverend Wilham
.r- C .
pn~ucing and underslanding langu~ge. 1 0 led In Spooner who was warden of New College, Oxford. between t903 amI t9'4'
A

PSlcholinguistics is Ihe study of these language-process ing mc~h T he Reverend Spooner was famous for . producing a great man). of"len.
P"cholin~ulSb
'. ~.
slud) how lIord, sentence. and discollrse me' l an,,"",
. ' . . . .nlng humorous, speech errors. Some of hiS more well·known m"ta . . k e~ are
represented
. aml computed . 111 Ihe mind. The} study. hOlI complc \ norlh are h .
prov ided below.
sentences are composed 111 speech and hoI'. the} are broken dOlI n into t~d
consliluenl parts dunng hSIClllng and readlllg. In shon, Psycholingui
Sis eel
e" 1)
'You have missed all my Ilistor\' lecrures' .
10 understand /tow langllage is dOlle. . W hat he intended:
This chapter introduces Ihe field of psycholinguistics by lirst dis. What he said: 'You have hissed all my mysre0· lecrures'.
. .. .... I eUs'in.
some melhods w;ed b) psychohngulsts to pro,,,, anguage rcpresCntatio •
processing in Ihe mind. This is followed by a summary of recent rese~ha~d 2)
'Noble sons of roil '.
What he intende d:
language processing In the domaJlls of phoneucs, phonology. morpholo In 'Noble rons of soil' .
What he said:
and syntax, Fmally. we WIll dlSCUSS how these vanous aspec ts of linguis~:'
processing work together 10 make ~he el'eryday acts of peaking. listenin
lC
3)
and readmg appear so SImple and effortless. g. What he intended: 'YOII hal'e wasred Ihe whole reml' .
What he said: 'You hal'e rasred rhe whole woml ·.
1
~)
What he intended: 'The dear old Queen ' .
\ 1FT H O O S OF As was nOled. language users are not able to introspect on the detail s Of What he said: 'The qlleer old dean '.
P <; YC H OLINGU I S TI C language processing, Just paying attention to what they are doing will n
.. . 01
Beoinning in the 1960s. Victoria Fromkin began to study these and other
Rf H Rt H pmn de re Iia bl e nlSlghts mto hOI\ they access words or build sentence
Perhaps Ihe reason for this is thaI. in nonnal use. language process ing mu~t natur:! I) oc-currin g slips of the tongue and noted that they can be very
occur ICC} quidJ). By shielding mental linguistic operati ons from the , . ,_I' 1" of the m anner in which entences are created 111 speech. For
ft:\t;"uU eo . . _.
l'onSCIOUs mind, it is possible that the language-process i ng system IS seen in the precedin" example • the charactensUc pattern
exampI e. as can be e
mU\inlllltlg its ability to operate with speed and efticiency.
 111 .\.-",(
k tt(lIl for Ie,,' l:omnm\1 word" 'Ulh . , • 40\'\
"lI . . <.\. It., \\ .
fr "(IUcnc". effect A ...... ulnltlg \hu\ \01'''''1· \\ "nlhl\\I, \n ,
the mind. \\'c \\ill bndl} lh-.;L'u", (ht..~ t\\O J1IO~1 L'OItIlTIOII of h L •
11l0rl' dltficuh or complex, th,.., hn"hnl>
~ 1\!"'\l4.Hl
\\lUl"lHd\cq
• )t.~1l t. \\
.~ _ l\ the.
lexicaJ det'ision lind printinA. I \.'\~ I)l~p. IS . d . I ,. "'l\~~h~M1 \\ l'fllCenin
urc
'>ore t -.allllC
-.
!O.O t 'i.ll won"" We \\lOu.:·'\\v
. J I'
\'
~ J nt.::t:'{ Inti • I
la\ "Ur 11U"nl. 1.1
" " UK\u .
8. 'h.l\
'''''4 ' trC more ca!O.t\y and qUlck\y "W1\1\;.lh\..: ill u.... fI.: () \ton (tnt" \rt~(\U \h.\f\~,
Le%ical decision • Another way in which the lexle\\ .1.. . ~n\ Y.I(ln\ )
. • Uel..:l .... 'hn la.... \.. c.
In the le.\ll"al u':":-'-'lOn pilIiJuigm. the c'"pcrimental subject ( . l"nguuge repre~t!ntat1on and PrtX:c~""ln\l " I ' .m he u d \0" ,
.. . . . . f f·. 111 th, ' . h' h · e: -. t) In\'e~\ ... J.:p \,,~
a nallVC spt:akcr oj Engll.... h) IS seated In ronl (~ ~l (.;OITIPUtcr sere ~ e~all} , "Curacy wIlh W Ie \Ub.1CC1S pre\ ... \hl! 'nl' I.. \ga\e the """'" \
apP<'ars III rh~ miJJk of rhe screen and the subject must jULlg .. "n. A "PI•. ,Ie f' ) "\.\\loo \0 "'f ,"'"-... , dlU\
't llllulL h has been ound, tor example th.\t p r u\ \en.'nl \\In.o. \
IS word by pr." a,
," ,.... "r.'\I.
. \\ hether or m,l( the word IS
. . a rea I E ng I··h S . ' • .• • rnnuUnccah\. J I.... II
po:-'.<';lble "1"" 'ell as plih, shOW ~lower no rcspon\C limes \h ..m un t: nl}n-Wt1tl.h, ,"ul.:n
labdled '\~,' or a bulton labelled 'no , (see F'Igure II .). 2 "Ss'nue a b~t~ ~I ch as nlib. Thus ~ub.lects' lexical dc.c, . . \l)n'- ~, prunouncc_ah\c nhn-"Nhh\
. ~ su . .. ' - , ...c.ern \0 take
unO\aCl1C conSlral1\lS of the \c.mguagc. h h'l\ "I ~ { \nlo i.tCC\lUnt \h~
Ph . . . • - • so uCc.n (lund \h'
Ih 'lt
e
sound like real word, . , '
(e.g., hlt"l, IJlw('k,) I'''' I
.... c unger to
a\ n".n·"""d,
stimuli thaI arc non-words both VISually and phonologically. 1\ rejecI tn'ln
s that "spects of phonology arc automatically aC\iv',\ 'd d . gam In" t<lh
u, . h i ' I d .. 'c unng Wl\rd r" ead109
(allhOugh In t e ex'ca CCISIon task, Ihe subject never h
word). a\ to ?ronnunl.;c, lhe

The priming paradigm very often involves .the le.xical decision tas" and Can
bc conSIdered an extension of It. Recall that In leXical decision task, different
categories of ~lIm~h (e.g., concrete vep,us abstract words) are compared in
tcrms of subjects response latency and accuracy. Priming experiments
typically involve the same procedure a.,
the lexical decision la,k except that
the word to be judged (now callcd the target) is preceded b)' another "imulu
(called the prime). ~hal is measured is the extent to which the Prim~
influences the subject s leXical declston performance on the target ,timulus.
The priming paradigm IS an excellent techntque for probing how words are
related in the mind. One of the first experi.menL~ using \his paradigm showed
Figure 11.2 A lexical decision experiment.
that response time is faster when a target is preceded by a semanticall), related
prime (e.g., cat-dog) a. compared to when tt IS preceded by an unrelated
This task is very easy for subjects to carry out. They typically sec and'
rime (e.g., cat-pell). Results of thiS sort lead us to \he view that words are
hundreds of words in a single fifteen-minute lexical decision experimeJn~dge
p I ted in the mind in tenus of networks. On the basts of evtdence !rom these
most Icxical decision cxperiments there are two dependent variables th . In
. re a ing experiments, p ' ycholinguists reason that when a word such as car is
things that arc being measured : thc time th at 'It tak'cs f'or a subjec
. t to res
,at 'S.,
porn ' ts image i activated in \he mind and that activation spread" to o\her
(response latency) and whether or not t he su b~ect s JU gement is coPOnd
· , . d seen, I . \1 I d dog). Now,
. d ge d as correct I'f word S 1' n the lexical network that are semanllca y re ate \e.g.,
(response accuracy). A response IS . JU a s'
ubject resporrCCt
d • .
ntal repreentatJon for d(l~ has already been actIVated through
'yes' 10 a real word such as glol'e or sadness and 'no' to a non-word such"a~ because the me . , ' . . .
. '1' 'In a ,~n,e 'warmed up so that .... hen \he 'ubJect later sees It
't .
bIOl'l' or saddillg. the pome, I .~ . .. ..
on th ~ -
~ screen as the target. respone lime IS faster than It otherwISe would
Lexical decision experime~ts usually involve .comp~ring subjects' per. ,. IT t
i(lfmancc on one SCI of stJlnulJ (e.g., nouns) to theIr performance on another hase been. Thi,. is called the pnmmg e ec.
• . . th.> priminu paradigm has been used to explore man~
sct of stimuli (e.g., verbs). The key to the importance of the ex peri menIal In rccelll ~ e:J.l'. ~ ". . . . .. . .
> ~>p~>sentation 01 words III the mllld. and . researchers huse
paradigm is thaI in order for a subject to respond 'no' to a stim ulus Such as eets 0 f th ~'" ~ . . .. ..
aPs · . . ., of rimmg. in addition to \he semantic pmmng auvve.
him '£' or 'yes' to a rc,t/ word such as glm'e, Ihe su blect's melltallexicon OlUS( e\.p\on:d man) I) pc. >rPI'Ph ha\e been found for orthographically related
he accessed. The 1t;xlcal deCIsion task can therefore be used to Illeasure lhe 1:01. C'\.:lmpk. pnnl1ng c CC. . I· h b· .
. / ./ ) " nd phl)nologicall} related .... ord, (e.g .. I~ I, lie),
speed and accuracy with whIch words in the mental lexicon are accessed. It .\ I'.' <,(llIl 1,1(111( I ,~ I I
WOIlS,C,,,,,,. fmnd between word mOh and comple\. form' \c.g., eg.".
has hcen fuund in many experiments, for example, that suhjec ts lake ahoul
th,') an: ai,"). I fi.l' gg."to, that words are rcpresented III the nllnd
11<1/1 a second ('iOO milliseconds) to press the 'yes' button for frequently Hsed ill,'<:a/iI'·). 1 hiS b t mumg. su c..
wtlJdssurh as F"I' out ulmost threetjuurters or a second Itl press Ihe 'yes'
 ., .... \t. t h'lINt.,lJl , II

,,' l t..l ... TI "

rhe
t'htn':~C.

" h,-'l
u,eJ
1\'
I ..t pn"KhlCe
k\le~.
hpt'l'irrn-nlal l1~c:d
IIlt'lhod.: '('nt('n< (' thetll
proc('ssing in
order
to
c;.\tT)
f(lPCS
acn).:-<~

the
rivc:n-

o ~OO 400 ()OO '00 \ 0()() \"00 \ -mo \6()()

Bar-pre"ing 11me, per "ord
f mil\becond,

processing mo I. noun and \e,rb.;, and relau\ely I"""

time for function ilrd.
such as detenruners. C?nJunLUoru.. and prepo"Uon . What is PanIcu\3r\
interesting is ho~, '~hJecL . pau,e at the end of dau..<>e boundaries. !his
Timt d-r .1dil1~ inere:u'ed proce.s' mg ume "mte.rp~led a" reflecting the e Ira:unount of tune
t p rimfflb required to integrate precedmg mtormatio~ Inl? a complete lau".,. \ru::tnre.
Thus the greate t har-pres:mg ume l~ reqUIred lor.'hers. the final noun Ul the
,enlenee_ and the _econd greate,~ ~or leild, "'hieh " the last v.oro 1n the
embedded relath e .:i:lU: that modifies Chmese,

The Chin 5 [cp"

C[ cr . ho us:d to prod ce tir 5\ u..<.ed them in orner 10 carry
ft'pe ' acn: _, the n\' rs}
\ , ,.
II, I" " "

\ ,,
I

" /

11'1... 11.,1>,,1./
11111111 1111' III Iltd

') I
Ii
/.

III" I, It " I" I '" I "I I

it" v"It I '" /o" Wfi "" II"~
V"" IIit Ilit 1'01"""
 'illl!> ... (JI
\ ANt .\IM I
• \'\({H.{"s.
phonetic anulYMs to ic"ohne f'lh(lOcm~.... . '''''. ~
these to representation" 10
the mcnt ..\\ llt.t.\. WhTll htl"ntla.rlt:';
referred \0 a . . bottom-up prOCe' I!Xh.:on. 'I hi"; ..1 :::a, <lnl\ \1I r \_
'd II h h - "",n\!._ But Vol' InUUl,.t\\'t! e ate
GIIAC,' analyse n. t e P onemc!o. In a ...ent.... _ C U() fUll W' _ ;,tna\':1~\\
b . , cnce hctor. _ au. unhi I
I'I/OC. "Nf, ANU it. Rather. we egm mterprelation of .il C We begin \0 \ ~I! na"t
cally on the basis of whatever inform sentence \'KlnlancHU 1)'1 l{) u".<kl''l.tal\d
"f'\,j(Jl j " r,( \ . <lhon IS' '-I ~ 'j and
by the ume we get to the Word bit in lh. l1Val <\h\e th u.... ~ ~Ut\)m.\h_
e "'Cntcnce . ()( t\W'T
it us ing b attorn-up proce~sing but we 'trc . \ . We aTC nOt ()nl)i ea"",)",
to guide phonetic processing and wo ~d a so emp\()':{mg a \el of recO&n\l\n~
. 1 r rccogn\li.()n "T'\..' .' ex.pectutl
proceSSing. n normal language use we a e . \ . . l Il\\ \\ caned t t.}o . .
and top-down activities. We never pr:c ,\ ,~ays engaged in both \...~P-d()wn
ess JU" featu. ",ttom-up
syllables, W e process l anguage for the purp. res, or phone '
, 3 f h' h ose, of unde ' mes, (It
In seCllon 0 t IS C apter, we will disc h "landing e""h 'h' .
. fi· h ' UgS Ow phonef 0 .. er
analYSIS ItS IOtO ot er processes involved in 'peak.in . Icand phonologIcal
however. we WIll concentrate On three leveh f r gand I"tening, For no
fundame ntal to phonetic and phonologic~IO re l~gU"llc "truCture tha\\e~
2. 1 ne mes, and syllables, p eSentallon: feature" ph<>-
Phon ... in .lIla fill' " ud} , ,, pholll·I,r., and phono logy rc~~?l s thai lht! Mlund;-- ' -
p"onolll~y '''fl t'Uilt' C "
<' C ,
rl t.' hly , tnlt.'lUn:d 1111 ('1 ma n) dltk-reiH levels of rc ruclurc. II·
, I 1 . d· preseo I
I'hll' i.h i, d" '1l' U" l' d In Chaple r, - :lilt .• If} lVlduul segm' tUt/o In both linguistics and psycholinguistics the t e ' '
, f . I cOls c· n. , I " rm J eah4re lS us. d
dla' ,I('I L'n /l'd 111 1(" Ill '" (I t pli.ll.'.c ,lIld l11ann c.! r 0 al1lCU ~tlOn Or With P , an he the most baSIC evel of representation, It is theref al e to refer to
bollom-up processing in language. In the proce~re Wt assocIated with
yS
,I h'I'r;II'r l1 l' 01 phollol<li! ,ril l Il'allln!" Sequc nces of sounds C:tn be C\peel I~
IIIl n ,y ll,lh;c 'Huettll!'.', ;ul<l ali npho lllc , an al Ion can be described in g~ouPtu characteristics of individual phonemes (e.g
, ,
'+
vSotng1°, sound. It refe" to
"t- tee l± conttnu I
'l/,d,',I} III " l, hn,,,' I1I<'.' ,,1111 \lI/Iaet' nlln pho ncs, How mUch of Ih '. klln'of The most stratghtforward eVIdence concerning the role f h f ant,. etc, \'
" ,
pia) . . a 10k ,n '.: HlI! U+.Igl· p nK'l',... !'t 'flr-' .
IS Stru .
ctur~ from the analysis of sEps of the tongue. Some eJ<.am~\:uc f ~atures comes
II", si mple- ;l/l"\ CI I" Ih i., 'I1I!,.,(l OII IS: 'AII o f il!' The mOre c presented in Table l\.\. s 0 ese sltps are
;II1 ' Wt'1 ;Iud. 0 1 C()Ur'l" ab o Ihc.' more accurate a nswer is that laOIl1Ple'(
"/( ""'.' ''''I>, hO\\ \ <"ld" I1,',' Ilw l /t'a lurc , . phonemcs, and syllable strueng uage Table 11.1 The role of features in speech errors
<'111"II/(' "lIt ll' ;."'1<'1'" o f Iltt' \\a) in wh ich w e process languag' b,ureall
,. I . , c, UI th Intellded A ctually produced
' 111'1'1'11 ",..,dIlCI IOII and Pl' I'l'l'pIHl11 " " com l' cx ac ti vity that invol, al
. I . Ie, Illu c
1110'" Ihan Ill"'" I'hllll,'IIC ,l lI d phollo Iogle;1 rcprcsc n tallo ns , COl a) big and fat pig and vat
III .\l',' \\h ~ Ihi s is Iht' cas,', l'IlI1sidel whal mig hl Occ ur when you h b) Is Pat a girl? 15 bat a curl"
"'11 1<' 11''1': /I" d,.~ !>illh, ,·tll. Ikcaust' Iht' utterancc unfo lds in lime ,ear Ine c) Cedars o f Lebanon Cedars of Lemmanon
. you I\ill
III."llI'al fhl' ,<,gml'fIi/N ,111<1 tht'll Ihe Sl'gmcnt I;,/. (In fac t, you do not h '
Ih,'", "'CII"'II" ."'1'''1,11''1\ hul r,llher yoU create thcm o ut of a co I' ear
- • .• n InUQU
"'" l1d"I<'alll.) 1\\ ""'11. ,Is Ih,',,' ,,'gmt'nts arc Identlhed you have I \ The e rro rs in T able 11. 1 follow a pattern. but that pattern can onl) be
, a read
""<'<',,cd Ih,' 't'f'I,"CIII;III<111 1<11 th,' "onllh,' In your mcntalle\icon . When thY understOOd with reference to a s)tem of phonological features. In all three
IIP " "'glllcIII ,.1Illl',' up III Ih,' '''UIIJ stream, you already know that II. e e" am p\e' - the errors invohe a phonological feature. 1n example (a) the
.. I I I . Is Ihe
feature [v o ice] ha>. t>een exchanged between the words big and fal to create
I'. gllllllll,!! (II .1 Ilt'\\ 110,,1 aliI OU.I '0 "now thaI thiS word is likely I he ,
a the nell \loro, pig and \'(II ( the phoneme pair Ib-pl and If-\·I only differ in
IhUIII Ill<' phllll,'11t' ,111,11) \1,,/),11 /(,110", idelllilies the segl11ents d-n_" 'lod h
, . ., ,n I e
u'""'I"'ndlllg 1,'\1,',11 CIIII) . (/\~ <,"me Ihe Itrsl ":gtllents o f Ihe Word h' I the fe3l\lre [y oieel'- Thi:ame pattern of the exchange of the feature \OlCe can
n
1" lilliI'll, lilt' "1\1 III II pll! 1Il,'tll,', Ihll CllUIJ he Iht.' I ir'l t W <I sCg ll1Cllh 'I" h he sel'n in t: amrk , b ) where Pa l become, bar and girl become, curl. Fina\\~
. . . . . 0 Ie
""1, I hIII/I, hUI "II ,u,' 11(11 h~t'll• It, rOIl,"kr thiS I,o" ihl lity h'''' . . ,'lll''
,C YOUr the eIT,)f in Ie) l ~ rart.it:ularl~ intriguing becau ..e we normally think of fbi and
lk' ,'1"1"11 ' IIIll''1''''IoII1,," "lIlt" ,,'nlClll'l' i, hlasin ' you tow" rds thl' Iltlrd hit 1m! as .:,'mrktd) lilf'ferent phoneme's , In facL however, the) are both VOl ed
Idll,'1t I', '" 1 I \I til "'UI IIlIlId 1\Jlh d(/~ , I il.ll't;11 , tl'I" that l nl~ d iffer 1lI tenus of the feature [± na,alj, ChanglOg \be
\ , 11111 'llppll,I,lIcd Inllll Ih,s,' .tnll'i<', 1,lnt!u,lgt' pron "i ng 1/1\ "Ill's Ih, /1 / 1'1 t It fn'11Il-na I) to l +na all create the error Lemmonon
lOt lJ'lJ~ t>llIlf lIlt1,IIlOlllh,1I del ,1,,1' Imull,lIll'ousl).1I m,llI l Ii111ncIII Inel l'11t' , • .llllpk offer e\'idl'n.:e that language productton m 'e u of
t'/ lIIah Is III r.: 1">(1It It ann' Ih, s nI ll''t' /11< dog "If ,Ir(' nil j , 1'l'll"nmng
 \ ~\"it. ~\,
.0

h
" l1 l1

I~
\l

Phonemes \\ 'e ha\ e ... ("en tf1 t.·\.~tilln I I [hal Sptxmerisms. sho\\ eViden"
..
, I . J durin" ,enrence plannmg Th Co Of
0 N C
Ir-
o N C Ii
() N C Ii
\l

ph4JnC;"'me:-- bt.~ing nllsp ~1I..e ~ . , " . . . e Phone . en \ \ \ \ \ \ \

(I N C
, I pl'I)·1 cenlml role In PS) chohngulStic ~
n.-prest.'nrUlhJll a :-.(.1 • .... ..
m'e u ,II"
'''Odels . nil b 1I g C a h
\
\l
\ \ \ \
. u'h I· the cohort model, ThIs model States h' ol,~ Of a
proce ......mg . . ~... ...... . ' "d b . hearers from be'lOn . t at. . t"I:~~ CI
comprehensIOn. word ... dre anal) se ) _. . &, lOg to e In \\Or:

I~
, I' ·h 'n ," hear the word glass. we IIltually constder all th nd, So d
exarnp c." c d [I] , ew .t"
heuin "llh the ,ound [g]. When the next soun IS recognized h ord'lh'
of~ssible words (the cohmt) is reduced.to those words that be~i~ e nUIll~~
Thi, process continues until the cohortO t possIble words ~s reduCCdWllh 1&11 ONe
' d h t' b'in" recogmzed. EVIdence JIl favour ot the
Coho to on e ...' \ \ \
th e \\ or [a I~ t: e . h' h .
b a
comes from a number of experiments III W IC . It has been fOund n fllOdel
be"inninos of words playa more important role III word recognitio that the
middle ; end portions, The cohort model has also been su n than the
experiments that found that the beginmng-to-end analysis of s~Cnned b) 1 5 Speakers of Engtish find the word blend in a easier and more nal I
proceeds one phoneme at a [lme. rather than one cluster Or one syll wOrd, figure 1· in b because the former Involves breaking Ihe word, al nal ' I ~ra 11",n Ihe WOld \~''1\(\
. ~. boundaries. < um sy \ab\e-struc\ure
~~ a

Althouoh in the cohort model, the phoneme rather than the syllabi
Syllables " ' d '. e seenl
The linguistic
be the fundamental unit of auditory war .recognHlon,
h there is othe re.~ " to ' . study of morphology
f ' is the study of word Siructurc. It ,cells ~
thai the syllable plays an important role III speec perception. In ,enc c charactenze the system 0 categones and rules involved' d f ' ',0
subjects were presented with disyllabic words (e.g., bullel) and ~ne Study,
. 'Th h" .. m wor ormation
and lI1terpretatlon, e psyc ohnguls!lC
' study of mornholo'
'. I '
glca proce,smg
non-words (e,g,. s/llIer) and were asked to press a button if a Partic II syllabic seeks to understanf d h ow thiS word structure plays a rol ' I
"h Uartar ' . " , e m anguagc
unjt was in the stimulus. The target unllS were elt er syllables (e
' d d .g., let)
get rocesslllg. In the ollowmg sections. we Will summarize some PSYCIIO ' ~ I'10-
segments (e,g" I). It was found bat, h lor wor s an non-words that Sub' Or P
uistic research that reveals how morphological structures and principl I,
were significantly faster at IdenllfYlllg syllable targets ' ~ects
g 'al I . th . , ~p~
' .than at I'd entlfy" a substantl ro e 1tl e representation of words m the mind and in word
single segment targets, It was conc1~ded that syllable tdentification was f 109 recognition.
ter
because, m normal audllory analysIs, subjects first break down sti ffiu ra.s
syllables and then into individual segments as the situation demands I Into
Another source of evidence on the role of the sylJable in I Words such as blackboard. happiness, and watched are made up of two
processing comes from observing subjects ' performance on word ga~nguage morphemes. In the case of the compound blackboard, both these morphemes
example: You are given IWO words such as bug and cal. In this game YOU es, For m'e roots . In the case of happiness, one morpheme is a root and the other is
required to blend the words together to make a new word .' Now , wha't are
SOunds a derivational suffix, Finan) in the case of watched. one morpheme is a root
better: (bug +, cal = bat) or (bug + cal = bu!)? The dIfference between these and the other is an inflectional affiX, The ftrst question we will addre" is
two posslbJllIJes IS thai the fir~t one takes the onset of the first syllable an whether the iudi, idual morphological components of words playa role in
combmes II wllh the rhyme 01 the second syllable (Figure 11,5) Th d
'b'l' d ' ' c olher pro('e~sing. .' .
POSSI I Hy oes not "spill the words at a natural point of English ' sy ' II abIe The ans\\ er to thiS queSl10n ,CCtl)'; to be a straightforward yes, For most
struclUre, As you Il1Ight expect, subjects are much better at creatin g W
blends that correspond to the syllable structure of their language <md ~rd tnlllttlllorphemic words, individual morphemes are automatically activated
dunng Wl)rd recog.nition. One source of evidence for this conclusion comes
such blend" \I hen presented with a choice. The fact that Eng li sh spl!ak' pr:l cr
s 'h , t h' d'" ,
,Ul Oflse r jmc tVtSlons eaSicr and more natural suggests (hat (he sound
ers Iud
 \
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, , II II
1\ II JI

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Tht· 'Hll.1\. ,nodu't' One \C.~f) '"llpk' f"l,."inlht~ :t1r ho\\ ~enr~n,cc!" ~n: Pn>cl"~ ,
mplll) lh.t: .... ) 'lCOl of rulc\ th
rn)(JU':UllJl ,II1t.l \..'lllllpf'('hcn"'lllll to:
'0 . . at·'0<1 I
lincui,h hllk'l.."n~
- .. t t·· ,,"'1\ th "'<Il~
"'Cllh.'n\..°c ,tru\..-WR'. fh.1'" po:"> ... , lilly . . ugn...
\\ (mid hc,.·glll \\ tlh lk'c..'P stnl\..-Wr: represcn a ll~n.~ ancJ Cl11pJo ,i.tt 'PI!. .')
i.lre Il
...
rran . . t"txm.Hilll1., ttl dl'fI\t.' the ",urtac.·e :.tru~ture c~afi.1cteri"lic:\ y. a ~rt <l~
\1~1I1' p.,\~hl)lincUl ... tiL C\)Xrimt:'l1h examlOed thJS possibility ~f a \enlt,: l}f some sentenc~ ... arc ..extr ..\()rdi~ar1\)' C..h\t i\.:uh l{)
c.'\'If~rlc . \\ ht'(hl'~ 'l'nh=n\..'es with man) transformations lake Ion Y le\lin nl:t arc not very comph.:x. syo\ael\ca\\y -rl
, b . h '
undcr. . \anu.
. 'c . . c . . cmt ., ~"tn \~hlU "
(h'w ,cn;cncc ... with kWl."r [rnnSfomlations. It turned out that .~er to Pr'g, flit' scntcnct:S ecausc t ey lcad the synt. , . ,
. I . P h
OCC,\ "lre ca\\ .t
~\I.;\tc par.... ~r U
g lh 'J
tu ~a'h·\l'.n
. . d·d d' t ' _. ,'-'Ie n 'lee... wrong ana YS1S. cr aps the most fa ' own the gardc path
tr.uhfonnation.-.; in a _... C'n{Cn~e t not pre IC proce.s~tng tun ullll.. ,""
. • d·ft·· b e. Re ""r Of given in 10): mous ga.ruen path ,entcncnc ~;,\\h to the
conduded (hal ther~ I... at least ... ome I. erence etween the ruJe~ l s.Ci.lrcbc 1.... the nne.
. . nr--ukers u:-;e [(l generJtc anti compn.:hend semeoce~ and ~L.. hal not ' l'\
r- . h I' . . k i d f' . "'e I"IJI lj"
linguists use to charoctenzet elflgUlst~c nowe, ge.o natIve sPeak e\ thai
10)
As H re:-;ufc. ir was necessary to ~ostufate a specIal IllOduie fOr er\,
The horse raced past the barn fetl.

r .~
~~'essin.>
. <0
and another for grammaucal
. '
knowledge.
d The prOce 'Stng
is called Ihe syntactic parser. ThIs parser IS un erstood to be th,. m'l(jul
. 'enten·,e, This sentence is perfectly
··
grammatical. h U \.,\I most 1m
The rcason f or t I115 tf, lhat, as we read th'" ., '
'b
P()~\t \e to under l: d
makes use of grammalical knowe I d ge b ut a l ' · specialC 'Yst
so contams ,ern tho e . h' h T i l '
structurc 111 w IC
e sentence we hu'ld
, . lOrs. IS thc subject of the se~\ ' t
'an.
up a ')ntactic
and principles Ihal oauide. the'order in which.
elements
.
of
.
a prOcedUr"t
SCnte t\ bam is the maIO VP of the sentence Wh'lI . ence and raced pall "
rocessed and the manner," up BcCau . b h . c we get to the d· Ie
P . whIch syntactic structure. tS bUIlt
. nCe atI! surpnsed ecause .[ e. sentence we have built up h. as no rOQm WOr
f
/ell. we "'e
parsing abilily is based m part on our grammatIcal know ledge 'e OUr In the correct II1terpretauon for the sentence r 11 . or an eAt... VI'
. 'J' Istheheadof''- . .
language. il is usually the case .that there IS a close correspondence ~)f oUr and race d past . t 1Ie b am IS a clause that attaches t h N· Ule( maIO. VI'
. 0 t e P lite ba
senlence parsing and grammaucal structure. However. because the t"cen I I .8: for exposttory convelllence , Illjl is. not rep resented here). rn SCe F'gure
module has its own sel of princIples. sentences [hat are gra pal\lng
complex are not necessarily difficult [0 parse and sentences wiLhmmaltCilih II b
simple syntaclic structure can be. (See also the discussion of relatllel} s

------------
computational syntax in Chapter 17, section 3.) parsel\ in s
~ NP~
It should be noted that in discussing how processing takes plac h VI'
. 1 f c, I ct

!i~\
C •
module has a special meaning. t re,ers to a untl 0 processi errn
. . T ng Ihal NP VP?
relatively autonomous from other processing Units. he idea of "
. I .

6~\
. d prOcess'
modules has been very Important an cOlltroverSI3 In many do . Ing
. . ...,. fh . maIn, of
human mformallon process mg. 10 get a sense 0 ow processing rna . .
the co-ordmatlOn . . of separate 010 d u Ies, cons!'d er w h at OCcurs when yYInvolve The horse raced past the bam fell The horse raced past the barn fell
a film. The film director. in order to obtain a variety of effects OU walch
manipulate how the audience will respond by relying on p~~nes to Figure 11.8 A garden path sentence. The garden path effect is shown in a. The correct interpretation is
modularity. The director knows that when an aeroplane on the scree~SStng represented In b.
mto a dIve or when a canoe goes over the falb you. the vIewer. will exp .gOe\
a physical sensation of falling . The director knows that you cannot st~nence
The ways in which native speakers mi understand garden path sentences
reveals how the parser might work. it eems that we construct syntactic
from happenjng even though you are aware that you are sitting in a ch P thIS
is not moving. Similarly. you will be frightened by the SUdden appear:~~that
representations from the beginning of the sentence to the end and that our
sentence parsers are organized ' 0 that we make a number of assumptions
a monster, even though you know that you are really in no danger. Ail : of
effects result from processing modularity. The bottom-up inforrnatio t ~se
about how a sentence will proceed. This can be seen by considering the
comes from processing modules cannot be fumed off by the to _nd t at garden path sentence in 11):
• C • I I" . P Own
1I1100natlOn t wt you are scatc( 111 a stattonary and safe clllema environ '
· ,. d' h . . mCnt JI)
PSYJc h.0 ImgulslIc stu. les ave. IIlvesttgated whether this same son ~f
Since Keith always walks a mile seems like a short distance to him.
1./lO d U anty IS present III syntactIc processing - in other word',
. . . ", whct hcr
s)IHaet/(; parsmg operates 111 an automatic and obligatory manner th ' . fhi, sentence is not as difficult to process as the one in 10). but you probably
relatively independent of the activity of other processing systems. ~~ noticed yourself ha\ ing to backtrack after an initial mis-analyis. Your pal'cr
 II

, ,.
,.
'I I
II II
"" .\
" 'I r, 1/1

I ,
/ ' II."'tlt.)llh.d I
I /,1Ilt.. . III J
I
t
I I (
I f • ~h.tI
I
"i III.U; Ill'
I
J "/
h, • ~ p.U,.III· CONCEP'TUALIZER
I 1
I
'l'llrl (' 11I.tlI(II'
I It! tlllllll'
I

( '011,,' 1(11' '''

11I1('IPI"I;II((111
I
Preverbal me "age
fORMULATOR
,
Par"'<l Speech
\

\ \ SPEECH_ ----.
\ ~ COMPREHE};S\O,'
'I~"'f' Il.'t . 1~ "'flC''f"f P,\Vdk.IHIN:\IK mo(#I:~
_\ _I.._~~~~~ ____ _-\ S,{STE.~\
._ ..\.... Forms __ \
. \
\ \
\1
Phonetic plan J
(internal speech) Phonetic 'tnng

[ tTICULATOR
• Overt peech ----~

Lewl!'s model oi .;.peeCh pn:x1x.uon.

figure 11.10

IIIg or
I P ~l hili III 'UI lie mod lis pi III I 1111 lIlodel I
I pll IIIl d and I (Irl clllnpln In (1l1n Ipl
 TI ' PSYCHOUNGUIS1ICS, lHf STuD
Y (Jf lA
n • TIll rerre,enled 3.> an arm ... [hal feeds back 10 the
I'
Umversity Pre,s, 1990>_ All<>Iher e«ell
...,
I1bo 'h Lc,e!r", modd nughr I()()k qutle comple _COI)C~
_---' L u'!'pre cOled in Figure 11.10_ i a great Simplifi!\' 1.1 i; cle- > •
Ps)choJillguisics ediled b) Monon Ann
1m)-
c:; '<lIlru: " Iht 19';4 H
rmbacber New YOI\.
Ulvue 3.> - ! a lcaho <If _
_IJ ex ur in Ihe mmd dunng an."uage prOCessing "rt. n of I>.h. Some of the 'slip of the longue' RlaleriallO _
:-co... \ L - ,,- _ 'He ''''!_
I'b deratl, of JJ.flgunge proce smg. we more We . lllor '. Fromkin', chapler on speech production ( . ,,~non 1 I r
bout e . -11' - . realiZe e I>.e,
ho" people do lon~uage I" .~ ID Its infancy. The fun
01 that the ~ Ramer \'olume clled above. P\l -1- 3OCJ) to 1hc ~
~ . '\11 [mecharurns 3.110\\ a task so complex to be datnentaJ . The experiment in which bar-presSlnn I -.I
r,matn . - . rth d - acco ~. - . all y reported by E"AS.iOle, "'ere fOUnd 10 ~~
-h •.., Thi I' a quesuon \\ o. pon enng the next 'i_ Illplish.:.-. boun dari es was ongm
u, e~ . d rh - "''Ie Yo ~_ - f - - . nne (\99(» In
'ru~ "rilin o nOll" -. an ave eanng a whispered processmg 0 wntlen teXt by younger and older adull\' an anJde Iilltd 0.._
CD:J Je,; " . e_ conl'e U <Ire_ 1_ • _.'
, au all I the same ume. !Salton Ile -• 6&-78) and IS discussed in Anhur WIngfield's ell:; .1 PnchokJgy and A "" <
. ~~ Berko-Gleason and Ramer tex!. pter ~tellC<: proc 1ll1be
The discussion of eye-movement data tn Rev h 1_ .
by K . R ayner and S . Sereno. ·Eye-movemen. y_:e olOgubtic\,.asbased
_ . oolht~
Sw -OW. Pncbolingujstics i the study of language prOCessing_ Th
boili b\ an area of subject maner and a partiCUlar methOd e field i s ,
PsYcho/inguislics edited by M_A. Gemsbacl.- 1>. lInI readmg, In Handbooi:
. I k "lOr as we as tn Iht boot
and A. Pol atse , The PSYchology of Reading (En lew . . II ~
IJU;<IS • cud' bow people perform the functions of lano"o Ology_ PsvcJ.. • 1989). g 00d Cliffs. . J Prem.ce Han.
" ~. . ,,-ge CO • ..:
and production _They seek w dIscover the nature of the mental lltJlreheni The material on event-related POtentials is ~sed
thaI serve the-e functions and the narure of the CognitiVe ~epr~ and Cyma Van Petten (pp. 83-133) in Handbook of P~';."a;:"anJde b, Marta Ku.a.
computation that are employed when we understand and p Od perati~ . processmg expenmem Cited in the sv\lable section' ~ltrrlU:J. Tbt .~.
- mvo- I vescomputations and represe
r UCel- J - S eglll.. U - F rauenJe< Ide r, and 1. Mehler
. 'Phoneme moni Yo as repClned In an arucIt _
Since language processmg ""l~Et .
- . ill . . B --h ' lDnng, vUable 1Mrntnn_
cannot be observed and measured dlIectly. Psycholingu- DtatJOlls . andl elUC acces,s. ill. nus. Journal of Psycholog}. -2: .q:- and ~~
-
special expenmentaI teehillques to mvestigate
'. ISis have
language proc _ utI d_ ill R.E_ Remes S amcle On the perception of speeeh' . If
Psyc1lOlinguistics. ,m andbooi: of
these techniques. such as lexical decision and Priming. me eSSl!!g. Son.: of
response time .
an d response ~ccura~y to lingU!. tIc

measure electncal actIvI!y m the bram dunng Janguage proces' . el oth.:-

- . I
Language processmg mvo ves man} processing modules ~t
asure a ~
- stimUli. Other
measure eye ~ovem~~t \~'hile sub~ect" ~e reading silently and ~hni
Sing
. The word-~Iending studies are reponed in a series of srudies conducted tr. RdJea:a
TrelIDa, e -g.. The StruCture of spoken syllables: El'idence from llO\'el word
Cognition 15: 49-74 (] 983). A eros -Iinguistie SIlIdy using a fOO:ed<hoice
these word games is reponed in G.E. Wiebe and RL Derv.ing. ';\ f~
blending rask for testing intra-syUabic break points in English. Korea. _
of ,=
ciahzed for a partIcular language-proceSSIng task and that intera are 'f(. Taiwanese' . in Twenty-First LACUS Forwn IChapeI HilL _.O!tb Caroiina: LACeS.
m od uIes m · restncte. d ways. Th us 1anguage processing im-olveCt V.lth",~ ___ 1994).
interplay between bottom-up and top-down processing. We prOCe : c::: The morphological priming eXperiments are summarized lD an article II) WiIIia
features. phonemes. and words all at the same time. We Construe P : Marsleu- Wilson. Lorraine Komisar.iev~ Tyler. Rachelle Wats\er, and u..<lIdIs.
. 'Morphology and meaning in the Englisb mentallexicoo·. Psyc~ ......
representatIons, morphoogica
j . I '
representations. and yntactic rcpr t s,llab
" _.e
.In a spontaneous and ' 101 (l): 3-33 1199-l). The experiments 00 selectional remictKe Ire rqJOI1I:d • G.
automatIc manner. As conscious being "-eCSenla!Jor,; Libben' . Are morphological structures computed during wml recogniboa J--.l
- . ~ are a\\;;p
of the results of our procesSIng but not of the processing itself. ' of Psycholinguisric Research, ~~ (51: 535-W_

=
.
10 general. psycholinguislic studies have revealed that many f-> The section on the processing of gardeo pad! semeoces 15 tIb:a r- .....
concepts employed in the analysis of sound structure, word struc~ . .: Frazier's anicle 'Sentence processing: a tntorial re\1ew', iD~"'1'eJjint­
sentence structure also play a role in language processing. An acCOUnt ; ance, 1'0/. n. The PSJclwlogy of Reading. edited by M. ~~
language proces ing, however. also requires that we postulate additioo' Erlbaum. 1987, pp. 559-96). These seuteoce type5; : , . " CPU,
processing units such as a parser . as well as the non-linguistic compone ~ Caplan's book Language: StruclUre, ProceSSl1llIllfll
fIi models of language processing. These language-processing model> art :\llT Press, 199-l)_ . M.)t.'nII":.... WIL'!l1l!!!
The study of sentence ambiguity is ~ ID
oftaa ~ in flow chart fonn and seek to provide explicit accounts (j
•
~I.s. Seide~berg, 'Do listeners COIIIpUIe ~ ..
. . padicuJar language tasks are accomplished_ Language Parsing, edited by D.R. Dowty•
bridge: Cambridge lini\'ersity Press, 19115).

:;lI_ _ ,..., IIIMy new books on psycholinguistics hal'e appeared. These iDclllde
. . . .u by JOICpIJ Kess (Philadelphia: John Benjamin, 1992). Psycllo/Jl- Ilecommended reading Berko-Gleason, 1. and RaIDer. Na .......1.~.
IIc.IIro-GIeuoo and Nan Bernstein Ratner (Philadelphia: u.m-t Harcourt Brace.
....., Garman. Psycholinguistics (Cambridge: CaaDiIF Garman. Michael. 1990 hJ"'_"~!,!!
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• t,h"
., IIld",1
d.\. hlP"·' '11111
"I 1111',111"",'11 ,\11111111'11111"'1',111.
101 \/1 1111'\ 1',1111.,' h<ll" h,'I'I'\ "lllhlll"
rl Jh'h'lld'hl~n'I' \i'I \lhlllgc l' II lid "/lIh'

fl ",' .. ull IIt,lI .(h\"lldIlU.~ Ip l'lt~ ti l llt .. ! IIIPtlt'1

d \\tHd '\ I\'nll' I
' ',.·L'1I111111· hi i'lld. (ill\; plh l lh'III·;.11 (I IlIlh.' \\"l-PJdlll~' lu Ihl' 1.:,,1t
I "'d Ic'
tiltH
hI''' 111,111\ 1'''1'111'1111'' "I ,'.11 h "'llh I" II 011 IIIi' """I, \llIlIld Ii11111111,1 r,I
,1\" (ht
PI\'\I",.'d h"ftll\',1 'h',III'1 ,\Pllld hl ,UJt \\ I III I I \\Uld hcul h"l'u I I" "
,I) 'II ,tl ll' °M'U'

III '1'1.11
I. \ ,',IIIIPlIIl'II,'

7. ""I<' Ih, ',11.1,'11 1',IIh "'III,'I1\\'~ III ,'\,11111'1,', /OJ ,'lid 1/ J 01 Ih" 'I
1'\1 111.1,'\ ,,11,/\ 111."" 11'" "Ih,', ,,11.1, ,111.1 \I ,'I,' II 1111, II Hi! "'III 'l hlPh'1
tlll '\' 1111
,'III h 1'1 Ih,'1I1 N,,", hJIt' '1"11,\ "It'lId~ ,'\ I" 1.. ,,11 Ih,' ',' II"'lIn', I
11111\1'
"Ih" ,Ih ,"d I)" Ih,'\ .h,," ,'1111,'111" 1/"'1 ',lId"1I 1';11/1 "'111"11"1" III '
lllllll\'
dlllil IIh 1,1 I'ld,'"" '

Ii, 11/1.11 I' I I'I""''''II~ IIh.dll"'" 1'1\ ,,, ""',111" Ih,' 1"11' "', III I
'III III "tlld, III "'1111' III I I'I\"'I"~III' III1,dl'l Ih,,' ,'111 1/,1111\ '"1"'11'/111'
'1 1111'
IIlIldlll. ,

OJ III rill ,h,ll''' I /',11'111' h" /,,"'11 ,II III snl III 1Ir, ,'IIl1h',1 III "'1111'1101
 12
language acquisition: the
emergence of a grammar

gn(.)(t lkat of rese arch nn lh~ u~qu\"\u.H' of tan tU1'" - _

l'ad y uth: ran cc~ . the oruer 1Il whIch the\! cmc ~ ~ gc \oem,c", on ch\h.lrcn' ,
l'
. 'h ., \. I . ,
f.;(lll\ Ulll , , \! ... Wuy 0 l ,c ~c phcnull'\CIH not "nl
rgc. ,lI1d Ihc
' '1111.1 I
... II errur, they
. ' Y C\lnlnbu\cs \ ' II
l,f tll1..~ lang ua ge acqu, ... \llOn pr()c c !\~ but '\\ \ 0 nrl' '. 1 n a C\<\Crlll\\\ln
. . .. , "VluCS valuable 'l . "-_
nuture n lthc mental mcchams.m ... mVl.,1\vcll ml',n ' . .1 I.: Uc\ 'hl\lut the
, gU\..,llc ucvc\u n ,
l\lvcs\l ga\llIs concerned wnh Ihes" prohkms d ' . ,.mem .
,· h ' . ra" on IWO b,,'Ic "-
n utura I Isu e 0 "'.c rVUlHln and Cx.pcnmClll'\\\1111
AI h lnc\.uod"
. • "I ough bOlh "-
provide valuahle I~t ormatl on "houl Ihc nalurc o[ Ihe Ian U'I . , .melHlllh
prOl: e ~s. Ihey do so 111 dll'lcrcnt ways. g ,ge ae'l"'''''''''

III the nut ll rulistic approach s ''-1 dren.s

. . II1ve ligalOfs ohserv"
. anAu r",ellr
' d C.,I
lurallstlC sponl a neous ve rhal behavIOUr. One l} pC o[ naturalistic inve'I' , .
rh e ",1 ch . . . . . . , Igallon " the
go-calle d d13ry stud) . 111 which a researcher (o[len a parent) keens ·" '1
~p Proa . '. I' ... .. ,. ual V nOles
lin tI. c hIld '. II1 glllstu; progre" .. Ahernall'iely. a researcher may Vi<ll
inlli vldual childre n o n a regular ba>.1S and record (or videotape ) a sample of
Ulll'ral1CCS (perhaps o ne ho ur e very second week O\'er a p.:rillli of rIVe
mo nths) . In b )th casc s. allenlio n " paid 10 Ihe contex.1 in "hlCh Chl\<.iren·s
speech occ un;. the \l1) s lhc ) are pIa) ing \\ lth. the pictures they are kXlkin~ at.
a nd Ihe likc .

---.:,;;
J JII 'J (PI UJ ,\/ihllllgh \It' nl/I/l1I11/l1~ rd"1 1" Ih,' I'IWlllllllCOllll III Iing ll l'III' lI"vdop . In c'l.pcrimcntu\ slmlies. fl' scarchcrs t) pica\l) make usc of speciall) <.iesigncd
. . . / I I t' I ' .
.IS ·1;III).!U;lgl' an/UI'UllIli • I I" l'll, 1\"" t II I Ii' prOl-'l ' " IS tIl: llIlI"~ 'I .. /",
IlIenl
N(. l ,t\ (d la~k, III e1i<.:ll \ingl1isti .... a, ti \ il ~ rdc\anl to the pheOllmemm thatthe~ wi,h III
J ' ,"I (Il"trm
( (1 (11 " liO N , 11ll' IIIt'(llal '.1"11'111 Ih.lt alhl\l' PI·llpl,· .111 'I'l·ai.. lIml IIl1lll'rs lalid 1I Inllgu;1 'c ~tl1lh The . . hiIJ·, ~lt\) nnan,e b then used to [,'nl1ulatc h~ pothese, abllutthe
I h\'ll' ,/ll' ,II kasl h\lli,'a'llll' IIII' hl'lll' l'Il1l,; Ih;1I IiiI.' Ill'Vl'lIIPlIll '/l1 nllinl'lI g •
. ' . , ~ Nk
t) 1',:1'1' gr;\1111\\;\li .... ;\\ ~) skn~ a .... quireJ althat poml.tn time. .
,i..ills IIIUsl 1/1\(>1\\' Ihl' anllll'Ullll1111 ,I grallllllilr. F \1''''1'1111... 111.\\ 1"C' ....lr ·h " t) pl, a\ly noss-' ccllon al III thaI 1\ tnvesl\~atc'
Fil" .. 1\ mlll'd ill Ch;II'll'r I. 1II,ltlil" lallgll<lgl' lI\l'i, di" <l h lt' 1111'1'11\1"", . 1 al\,1 '·llmp.I1"C' thl' lingu Is1ic k'll"\ k<.lge of dltlcren.t chilure\\ (or gf\)UP' 1)1
, ' . ,,~ lUlu
1I111kl 1.111.1 ,III UIIIIIIIII,·" fIllIlIl>,'1 lit 1Ill\'l'I 'ClIll·lIl'l·' . Th" 1'1I11 oilly hal''''''IIII, d\II.lll'lI) al ;\ 1'.1111.... u IJr \,1)1111 in Jc\dopmcl1l. ,\ t) pICa\ CI'I." '-'C 'l\llnal ,tu,1
I' dllld"'/I , lh,'\ h.iI'· ;"·lIlil/l·d.l 'Y'I"III11ll'l'Ildlll'tnl' g l .l IlUllall l'al,uk, Ih mi 'hi im ,1" " .... ,'l1llu,·tin g .1 'lI1 g t.: c ~nl\\cll\ \\ 1\h a I!fl1Up of t"o, ar ollis.
.. I . ' . ,II
,Ill' .11'1' I11"11,'
I I III 11l1\\' I 1',1\l" SUtl/, l' 1II1·ntUI1 ZalllUI III a Ii "d i ill"lIhli) ",
 l'I·1t1 'lit '~llil' t
t i l It " I tI
M"AA.1II

h\t\VIIIIl-\l'
1I11'1~

I,hl., 1'. \

,. h "II, uh ftlll",1
t ,Ill \c ItlIII'" IcIH\dl/iUIl'

h 11\ I 1\ ,\
I'
\ ,I II I 1\ J
,./lIIN," "(,f,
PI \ ""f'\lIN,
\1
"""I hili Ii , ""''''''11
Ikltlhl flll'\ llltl
,111"'\1'",,'01
h,·~lIt
101 I \11111'1\ ii' II,.,,,', 1111111'11 "11111'"1111"111
(d .11,.''11111\' laullI.ILll'. (h\'\ IIUhl 111'1 'l'p.IIIII,' 11\11\
~
h \\
I I}

'I" \' h II,."" fI,'"' '1','1', Ii "'"1101, I h" 111.11111,111\ "' tit" II"dll\ ""'111 hll~'
 lOY liN I

''ubtl' 11 ...\ •
~u en "ngo" II .m.I.ltlII ,ugs"'" Ib I earl v ha
p:itlly .ndqxndcn. of !be p.u1Jcuw l3Ogu:r!", 10 Which- b.,,~1i .. h \l1t'h"~
In fact. ,,,en deaf cluldren Nbl>Ie. ",.hough !belI an'~ul r"" ~ r tl\
""-' 11, ..- : ; - - - - "
II()tI1C1>bat J • V1l11('(/ th.>n th3. (Ileanag children iltOr) ~ I d n q l~
J1 .. \. S
~---.:.. \1 ____ ..
I I

/I". ",.vt""pnwnl."
ur,'.·'
8.''''''111/: ,/I<.r=.o In I",quen.:y unnl !be age of aboUI I"el,
.. ," h tunc Liu/dr.n tart to produce. lire".: fi"t unde,..,,,,,, e Illo",,'
O,"""ng m." overlap ,,,th the production at real Words ~ dabl e ....... "
I>e{orc d) Ing ;)ul. By !be ume children ha, c a.:quired filt). Or "',.",."'"
° . .
hegln to adopt farrly regular pattern, f pronunciation.
"ord, ....
Or "<l
-
Lunguagt.· UCtlUI IUon rc~earchen have expended a gOod .~
Iry 109to dctcrmine the order in which . speech sOunds. aredeal Of orr
prouucIl"nand perception. Although Ib,s work has been hll\a.'lereu'ln
,IIII,,:ullle, In determlOlOg precISely when a contrast has be IOdered IQ
well iLS oy a ,hortage of reliable data from a sufficiently' CbO ~cqU"." ~
. rDad "',
languages, some general trend.s seem to exlS!. "'"go Of
As a gf(lUp. vowe" are acquired before consonants (by age th
SlOpS lend to be acquired before omer consonants. reel. One freqllenl proce~s In children', 'I" " h
. . d" d ccc lOyolvc, Ih'
In lerms of place of articulation, labials are acquired first f I cerlall1 soun S 111 • or er to ,implif'·J '~
'J
II '~\ hi C slrm.:t
. .,c 'Y'lomahc
\ <1'1'1
\: Illn \1\
some variation, by velars, alveolars, and palata-alveolar.:. ~O"ed. "lib Table 12.4 - typIcal of the 'p~ech Ill' t. . Ule . n tho ,Ia'a 'h""
"" ,In<l thr" n n,
as [fJ} lind [c1iJ are acquired lasl. Otab (Iuch consonant c Ilisters are reduceu hy ddcII\l ,. ec-Yca....'i<1 <hlldr.
g Olle nt tl\~'fC \e~m\:n\..... n
New phonemic contraslS manifest memselves first in WOrd_I '.
tion. Thu~, Ihe /p/-Ib/ contrast, for in. rance, will be man I' c,e~ted
nlllal
. Po,',- Tuble 12.4 Reduction of consonant dU"cr,
such a.s po/hal before lIIop-mob. . In Pair
All olher Ihings being equal, a sound (like [s] in English) Ih \ lsI + stop (stralegy: delete (s/)
many different words will be acquired before a sound (li~~ OcCUI\ in slOP -+ltop]
occurs in relalively few words. [3lllhat 5m"II -+[moJ
By age Iwo, the average English-speaking child can produce the' desk -+ldek]
consonanl phonemes lis led in Table 12.2. IIlVentory of stop + liquid (strategy: delete liquid)
try -+ ltaIJ

----
Table 12.2 Consonanl invenlory al age two
crumb -+ [gAm]

p
I
SIOpJ

d
b OJ
n
f
Fricatives alher
w ----- bring -+lbll)]
Jricatil'e + liquid (sJrCJle.~y: delete liqUid)
frolll -+[fAm]
k g sleep .... [si:p]
"CI"ClI + \'(>ict'iess stop (.\trl1lr~.'" delele )Jus,,/)
By age four, this invenlory is considerably larger and includ h bump .... [b.'p]
· d ' .,., bl
I",te . es t e sou d
III ,a c 12.3. SuI/to
' be acquired at this age are the inte r enta fncat' n s
d " tent ..... [det]
101 and ld) and the vOIced palato-alveolar fricative 131. Ives
In gellcral. the relative order in which sounds are aequO d d .
. .. Ire unng lh
Iallgnagc acqulslIlolI process rct1ccts their distribution I'll I
. , anguagcs or he Another common delelion process in carl} child language involve Ihe
I'. or Id '. fhe sounds that are :t<.:quircd carly are generally the
e ' ones. t h at arc
. mt e
elimination of tinal consonants. Initial consonants. in cllntra,I, ar~ Iyplc,llly
d , ,(lund rn thc worJl1's languages while the sounds thaI' , , , '
II Ie) 0\1
•. I I I . . arc acqUIred lal' retattled if thc_' prcct'uc a vov.:\!\
llll In le t Ie one" that arc less common across languages . C
 470 () TIMPOk.\R," U~f,11 II(

])
/)

d,'g .,dnl
I>u lb"

I..... 11111' I",,,, ,'lid ,,'" ,,,",,,,,,,, .. , 10". I

dUlIIIIJt 11'1 fill '111.1111 ,', 11th' ... !rlh lilli', hIIJIJ"lIg II til" lllllllll
III' ,II' \ I ~\.'I It
' 1$111
"" 'h ,I 'C) '""',,11 /""""'" 11> ,h,hlh'" ""d 'iI;II " 1/" '''",: '10 (I'
/Inul1~f
",,"p.rll
111.11, """(,, ,.;",
III III hlll1l,IIII.II h
',' "' ~,.",."" ""~I '1

Sub 1/1 u Ii"n , 11l."lphpllt'lh' PIOlt"'"'S III l ', lI" 1,I/lVII,I,.". 'II
f )Ul III ,111 11111 I \\ If I I . I ' lIll'lIl III I1l1t \ll l11hl 11) .111 .tll I \lIh,.
t ",II.UI\ tt p . h ' . I 1 ;111\.
'111"",,,,,,,,, ,/< \ " ,'.I'/<' ,,, ."'1< 111.'1<' ( """""" """""/I'h", p" ""'1
1
1
Ule hlld
IfI Iud
Ulh 'U'
. 1(11'.111 / '1'111
, . . "'1'.11, III
r",JlJinJ,l: . I II.:
fl'
.1 h" .III\'~ h\ II l"lllt'\Plllll It ("".
'1I1~
I t I ,tllllld's ,,1,1\ (" nl .11111,,"11 1.111\,'1, IIUdl 11111
'

' II Ofl , I I h It0llld' • ~It .Ih •

" nutmlt'. lilt '"II\ II I , ' tOf\\ . II« IP I • II lid (I\'" .. , •• I .,u
I I', t • II • ( 111"111
/II /II .. I " '''1'''' ' " " 1""'" ,'S." . '11/1"1;11,." "Ihta
n' pid I"hIP h\ I 111m 11.1 II~"IIIJ~,'! ',III I' \l,

h 'I" ( I " ."", r ""I'I III I .' \,; • llh 1

r
," h
I' ( 'hall "

~h""," t

nnlll1ll.Jnt •• r) S • I
I 'd
0
,I "d.•
"
F f .,
.. I, l

dl 'HI,
"I

If ts
d
j
'J
W

r
•" 3
• I
m b 1 II loll
1\11 RI"I(I

'" " 1'1 \

11(11'1\1
..
;i".~
plur.'\ ,
~ .lu",'h.\~ Il('
"" . {'\',...e ...... l'C·;\O
('I thlrJ peN-on ... mgul.;\f ..~

--
7__~pa~'_I_I<_n_'"
__'_~d______________________________________

Thi~ :-.ho,", ~ that frequenc _ b) it:-.elf cannot e'plain \he.

n lenlal , roer for non-kucal mO'1'heme,. although '\ 'hafelati,. clc: 0\_
('p ~ \lot"th other f3(\or-...
t(' pta} to onjuncoon \ ll"I:l) "e ~
. role

" hal. then. delermine, the order 01 acqui,illon of 00<1-\10",--'

'-<U c:ue~""es and
'"
hOund e "- R e>earch
morph me-,
fa ' \( r :.re lO,ol'ed.
'
n a "anel'; of \angttages 'ugge 'that =en\
1. Freque.nt occurrence. in ul:\e.nonce-rmal position Ouldren a
ere"tcr tenden.:y to nOllce ~ rem"mber element> that occur 111. the end of the
~ncrancc th!Ul tho~ found In an_ 0Ihet po non,

~ ' ,nabid~ Children seem to 'e ge;uer ce' I!\Orpheme<,

~;/I'.-" 11lCh.:an coru;ti te _ I 1he"own.\bnthe P llIaloq'o
. uin, - '~. " h<he pnnc;. and /'zJ) are 'Ingle ,=,..-."",,",
, A straightfo
~~ord ll1L fun...--oon
:imult.:1I)e(lU:5 l~ re~
t >ingu\ar). and len:, _
f.. r -hildren to
 4;'4 (O'TFhlPORAR) LINGUISTICS

been c<.ms,dcriliE j, Indu: ah..'J ,Ul1thk. J1 . 9. as before. lT10r h

In ordc:r of cnu.'flll' nn', (The ± 't)lTIhuJ In rhe st.'cond COIUlll r> COles.
~ I II b '· · d 11 Illd' itrc I
morpheme., in 4ucstlilll ha\t,.' h~~ l, '''~ l~ H,; ~In, non ·sylluhic UI , 'CUtc, 1,'\1\11
P
'u.mJ sufi.,
, _. .
ttlr c~~lIllrlL·. ,.., n..:a11l:cu a., lsI III ·"iOl11c Conte
h
(Jll1()r...l .,."
Xls hl! 'P Iii 'It
olhers .) I it" 11;,
"~I
'0 cras
Table U .9 En,'lllr., iJtl~llng dc n~ lopl11Cnl l~,!.sC"
/(1)

~
FOClon gUlchc!.
Jtorr/It'tnt'.\ 2~
kashco.;.
2 3 4 2,
6 nllI',C<, "I,h

- m,~
+ + + + :;:-----.oj.
14
1\
+ ± + + Thc!oJc rc"u.h" suggest. that the varin\.!,," aH ___
plur.tl -.\ oj.

PO!l\cssl\e - \'
± + + oj. al different limes. Part,cularly pn hI ('''''''phs "I Ihe ph .\
+ + + · h 1 f ' 1 Cmatlc \., lh 1f<\ arc t1L
the. a needed In t e ast our ,tems in Tahle 12 \( . e /11/ all""", h qU".,1
past Icn \c oed + ± + oj. produce the correct form (,I the plural hc;c Even h"t gralle c';;,ldr:h'~h ,
!
third pef\on "i inguJar '.\
± + perhaps nec au,c /1/1 IS the lea'tlrc'" 'n well "vcr hall the c' n 1.,1 \(,
. . ..,uent "I thc pI I ·~"t,,, led
3u-.;iliaI) Pt'
± + in the m("t restnClIve C(lOtcxt (alter'a , t n'dcnt; !CCura all""""ph and 'ICCU~'
("h'

acqUir~fi
apler h, '>e<:tll>n I 2).
As Table 12.9 hdp' ,110 \\. Ihe morpheme, Ihat are
e,hibil Illore 0 1. the propen ,,,'
"JU ., I oul Imed t han th ose
· thaI ern ' '''I "
~cnerall
Like inflecti onal morphem;'::-;n:;;-;';;-I . If·
. d . a a lxes andt
-
ergc al a Y be acqUIre 111 a more or les~ fixed orde T. 1none exnP"mpounding
. a"""
rr- ar tQ
~M ~ g iven ~enten ce f rame, that required the f ormation of,,,nme,,t, childrtrt '"
a ere
3.1 or made-up rool. F o r the agentive -er, for exam Ie new W"rd fTm" a real
A persof! w ho nlche.~ I< coiled a P
A \ ,. bl , a tYpIcal frame "'oold be
Allornorphic rules As chi ldren', prnducIl\ c and pcrceplual abil ities improve , they 'tan · ~ a e 12 II %W
the rule, regulalrng Ihe ,on . 01 allomorphlc vanatlOn assOCiated IOfolln" fo rmall on proce~se~ were equally ea y for the chlldr~n. ' "ht "'(ffd.n
Engli sh pluml (M rn 11111<,.11/ III pem , / l z) tnjudge.<) and Ihe pa<1 "'. Ith Ihe
.' • ~m Table 12.11 Percentage correct for made·up roo
hl",d. /d! in I'/;I)"t'll, ltd! rn /IIIIIIt'd) . Inrl!ally, even allo rnorphlc van cUV in
., lraighlt('T\1ard a, Ihe a/all allcmalron tn EngJrsh can cau ~c d' fli allon a\ Cons truction Pre-$( 1lI",1 ('i< ) f I ,.
1;lJ1guagc /c'U11ers. and II i, not unu.,ual to hear chi ld re n aged t' ICUity for - __------------_-=::.a::.:
7 r ~':.:>::.:
(hn"l l%i ~
\.1 Idl ~ hooll%)

proJucc Ullcranec, ,uch a' *a al'''/'' Wo to three Agentive -er 63

compound 47 50 W
\ "cll-kno\\ n IC'chniljue fortudytng the dev'elopment o f · I -) 0 30 f6
Dernle rule-< tn' oh t' pre,cnling children with nonsense wordsmOrphOPhf>. Adjecuva
. and a k' lnstrumental -er i 3~
them to fonn pluml or past len e forms. If the childre n have _' Ing 4~

producUle rul for al/omorphlc lanallon, they ought to be abl:al lered Advertnal ./)' o I 21)
appmpnarc ndID!!' C\ en 10 "ords thc} hnc ne\ er heard hefore J to add
c\pcnm nl. duldrcn "ere o\\n ~ pltlUre of a trange creatur n.a cla\ IC
'Th, , 8 \\u .' \ cond picture \\as then presented and the Chl~d~:d told.
gn 'n the 101/01\lng I} pc of qu uon en \IoeTe

OIl , there' noth r \\ ug There arc t\\ of them

0\\, Ihere drc 1"0
 JlilJ,\· ,/ud/ '" l hi' \tuhy I', "III H1~ 111l Ill\' l \11\\1 •

IhJ ,"SII · 'ltO~ t I", 1\1Ir' It!. h\lI~ II\~ il}ll."11\ \O\."'HI1\

~I " j 11'1111 '1 'K"III'\ Lhlll~.Il\~ WIlli', "yl'l\\ OIl'hllt\

' t hll 1\1\' IIII~"I\' .ltl'1l1 \twlne

JIH "flSH "
' t )u\ldy's hal' ill 'hm lhclne
IltH/,!\, "fJi
~'KI"ile.l,"lt ''MI. "'M::d

1\ hll\\ 1\ \ hu,
1\1t\\\ltll)- push.
\ Iltl' thi, .• L1,)CS n"l ,h,'" Ih,lt chiklrcn hlc\.. sYI\I'lclic
- ~ '·at>.,n·
... C~( C\, .\\ ma.l'rI.cs
" \\
\ ,' I ~ dIll K\I\I I" dcmolbmllc thai Ihcy PO'SC" them. For thi, reason. Iingui,b
;1\\\1 ps\,h'\I"~"IS ,m.' 'pili ~\\cr \\hclher I" describe children', utterance. in
1,' 11'" \,f Ihe 'l'IlI;U\lI,' relall,'n, Ihal Ihe) e",prc" (as in Table 1:'.\3) ,Ir the
s~ \\1;1,' \1,' ,·al,'g.,,!\.:s "t .Idull s\\\.'.:ch.

(.'th~ I Hh " I)", I \0,\1\\

." ~ tutd ,," ~ h '" It l\ \ 11,'\ ;1 p '\"1,1\1,,\ sC\I'ral 1lI'\I\1hs. ,.hmng \\ hi,h Iheir sp.:eeh is limited 10 one·
IhI' h'h'~I',\phll' ,11\\1 1\\" \\ Md \\\\"1 ;\\lCC,. ,'hil,!r.:n bq;in III produce \IInger and mNC c,'mplc,
~1 'lt\I\lI'\\I,'a\ slm'I\If':S. S,'m.: rcl'n:s.:ntall\e U\\':fances fnl\\\ the fiN part of
\I,\~I'
IhlS I' ' m,,1 1.11\,,\\ .
Tabk 12-15 &be

2 H can
 '''''''kl .t"lt,
, rr 'wc lR \R\ U"o< ,11h J 1~ ...
\u\\1 "II" . H-I't''' , whit II, nth,\ \1'#
IP", 1\1\' r\'h'h\'C'ly \,,\
,
")
\\' I\l'\\' th llt"
.,/ Wh\'t 1m' 'hwk"
\\' It,' \,\1\1 "',,"\\I\}:,'l
'"u'rsio" In thlo.' \!"'I\ '~111~ ".I~"'·' ,'I l.ut~II.lf"-· .1\,..qtll"'ltl~"'. ,,:hllll,lo ll ,\-hy 1\~'\ nH' dnn\.. ,\,'
qUl',li\lll' P\. 1111..·.111' I." 11'lfl~ u*,"·tlH ' 11 .lIl Ih,' (Rl'\.',tll tl1'l1 I'I~I\'\I
1
.
-' ,Ill, -' \
~t")tl' 1 A\1"\\'\I\I \I\·,h" \\\;\\.". thl'll \\ ... W
riP \\\l~''''\1
a 1\'tUt\ Co.'h tal\.' dl.'\ ""h l l llllL'nf.) I lilr)" "rh f'.f".
''tj
Itll l !\.' 1" .· q\l\.·n\l" \1\ \'1" \ \ \ ·\1.\1"'1' nn,\ \11\ \
Illh' nUl \1\ wI. l\\\t-"" If'tM,h \1l'V,", '''1\ ....
ftl -. Ill) "" . '""
Sl't.'hole",' 1','\ liP qm.· ... \I\\n ... {wtth hlVl·I .... \~I") '
I ride..' If.lilf~ \11\\ M\lIlHHY pH\I,: h h\:I Imv,n'!
B.11I g,, '~
('all" yn\ 1 ttl(. 1\'l
-' it t:h.IIr'.' nn 1 h {\\It' ,l"
l":\t.'n .Ift",', indn ,dUIlI .HI\dial) H'rnS appl.'ar in duld laUl
ofrt'll it lit'!."~ pfil . fl."" IlHllllh~_ ht.'f,lI't.' tht') UlH.kl~n
' , ' lOll~1Ii1t.l.t:,
lll\t'rs 'till, Ih· ~I\'
Will >'' '' IIdp """'
1.. MUl1l11\y wl"'ln~ III Rl'hlll· ... V.tl\l"\~\"'\"\\h\'l'l
the- flt.'ginnill!! Iht' ,(."lIt'IH.'C,' III l'~'s IW qUt'SIlUf1:-.. In \.Hh: 'tlh.h ' f" .• IPI~,
,l' h
a \ ounc
, _ ll4.l\. 1\t'c.lII
" lI'.lIl~ tht.', ,HI \lh~lr) \ ~I h Ctlll at ag\.' 1\\ \l
t , )' " ~. II'" ~"\ illPiII iI( III
\~ Illo 11th,I!,
q"
hut did lUll II1H.' rt if 111 qllt· ... (ttllh Uillt :0.1\ I1lllfliiS utel. . \\11, qtll·~11nl1 .... (no In"'cl'mnl'
,. . ' ,., '. I" •
Anllltl'l\.'stwc _ L'm1("
.. . ~I t.:.tr) \I~t.: (l 11\l:l';IOn
III duldll::I1" In tlllih ,. • What I (ltd yC'lclllay"
11'11 qll~ .. rillll., j.. l''\L'lI1phht'd til I , t',\ 'Iu \llld Why KIIIY G\11 I 'I,,,"l lip·?
W\t~IT I ,\tll"ld rUI tl?
7)
WItere I ,hllllid 'ker'
CtJll hl" l~llll h)(lk ~'
Why yIlll are "1I\hn 'J
Whal .<h,,1/ \\,' ,h,,1/ h,\\l' ·?
Did you did ,,:.tlllt.· h~lmt" ~l Stll~C 3
In rhc ... I.: St.'IHl'nct:'s~ .(he au\lIi~u) \'crt"l lX'~·Ur-. 1\\ ic~, onl'C to the I, '
., ubwd (in Ih,' ['<"Illon Ihalll O,:CUP"" atlC'r l",erslOn) and On' ell or Ihe 12)
. " ' , ) I h ec 10 It Where did my mitlen g.'l ~
(in Ihl' [,<,,"i(l11 " ,"','UI".'" In ,,','p,lnlL'lurc. I as lx'cn suggested 10 right
palwm n:Ol','" .111 <'rror In Ih,' ,11'1'10",111\\11 or Ihc Illversion Irun 'I' Ihallhi Where ,hould I ,Ic~r·'
. .1. ' I f .. h' ,, ' . ' S Ilnn'u' , Why an: you 'milin~'?
Ihal a "OP} uf Ihe Ill,l\,'d au\! wI') " c I p" lIlu III liS onginul po '" "On in
[:\[,<'ril11<'l1lal wllrk ha' shown Ihal Ihis Iype of error is mo S:lIon, for ,on1\: chlldr.:n. In\cr I n III \\h lI\1·,llI"" <lev'".... nl'''' \\\ \'hn ut-J ..., ae
~.. .
• '"1
,,'l1ll'nc,' ,uch a' .1'), whirh has a C(llllpie\ subject P. re hkc\y in a appcanng laler In neg,aletl 1lI n,
8)
produce lhe e\)(l lrucU n, m 12)
ITh,' girl \\1111 i, 1'1') Ingl ,hlluld ie,,,c-' ," the foil,,,, mg .
• Sh(luJtll the glrJ who" cr) Ing I houltllea\cl
13)
Thi'l'fl',unJa!>I) happen' t><:causc Ihe 'U!>jcci NP 'tand, dlrecll h '
.J. 'd Y clwecn h
au\!f "If)' ,'cr ,IruclllleI f".lSlIlIln
" and Ihe f"."IIHlI1 10 which I'I IS
..
I11llvedIe
.
,ur a,',' \lruclUrc As ,uc 1. lis compleXity can intalerc wilh Ih' In
tlpt'rallllil c Invc"'tln

U" 'lllt',lions 11';' </U"\(lIlIl' 1'1111"1:<: gr.ldually helween Ihe ,I"l" Ilf two 'lnlll
'I I
,. JII ( Ill' loll"" IIIg !lucc ""'~ arl'lnvolved.
J .
,,·n. " ", ollr hll
1I1'llIy
5
\,MAN III
' I
ISfllj!l' ('/lIldll'n 1'"l(ltlcl' Il(llh In "" IItlC,lioll' IIlId ,..I I IIlIl·'IIOII' ' , 11I1110I'Mt Nl
11\<1 1I111 I 11(11 1'0"lhk SlllCl' ull~lh Iry "'rt>s 'I" IIllt v't l1l1 ' 11/1
II'h J
\\(1«'
I I." ' ' J ' '"'1
0 , .... "'I tllI • d Ufl' t\I'Il:,llJy II'hll/lind 1I'''''I''.lollo\~I.tI h)'./
ed I"h,' I
II I
H In, hOWl
~~~------------------
 I ,

"
 (..(). Tr~1p()"" '\R) LINGUISTICS
Tub le 12,20
a b
GroUp

~ _~ ___
(.orr,.", ~ __

rL-_I
- - ____ .!:t'_r_l>'·tltQJ(t'
Nursery school (around age 3-4) 21)
Kindergarten (around age4-S)
Grade I (around age 5-6) 3~
4~
Grade 2 (around age 6--7) (-,3
Grade 3 (around age 7-8) 88

Why should this be so? Thematic rotc a ' ---

Figure 12,1 The Ifl¥lO'tance 01 ",lienee in the development of adjectives. "'"tgnmcnt' .
complicated by the fact thai the NP bearing h In P""lVe 'tructu,""
' ' W h'l
subiect positIon l ethe agent (marked by th t e theme
" r()\e OCcurs tn the
I
!;,]
' J e prep<>"tJo b
the verb_ . n Y) 'ppea" af""
The interpretation of A' t-d ,'n Chapter 7, the interpretation of se, mences draw< h
s no ~ , h- I ' " cav'J J7)
sentence structure information aboul hO\~ words are hle~rc Ica J) ,organ,zed to fonn I) on
trucru re In thIs section we \\ til bnetly consIder some aspe Phra." Passive sentence: The car wru, bumped by the truck
(advanced)
"
acquisition , phenomena th at re)
of two IIlterprel"'c ' Cts or the
I On Informat' Theme Agent
syntactic structure, IOn abo Ul Acti ve ~entence : The !ruck bumped the car.
Agent Theme
Thus passive sentences are almo't mirror images of the' ,
Th("matic roles In Chapter 7, we saw thaI thematic roles are assigned to panicul ' , Ir actIve C{)UntPn>
in that the agent occurs after the verb and the theme before 't th -,yan~
structure) poSItIOns in accordance WI'th th e to
- II O\nng
' generahzatio
, ,at Cdeep - ' fiIcan tI y, th e most common error made by childI ra 'Cr than Vice
ns versa, Sigru
1-1) ren I§ 10 as.ume
that the first, ,r m pru,~lve sentence is the agent and the '>eCond. ~ the theme
'T> ' , '

A preposition I P) a"ig ns ih role (location, ouree Or goal) to This suggests that they tend to overgeneralizethe thematic role pattem found
complement. an 1\1> in actI ve sentences. thereby • temaucally emng on p~ive pauem
A verb IV) as\ig ns its theme role to an, ' P complement (lraditionall As the data in :rable 12.2? how, children begin to apply thl' trategy
- , y~~
Ihe OOjeCI J, randomly aro u":d sIX, ;uggesung that the, are tarting to realize that 1l is Il()t
;\ I'erb I \' ) mSlgm ih agent role to lhe su bject. always appropnate, A ~ ear or ~ later, theu cor~s tan to me dramaucally,
Chtldren learnlOg EngJr\h are able to associate thematic roles with pan' indicaung that they recogmze the >penal propertle~ asSOCiated \\ith thematic
, - h -,
stnlclural position at:l I 1:1) e~rIYPOInt In [ e acqUlsJllOn prOCes , By the time
lcular role assignment in the pas -i~ e COll>truction
theIr 31crage utterance length 1. !\~O \\onh, the) are able to re -pond COrr
' " , ectl)
.tbout 75 per ('l'nl o~ Ihe lI~cbl0thcompr;_h,enth'lon te,rs IIldv0thhl ng imple active
In C hapter I. ""e "" that a re e i~e pronoun lh,m.sel , herse~, aDd on)
, ntenl'C' such as I)). m \\hi e lrue.. , e agent an e car is the theme_ minal s and
pro" O must haw a 'hi gher' i e • c-coll1lIlatlding ) antecedent In the nurumal clause
15) contaimng it, Thu ,luntulf u
rtflexives er to Gar) in the following ntence
fbe truck oumped Ihe car,
I
Ho\\c l cr. 'luldren find it much harder 10 interpret pa'Slve cntcnces
_ . '1 id th t [ G nsl},
corrcctl) , I'h:, peclJII) true for p (\ e ntence uch a the one III 16
"hleh cllnt.un no manuc cI about which 'P I agent amI \\ hich one;; \. reer 10
them ( lite th.1l11 m JU! t 8l much sen for the car to bump the truck a II to
d. forthctrudtobumpthc:aT u hsentence aresaHJto!lc' re \cr iblc' ,)
16j
Ib ar \\ bumped b\ th trud; t1
 6
Of TLR'"N \NT~ Of In the I'n'\ I ,,', >,. \\1..' h,tH' 'l'~11 Iha( ,,'hrldll'll i.ll'\IUJr" II
, , ' " 1~ l'
t \N(,U~\(.f t hi.'1(" I.ut
• >,,', 0I1 CI1Pd pi
l III ... ' ' ' ' " '
1
•
'~·H·I.Jf )'l\II', \\Iltk II '\ Il-"I, r. lr ll11 ,oI'
• \""y

( QUr-ITION
" k'
uC',,·IIII\.'
'U.I
,,"
\
,>,
I
I.'" , III
.
\\1i",:11 dllldll..:11
. , . ' .
,1l,\llIlIl
_I I , phO I1
'\,IIIOU\ "'I", l"
f}1
C'h" ,
J l)
I11PIPIh..'lIh."'. ,1Ih I ,\,tlldllo.'
.. •
lull"_ 111\ II II h, IlIhlll: lltll\,;ull, iu eX I' I,.li l \:(lIHtl,
l/'
, I I'M" 'IHHI' (hal Iplfn\.\ oUlllIH.' '(l/lll.' (,)1 Ihe t~h:l() r , II., II)\t Ihl>'
u() t 11\ . l ''''' I I I .It III .. )
, . ' Ih ' l,"lh..'!HlIU" ~ll1d 11Il.','" 11.11 11I ..11\.l' up (h . .• gr- tl II) hel
l'hildn.'u l'\U\\l'1 l .. , • 1l1l1. \I l l 11
lr 2/J
~~ ~
Cill/" : Nnhnuy d Oll " ""e Ille
b,/ MOllwl' : No, slIY 'Nohndy likes Ille.'
1 he role of iflllt,llion \1 Ill'" '''"~, " \\,1' \\1.1 .. 11 l",hl'W" Ih,,1 d,,'dl~l1 killl1 lill1guil!(" h ('111/" : Nohody don' lli ke me,
and correclion , 'I I Ih'l ,,,,','dl 01 Ih'''l' amulld Ihcm \,"'" 11<",' ~lIn\\ Ih.1/ 1/11 ... \''.In,
1 III,PI_J I 1'\ ('/1lIt1gt' is rt'/1 ll t lf t't! ('ig '" l i m l'.\', I
11111 .1 In!! I ~
, , r11 ."'.1 "II,'T'l• lln'll- Ill',' 1'roduce" hy dlll<",'n do
(ru~. 'IIKl' ,nOI " )' rc~c,,,' b.:
','1"'''1 Aloll,," ': Nil, now li slen em ' fllll y' s"y 'N' I, I I k
' ' ()I I N l . . ,. ) u{ y me '
'Idull'',ll','ch,.r 1111.11 10'111.\ ,,'~h ." 10"11 111 1 'Iu, IlIhle
1 C\
'(rue Iurc'l t("'IIII I'n . 'J . . , , ,
(/1l1t1: " ")Olly linI11" KI" me,
"nlClUre,' '11I'h ,I' WIII'I/i, \11/1 ,'!llIIlIIg .lfl' on'/{ll" 1'''I/lIpks III /l'nlern "I'lit
s Ih~ II ",me slIhlle rOnll 0\ Cllrrccilon oceurs wh ' ' I
;tn' UI1I'I II c' ,,, "IIIId
, 11I1"lIJ"C
'~",
1\' nolcd 1'.11 IlCI , \lIdl IIl1l'r"'l
'..,' " l'l'~ "I
1I11l'ntll":C, nla~, ,lIl g illJ"slmcnls
I' , ' conlent
10 its form and/or en ,It ulLs
, r"""al
>"
a C,
'h'I'"
u .\
chi/drl'lI's Jlll'/11l'l., 10 IOllllnlall' !,"'I11I11.1IIl.t!llIk", '1111 1111 InlI1U""n (II 1<=\;1
,
II(tJI(
'I"'t'ch , 22)
rh"' 1111""111111'<'
,,,. 01 '1111/11111'" 10 lal1l.!lI.lgc
, al'q'"'1llon ", pl.Jl'['" In Ilinh
dOllhl n} Ihl' ""'I Ihal dlll<hclI lUI' IYPIl'" lIy unahiJ: 10 Ililltatc ,'rUellll", I I Chil": Daddy hl!rl!,
Ihey haw nol vcl "'allll'd, h,r 1I,,',nKe, a dlll<l whn h,IS nllt yet ""'1111" h,lt MO lh "I': Yes, Daddy is hl! re,
Inversjnn rll'" 101 II'/i qUl',IiIlIl' II III,nlllll1,' ,e/Hl'lleC 20,,) hy "rn<illl'lll c:'lh,
, g rlh} Chil": Boy chasing dog,
Molher: YI!S, the hoy is chasing thl! dog,
,I, Whal C,III \,1111 sec',' (lIIod,.1l
Child: Il im go,
iI Whal you ~'all scc'/ (c/iild \ illlllal/(II/ 1
MOlher : Yes, he is going,
I' mdm!" like Ihese suggl'" Ihat dlllur,'11 n:l\ Oil th"11 l'un'Cllt "1'1111111'
Child: The dog is harli ng,
nile" 10 pmce,s thc 'pcl'ch Ih,'\ hl'ar and that th,'y lire there/ml'o nOI
'
""I./tlcal
illlitaic ,enICIl,'C,' l'\acll} a, Illl'} .Ire I'rodlll','d hy <lUUlh, • I It e tn Molh{'/': Yes, he is barli ng at the litty,
Thi" " not to sa\ Ihal 1IIIIIilll(111 plays no role III Jallguagl' "'it rlll ll!!, While
II study of upper-midd le-class families in the United States suggesh lhat
lIIall} dll/dren raid} ilileillpi 10 repl'aIUItl'rllIlCl'S, sOll1e lallgllitge kill'lle" I
'CCIIl 10 lt1ukt, sdectlw lise of IIIlIlal/OIl, rhey IInn,lIe lIew Words (,~
l110thers ortwo year-old children ex.hihil a slightly greater tel\(!cncy tll revise
lIngral111llaticaluilcrances than gramll1aticalutlerances ('26 per cent vs I~ per
consuuctioll,\ Ihey hal',' a/rl'ady 1c,IIIIed alld lepeal Ilovel ":onsl nlelioll 'h"
COIIl,IIn word, a/reudy f:l/l/iliar 10 litClII, rhus, lhcy might ilili latc Ihe
l
ne: cent), (No sll..:h tende ncy wa, found in response 10 the speech of older
..:hildrcn,) I loWCVl'r, no mothers rev ised all ungrammatical uttcram:cs pm-
I\O/d ,'oil/III/It'/' III a III/llih",. SlIh'I'..:1 wrh oh;eel patlern (MlCit as I h,d"\'
hOI/gill a "(lII/III/Jr',,), ,'iilllrimly, Iht) IIlIghl inlitale;, /lCW Sinlelliit such al Ih~
duc.:ci b th..:ir ..:hildrl'n and even grammat i.: aluttcran~e" were often revtsed
,,""Ill' il it l'olliailled 1:lIIl/lta,. wmds (f)addv H'l/.\ ('ollt'd hy M IIIIIII/ I ), B UI (the foulth nl\mplc in 22)), The mothers' responses therdore apparently do
Ihc) \\ould not illi/tall' a SI'IIlcII<'e II hos..: slru,'tUle a/lu vocilhul.l,.y IVI"e hllih nol pmvidc language Icarne r~ with re llahle information about whether theu
IIell 10 thl'III , Slich ,,"'e<'lnl' 1IIIIIilium SlIggl'S!., Ihat l'hildren do IWI blindl) uttl'lanCCS an~ \\cll formed,
rht- rok of ;Mull
<'It

'. .'~I ill'

,'Ill
 \I11"'ll f' h \1,'11t " ' PIIIII\,' <1,' \,'1"1'11,,'111 ,11\<1" I" '
,n- \' k~Hh ,," \h ' t.\ \ 1\, l'\1\f, '1I\~.t· .h"'1\I\'I\I"" nth-
'''"\' "I" Ih" 'I','e I,,;'h 0'I l"h~'f\
• - ' 1.;1 ,t lnl\ 1\\\\\t ~ \
\1"" h ll\" 111,111\ ,,\ Ill<' 1'''~III\I\" '~III, n\I"" "II \ I I I 1I\\'\I't,\
111 11 m'IIIIII,' I.III f'.II,I~" \'\,' " \\11t'1I111t' .11,'" \,,,,"11 I, I ""I ' "I ,\rell ' ~tll 1\' \
",' ,\I
, ' " , 'I "e , \ bee ClI,l PI'q I tll,
\'III , \ 11 ,~",,, Ih ,ll 111,1,' 1\ \"III,' lltlll ' ,lh""1 IIIl' hlll\\llI \ ' I I
t\\.' q\H I \ " I. III ' \1 ' t... ' ,,' l 1\ Hll l \~\t ~\.\U\P' It h'

\ \,,' 1, I\lllll,' II11,11 \ Il'" ,lllIulI' h")!lIi'l, I' Ihll d"l-\I 'I " \..
' , " , \ ',II, ,,"til \\ I\h 1"1\"
' \I,lwh'd '\' ,II lit ' 1'1'" ,1\ ,' ,,\,' "'''~' ,lilt! I\\k, \h,1I II,' \"'111' 11\ Ih
~ gl~\tnm'\r
\1 1 III' h\III\'1I1 1.111 'U,I!!,' \ he"~ Ih"I,'hll" 1-\\,,\\, h'"
" • -' . • .. \ I
111\\,\., 1\\'1\ In I ~
l~ \\\'t\ ~ \n
.
111\' \11 11 ' 1111 '\' Ih,'\ ,II,' ,1"'1\\11\1\' \\11\
• •
.
"""'1\"
!"'I
I" •
I
'
- •
....
'1\\ 1\\ "I II
,I.: \. .... nt~~tt~
,',II,' ' , \I II' , \ , \ , ,lI\d \II \, ,, ) ,\I\d\\\.t\ \hel '\\ 11\ ~ ntk, "f ,I C '1'\.\\1\ "WI 1\1
,' 1'1111' 1,11.','( 1'\11 .1'" \ I' \ 1'. S ) \'1\ ' ,,' I \1\
,' ,' I\IIt\l11\ hI ,Ill h U\\\.\I) \.m '\\.I~ " nul-,', \\1'
' ' ' 'n\
PI\\\ "".1\
,"llcg."riC\ al\tI I'rinell''''
Gr.Il\\I\\,1r \\'G). tiN
11\ '1\\1,1\\ ',I I" L'h.ll'\ 'I

,I , \ I 'II r',
 'I\N{.UA(,I A( qlJlI..,11H)N 1111
'MI~rJlt'f I
II ,.,., I ''"''''MoM,.,.,\(
494 (ONTfMPOR-\R\ lINLlJISlIC't
(NP;!) ~mcc the lir ... t cutcgmy uhnve It I N ) .,..

rt:
'llcxlYC, Thl" mctHl'i that NP .Oncs nl 1I'(.; Cl)nlln'
l h whu1 h\ tkM,:: 1\( 1I C"tlltt\h \._
Tuble J2 ..13 The- \Hlrd order par.llllctcr ye as its antecedent, dn, \ Ie rCn~IlI\lC tUiIt
~r .. . . -~
Rt.Ulllill~ npficJII.\· There urc two major rC~\'i()n\ tOl nche"", I. ' hi"
!ilipu/aff" b\' l '6 , f ,~ , lal Prtn~ \ A.
fir""t. the nollon () c-cnmmand 1\ qUite an lnill \t I~ '; t. 'm, \ he Inborn
XP ~ x, Complement XP ~ X Complement (he<.ld-InH·i~ Ihal we would expect young th.ldr·1\ III d. n,l Ihe Iy\'l! ',I (lIOt
XP -4 Complement X (head'final) 4,
c ntc nccs,. SIOCC we. also k.now thul.nn one Il~~~)h"er Imply hy h IO'uno P'
~ h h' , C d t C thC'm ·,ht eo h,
' t makes sense to t h 10"" tall 1"0 nOli on " 1n\)(. . )ut C tl'mrnanA
. g UI"itICS.
· · · IS d ue. l,arge IY,to the lheories
---
•to he discoverc d or taught. 'Jm .lOo ,\'tere{l.l
Ire lJ1)C.'i nl ,\ ha..-
'I.
of year~. il:-, popularity in IIn ( -- c
Chums!..). " linguist althe Massachusetts In,tHute 01 TechnOlogy. )\ NU• Ill Second. the c-command c<lmponcm 01 I'nnt.pl.' .
c" cern, I .. '-- .
basic claim is [hal Ihe grammars for human language arc 100 • Chonl\ky' Thu\, there appear t0 be no \anguagc, In whith Ihe c uw. .'" UIl"., I
anslracl 10 be learned on [he baSls . 0 f Ih e Iype 0 J"expenence to wh',cOIllPl e' und' /rim.I'elf can reler 10 the boy rather Ihan the hoy', I.th. <\ alenl III Lllyl"h
.
access. Therefore. he argues.. SlgOi . T
.can I componenls M 1\, 'eli eh •I"ren .' 122.. 1·1'·
1e un.versality 01.
this. re tra .ter In "fUelu,,CK Ut h . .
have
'. tho ·[·d Ie gr. "'Ill'r t he one In F.gure . Ie Hm would he I
musl be inborn. To .lIustrale IS. we mus. cons. er a relalivel 'f it were innate an d h ence part !)\ the inborn lin . I. .~p alOell
I . gUi be .nowlcdue f· \1
example involving Ihe notion of c-command Illlrotluced in Chapte;7cO~Ple~ human bemgs, ~ I> •
3.3). (secl,o n The claim that ch ildren arc born with ahstract 1m.
. I d h I
controver~.a . an researe on a Icrnallve, Continues H,
gu"tlc IInnell'l IS
. . " I . ' )wevc" the hY\l<lIh
Principle A As you rna) recall. c-command is defined as follows. eslS that the grammar .s gencucd \y tructured I an CAciltn d
. . I· '. I ' . g an .ntngumo
(advanced) development \0 mgul tiCS. t I~ one of the many areas In the ~ Id [I C
24) h · h I. h .e \) anguagc
acquisition were Important rea"t roughs remam to be made
NP. c-commands NPb if the first category above p. comai ns Ph.

The c-command relation plays a crucial role III the statement of p. .

One of the most intriguing is~ue inthe study of language ac;-:-on-;--tlld:,
. . 0 f re fl e;'tIve
which restricts the IOterpretalJon . English nnc'Ple A.
. pronouns (10
. . . pronoun oS critiCal
endlOg In seifor .Ie/res). S with the posslbllll), that nonnal hngu,slIc development IS p< slhle only It
there a
25)
II d1 children are ex.posed to language dunng a partIcular lime [rame or uitical
perio . period. Evidence for the e)l~'tence of such a penod .!)mes [rllm Ihe tully of
Principle A:
individuals who do notell.pencnce language dunng Ihe early partofthcirllv~.
A rctlexive pronoun must have an antecedent lhal c-commands il.
One such individual I the much discu sed Genie, wh<l wa Itept m a maU
Principle A is responsible for the fact that himself in Figure 12.2 tak room with virtuall) DO opponuntt} to hear human speech from around age
boy', falher as Its . the sentence lllUes the
. antecedent. b Ul not Ihe b oy. Th at IS, be tWO to age thirteen. fter many year<; of therapy and care, Genies non-
taken 10 mean thai the father of the boy is the pe~son who was hun.S~As linguistic cognitive functi~mng ,":'US de.scnbed a 'rclau\cly normal' and her
menuoned m Chapter 7. a po"essor NP can occur 10 the specifier pos' . lexical and cmanllC blhu 3! goo<1. In tenn of ynw and morphol y.
. . n~
wlthm a larger 1'< p.) hlme ver, man~ p tile rem:uned. as c\ldenced in the f Uov.mg mple
uttcrance. pre'-Cntcd III Table 12.24
s
PI
------r--- Infl VP
~Ie"nmg
/"'... I ~
L'~2 N
Pitst V NP, ' Buy pplesaucc at the ~

rhe /1(.)', l:lIhcr

IL '>The man has a motor.yde .
'1"'''aII1 togo nde m!.l. f tar
hurt him<;clf
I ba' c a full mach •
fi);ure 1~:1. Ther t1eJ(J~pronountJkcslhe~«lfTlfn.I(KJir'!;"".oI .IS.lI.II·, (·,1"1\1. • \a !to ~wup

In figure 12.2. Ihere I only one category ahove the NP IIII' hOI 'f /1I[1t r
nantel) JIIee thl cal gory contaln~ the r ,tI, XI\ pronoun. PI
e cornmand him" /J accordlllg to our" finlllon nd C.1I1 tit relm' r,,· as II
ant dent 11\ ceofiLm c \\ 1111 PrincIple III • In I nOI IrU III lilt ,.
496 (IN'fMf'OR;\RY (I (It TIC

lnt\C' •
----------
I ':'\ nf (en ..\," \'or athmg 'lll!...,rdeN.. ?\ly 'Clam. must In"- --.
'h
-
-"a~UIlll)_
h ,hr ~ tr.' 'he...\ The l\lhe~ " Kh mu \ Ometnne be \eft. in p\ace for a l'tnod. 0(
C o nll I mtcrtcra llh the pru,luc\\nn of pcech IOUnd!i..

", ..
m • ,- N
~ ()h, ' OU \y \h1 child t.s BLqumng. Hnh ,\mcncan Eng\i.sh.
\ .
 ,\

.,
I"

.11
" , , '1\\ "h'\I'\..
,\ ' t I.' ml I hll
\ ,\\,\, ' 1\

hl lll" HI ""' ,,\,

" \ '\h" nh ",.111 ph ,\ \
" t ,I "HUH.' " hl\\\'!
\.' I\h'\1 \hl 'h' \ '"
" ,' hll ' 1m
",) \ h, \\,', bnv ,,\\ dl\\: II
II ) \ 11,11 ' "" h"l\
I ""\'1,1\"1,, /)
1,I.h '\IIh,

hi \lh \"\1\ .\\\,\\\'\

Ifl) \ ',"HUh \\' \\\\ "''''i\ ,\I\\h \Ih\' "\'" \'H\ ,

1\) ,l,,\\\\\ '''HI\.. "\h' h" .H Q\lI1\'1\ p\l ~\ ~ I\'\ 1\,\\\\""\\\\\\1\
"l lit'
,\\\\ .m "" f

III, 11\\ ,II\,HIl'1\ \,\111 " ,' \I 1,1\\"";1 ,', ',1"',\ "III Ih,' \11\ IWI nt\ m uh" """ \
,'\I' ,
\ HII' , " \I \,'II \I ,I \1 "I \I,ll \\\11\\\\ ,,,1\1 "\\1,,,\ \ , 00"
;11 1\1.,\",' \\1' ,I k,\ 1',"01\1. \ 1\\1\11' ,'11\'
,11"11" ",\ \ \1\ nh"""
~/.",ulln,
\I) \I I'" " ,hk '1 "VII'" \1' , \ h',
\,,1.\11'\1 hl'l" ' ",n 1\'
\1,: ;\)l\'~ q\
• \hr ~ '" \
!\,' \\' " \ 1\ ),'\\1 , ',,\\H, ,"\\,\,\\ ", \\w "Ih' ,\h " \1.... ',\ '\ " c d',\{\'n'"\1\'
hl\1II1\ " 11\\
I \'III' \\\1\,1\""'1' 11\1,'"'''''''' '\I'll' 1\,,\\ ' ,
,,' ~";\I'
1'\1\1\\11'\',1 ,\\1\1\\;\\\1'",,,\ \"
1\.\ " \~ '" \~ II. 1\1,
1>' V, ,I«\
,I
1'",1" "nl"
I,,,,h II 1\" :\) 111',1111\"\ ,1\\1'\11 \ml\l' UII\I''' ,
,I) h) 1'11\ \11111 \111\1 ' halh\\lh ,
:-. hlllll1l' ,,',],
,I
,') W,' ';lh',1 ' 11\mll' ",:\\"1" ,
,I) I h:lll\.. ,,\\1 II" ';'111' 111",,' \1""\..'1" ,
,') 1,1",,' \ \.."", ',
n I'" \1,\.',1 "" \111 ,,' I \WII\''' ' \\11 "\' I, ,II\' ':\1<\ II<' h,\\,',1 III \Il\l\~t,\
,) I \ IllIlI ',I III 1\11' \\ ,11,'1
II) I ,,,k,1 "1\,1 ,'kl,II,\lI\'
,) Rllnllln ,\\ I II 11:1' I hllh ,I '<I\llI ',I II", 1'",1 I,'''' "\l,,,'h~m~') ,I" \I"" ,\II,
\..nlI" 'I
, , ,'h I II) \\ h,ll 1,lh ,, \,11'11," ill I h'\\) " '\ ,'I'll 11\,11 'h' h,\, k'I~'<\1 Ihe, P
,I)
,) ,I, I "II nUll, 1I1h'" I\\\' :\ 111\ , ' I
1'1111 ""m ,,1\ 'lI,nk ill I \\ h;1I " lit' ,'\ i,l 'Ill' ' 1\1,11 ,h~ h,l' ,1,<\1111«1 III~ \'<lI~ "I nllUI\ I Ih
1h,f'" 1111'1 ,',II' ',\I, , '1\"
'I
1\ \2, I h,' flllhl \\1\ ' , 'tlII'tI' " \H'I ' IIIII'ld II ,I ,lIlh\ ,I ,«\ 1"'" ,\0,\ a halt

,II \ h;\I' lhi, I ' ,',1\1 ,I"

h) \\lnt . \\ h,ll Ih , ,,"1\\ ',I"
 '" kllli

, hili

,'I Ih" ""' III 'f1h

 SECOND LANG
the tield of second language acquisition) 0"" UAGr A(ffiJtSIT If)
lanDer th"n .. . SLA F uers v . Table 13.1 More phonological transfers
505
eo ..... productivel" appIJed to . or example .. . I, ao •
that can l>C J , we "no ous lind'
h ' acquirintT their first language (L I) have grammars th W that .10 L1 L2 Example
woarc" . tbd" . atar
and that their utterances are not JUS a llTUtalJons of the adul e COmment
'11 e~ second language learners too are develOPing a t target. Spanish English [ espeak Espanish.
\\1 s.,tl . . lik gra", S 1\
Spanish does not allow ;:---
'C even if it is not native e. ·"mar ,L 'e
systema "'&t ~ Consonant sequences
word-initially.
English French tty] (you) -4 [tu]
1 English does not have the from
rOunded VOwel [YI. The Engli h
THE STUDY Of I n the case of first language acquisition, we may ascrib Quebec English speaker subSlitutes the [u I sound.
Over dere.
SECOND b h"een child and adult grammars to either cognitive Or biol e . the differen French The [ill SOund is reptaced by [dl.
. e,w
the child. In the case of secon d I anguage learnmg
. oglcal ilh_
by adult re
"""aturh_
LANGUAGE
m ·th . . s, how
cannot say that the learners are el er cogmt:Jvely Or biologic /j . eVer, WeJ European English Over zere.
ACQUISITION French The [ill SOund is replaced by [zi.
R ther they are subject to an influence that is absent fay IllUnature
. If Lt e
a , the first language Jtse.
s'tuatioO" '
us diagram the situationrom~ the Ch'Ild' . English Spanish [para] 'for' -4 [para]
I . as 101/0WS: s As English does not have the
Ll lnterlanguage Grammar .. L2 tapped [r] as an allophone of Ir/.
[r] is substituted.
figure 13.1 Influences on an Interlanguage Grammar.

This diagram illustrates the fact that second language learn !!---------:T=h-:e--::fj-:rr---s-:t-:lan=gu=a=g=e-;i::-s~n~o:t~th:e~Onl=Y-;i:nfl~u:e::n:::ce:-o::n:-;;:th-:e-::in=te=r:'an-:g=u:-:-a=ge:-gr=am=m=ar.
..mterJanguage (lL) grammar - so-called because it is~~
systematic . 11 a The role of the L2 since some properties of the IL can be traced to aspects of the L2. In the ca<;e
by both the first and the secon dl anguage an dh as features of each. Jnuenced of a German speaker who is learning English, for example, the LL grammar
1.1 will contain some features of both Gennan and English. Consider in Figure

......
The role of the first One of the most easily recognizable traits of a second language learn '
speech tS . resem bl anc~ to the first language. Thus
. th at It. _bears a certam
someone whose fIrst language tS French IS likely to sound different fro
er s.
13.3 how a German speaker learning Canadian English might pronounce the
word eyes.

Targetfonn Result of Final Obstruenr

Del'oicing
Resulr of Canadian Vowel
Raising
someone whose first language is Gennan when they both speak Enolis:
Consider in this regard the fOllowing typical pronunciation of the En~lish
word hUl'e by speakers of French and Gennan. hUll [als] [AIS]

English target French jpeaker German speaker Figure 13.3 h \'OI'Cl eyes by a German-speaq Ieamet
One possible pronunciation of the EngrlS'
have /hrev) [rev) [hccfJ . th rule of Syllable Fioa1 0IIIIIMDl
Here. the learner first applies e . lau} to [lIS) But dIe _ _
. d
De\'oicing (translerre r f om German). f changmg
the ••roet Jangua&e -10. ...:. ~ ..
...... 1:1.2 Phonological transfer. ....
~ . d'som e knowledge
also has acqUire . . which 0 - "tbat [II) '
stateS _ - -_ l..' ......
rule of Canadian Vowel RaiSing. lbaDbtoIPfIiCl.... ut ..
The form produced by the French speakers rellects the fact that French laeb .
vOIceless con .onant
. In.
. the. same syllable.
e the input fooD fI1I/ ... ••
!be pboneme /hi while the pronunciation associated with Gcrman ,peakm Final Ohstruent IX\'olclng Rul •anadiaD RaiIiDI- 1'IIiI
can be traced to the fact that Gennan includes a rule of Syllable Fmal consonaJ1l ([sj) which tnggthee~":_of.iIW' £ .....?'''':'
0IIeIrueat Devoicing (which changes the Ivl to a [fl). The tcml transfer is sho\\ us something. about ') ........ w
10 deecribe the process wherehy a feature or rule ffllrn a leamer's fil'l of hoth the Ll and the L_.
~··Irl I. CInied over to the IL grammar. Other examples can be seen In
 Of, J 'I \f'l R '''' lINL.1 I" 1 It ...

, I

Tlu f1t1rUtl' of .1n

fnf.'t,.lngudgt..'

11\ ny

II
f\h \\-Ita ' I '
It'lta\
clnh.Hlil',"n\
(f\.\\: 1 11Hn~
pl \'~'II\I1\t' )

1 h\\' \(\ illwo

h l' ,hptl1ll

\\, 1'.11 11lll'IH

(MI'.\I"I1!
\ IpaI111lfll" }

I}( ""/, ','mnll

\·t\}l.h . . h Ih-c n', mIn\. ttl
tI';----.-
( Ifl'I", --.......... "'\\\\('I\ 11n"'-,I\\\\\\ Ih:..n

II, ," 1,1\\ ,llId "'.\\11 'If In

't(,~lIl1h.'1 Sh< 'rllll' \ ,
:'.kdlllf1l I"~h 'ht {\C.lln Ith\<i \h
'f1Il'lflh..'l.h.lh~
1 \1 \\
It'" ,\~t"cm('ll\ 1l\.\l~t'1 In \h~
\'~\l"dl" 1\\\\ \h 'lft'I"

h \\\ h p\.",: \\It' m.lm \telh

h..·\nl·\'W.lthn\)
UlI\HI~ StlIlW\'ln·\\.\ r':!. 1\\'1\10:
F ~., fllll... h, th,.t I r.l\\\ h. \,'0\\\\\\n \I1\hl po \\\\1\\\1\
. \I ,-\bl\'" ilrC\.\\\\' \,"1.\\

,'lIllIl"', ,
"r I
/
I 'It'l
I
t r,mc
IIIllC
11'111 /C, I Jc\ clllp,nt'll lal

rile" 1I,.lIl1lll<lI, Ih\'II, I 1111111 IIU',f h I I1lh Ihe I I ,,".1 Ih, I '. Ih""'h Ih,'
I fl'l ,,111'11 ul 1111111 Ill'"dq 'lid "II 1111 1111 I,' '"11" 's /,'\,,1 "I "\\'1.111
P""'u""" ,\'1' Ih,'l 11111,111" d I ,II\Il'" h.'lt I,," '11'1111>, III hllih 11,111,1,"
lid d'Icr.'plll 111.11 lrror, ,'1 0111 k.lln I , hlll\ ''''I, It"l1 h Ihl' ,IIII,II\"d
 ,\I

uu ,HI

t '\ h,'ph, '1\'''''1 ".t1

Ih, , -h."\I~n"

1'1 ' It,_ 11

\\ltlll ~h'lh: '
'1 .,,,un1<' W~ ,, ',1\ be \\",1..", lale agam thIS <\<n"'g' What a hamc,.
.I)
\\\)lkm· 1n\l..' ng.i.Hn! D~\mm1\l.

1\\ \)f\. -r tn he cl"'ln'n)\lnt~i.\l'\'c" ':\.)1T\PC\~nt

I, 'I!cond Ian.~uage Iearners.
, • . •
1'<' ..hk \tl pnldu.:e .md c,'mprchend " "anety of "",ial dialect. need 10

'h Ilu:anin o l,\f an utt~nmce i ... not a\wa\ ~ directl" rel1~'I- •

.\ Ceo. . • • _ " <U In Its un"""
' IUI\: F,l[ c\'amp\c. "hen ltllenng the 'emence Hu", \Ou
\I "l' , ~tnl\;· .) . ' ". ...... .' _ . ntr cOl'lSidertd
",·f...-,it>,wl iI .. lp., a 'peaker ~ould have m mind a \ariel) of Wended
f' • un . . t h)t\~1
II1U",'n nIno' ,:..' . He might
... mean '1'_ can t help
_.-\' ou.
. bUI ma\be
_ 'Orne\.", ~could'
U\Xl. el.,
3~lhh ..·",
·\think ) Olt are a lrul) d"lurbed indIVIdual: gel help' "The ""ak-r'
,l[ " . I' . -. . r- _ tnleu\
In pn>du,ing an Ulleran," , , " thre erred
b 10 as . illocutionary
l .force. w U1ocu,,,,---.
..... ,
' nt'l<'n.::e,
1.,:('1111 t - ill 'n,• rete!"_ to_ e a I It) to c mprehend a spea\cer', in~n' ' - , _:.
QUU

\0 pro"
"'uee a 'anet'- 01 ') ntacuc struCture" to Com'e, a particular m'_ ~ .., In
. U ' ein:um"tance, (e.g .. .-\re yo" cold .. Could I close th, "indO\\ 1ft.....
,,100 . . d 'Th' '., thin ' "J
rrh i. til .. Win 01\ vpt'n. I, 1>. too. b ,orne g that =Qnd lan'''''''e
(>II .. ,.
learne ..
•
~' need to a;:qwre. \ ee a ° I th --" d i '
e e",uer >CUS:ilon in Chap!er' . '«lion
e-.,

.U In sum. 'omrnuru, 'auve . competence IS . a model or- profi'

Clenc~ that allQ ,
. to measure "econd language knowledge and abili~. to COIUruet oDd
langua e"e proficien" - t . b. and to de;;leo balanced second Iangua"e ~
us
.. t

.
-\n IlnpcH~' '"
,,_nt "o;ll of L2 Jrese:m::h
- '
. ;Q':-
(\ingul: . C\",\ed__ an rert
' n ~' • One. • f the
" .tt1l3t h.") • .::h
I ' anl . i' th t I t b qUlte
' ) art' \\ I. Wben th " II
y
5)
1 ~ in'! Ii tto" ere
l ;:ol 'me' [ ;,.}
 S(UJN IJ lANG
UAGE ACQUISITIOf,j
J whi<:h i.. wdlfonned in Greek hUI not Eng!' ,
clustere Ipt '. I!Jade in the word Irelico/!!.er (also from G'Sh , I; oweve French makes a contrast between [II, d .
C
hang • dwas'th th~ phonological'pallern
.or. Engli sh. reck) Since'
.' t, Q0 'lit, not, as Figure 13.7 indicates. an 131 In places where English doea
complre WI II alt~;
English [SV l31
One 'lues·t'f)1'(th''lf has n:ccived .a lot• of attention in SLA reSe Initial .!:!ure [Sl' *f31'
nd .s are harder to acquIreh In a second language h ' arCh is
some SOU . ,ds an: simpler than Of ers. rO perhaps samt an oLh ets "'h , ~ant ,(UIl' ~ens ([31)
e sOUnd . . peth""I
Clh
some SOUl . • . • . • Song 'peQple'
. "o.
easier r spc'lkers
, of a certam
. language
. to. acquire . Wo UId II . be 'YM-. <Ills 'I!JI
Medial a~ ure ([Il) , a~ure ([31)
Japanese, .spe"kef'
u
to acquire English or Vietnamese') As'
• • • • m' gh
cas'. I.<r foare
~!!£her (UI)' bou~er ([31)
h . • ar'to not ,imple ISSlIes. We cannot talk aboll t the c' t be e~n.... r ~
I esc ' h, . , h' ,ISC Or d" .-<qeq to fill up' '10 budge'
. languages, but we may .Ive somet II1g to SHY about' '. IfnCuII '
enlJre .h h '.' Ind'Vld YOf Final leash ([Ill 'Iie~e ([3])
When linguists try to deal Wit t e notions of ease or si m Ii . ual sound ~a£h~ (Ul) I a~e ([31)
· Ihe notion markedness. Structures that are simpl' p Clty.they",,1
usc 0 f . ' c and! .....e axe 'age'
comm<In in human language arc said . to be unmarked
, Wh::--=, Or eSPeti aII)
I e slru figure 13.7 The (J1![3J contrast in English and french.
complex or Ie,s common arc "lid to be marked. So W ' . Ctures ~
areound Ihat is found in relatively fev. of the World's la~g e rn'ghl SaY'L
as . .' .' uages (e .g., [01"41' If it were invariably difficult for second languag I
ked while a sound that occurs III many of lhe World 's la f . . e earners to make
mar . nguages ( 1\ contradstffisth all areI not ound lIl thelr Ll. we would expect English speakers to
~~mark~ ~~
Markedness is commonly a~proached from the perspectiVe f have I ICU ty earmng 10 prod uce [31 at the beginning of words. But they
Iypology, which is concerned W Ilh the comparati vc stUdy of sirn~1 language don't. English speakers seem able to learn to pronounce French wonts like
jaune 'yellow' andjeudi 'Thursday' without trouble.
differences among languages. As nOled In Chapler 9 re ilniJes and
. .ImpilcatlOna
. . I ulllversals
' · of thc form 'if' a la searchers hale The n otion of markedness can be used to explain why Gennan speakers
discovered certain
. ex amp Ie, I' j' a I anguage has nasal vowels
nguage have dIfficulty maklllg a new contrast ID English, while English speaken
il will also have y'. For e h~x,
don't have difficult} making a new contrast in French. The typological
then il will also have oral vowels (c,g., raj). Crucial 10 thc und (.g . , [al), situation is as follow~:
. . IS
irnplicational ulliversais . Ihe ,Cact that th' ' . is unidirect'
e ImplicatIOn erstandlno.0f
a language that has oral vowels does not necessanly have nasal v 10naiI' Thu\
. • There are languages thai have a VOicing contrasl initially, medially...
. . , 11 Owe s.,% finally (e.g .. English) .
allows us 10 Identity a as'1 ess mar'c kd th an [aJ,- .In aCCordance 'th
' .
following genera JIlatlon. WI the • There are language. that have a voicing contrast initially . . ......,
but not finall~ (e.g .. German).
6) • There are language. thai have a voicing contrast initiaIly.bltllll . . . . .
x i more marked than y if the presence of x implies thc presence of \. bUI
or tin all) (e.g.. ardiman).
' versa, ., nOi
VIC' The~e generalization~ allow us 10 fonnulale die I'uIIoIriII ......
uni\et'aL
It iJ interesting 10 ask whether IL grammars ohey such implication~
uaivenal and whether this can tell us something ahout the question ofea~ ;)
_diftiadly of learning,
rhc prc,clKe of a ,oicing contrast in filial poIidIa• •"I'1
IIInldl_ Dllrerential Hypothesis investigates second languagt \ Ol~ ine Cl1l11r.lSt in medial position. wIIidla_
.1) . . . .1IiaD by comparing the relati ve markednes ()f structures in the LI ali!
".lIber the earlier example 01 Syllahle final Obstruent DeVOICJII/
explain why a word like hunt' 'dog' is pronOllllCCd with
\ oi.-ing ,',lI1tra,,1 in initial position.
We' l an repre ent!hi univenalllllliicllllr·'"

German IpCakers learning English typically transfer yUlhlt 'J

a.voiI:iq iato their IL (produclOg Ihlrt) for [hied) 'bid lid initial < medial < filial
..... between It I and Idl at the enda of ...... C 8
- 1_ _- diet die principle underlying tbi pllea I• •
to make con thII 'Jf* LI
ot data we dill ...
 I
"
!'t l' .\ \ . . ,,:'Ot, ..\\1'

'\ ,

a n 1
,'I l' 4

(l

r . 1 n t

_'t~p 5

1 I

,
 It,
\"ahh·l~.-$ l"lt-,c-'opm\"n1dl \Irdcr lot lust lane
I. -,"~ rh~ r~,~nl pan\l.:'ph. . alII
Plural -.\
;\ \ rre~u'ar pa....,
~
5.
b
7

Table \3.5 De\ elopmental order for <.econd lang

uage .u.:qU\ ltJon
1- -iug
2. Copula />e
3 Articles
-l. Au-..iliary />e
5. Plural -"
IS, 6. Irregul:rr pasl
0\ en , uh)cct. > null ,uhjec[, 7_ Regular pasl
3rd person -s
Therefore. null ,Uh)CCLs "ould !>e though I of a, mo", marked
.:-onsL'quemh. more dIfficult 10 acqUIre. The ~farkedne" Differential Ii ~ and. 9 . pos.sess.iYe -s
esi. predlch thell ,rruclU"'S that are more marked Iypologicall) "iII-
difficull\ in LA !>eC~IU. e they are more marked. The SuI:>. el Pri ncIple Qu There are m an)' imilaritie. but there are al;o some .'ff
. • Ul erences For
other hand. predicts thaI stru,tures thaI are more m.:rrked " ill no; on tht 'xarnple. note that 3uub3r) and copula be are acquired at a relao \ .
t:. ' . \1: ) earher
difficult, !>ecau,e there will !>e clear e\idence that the LI >Cltm g l e u point 111 L:' than 10 L l. and that the po. sessl'.-e morpheme -'s i; acquired 1=
- . . - .\ "ron
Although onl} the • uh. el Prin.:tple >eerns to make the .0rrecI prediction' in L2 than in Ll. To anempt to e't~lain these panerns, we need to 100 - a Ii e
the case of the null suhjech. funher research t. nece.-aI) m order to see "hi~ more clo el) at the . ~ct= \h:u unplement mflectional morpholon'
approa.:h I. !>ener ahle to handle a \\ Ider range of data. h In the ynu" secnon we ,,;}\\ maL m English. main verb, do ~ raIse to
Infl. Howeyer. F igure 13.11 on the next page show that the \ ern b< doe, ru.<.e
to Infl if no mod:U i present (:.ee se ' tion ~.: ill Chapter =)
l2 morpholog The slud~ of second language morpholog) ha> a -lightl) different fla\o~
the ,IUd) of eIther L2 phonolog} or ,ynta't. L::> phonology has been Studied 191
for 3 lonf time. though the anal) \c. have changed to reflect change In • -0 modal i: present. the aU'\lliary \ ero move, from IIl>lde the
linguistic theor:- L2 ) nlax b a much) ounger field. and mu~h of it ha; heen
\ 'p to Inf!.
mfoIllled hy current hngUlstlc theor:-' By contr:l: t. L2 morphology ha;. been
He i, \yp probabl_ t eating].
studied 1ll0I'l' or Ie . .\ in a theoretical \acuum. In the I 970s. a number of ' tudie,
collc(te-d data on the 3"curac~ of second language learnel'> on a varietv of
•1

mOlph me .. Thi. resl"Mch dre\\ on prc\1ou, . lUdic. In lhe field of fir b. A Illl 1 " pre cnt. the u tli~ \ero doe: not ran.
langu4fc .:-quI'ltlOn that had attcmpted to dl"terrninc Ihe order of acqul ilion H' . hl u,d ,y p probabl) be e t111£l·
f morphLml" In LId ,elormcnt. The de\elopmental -.equence in Table 114
" Ii und *He h e \yp prob ~. te
•
 \ , 'f ,r{' \11:, II (,l"" rll ..

s
I'
I
IlIrI \1'

\
v
I
be

J \
thin....
T
Figurt' 'J. ll R.lf"'I~/lt'tl)lntl
1 he (,'He( 1 of ("ornp\('xity on th(' ort\('r ()f th,' milt )\ ( \
13 I \ 111"" ,\\ ,II qUi r.itIC)1\hy (\~''''n
Children ~h..·,qUln: ht' a... a nl:1i~ verb heron! they acquir.c he as un auxil'. FigUre 13.
So. children ,lIlf1 by prmlucmg sentellces th~t arc "mpler 'n th "'cy verb In contrast , adults acquire th" plural "tt, .. I
. d I h' ~ n e C.1f Y hut thc
. H . I . at thee. .
onl) " copula (Iio~lIlg) , ·erb. (e.g.. ,. IS .l/lIlgr\') belore they J ""v, Ihe PosseSSive
. an. . t 1e I ,rd person 'U'lrk',n"
.. . ' late n.scen,
b qUIte . til, c·ct"· IJ\)
th
... enlence . . [hal include an auxrlHiry plus a malll verh (e.g .. He h ' , prOUUCe involvJllg processIng. (When C()J1ccntratmu on . perhaps I."r rea"'m,
eM h'O rk ' " geltmg Ihe w, d
i.l~ sho'''''n in Figure 13. J 2. not always have I he proccssll1ll capacIty to pr()(.1 " If '"ght, We do
'1IIg) . I Uce well-formed h' h
structures.) IntereslJIlg y, the adults do not seem t ~ d' 'I', tr-leve\
b S (= InIlP) . F'Igurc 13 . 13c) more d,fficult
ogy (like ' than phr' (). 1m
I mterphra'saI morphol.
II S (= InIlP)
13. 13b). This may be because the adults have a~;:adm(Jrphology (\ike hgure
N~P NP~p
i r ()p
- . - I d h Yacqulfed thc .
for the ir hrsl anguage an t at grammar mOst likely h ..... h grammar
ll . I h as ,,\,1 phrasc-Iev"I' d

~I Iu "v~ P
interphrasa I morp h ooglca I p enomena. In COnltaet ., . c , ren have 10 - •an
h'ld .
hierarchical Slructure of a grammar for the tiN lime ,an . d cou Id conce~et up
V· bl

He
is I be building the structure from the bOllom up (word,. -; Ph" ra~cs -; ,cmcnce,)
I a y
In summary, we note lh at the order
hU~gry
. . . of acquisition data are ',ntngumg . . .m hlllh '.
LJ Working first and second l angu.age acquisition, even thouoh we awa't .
. f
ex pl anation 0 the acts.
f " , a conc USlve
I'

figure 13.12 a. Sentence with copula verb be. b Sentence with auxiliary verb be I .
verb. P lIS 1lk1.,

Structure 13.I~b has an extra level of complexity in that it has a c

So far, we've looked at some of the characteri,tics of an IL grammar. Now
verb phrase (one VP within anolher). Adults. on the other hand. appe omplex
able to use bOlh Ihe simple copula and auxiliary verbs quite early on. ~rhtohbe
let'S tum to a variely of fact?r, that can influence \econd language
· d'ff' . because 0 f ' s greater ability to handle Com Iet .er acquisition. It is clear that there IS much more variation in Ihe gramma" of
thIS I erence IS the adult
. . I .. P eXily people \earning second. languagc~ than in the grammars of people learning
m gcnera cognttlve terms or because children's linguistic syste .
. . .
maturing remams a conlroverstal and unresolved issue.
~m first languages. Th" bnngs us to the question of what factor, might help to
In additi on,~lOle Ihat children acquire t~e three -s morphemes inlhe order account for that \ .mattOn.
plural, posseSSIve, limd person· · In theIr Jlr5t Janguage. Phonetical I
y, Ihesc
"
I11(Jrph emes h ave Ihe same rca IIzallon, so we can't say that the order r'fl
h J' . . .
p .0110 ogleal complexllY. The order mIght be explained by Botin g thai plural
eech J.I ---- o;~. ;e oh\iou, \\ ay, that language learners VaT)' is in their age. People

IS a ~~rd-Ievel phenomenon (e.g .. dogs), possessive (as we saw in Chapler Age start learning second languages al different points in their lives. Could the age
4, se~llolI ~.3) Isa p~rase -kvc l phenomenon (e.g., [lite kill/< oj 1:Il!lllllldj:\ llf l)J\Sl't of 1.2 leaJ11JJ1g cau,c ditlerent le,cis of linal proftclency~
/tOI.lt, not itlle klllR} s oj tllgllllld horse J, and third person marking involve,
 .: )
"c.: . . tl"T...\'l\. l~

3,3 f mdi\i dual \ ariaoon 1D ;.e' ond l:Ingll:V \ g~ ~

The qu ,tion dine 'the. Jd Ian. 1eamcr
Thr good language !teou 0 uod r the ea ~ = --has ~ ...M 1bo:
qui! bJl f e karner On r ,bel f'''~_-:::---..!
learnl"r
1-3. for \he most pan. tIu s\ \lilt t:\BILD-
a L2
! peop lI1' em an mp\
 , .. (II II I~ 'e II IIl ~ "lllw' 'lJod I;HI~'lIa~.(, 1(';lIl1t- ,
',.",.. I , ,..
• Inoclified Inplll
". "vel I "'HIJIIII~ "tty" eJi po"i'l v · I
',\ulla!
J "II I t « ~III IIIII tflodi! wd inll'rat:Iil)1I
I( "n' 1/,/I/O;llII ru till' I l'jtlJ1l1l~ ,;.,J,.. V "hill
2 fI,' .,11 • "rl" focLls on fl)flTI ,
I I 11111 11111 uiligomp UPI"(J,u:h to Ih,' 1sarver h
I / ,I ., " l : , • I ll 'vlIhj.tt SUIt!
>
•
" ,x'"lC"I'lo C1flf"l/)j
~ 11.1 WdUtlL.tI kllow 1II"w ahou~ how 10 '<KU,I" Jalll!UitVl' Y"'1h
6 /1 II.II~ 'W~ 0' l'XptOf'"ll'nla'HHI ilml "'illlllln,,! WJlIt II . . In Chapter 12, it wa~ nl,ttd Ihat acllllt~ III, II' II'I~
,
/
,I / . / . II oh,ell
.. I III 'Ifill'" JllIo al1 un t;ICl ~ySICIII and Il'VJ~JJI II' IJI dl'" I
Ih.,1 Ihey lalk to lither adults, JU\I as the 1rJ\:ut "I ~II children In !he &anIe
I It' Jle .... j C' )! 11 ", "YMt."'J '''C ' II'" "
simplifying h ., ( IrC{.te,1 hi chlld~en L'IGtaIIia
C araCll;flSllcs, ,«, ~peech din"ta'I,t
__
P'II"l'S I\dy. I ,- ~ ~ a "')n n~tlve ","oL_
() I ttlll""ft'flJly \ean.:llIIlJ! lor IJjCjIJ}Jrt~. hI; slTnphtlcd chl.nparl;d 10 the ~PCtth dip"I'1 ' ~ lendilo
, ~ t, at nallve peoL_
7 /, W"/III • 10 P"llll'" ce,rnrnurllcat/vl; SlIlIatllJ.ns Whcl~lI:r cI almo Wllh hid ........ In aD
nal iY(; .. peaker I)r, a. nallve sru'aktr '" II, ~tc,. I nr an adUIt, a IIIJII.
- we """n
H. I ",,1111111 10 iI"'1C Iht' JHIlI',wge Jtl feal ("OIJllJlllll l ca r iOIl . . 1' - ."'" I na..,: a rapid

/1 · " «./1 III11ni/ CIIlll lluhdilY and "ril't:f" "'II~"IVlly 10 /f II Ihe le vel 01 prc,ftclcncy IIr hackgrtJund knl)wlcdge I I th I ~ RleQtof
'I .1" I !l lIugl' ,
the input Hccllrdlngly. ) e I\lener and __ 0.1.....
/tl /,. "'" 10 dev"'"p l/w/argc l language '''on all" mll'e '" ,. 11,<
.,
~y''''111 all" ,s "hk I" learn 10 Ihlnk III "
. - I a l.jeJl'lf· I
••1t te/ore,,-, '[ he input aimed al non nalive sp.;aktts is referred to as ~
'I he suh~et hI thi, spt!l;ch Ihal takes place In cia: Sfl~'m "oreiper ....
~
I nownaa .....
talk Teacher talk tends nc)tlo he as evenly matched to the pr fi of
' Ik' f '
Ii ,tener a~ foreIgner la I , e,r the ~Implc rcas"n that teachers I) IClency
are die
By (OCW,In); 011 ,uch clwracteriMics, Ihe learlling \Ir<lle' ,
addrc<;sing a class rather Ihan an tndividuaL A a result, Jme leamen USUIIIy
to accounl for dlllen:I1Ct·~ Itl L2 proficiency ,by refcrnng [(~ih~P:~C)~Ch ~I
find the modified 'pt!ech 100 hard or IiJl) easy, 1lIIY
individuals uy 10 acqlJ/rc fle w knowledge. Some pcop/c have , a~ In Wh, l ,
1 he pedagogic goal ot teacher talk IS cry lal c1C"4r. make ure the ~
to suggesl Ihal Ihl~ Iypt: 01 research wIll make it P()~sihlc 10 I" ')h!. Clne \(J I;It"
" Cae nOI \ know what IS being talk~ ahlJUI hy providing comprtbead,le .....
language lealllcrs Ihe Icamlllg strategIes ncccssary to he gOod ,-" ()'glx~
Pcrhaps surprISingly, lhl /tlca has generaled an extraordinary amouat CfI
learner... ngUo"
confllcl In the field of SLA research, AllhcJugh il ~m to be useful to provide
This hI in" . . U~ 10 Ihc 1lI1eresting questioll of .SCl:ol1d langu' I
" ., age ea ' learners with comprehensihle input, IcU<.:hcf\ mUM guard agawt IImp1ifyita
cla.\sroll/llS and Ihe dkct liIal IIlslrUCIHJlI has on L2 Icarnin, I. ,rnlnh
possihle to leach S01lJ('IHIC a second languagc" Or call teachers :'im\ rcall) i' toO much, whi<:h mIght give thl! appc~ancc of patroruzing the Ieamen or
talking 10 lh m as II they were MUr/d rather than on the way to bccomiIi
an envirol1llll'/ll III winch seco1ld langu<tgc leaf/un!! can t;lkc placc~ ~~rcalt
bilingual
now to the re~e;lIch Ihal has looked "pecJllcally at L2 c1assrooJns, IUIli

4.2 ., -: ractio;;- Second language e1as rooms also differ from the OUIIideworld .....
Modlfted mte kind ot intern tions that gl) "n there, However, the diffallltC .....
maml) on of degree, not qualuy. InSIde a classroom. die . . . . ..,
II has been flippantly s<I1(1 Ihal pel)ple have hcen successlllily acqulnn! In the follo\1i in' kHld of trategles:
second languages lor thou~al/(js 01 yeal S, hut when t"aeher'> get involved. Ilk
• 11ltc \llllrr hensulncheckl;e.g,Doyotl-I'JfIIIII1011
1UCCC8S rale plummets, 'I his COIIIIIJ(:1l1 i prohahly /IIOfe a reOCellll" I)r
people' unfO!1Unale e1(periellcc ill t:eltaill types III lall luage daS~flHml\rlhal ' •
•
• tlll pnllllptlllg; e.g., Who knows w!:7-.
t'.tPH: c'pan ion; e,g, Student. Me _,......,.,.
may have been dull or even physit:ally thrl'atelling, depending on thc cenlUf)I Teacber. y."
diu it I a lalement ahoul general peda logic utility, "owever, the lai.!
that lanauage classrooms call he hcltercd environments ~htre
. . . .iII CaD be Jiven the oppo!1unity 10 learn and praclise without oonr
~:j. . . . .no abe penalties for failure lhal can he imposed oUlside the c1l1ilroom.
ioiPIIII• •_ .. lC.knowleda at thiS pOInllhal lhere ,s r ally no ucb thillll!
""",,---1Iapq cI sroorn In realily, all c1allsroomaJIICdilJaatI
went people in th rn. Nev rthel ,Ibm are ~
are three r levanl c/IanICIeriIIICI III a
W WI.n to xpJo :
~ 0 T£\') ,~"" It l..l ''fll. So
, h provllhnu
uCCl1,tnmCUlO - \\ "
~. ,,\i.\lUl\\n 1 h
ttli-otrucllon t at hx:u\c\. I' Ion"
\ \- ( t ilt tn - ,a
, . \,

~.
--- -
Th~ ~ ,.i:r,,:';-c"'lic l)f Ih' "'Cl)I~~ I:"guugc c1,,~sroo~~
.
pracUCc). error corr~l:tt()n d(.' \\Inn nt, h
I
n'l\ d.:'1tl\cQ, nt
activ ities that focus nn both""fl\ t t.l'l.."ln hi L"U .~)nun\\'1 for e 'rt\'1 to
n) ha, l1\t",
nu I uene). Ihc IT\ Il.nd In .tl ~lIul
U\ln • ,. ,
_ 1\ • t',·u, on fllnll- The:' t~nl1 on foml encOI"p WIth greater accuracy

\
flll:US Iset) \Rd ..... \ud~n\\ It::1\d ""-'\h
Focus on form 111'''"'1
'.. Ih 11 r 'oJ _tl' \.)o('~ur _ Ifl most -L"- classrooms'
'" l . ass~'"
'In'struq"' \ t\Jio d"l'itL.'~rl!
pr~h..'lh"\.:' • \.: ". to ....... "
langu.Ii:" .1JlJ c,pli'::l1 correctIOn, Ion ahoUlln'l
-, - ")n'U I•Ul,'ua"e
_ l),1 ,c ... l
cla,,"s pre 'enl the studen"1-...... With
- _ ~ We will, conclude this chaplc r wllh
' a-d-
,,[x)ut the langu".ge -, nO~Ing. for example, th '?rne SOn
\ :: :: .
education
IOtl)mlal1l . ' programme: m1nOr't \ Y Ianuua\\t.US.!l.1"n o{ t:Wu t~1\p
.- 01 h,IInou
I
1l1 ImmerSIOn
• _, -,nJ "\I"eles' J_cntal fricatives or that 'French ha ,al Englis. ,01 . programme" Both arc'dc~\gned
_" ge mamtcnan'I.:C prtl "
C ~
,"lh.l."U ......
InsUU
.. d - "
of th" type 1 deSign" to Imp,?ve the fonn (or aCCUt SO".",'
s nasal. II 'I.it
there are Important difference< I'
" S' _ to P'"UUCC h\-
,', rench Irn ~'aml1\t. and
I Ingualth I
cuon
' - L' In all likelihood, other actlVltleS that happe' aCS) ot' ' and Similar pam h immersion fO" tntr:lOn pnlgramm "\ dtc:n.'nut
,Ill den'
'-'u
I
on =,
_, ,
"ising_, the srudent a chance to Improve tluenc Y Ore Clas,_ "-I
n 10 th . the children from a majority lan.ua~ g(~lmrne, lo the United oc In C'anada_
l~ oC r.nol"h) he' "late,
'11
language (F rench or Spani,h), As ~ -, 'mg lmme'>ed In' In'"I,.
_ 0
t s
s("'lolinguistJ( slulls, " P3nICUIar America, they are in no danger of I Engh'h~'\lI!aking child. a IT\InO'"~
o'lOg theu1 fiN langu.g~C~
Error correction . is also deSignedd'to unprove I the fonn of th e Stud '
e"ardle ot the methodology use' 10 most ' so enl S L,- dominant in the culture . The'lr S't\ uat\On In, <>l1h

Rn =fonn and s Th'c asses today,

, the re IS C "'nee 1
children who speak a minority langua elSe early different from 1m" ,
some error correcuon, e IOterestlllg research rne fOcI!,
o _' be h qUe' \ who
whether either of these pracuces can s own to have a positiVe effe Ilion i, , are submersed
' in the majority Ianguage
g (e,g" (E
Cree,r Gree"-
h . 0' \(0..'o.n)at and
0\
leamer, Do students who get corrected do better than students wh Ct on the children m some danger of losing th'elr ~.ust _ Ian
ng I'), ot only ar
_ e t,~ \,~.-
'h"" d' o don't'
The question rna} not be as stratg , fi "on\ I ar as It appears ' Remernbe '
approach can have strongly negative consequences guage, h - me "n\;.·o" '"'1m
it has frequently been argued 10 -rst I anguage acq uisition researchr that For these reasons,
" it should be empha' sized that eon t eu
-f future "'00..'\-1ng,
'nf benefits of IInmersmg Eng\ish-speakin h'ld ven I we
attempts at error correction are re Iau ve y I requent and don't l _ th.
1
- gClrenmF h argue for .". UK:

children's grammars, Could it be different for adult second languareall } atTet! does not follow that we should submers ak renc c1a.w'Xlm. it
The teaming environment 'd''''' IS 'th d ge earn English classrooms, e spe ers of other language, In
, lUerent 10 at a ult learners , (unl'kIe~weI;''
are usually exposed to a fatr amount of error correction, But does tha: rent Let ,us look
W b in 'more" detail at some of the 'Issues ,urroundin b-\-
a difference o, Not surpnsmgly, thIS questIOn IS dlfficuh to an Swer S rnake educauon, e egm WIth mmority language maintenance programme>, g I mguat
studies has'e argued that second language learners who receive correct 'Ome
develop at about the same pace as those who do not. Other studies ha Ion
certain increases in accuracy as the result of correction, ve sho"n Minority
, ' I language
a
maintenance programmes which are atso knO\\'n as
, . . '
These results may not be as contradictory as tbey seem, though, The Minority language . hentage angua",e programmes or LI mamtenance proaTam e" mes,'ha"e "~n •.
where correction seems to be most useful mvolve the lexicon, When area" fIlaintenance mtroduced
, around the world
" to try to address
, the fact that ml-non-ty \anguage
tries to learn the relevant properties of a lexical item, they ben:~~~ne
l programmes children often have difficulty In majority language schools, Even with
feedback, However, feedback concerning certain structural phenome rom separate classe of instruction. they tend to have more than their ,hare of
< _ F th' na mav
not be as ef,ectl,'e, or example. e prevIOusly mentioned study of F ' problems later in school (including a higher than expected drop-out rate), One
speakers learning about the lack of verb movement in English (see s rench reason for this become evident when one thinks of what these children face,
~,~) found that while there were short-term improvements in the subjec ~ctl~n Up to the age of five. they are exposed to a language at home (say, Bengali
were explicitlv_ taught 'the _ relevant facts, there were no significant lon g·term w0 or Greek), Then at age five. they are put into an English-,peaking \Chool in
effects, When 'the subjects were tested a year later, they were found ta have a class of primarily native English speakers, Typically, they do not undef"tand
' '
reverte d to thelr pre-rnstrucuonal performance, eyef\thing that the teacher is saying. and do not have the oppanunit) to
This doesn't necessarily mean either that students shou ld not be corrected de\'~lop the basic cognitive skills necessary for functioning in ,ehool. These
or that there should be no focus on form in the second language classr children may thu. suffer a setback from which they will nev'er recover,
[f a balance is struck between classroom activities that focus on form~;d This poor beginning can lead to minoriry languag~ students under-
those that foc~s on meaningful communication. then Ihere is certainly no achieving and being placed In classes which are not deSigned for ,tudents
eSldence that teedback causes any trouble, Indeed. to the contrary. there is intending to PUL ue post-secondary education, which \0 tum canlead to an
e\ldence that students rn classes that focus primarily on communication but ('arh e\.it from the educational system, To II) to change thiS recumng ~
a110 rnclude some instruction on form are significant ly more accurate than 'j n~mber of bilinaual education programme, have been set up In places

,tu1ents who are exposed only to instruction that focusc, on communication, :, , Canada Finland and the United State" In all of these programmes-
Dntam, .
n urn. adult students usually expect error correction, and teachers are
 II II 11111 I I II'

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II

.II,hdllj'lIl!IIIn1 IIIII! I \ I II ,I 1111 'I IIltilin 1111'11,11 I I Hlld I I I

'
1i1'ltq
I I I I "II\, I
, II II 1111 I IHlIIIII .1 t \I d III IlIlhlllll II , I II 'HI
,,' 1"'"1111\ I 'III I I "lllilIy I

III 1111. /11111 II I I

II 1111 til I,ll 1111 III ,
III~ I, I
I Itlll' I II >"' II "I Illtl"I III !Ill
''HI' I IlllI III,d,-'1 ,llId U III I I I III III II 11, III 11th Ihlll hy I lit "'Ii
pllli l , "
If,. I I I
II I'"III,II Y I I I lit I I \IIill
I,ll I I I
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/
Ulil/lll lIIJ II.
1/ " I
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VIt,I 11I~1t h ,
/' ,~, ,
11111 lil'I\1I1
1111 Iftl I ,I"I I'IIIHII,.I1\ H' III Ilth.l\l
" "I 01 1111 'III 111., /llt. 1I1 I II~ I llld , \0, II 1111 1111 111/111"I 1111
II.' III I II • !lUll!
1111111 lildl til 1111 IlId.," ,lIllIlId, I t IIld lilt 1t.1t III I hillt ht Ip 1111:,111111
(u

I 'i till Ilid "II IIIl1l1d· I HHht IIIl /I 1'.111 1I1~ tlld 'I ttltip.11t IIh (\.\It I ,II
" 'Ii, 'I'

II Ill" t .tll
2.
 (. JII(.( IICC)

der rhe: fran Il(HlaliIJ" problem to rClleh Ihe C I word~. de) yc,u thlOk that 'orne
con I , Yeven
publte Iran p"narwn ' . If, h;tv•• others'! Do you think it can '-_ r pe1,ple are more hkely to , ......,, __
'J<; eversed'I He".,'1 _ ...
• ' have your own hcJUoe (J"r"de Ihe .CtIY re'llJJred a
"-0 c"'c.,•
JIl have ro Jrafr lrom any hank (J( you d"IXl'>C in Y I!re~, It, 8. Acquiring a 'K:Cond language Involve .
y( , .h hUr Ut Il'itl
brJ\h knr".,ing 1OnleIhiac . .
bou..: bcroCTJC ynur r<""". "on Wit I.he: year. and·<oul)le~"""I hUI.,,,, 4f>i'>I language, and helOg ahle te, de
think that kne)wlcdge and ~r.iIIJ l.olTletlllng with the Ian",__ Do ..
••• house value. alrh(Jug h It r. expcn."ve furtherm III r", 'tn.... . . are rel'*d~ C ..--,...,..
•,," h h d d fire It "0 Iff: 'ttlIt "JIaI

-..:
for rhe "wner even rh(Jug

. e eer cd 10 rcor rh.

Moreles Ihe frienshlp hcelween rhc pcr,on in In' I,

conracl wrlh ea"h (Jlher and maybe can mccI Ihe';: ~~ fUll i, cl,~
'luld he. I I 'lit
C uncl(.lU
~~
• ~r':c! r~
"" IIItr
~
'\
between accur&:y and t1uency'!
9. Why dr) YfJU think that non·native ak
. an you ICe any IraIfe..aIr

risk of leaving the cducati'm 5Y'tern~. er~ flf E.ngIi'" would be 1IIIIre.
t <In lIali\Ie peak.en1
rllher ktnd of acltvJfre1 be. long 10 Ihe ,uhurh JifeMYlc'" dlling ".rr~ar.
"c:,
. hI' . .d((lt .. 10. Re<,pond tflthe follelWrng ~latement:
Hul rn an(Jlher (iJJcglh IC) ,I, ou d be d,fficull II" rL • CJ~I>!}
· h
Jived III Ihe suburb II> move f rom t hrg cily bee· u "c i>Clml
,. e whl, h .. It'~ the !OChlllJI 'YMem'~ ieJb th make !ur I.'
hal"" bul Ihey Cilll fin amon,t a greal number of t~1 <;c Ihey h~Yt Ir ~Vtl"I~
r h Th __ ..."
Engl~. eY"~l'.ngh~hi n("'lert',be~leto
t ,,,,t nrlfHlatrve t_~_
ng~ Ih· I h J ~I,_. II
...--nofEAeJilh. .
Ihe: dry. Olhcrwr '>C durrng Ihe la ~1 15 years Ihe "u~inc • I cy u~ ~ "'- them to succeed. If we encourage them u, \ IUCUd In tbH COWIIry We_
~ Ir, ,. -""
ghetUJC<; WIll femn and they'll never learn En .~ their ov.<n Ianpaac. da
!>\ aCI,y'
around Ihe LIly qUIckly III Ihc I:UHIPC al~o Ihc ~upc I/L~ h", rl~ ''4 e
. h '
facrurc and 0 on otlercrI Ih C JO 0pP',rtunrty 10 Ih C
rmarkel ""vek
ce>rllpa ~ English, then obvrou,ly they need u) be e~~ . And II "'e "'ant Ibem 10 . .
aglomeraljc," III Ihat way il was crealed CJlnc apartmcnl pehplc ','UI""~' , It knowing h'Jw to \peak ancllher language u~~g\ish. What 1DOd.
. I
for me I don I even care W lere I have 10 Ii ve but I w,II
~ "acal
' ,,"'.
.", the Ie
nt 10 lhe cIly. '"' Engli'h, Engli hand rncJCc I:.ngr h. I!I b...... What /bey '*'II •
cfluld be Ihc Ics~ expen, lve a~ we II tran portal ion t '""rVe ·"c· h
(j reach "It "'-
be wrc thaI I'd I,ke to Irve OUISI d c the do ntown my jll/) I>u! I;:"

3. Given what you know aho~t impJl\.atlOnal universals d

w()uld he ca\lcr for an Lng" h <peaker to acquire f .' . y()U t1unk r)
-I ' gI"ve ' ) Of Iior rrench
(e.g., ganl rga. r:
speakers to ..rench
. II"alaI V"\\etQ
vowels" acquire f:ng!ilh (~aj

4. What explanatwlI would you gIve for a native 'peak

produced thc I:nghsh scntenc.:e f drink !requ(mll. cofJ, er hench \\1'1) ;'f
explain Ihe faci that when the arne ~peaker prr,ducese~t: ~: c'JUld)«J
frequently late, illl> grammatIcal' Do any "ther f:.ngli~h L tenee H, 0
this? verl}S i>ehave iJkt

Which of the following c. ntences would yr)u c la ~s ify Cle' p<mtlveeVIA

J. _..I .•
__ _
iIIIU which a~ negatIve eVidence for the learner'! '''''rq:
.) Non native ~peaker (N ')): He ludy a ",1.
Nabve speaker (NS,- He IItir/i,:f" ",1,
b) S: What kmd of tXXJks do yflu lIke III read'
My lenes.
 language in socia l ConteXts
'( \ utd II. Southcr/.lI1d .md Haf1cL<; f...1t. l1 nb<l

I '"It YI t ( 1f1r~k'\_(.. liN''>

(, .. / '\'Ic - .
don( ck1->t.'tult'nt It'·; I.JIt,,,,'ill,;t""tt/lllJt1., d
O/'\'c'1J( "ffr'I/ .,
l("tlk' I ~I'! ..,
,. \llft'lfr~ll\tt~j/ld

Th., c'haplc'r Ircals iI \ aricly of social. COrHc!Xh rn. wh.ch one can "'anll ,
Ihe lise of language and Ihe .mpaci of cXlra-lrngUISI .e laclo" on lan' . n'bolh
"p'c" range frol11 reglona . I vnnal.on
.. . I'.lnguagc
rn , " th roug h sodal v.gU,tg~
'. "- '''~
( .. . " . Itn'UIt)
language 10 sludies 01 language usc In Interacllon. The uSes or I. n In
""l~llined rcncellhe real world. UUerancl's an~ givcn in Ihclr nalltral r;~,;gIJJgt
arc nol ediled or censored wilh respeci to conlc!nt or chOIce 01 VOC<rbui ll and
reading of Ihis chapler should creale an awareness IhtH Ihe realily or lan~'). A
in social conlexls is nOI one of proper speech versus all other sPC~l'h ~1J'lgt
a sCI of complementary speech varieties lhat are used by Illemhcrs III ot
speech community. In promoting this awareness, the chapter also (f. Ihe
.Icchmques
analylJcal . ,.
and theoretIcal ..
assumpt ' . thcISCUS\C\
. th.at undcrlte
Ions
exallllllcd.
. ~Q

() 1J1>a1t~~1
1
---------------------- Speech variclI!!, I)ther
fUNDAMENTAL The subdiscipline of linguistics that treats Ihe SOCial aspects of language '
CONCEPTS called sociolinguistics. In this chapter, this label wil l be u~ed to refer to all;
research about language in social contexts. Such research ranges from the
Rc 'Iollal vall ·lt~
very limited and localized context of a single conversation to studies of
language use by whole populalions. Given these qUlle diverse areas 01
research interest, it might be assumed that many socio linguists do nOI share
the same fundamental concepts or goals. This is 10 some ex tent true. lltual
Despite Ihe fact that there are a number of ways of approaching the study hJrtllal
of language in social context, there are neverlheless cerlain terms and
concepts that are colllmon to most of them The locus of all soclollngUl\tK Regl ter~ Cl:hnl~aI
investigation is the speech community. A speech commll nJly can he as small Slmpllhed
as a town, village, or even a cluh or as large as a Ita llOn or a grollp of naliOlll,
The impOl1anl characleristics of a speech cornlllllillty are Ihat 1/\ 1IIl'lllhcr \lIha
share a particular language (or variety of a language) as we ll it the nom" (or
ruks) ji)r the appropriate usc of their language in social cOll lc.\I, and that 11ll'
Social dIfferenti ation 0 - language, ill it broadest se e. refer f)

bet\!.een ~ariaUOIJ n language use and a speaker'!; member

wciaJgrou

2.2
Other way of
stud jog social
'ariation

Social net ork

itWsis
 mtaactJ n ) of II peaker wltj lntaprel hngUIStic \'
and den lUes of rdatl.),;hip t W"lduaJ lIrllllJ<JIl III
JI)YlIlJ
She demuy of a nel"'OIt 15 ,ela d II) !lie POIClIllal j ..
• ~".. member of thc nel",,,rk and call IX! eilhel cJ,~~ 0, tQ
_ ••""'""t I f '"11)'1
pc
0' laJ oe('" 01;; WI , . I {J t.... erytJllc: in . evcr"J~~p
I consl •
person phn' wm' role (Jr,~kllll net"'I" .... hl~h Iyp In lot ..
~L'~
Y'"~-
of the rughe 1 and lowest SES IImuP • clIen a K'dly t.~ar._
f'eat ,, __ . --'1.,
nn' are on lJ<!akt'~ '/lICj arc Ihus as ()(;Ial.,d wilh laflu, "QI t>f ""
'"IDee
- k I
peakCl~ In uch a nc(wt,r - oWing 10 1 II! fa<;t Ibal II
.,Uag" lliaj

the alne relallvely Jrmlted M.:I of peoplemallulllher ••

relauonshlp
1d:;;
IlUtlilq '-t
remfor(;c each olher'~ pcA;:(.h habil~. ('I.> ~Jent lid:
among the high C;l;'s gr()ups relOft)rce eJlher a landard ~~ \'lll 1J(f"\IrI
" ith high blatU>. (,Joseknll nelwork!; amllOg Juw SI~S grouj)\ ar
standard pcech varielles.
et] Qr
e UCI (Qr ~
7 1

Social netwllrkl. have been likened 10 a (,hinel;(! f~n (as III f

wludl each group i hoth beparate hut at the arne lime e)(lllbl~g:e 14.2)
other groups and all groups converge 110 the pcrf>(Jll at I c e ' , Cl1ap".
, . . h f" ' 1 II"" lh
nature and frequency of mteracllons III t e anlJ y grc)UP will dlf~ler f 'rJlllI~~
f h
among fellow workers. JIlemher~ 0 t e ba~e $p<,n~ team. neighbour -
like. In 3 sense, buch btudles can /end weIght 10 the notion that y, : and the
those we talk too. more cspe<:ially where those interaClanls are c~" L an:
network_ IlIieknn
eighbourhood

,.-...rnnof (k.onardnetWIX~"'"
figure t4.3 A 1"'"--- '..,

Principal
IiKurp 14.2 SOt 1.11 fll'twI"h.
components
analysis
I igulc 14.3 hows a portion of a c1o~cklllt network inve ligated hy Lt ley
Mtlroy in the working-class Chmard area 01 Bclfa~l. 'I his network had a 1(1)
pn ccnl dcn ity index; that is to £ay. everyhody in the network of the
n; alchel's oflglnal contact (John R.) knew cvcryhlKly else and talked 10
tllem Jrc<juuJlly. Jolin R hiJII'>Clf lived III a ncighhounn ' hlod; of flat but In
lalJlily lived in tht; t'lonard He introduccd Le ley MIlroy to hi, fnend \lanlD
Convery who C IllllJlcdiatc and extended Jarnrly and Ir IClllh aI-o li\cd In tilt
CJ<lnanJ lind IIld up wllh each other olten
 J
,f If t If
,111/, ",.11 1I""llf
I "lfl. "

N,," . ... ,.,1. ,,1

1t',IIII"",'i, I
f, ,'"tI ft
 , , ,II
t
II ,I)
t,)
;~
Ih \!l' .Intl
t,\ 1.11~'"·1
11,1 "lld~1

~ 'ml 'I', \\ III 'h \\1,1\

" '
" •
":1. n tI
l ' 'lh'1 h,ml r,Il>!' I ':1.\ ,
•

•
 .-- .. ~ .
form
 In L L TI
Thu"', \.\ C might (n..:nunter "
Oth r dllh.ort"JlCl' hc:l\\eCn mt.·n·~ and ",omen'" Ian a.\si.~mlU 11( /(l(/d"?· ,t ~~
e\ien b •
,f'V"JlklOtt I l.wch ClHtlmumllC'\ arc ,cc!n 10 women', m gUage in t women, Howeser, n"wada ~n\i~ Did ""'"
"_ " '-- _ orC! c hear ul1erJ.nce, ,uch a, the f- 11111 lurall) af rtt~ -....
polit~n~'s formulus Tn~n.' are a num,,,,r at Way in h. r"<ju~L .. u a .....n a
l Il1l11an,h) can be ill/ligated III Engl~"h Instead of "mply"" a'~h ""J..., ''It "f
/II/() their ~"" h,,"d.' ( ''''ned h ." 0 Of)
•
e""
b l'tt.:b ~

'(h',n t/" w",'/"II"I' we mIght say Pleuse opel! Ihe hUrd )' ng l<lS 'II '/J' d()11 I \\'t' ~() 1001<' finl erJl (artntt \ YO< lIh ~ ~ """
I .,' • . , 0\\ ," • a lele\,.,\\On talk·,ho .... h'h\), I ..~r and ee haz ,..~!l\ 'i lilt "'"
pIt (1\[" ('pen thl" u"IIuloH' . Could .\O~I open the l\.'lIJdoh·')' , \ , ' \\"'lild . d Ii ' nl"" ~ ""'It ....
nl~, ... \,_ c 'O' ....
opn,illg th,' "'/IIdtl"'~', 'D~) yolt fit~d /I slUffy ill here", and ,~oUld ~o~ "'"
(gender-In. e lOne) Ih"y, \\ hl'h ....
, ,. E· C """,d '14"\ • .... t'--
III It'" dirt'd \\;1\" 01 mal..IIlg Lhe requesLthan the slraighlf on, ~~ prc,cnptl'"'''t ngl"h and ",h"'h d
, C enOl'
• \lfead I
n It()n --
..-
~nd II i, "'aimed: w(luld more likely be e~,ploYed by womc~fI>.ard illlPcrili~ of unspecIfied lor po,,\hl\ m,xed
·. h . • 2ender r
C 1UIlnddinll
• nUm"-
011":----
", ......
of Ih IS ,on, t e pronoun"'k and h' rOr \ltaI.. '''<f alllltli~
SImilarly. ,,,me sllId":,,uggesl Ihal women use more verbal
dl' m~n. These an! words ,uch as perhaps or mavbe (a, in ~~- hedges h.
of a ,\ng.l.e gender \\ ho,c gend'cr h. "....no\\, are rc f~
."ed ,"'bo
" I rt.le~
III1tr lih._.
:~.... ~
' / I'd .) EnglISh nouns. thOUGh not n, e 10 1IId\........
,r.
S:O 10 lireel't' II('XI SIIIII/IlL r .lor OUI zo I G.' S W h'Ic h are Ie
• COuld
, 1.'<II
Pt'''/rq " ~ 0\ enl) rnar\- .--
~lmVe"alioIlS Lhan ullerances wilhoUL hedges (e,g" \\ e .,hoUI;' a"Cl1i\e p. tho,e 10 Latm, Ru"ian, or man) h cd for llfanunan
women and men, Genera. 11\ in En lother language,. do d' Lal &t1'Iltt I,L.
",',t ,\/I/I/11ler for our /lOlidtll's), (See also seclion 5,3,) go In Gr. In - g" no .' I lliIgu,... "'"
, d ~ are at once both m:bcuhne and. .' un rekmn~ to >n ~
Finally. II has been nOLed that men len ~o use more vemacular , ~enenc thu\ th ,c~n <lC
fireman, untIl comparative\\' recentI ' . e trad'bonal I ~
to slandard fonns, Men, lend to altach ~Slllve v~lue LO non-slanda.s op~ , f' - )'''''ereu",<!'''''L tnn,flO_·_
Their use is scen as havong on-group co~ert prestige (as 0PIJO· d ard fOnn
those pro . e.. Slon,. There OCca\I'n . "naII\ arc f .~"" \
for~
..~nand .........
• ...... or
d, ' d' 'CLOth" occupation, (lIlalla~ae,-" .I,u/,>lr' ,- , ema. f,'<m, for ,L.. ·''''>In
~'sllgc of sLandard fomls), Indee
P ". ' , .
on a stu ) on o rwic h I'L
mcn onen claimed 10 use more non-standard fonns than the)· a
' Was fo
e O\en
und!hat have evoh ed to co. nnote more than '
lS', 1I,lre" "ro: nante. ...
\h .. , P"fle '.' IlSh....... \ ..... '"
, '\ ]U,t e gend ~ .....
" ' _' , CtuaIl) d' occupation, •• an) obse1'.er- feel th th. er 01 the pr3Ui"
Normally men also usc bad language ~onsld"rably more tha . Id UIe, at c"';md . " !Itt of tht
'I C Iass,.. I n d ee d , among some men iL n' lIornen. \\h women ,0 labelled. A \\ oman II ho ac"· - \tmllar form., _ ,.,'
helon,!! to Ihe same SOCIa o L\ In hIm, po. dI • "Wl\1t
. I "
lIIacho _ rather than plaon vu gar - to spice one s utterances ' . I erect
IS cOns d
"
as an actor m an mte1'.I(\\, not as an <leI". h.
Inte ) Id<nllflt\! ~I!
maximally taboo four leiter words like shit.fllck, and CUIIf, nehl) \11th her someone who \\:I! enou, about the cO"t··e"a\d that a<'lo, <:a\ulolt\! f
ra \. .... h.lc acl .1' or
What do the Lhree phenomena lhat we have conside red have' The fonn ·nidl! hal been under (on>ld 'rabl' , ... " \l.d l\O\,
. , III COrn , f ,C C'I.'Oltln\ In th
Wh) docs women's usage differ from that of men? The answer see. 1110n? respect to Its re erence, The pe1'.·a>i'ene, I· ",' cfIXentpa>l"'t!h
, ., " \1 moUc-reiere '\ .
, ' · h ' · d ' d
do with savon!! fnce (I.e .. ' O\VlrIg respecl an cons I eraLlon for olh) ' mStohave 10 !!enencallY (3!> 111 cllill mlul!, P0.\OIWIl "nd \1 nba \,>nn, u.'>Cd
- . ,useUIlI of \fa ) h· .
,Q

many obsenel", \\ ho have felt \hat 'u(h Ian n 01.\ d. tIU\ltd

less frequent u,e of politeness formulas, reluctance LO use hed ers ,Men's guage not onh !'en
, , ' I d ' 'I' ges and th value but abo perp<:tuate, and reInforce, then1 Thi . tet \t!l\
predileclIon lor the vemacu ar (~ IrI parttcu ar bad language') has e ,. , . , '~~hm~
artrihutcd to the fact that In the SOCial construcllon of masculinit" be'l ,been move to ehnunate genenc masculine t\ nn, from th I U '"" 11\
• ' e angu~c In man
-1111111 has been chan,'cd to "'nd'r n ~I ~
J' ng tOugh' instances, the ,uffl\,
_ and hence inconsiderate of the face-protection needs of the addressee_ ' , .. e e' c, cu..Pf' on 0Ibet
conslderc, d '
a \·lllue, B ycontrasl. 'on t h e constructIOn 'f 0 f ' nity the 0 IsofLen
emmi morpholo~cal rrocc,-;e, hay e re\ulted in the creatIon 01' f
the case, Sn. IrI . th e I'mguIstlc
_ '
" "c ... h '
aVIOur f
0 women.
beh'
aVlQu r that is con PPOSHels
'd
"

SI ernte
-
l'0snlltlll bec(1111e, J.
, .
die:
arna, a jirem,m \)e:omc, a jiff ji~1u '. and a
llC'o\llI1ru\1

and proteels the lace (,fthe ,Iddressee IS preferred, dltlin'WIl be :'1.1111 ' l .-lWlrp r'OIl ,)r charr) The \IUII'Ulnof Ian hc..'ame the
Since \\1' arc discussing gender-.variable usage here . we must MI(St'UlII vfCil i1t~ati(l1l
, elnph aSlze '
thai all of the aoo\'c \\ays of phrasmg a request are availanle to all speake~ Ch~Ulg.e , ha\' 011 " C"111e a~'ut In the use of pwn,'uu , In many ,
nUt are not ,'qually selcl'tcd ny male and female speakers, An important fa t ' reg.\l13li 1n , la\\', ,mil Ihe like hl\ e neen 0:\\ nIl n to eliminate iii '!irnl1lI101}
that :llkets the u,,: (If politeness formulas. hedges, und n()n-stan~ o~ mas '\lhn' I"tln" I '\"J,lcing them \\ ith f,lf1\1s such as IW. Itt Of the gtnda.
\emacular forms is the degn:e ()I formality of the ,itual lo n , The more fnmarl nc\llral ,ing.uIJr ,/1(\,
. , q
the sItuatIon the mure likely are ,speakers of either gender tn lise slandard R"I'I,ICcm 'nl 01 " 1'1 I1llUll' \\ ilh gender-neutral nn , and a [ I/O lII1jllSl
lilrTns, h,'dges, und politene" formula,s, 1\\l-\\I\ til th ' u,c ,11' thirll-\ 'r OIll'rtlnoun' (,'nwbute. of CI'ur;t, l"lht~
,)\" ,I k s t>I, ,,:d l,mgu,l£c, \Jwcalc' of the \ le\\ (ill u; sed earl\Cf\ \bit
1,l11g11,lge dl " 1\\ t J11crd~ mi~'r \ let) but tathel mould! II would pomI:
Tall.ing .lhout Thl n1("t uhvluus \\ ay In \\ hkh gender difkrl'Il""s \\ Itb Icspe(i tll,lll'fcr"lI! Im1h'\' ,til \ 11\,1t' \\ ide r 1l£lllg examrl of Ism Wll1l.'1ltJfsboIlld
\ OIl1t n .1Ild OWIl arc manikstld lI1!'ngli his grall1matu:al gender Ihe lIsl'uf hI ·lish pronoun, I "f, tl11 'd, l)cli:rcll\loll Us" ,,f langua b) \I men {the \ry
lantcd
~
Is ll1struct \I.' III this n:g;lrd , We do nnl e11lplo) h,', for Inst'll1n" to rl'ln "nl l)1ll1\11,,, ,'r h d" , for c. lmplcl \\ uld be uW l1lI'ft of.
\ ' t of men will \IOIIJ(n tn ~ Ileal
to ilia I s. In ,standard English, It Is preSLI ined .IS a 'l'tll'rIC thud "n rn , .. I
lx'h,\\ W\l[, \. n lu.... tre m n
slllgular pronoun \\ hen tht' gender 01 the I 'kr"l1l is llnkn,,\\ n HI 111\'1,'\';1l1t
 .ang gc would t>I' I" died ou!. FOl", in 11us vie", a., long a
D3
e I, the) reJDforL'c the ,rarn, quo and lea,e women as a rru::
So: Illeq
CFor further C;\31Dpk of the unequal tTeaunent of WOrn
, ~ 6 '--I
glnatl/~
"n and ."" b.
cODle~ofum,ersi!) ,lang - ,ee ,~ecuon -, '''' ov.,) ~n _.. '>tip
Of our , ImporWll though II IS for the reawns oullined ' Illlb"
reform m It :f.s DOl suffiClenl 10 guarantee equality, It is in;,bov" l"-tl
th
that ~._
~ are manY languages thai
Ban!u languages of SU?-Saharan
Afriappearhirea'onabl"J non"e' 1ruCllv. I(,~
c~ w ch make no gram >liM, - e !;.,note
' u'n'[JOlL' on the hasts of sex and which have relatively
,eV\ f' "lllahtoJ get,,,- 1Itc
dl , L ,
leXICal ilems - hut ,w hJCh. nonethdess. are used lD sOCielie ;tndtr'bl--q
man" deeplv JO !!Tamed sexIst amrudes, FenllTIlsts recog " hleb h· ~
J " " 'I f' ntle th .... "1'"
ellmmating seXISt language IS on y a part 0 a WIder programm e [<It, ,
and ,ucial reform leading to a more Just dIstribution tIl e lXlW of Poli1Ut.u
le_!
opronunioes, et ,"Id
Slang b a label that i f requentl -
2,5 usages of nearly an) one in th Y Ul<ed to den!)te ce M . . -
Euphemism i tbe avoidance of words Vl.hich rna) be se~
. " e 6?eel;h c •-.u mfurtna\
en ~s 0'" 1D Engh h ill the ffild--elgbteenth OmlllU!llty 1he term or iIIl4
Euphemism obscene
,
' r b' Ii
' or ',omehow dlstu 109 to steners or reader<; ' Items \\ "en\! hi ..·e vocabulary u~ed by any I.e! 01 r ccntury, used In refe:at.
1!St.~
eupbemized are srud to be, tabooed, The word' taboo was borro .... ed r ch •• -e language of a low and vul pe n, of a luw or d' reJlutab l(; ~pt\;la\
Tongan laJlguage and, ID il'. most general ,ense. refers to a proh'b ' rorn the Dictionary), oVl.adav It },ar£ type (acco dmg \0 .>._ 0 It chariIC\er
" 'th 'I , . ~ Otten appl ed rd En
aspe~1s of .>.~
I ILion ''I';
use of mention of. or asSOClatJon WI partlcu ar objects. actio on the adolescents or othe v. hu are pe' to ,_ g h
celved asI h~"C
As origmally u,sed in Polynesia. taboo had religiou conno~:il~~Spers"IIS the language,.
"'" 1art""".,
r-=.wg fIOtH'tandard vanell
""""e of
socJOlmc
, .... uistlcs II now
, denotes aJly prohibmon on the use
' Ofp"N
-dcularl • bUt, In 51ang eXlst.s aloogliide Jargo WId ar
items, Taboo and eupheDllsm are thus two faces of the same COlO, e~lcal members of a cia of """"h Yo gOt Ueattd below m =011 ~ 1
In tbe English-language speech commumty. the most obvlo tabOo
, , ... ~ anetles of hllllled ~ I"
commumty Eac of 1hese last t .... o menul\ned' , usage m Ihe bpee;b
not reltglo u.. but have to do with bodil) functions. body part ,.. . us -,,' Vanelle wb-" h
an d death; are o f an occupauvwu Qr 6OC1al "r,)up
t>'-
f: • ower C l1racto:n~Uc
Th COil llIed tl) i1 C
addition." there IS a notlceable tendency for governments I 0 reSOD' In number 0 f peak'cr; and t cure to outs'd Sl umparatlVey mal
euphemism to mask otherwIse unpleasant concepts or to conceal' , 10 and subject to rapid e e l Q[t WI~~ rea:~v.'\u\eltmaYbeneetm&
their poli"} Table ]4 6 con tams a' ariety of types of euphemism, ,,~!CI' uf n umbers of speake P a r " ' M ' h l? mlJlt !amil1l1r Wl;qt
'th ~ 0 ever are en much SUClaied
neen employed in tbe past or are currenCy ill use, h have
'0.\1 roe and \\bl! u;ed In ..... """""
~n of aoo\bc'
f ol.ldant~ Willi oIher

Illble J4.("
[uphcmLtm rd or I'!{m ESlOn

pm'Ule parts vugma. cum etc •

mm lo\c
pc.""I"Te • w at '
cpld leet cowardlcc
hudget _hear
pee pl 6
11 I wn
plIll It
pa ilW, \
 ! ... r
H" II I , I II' If ,I ,
It q "lJ
'" It. 'f

II 1I.lrd n",n ...... hu nC'Irr filII

lftw"rd
fcllow g.II1Jl ml mhc"-II
I""'" T. "flMmed (omh.ll
'/" Ill' Xli"" we.lro"
w("uf",tI
11,,1"!1Pu n l trike with a weapon
,Ju",rnf"
ha.I.,rt!
'UiIl' very /I,,,hy ,,,,t,
KIIIIIIII J xrm
IIOJ .. hi""dhlc c.lr)th("~
"'lIk~""r Lunmng
,/1,.1.,1 pnJj(c or rJl~(ln cdJ
1"'lrr

'H:ry clo;c m,IIe f"cnu' BI", k I-"gll h II

hUlTlcnuy
gllrgcHIJ guy' ff,.f,,~w
m.l/cll
half ASl'In ref","' J 'fMfI .
1Mf'P,1
'umcenlrate nn' ""plIl." hl,"
have m' ,Ie III' k
~

PrucC,I;\C" of word f"rmitIJ CJ11 In ll( I 1\ ~ llIug

h. ,"mp<otall
-In"" , 1.'1
h/.g.g
~'rlllnr
~/rI"g ,\lnmwK vU<ltll'~",

'uwl'''' 1!lLk dCJJvU1um IV hlllllrm:1

!Icky '.\1
rmllch °It 'g"rgcl'u girl' ru.Jleh {ICflVil l llm I Iwan a
f,'l
gild 'nrrd' ge ~ .. (b'rk hie ,,,I,",, lUI

La Ilnl 'all right' ~d'ual lhrp'''g

IrA 'g.r t" I vtdlly J ud "'~' WCIIHI :11 umj'tny
f, k b"lc "'Dlllllg fl-c h kc tC"nrxl',nrhll g

III i1ddJllllll I') tIl

~7

~IKCln ,lIal.., .,,\

 8 , I I " .. ) \ \ ,I ,t 11\

n. ~lItl "1\ .. Ihl

/"11

\1\\\>
11\·1\\.\

1"··,,,,1 .' "'II~

. " III
1111
,. I .\11\ \\ " '~

. , 1\ hili"

til
I'll hili III .1.\1
, 111,,1 1'111

1 ht. 14 I ~ '~II, \\,"""1,\\11

l' , 1·1 \11\1111111\'

h, ,Ii
\ "I
 chen\

tudwnl
gJlIIIPo;
fr w,ltC fn' which the developer'" only rC'1 lie ted . email
•
.I po h ;!HJ ""m the u,,-cr JJ humf'town' P'I)nlcntl' Inlernet (net)
II .'WiltC y,hil.h ((mlaln\ a me age tatlOg toe de m;ullng h!'\\
h""'IWlH
hope! .1 wlilll1ake Ihe \I cr happy' vcl"Ptr
plodlll I f nftwarc nr h,m.iwafl.!) announced I
\111"1'11\\ H, "' In adv'
Ih"lIlIl1l't artllH'C. whll'h may never take plate' 11~~or
t1loderator
JIll h"rrllHI hralll ; human OCtnf' ... "dl lJ' IJr(lgr'llllln1ru'
",I\\llJl

neliquetle
HI'( ('III gil '" Iii HI Ihl ' IlIlp<1tl<tlll'l alld rnpulanty 01 the {III('1/1 l 'I h'
" .... ,.11 ~IIII
/""
111;1" 11<'11 hv 1111 ,'xl'lf1~1fl11
111 Ih ' growlh 01 (rhcI 'PI"C rclUlt'd lurg on, .I~\0'11'
been
nelwork
II "" I. INIh'" "I;!IIII)! 1IIIIlI'WI yd;IY, 1101l lel: h ntt:allill1guo.lgc, Not onl YdIJlna c nl
.. 111'11 \I .. """111, Illl""\'! 1l1ll'I'IHS til hc computer bulls U\C ("mw/ t ny
o Cont' 'I
"III 1,.,;11 tIIdlll 1;11.1111 <11 III ""'" •• letter to (lUI I1cwsparu'r we '\ a, World Wide Web
• '" • .1 \1) g
11,1111/111": "'"111 /,,,""11'1,1 1I~l' .II"",,/( I "or Nl'I\{'(I{J1' . to \ec wh'at nev.,0
(WWWorW3)
• 1I11"hlll ll llO'III , sh"I'"II' 'I1r nhll;lll/lIla ollel IlIg~ arc avallahlc at van ous \lIe\'
"II lilt 1I",1d II,,{, ' lid, 1,Ihk 14 . 14, nn Ihe I1c'\t pagc, lists some or the
,,111'1 1';1<.' I,ll 'IIlIlh,11 lIa' <'III1'I,'d tl1l' 1<llIguagc

II
Broad\) 'pea!.ing, when languagc~ come in on\acl one oillucc Ibm l1li)
/1111111 Ih 111., Ilh IlIIk hl'l\' "'II (III," 1.111'1"1 ',' .lIId (,,"''s 1l11'mhnshl(l (II a partlcularcth;
language happen: thcre may occur {cJIIxauge Irwinlfmlnte.luIIg lUl8f hift OIlangIICI~r
'1\1111 I', ,'"IPh' 1\' 1\,' 1\ III sc. h '101\, nl11 all ,'Ihlm: group, cxhlhlt Ihc same
maintenance, d,,(/III, in ca'c' llf language maintenance, the languag CCH:AI In a 11111)
I '" II '" .I,' 'I'" 111111,111111'11,111,,' .,llh"lIlan!)lIa '1'1""111 'cnel<lllnn 10 'CI1CrallOl1, Elhntc
language shift, and ,tattlc relationship, \\ ilh speakers of the Ie influenllal language II\8MIIIII III
""-I"J.d, ""'" 'I ,ch I III Irill'S a''''l'ialt:d "llh 'I"liil<:cthllic~rnup',ni'l h~)ld on to II and til pa" it on 10 their children, TIll 1 1!IO'I1 el~ \ ~
III I 1''' Illlln 1I1.1ndlll' I,ll "'!il" .IS .III 'I't' a\ BI.I'I, 1'l1glt'h (,\ kllld \\1
language death
if the "pea!..:rs \\ ish to a,sen then separate \dcn\lly ,fOlIM\allCC. tile!
In h,h),'"lh",'n,'h.lIId, Ill.! 1"".IlIl,s"lIth ,\IIic-a"rl\talHiin c"I'l'a\;Ind ,tfl)tw.h \ lu.: maintaining their Iangua e for cultural or rei llOIK ItaIOIl
The ~hanc,,' of \angua e m:uIllen:uKe are enhanCed If \he
\nhh' Ih'ti' 1,111 'II I ','S 11111,1,111'.1 I" rn'it,h) I'll till' nlh,'1. III a (IIIll!,1 \
II •
I h .,UIIIIIIIIIIII III, , 1,11,,'/1,', ,It,' III "'1I11)1.1I11'l/1 \\llh I\h,II~"'1 standard
"ur. tannal pee h commUnll) and belong 10 tal
, f .,nl '1111 II '11.1 '\ ,"'" I ('I" III Ult,n 11ll"c ,'Ihni.: \ ,lIll'li<: 'U\ (Ulllh It)
Ih "" 11.111 ' 11111\1.11. "f Ih. d,'lIllllJIII1.1lI '11'1 ,,', ,
I~) n ad~ anlage If th nollllC. kIJntXnU
- e-That
\hi: dcwt
t>c ti fi .... llh ut bandorullg u,,"u
 l rh" If ,,..

Url.d'"rd
( 1) T('Il .\\ Tl'"). \ 'It \..\.20\
pup," n:\:tln.h:u

It.m gut,.,gc olher

lhan Engh ...h .\\
hnmc
(2l Tul ..,\ no. \1\
Ilknlllwbly 81
41
d,shm:l
\anguil 'co.,
(oP<>rICO
131 The m,,,' Van]ah. 53 Van]ah, ~9 (I L
Irequem\) .',ruu
,. ' '1'tC. 34 Pan"'"
1'1 (i\l~ra\, III Turk.sh 15
"
~.~ "-iobi I
repon ed Gu)er.1I II rldu , c \ It.han 14 IJIdo 11
I"" ••' 9 l'nlu
poken Bengal, ,HIIIIII 3 (j IS ~
language or Pu'\hlu } \lahan Uleta" b GU)etII, 12n.. ,
2 \lahan b ChI..... 4 C
language I\ilh~n 3 lIen",1I ~ F ""'"', ,
... ~ f<n<h· Pofuh 1 TIII\ub
grouplll!ls a.< Poll h I V,,1i h _ ba.ed German 1 ~
English Like mosl olhcr countrk in the world looay. Eng land I. mululino 'I
' th ' f I' , .. ua . '!'hI a 'he of (\)tu Hliloi I Chm~ I Creole 4 Hl\lIfl 1 '-d
multilingualism \I as :hown in a report dxumenllng e eXlt!n~ 0 mu llhngllalism in \ch ' the neare'! Chine I Cr.olts* I Bengah 3 Creole' I C
enlilled Lint:III,llic .l /uuHllIer III England ~ hlCh IS as commissioned b) 0011
Department of EJucatlon and \\ ~ PUt>~1 hed ~n 19 ~, The report demon\lra~
whole numher C" 'Qle ' I r Idu ~ FrttICh I ~ ;
Ihar In man} ma,l(\[ clues ,thae ,are "Jgm~cant mmont} cOrnmunilies uSln
Ubaman I Pan]>ill ~ am.... 1
more than (lne language In theIr CI CI} da} 11\ es, ormally. In such g Span! h 2 llaliln 1
ChIl",5t ~ IIiIIdi I
munllies, while English IS , used lD e ucauon scltmgs and in de corn·
" lonnaId I'
. mac h'me, horne J'Jf'C,' h ' French FmdI \
with the state s bureaucratic opplng. recreationalalngsd
. 'I
cuhural acti\llics are carried out m commumty ang uagcs ueh as Greek
an (4) To\a1of ) , 91
GUJerati, CanH'ncse. Turkish or JamaIcan Creole '
Table I·U5. which shows the main languages reported in five Local
Edu.:alion Authorillc (LEA) gives a good indication of the C'tcm of
multilingual! rn in England It al 0 how that thc distribution of minari"
languages is ICry unclcn In anyone area a handful of' important 1111nOllt;
language, may aCCllunt for 01 er 5 per cent 01 the total Ilurnncr of Illlnom;
language speaker , TIle dl trinutlOn of the diflercnt languages reflcds pattern'
3 - --
(If ell/emcnt b) irnmigwllts, mo t 01 whom came to the UK alter World War
II. 'l)pll'llJl). inunigmllt I /lded til ,ttle ill .Ircas w h ~ re ignilll';lIlt numncr R[G I O
of other members of thell cthlllc grllup were alrc.ldy 11 \ 111', Thl IS to be
OIIl[l( t 11 , 110
,\pcctt:d m~c earh r immigrant <':lJuld otTer n w alll \;lls a '''t.II1CC \11th (, I
ho~ 109 dOd pro\ Id lh 111 \\ Ith eIahorate upport network
 I f\N',II,,( I IN
' SII( 11\/ < (1~1!XI
, I', ..."'II/ln
I' ,1t"')~/' dalll from ~Pl'''''l'rs i/) " V'lr'
, l C' I Y of'
In man y pari S 01 lhl' w"",, , dHlk'e l\ III) .
WlIy~ .. " 'I 'k I I nlll h,wc lk ..
'
lJia II I' , 'cll Wl'/l' rl'l'ord<.'d by hlllld on WOI'kshl! 't " , h <:, d '1IIlIIIv e y Illal 1.( ly 1 ~"~,1Il",,\, \('Ih, ill ">llndane wh'"h
' ~M '
('
~()I)ll/' <.:rvi~h', ~)nUII
'I'h- , I I'I ll"<:rcIIIIIIIII II \ 1)1 <ll'Il"
" 'r, 'wlnl ' "tie IIh nVC5 I~ a ~d -..
P c'c'IS () '/"l 'I I ' S )/l/nt cuntinlillm, -
a', ' II '1/1'''ysis, 'Tilday dw eeto og)Sls lise 'I' ~S 'I )
I~ 'I'l.l~ i)lt~r".'IIQlh,,'
,,'elC( " , • s )1." 11 ' I'
l("l vel s 111 on' t Ircel""l aw"y I!'Ol1llh" 'I 'I ,1\\, l'''''lul~"v I"
(l(';'l\ II1\'rl:' •
~
-...a
1al
"I
"(lnl
, .. ' CiS' lIlI<:r;UIl'CS 011 lapc, Ihus knelill" "I''' '<.:(1
" " " al",1' 'lew 'n "
InflY he 111111\111.: all(\ nlhers qllil e \llg. , h\lllh'"In~
' III PI)InI ' S 1 'n",
, 'line I)llhe difference
I'll , M' , ) di:dcClologl sts lISC l 'OlllPlilcrs for 4LJ' ,IICCllrlle Slin I
'Cllrc 1)1 a ',"~Ic place
I ' I I 'tc " nl) (,VI I
,,"rk .III , '", lIl1tll iy,
lll
Ytll ,I on the l1Iap W li e 1 can l' l11arkql as Ihe "Ill
I/I/illinll 01 11,,:11 d,lld, ,
~IS Ut
, "nllly ,lbClt
'k of c1iakc;Wlogl.sls may he published Ill" I' or '\I1olher. II' I h 'llst:lne
I' ' Irav"'I',1 " ">no "P<lIl1ll)l I)n,'I t lal"ci and the: tart
"",lI,'
I he WO/, ",,, , " A ', , ~ 1lI'II1 '
ill
ends
'
or , h " '
IhL' ,1uul'nl!y 11l1lY c d"t"lI;t lal1!(\)tI .. '.
,CIII("ph Ihe nl' ,
' ",llC', allh. extrrl1\l:
'k' tIL' 101'111 01 <I "I.lkel dlld,S, 1\ dldl ee l lIlias ConI ' ' III ' " ", r,C, ,
l11i1y 1,1 ( 1 , '" J' " .tIllS 111 h The Sl\ u<ll"m we rlav", lust \Ie'eriOnl is II I
I 11't I'cUIOI",1 van ,lllOn 1/1 a <InguHgc, I he~e nl'I11 ' III
Ihal cx II I 1 /' , S 111 '1 IIIi t he Roma nce "mil . ' Iy, I h 're 'I ~ " W~~I \")nl". Hln, In man" P' I I',urope, In
whlc I l , "
'" ,
'I 'll'll"lcll'rizc a parllell
,
"I' ~ 1111(1, ' 'lilu
grollp () SPl!lIkers 01' Ih"y , Y Pi\) I;, lipS ' "I
I'
CC lImiln,
, 1 an, 0

varieties nr IirCllch, Catalall, fipal11\h, Pnrtll " , IlInl <illgh standard Th

" 1 I ) show 1(.'H /lifes which ,~eparate OIl(' g roup or ' I)" k J, Inr ill'l tlil
"CU,'"I( , ' J"
1'1 ' '()/l1Iwln-gl'lIcnited IllUP 1/1 ' Ig ure 14 ' " 'lll's/" "nile languages, spetl Itllrs 0 r <lny lWI) nl thes~ langu' ~u~~~," ,m<l Italnll ' a're separate
Ie l t' I I ' ~
.4 IS dl!signed t() 'h IOItIIlIIQlhC'
I" llW' C difficulty ill lInd 'rstanding ctlch olh~r\ lo,alg~l" lin hOI<,',cr arcus have no
' I
III S Hln: ~, • ''''~''
(I v(v"lbulilry hetween J'UJlcnp 10nc IS ling vi ll 'I"", '
lnl\lI' SIIllil'l" ,r"
, •"lie
I l J . IICl' thlls dl'1l10I1SIJ'allllg Ihe probahl· gcogni llhi ' I '~I\lICC"I"' , \
' a WeSl (," 'I'nJ al1 lC C0l1tll1\1\l111 , As one
n.:engt1l1,e e,l (1,1
II" Clt,
'I ISlIllllarly, C w can '
~J1( ,-r ,I, , , , ,' ell lln' "'dUa lown 10 the nexl 'IIIA uslnfl, " Ihlotlgh GClm<lIlY and ,IVe, I I IIrom II, nne villaoe ~ <11
,~t:ltkrs of Ihl! Mal'll/me Villages, gills of Ihe I( ,md, Idulrly 'mall
dilTcrenccs thai ,'uO 11<)1 Il1Ipede
, IlIUlual ,Inldholhill'ty' II" 'h '
houring plac!!s alonglhe rollie BUI oy Ihe lime• Ime "ct, .tie I"serve ' IIn neigh
h •
in Austna 10 Rotlcrdal11 10 ' tlw Nelherlands, the CUII1Ulilllvc ',IY, nm. ~ruc~
• " rom, Oltlerenc an:
quil~ conslderah\c' DUlCh uno AlIslnan (Jel1l1an are delinilcly hCPlIrlIte

sJ
languagcs, Movlllg norlh 111 ElIl'<)pe, We find anolher ",ntrnuum \he
Scandinav ian languagc wll linuulil, Some of Ihe h)rms nelllw arc Swrdlsh and
()\hns arc Norwc!' l<ln , HUI cl)I1lpari sOIl (lilhe VerSions 111 the senlcnc doe
+ not t:Il<lblc U~ to lell which " whi~h, The I1rsl two are c\a.'~ilied at. 'Swedi8h'
~ Prance and the It"t (wn ,IS 'Norwegia n', The dasstlication i, linguistically arbitrary,
it IS Inolivaleu b) polltl,,,1 :\1111 eu!tur,11 <:!lnsillcrauoos,
:;)
(I. thcnHl hURJU mt,) S) 1111;:U \~m Cl gum:uh guusabumt
n, thCIl!:;l h.lr IU In!;) ';1 ll1~k,~1 S;1m cl gum:uh gnlle nJ
Ij'I11: J hclr Fl' Ik::t ,,) my:t ,~m el gum: It nJ p.
>::---. Itt i,::l f11y~'~
',1m el gum:ult gnabeial
100 kin cl 'lin;'! hUI t \;1

:~~(~
\t hll111 h.l\ c I Hoi \I) I\lu,h a, an old goose leg

I -t h"'fII ~I
Oialeft ,mel at n~nl

un nn
 /
/

. 1 -
 l

Table 14.21 Regulanz.ed refk:u t

possessn e prolWllll as ~

m ""If
~~r-.elf
her>elf
our",,1 e5

. ~ariation
;, t3e1le

TlIfJIrJ4.19

3)

WCIIt to Melrose.
t r\r1:hie if she wall., . . . . .

taDlianc.- .I"~
-------------------------------------------------- after die Qn":'I':.:1~
•rn&ItUC - - -
 \Itltult,,,/
\("IIlm;>\1

/. I"~, e /I/u", ' fille'

I"'illill 1
/1/,'III,r, l h l l. ,
llr l
/' /<... 1 /1 /.",<1 !tortl

/,'/IIIg /11/'"" ' Ollll t'

/,l/"hlo /n/."d , ' 1I Iilh, I, '
/,)/1111,10 /IJ /'"1I1o !lIIl,"/} '

1.'lluIoIIU rfJ u,v.nr • IIY.I II '

I.l/oIllI'g I 1I,IIII'f' " '"II ,"/!'

"'IIIII~
'lu"h' 14,24
Di((c'rcn( (', dmong Mml o( Ih" va",,"OIi ,orlltlllg !,,'oY"'ph,t.oI ViII "'I,,",
,I( «'nl~ rhiH iI""'Il/I'd /JI lei nil, 01 iI(,I"'1l1 tI" dll k"'I1('(" " t~ """"all y' . "" t.II,
Jlholll"o~'y Iililin I IHI/1 !,""I11J1.11 ' or VOl",,,',I I,.IIY. (' 1/ Ie ~iI" ollhe·11w"" ' 1,t~ 1,/
eI,i""('1 O"i/ll1t'eI III III" liI" pillil!'n,ph """IY/lI~,, 1 ) I 0""11)
Till /'/II11I1>loPIC;oI elllk"'I1"," /iol/ 111111 " fI 11111 h" 1 ,,/ IIli'l I>1 .. ,
1111'" ,11iI1,,/rIIl>IWillr/ VI,,"110" I' ill II II' /rVI' / 0 I IIW It',oIlIi,II" ~." ,I '"' ,,' II..
r II I , illI, I
I>111"":III1l' plllllll'JI'" III dllft-Ielll "n'il' 1-01/ "XlIlllP"', II ,.. Vllwc l 'P'""h
III(/V ;1/111 /.;11011' /II,. rt·,,/J/l·r/ hy Ihl' (hJlhlholl~" k l l a lld 1,\0 I II( ~i;: ~'J(o/ hke
1111>111111111111,111" /1'1 Hlld /1,1 III S.ol",11 EIlj!li',h 1,lkl'W I\1 Ih,' 'III by I/o"
• Vllw,'l III
1', rca/lIl'd a' li~1 III Ihr 1,IIId 01 ,lIalllSl leillll I{J> WI!' hl'ill , ' /JII/

IIl'W'Ci"''', 11I1i /JI old la',hiolll" I I{ 'po, k1:11, I01 I'X,illllpk. hy "/'f"1>11 'I,Ih" filiI
''x Pllh/Il' ,chuI>l/,uy' 11/\ '"I1"'W I,
I"Jal I1I~' I"'I', alld Vl'ly tlow II/" IICI "\\ 111 't, 1
al'I> I,,' (/rphiliolljlllt'd alld hl' ICHlllrd ;/\ It 'I,) 'I h,' ralSl'" II I VII '1"llIliI)
W
u.. cd 111 Al!',iI"I", Ncw Zealalld, ;IOd SOlllh I\/i ka fl y UIIlIi 'I\ 1 , ' I~ ill ~,
II 1I',nh,o
f •
1:1lj!/illlcl,llIe '''"1''plulIIl''II'' 1\ H'aIJ/"" hy laJ a lowl'l 111,,1/ VII wei III
A/lII"IIIIIII~ ICilIl/iJliollaJ ddklclI~c\ IlliIy III vol Vt' l:()Il'On; lIl1 ~ ;" well
good. ,~illIll'l,' olllll~ is plOvld,'" hy /II IJsually III Hll li" h E" " " , h ',I , I. I" A
, r ,II. ('0
wllIl'lI IIII' body ,01 IIIL' 101l)!,II' h;t\ a f",,,y high hlll'~ pm lll OIl ) '1t'l1l1 " 1 I'
lC IJrr'1
,,(.'IIII\I"lalll (a, III J"lkJ)ltlA '" III WOI" lilia/ pOS III"" (a' "llhdllil'll ' I
'Ckill I' (ill willth Ihe hody 1,1 Ilil 1()1l~'II" I"" a ,wh,'r hl ~'" /'"111 P"' illl";;"i'
lound d,,'whl'/I' By ('oll'la,', clill~ I i, all"'111 /nllll /I " h 1:1I1(1"h alld '"
11I"le 'I kill /. IS 1",;m/1I1 a/l,'lIVIIOIIIJIUl/s,
1lIllhelllll'"', III '''IIIl' ~a,(" al'l:l'nh/cllill,'us ""'Y havl "dln"1I1 phllnt,
10glCiil IIIV,'I1I,,, I"', (JII,' ,";oI,'cl lllay 1'0'\1· .... II 1'''''11'' 11/(' Ihil l " 1101 IOIl"d 1/1 4
'''"II'
1IIIIl'I "ialt'" /'111 l'XililipiL 'il'lllll',h (all" [l1I''' lh ly Im h ) 1' lIp ll , h hi! Iii
vdll Ilirallv,' phll""I1/(' Ix/. as III 11m.! !til" wll/dl t'1I111 1i",1" Will! AI iI In M,XIII
Iink/ (o('k 'I I",
phOIllIIl" I, 11111 J'IlIII" t I" will " IAN(,\JA(,I'
::>illlll:llly. Ihl' "h'''"'I1)( 1111 i, a ""'11 I 1",,,, IIII' [1"(" hili 111'", fll'llpl c IIIl lie
Mill/mid, .11111 IIH' "ollh 01 I'll ,1;"111 (,Lml- 1.1.2 I). hu IIdl pea k"I , llie
vllwel 10 I l'OIll! 1'",,,1"0 /{l'/1I1
 --- - --

English '~Iay') i~ used 10 indi ea l~' an <ll"lioll currently taking place'

Table 14.25 Singular pronouns in Cape York Creole
()) 1st person ai, mi
ai nil kl'a hu ~Iei hanl insai de;! 2nd person yu
/ Illl caR' whll ~Iay hunl inside thlTl' 3rd per!.on 1. im
'/ dOIl'tcart' \\ho\ hUllling inlhl"re.·
Differences from Standard English include the fact that in Ibc tbinl paa
Pidgins arc seen as structurally dl'licienl 111 many re~pecis ad' there is no three-way gender di tinction and that all of tbese pI'OIIOImI ca
,
as inpultOl'hridrell . . Ih'
aequll'lng - langll~lge , Children arc th
elr hrsl n lOad'nu
,-' ale serve as a subject. Only mi, yu. and im. however. can serve as objeda. 'I1iI
thrown hal' ' on Ilelr lllnall' anguage IIloprogram to provide a b' us
k I · · I L. •
" said 10",< is reminiscent of the Standard English pronouosillt and him. wlicb., ....
~
lor the creo Ie. 'I'h'IS prod lICl'S a generalilln
" of speakers of a languag'
aSIC structure
h' a~ non-subject' (a~ object of a verb or following a piepoaitloa). " . _
... . , I' I
serve as I e "aSIS for lIrl H~r genl'l'allOlls of' learners and C'II! rcw' Ichean
h
• . . ' , or IIlSlanec Ii i Il'erenee between the CYC pronominal systan aod tbal of s.dIId .....
undergo the sorts 01 fl' 'Ical changes IIlellllolled ahove in which il ' lies in the non-singular fonns. CYC exhibi~ two IIOHIlS
.. . may COme t

tore mble the onglllal hlghl'l' .'tatus language more, dual ~lIld plural. The fonns for second aod tinl penoa ..
I ..L~b .

Amoaa the English-based l'rl'O!cS of the world is Capl' York Cr~\llc (CY(I, Table tUb
m the northern tip of Australia opposite Papua-Nl'w Guinea. Theda13 Dual. ~nd person
dIis c:reoJ in Tables 14.25 to 14,27 will hl'lp to iIIustmte the factihal Dual. 3rd person
'mply d fonned or bastardized languages but. in fact. haIr Plur.ll. 2nd person
.....rClilll'llCterisltics of th ir own that arc not shared with the tandard. Plural, 3rd person
 l)Hal. \,.,\\,.'111,1\ l'
r'ltlraL ml'iu'" ('

(1.
It'\ ';I)' II' B \1/111/ ',J II, If. A j, ,,1\. il\~ th,\( Ih~ I\\" of th'
'1\1 \\111" h
tH)lC. ~\\ Ut

II \ H g') i, '.1\ tn~ thaI \ and (' \\ III "" h

b. "I) , In I (//1. , \
" lit nOI a
c. If" "I~' '" H alld C·,. J, 1.11;') /I d. \ " "I) IIIg thaI all Ihf\'c If I .
I tlcIl11\11\

rh "~ 11,11,'11' \x""111<: Ill,) "u 'rele Ul the Cl:'nle lof. ..

,)Il'" 1 'r Ih' f,)Il, \\ h'g IIU tll)U'. whICh mi!!hll ':\l!\U uru\"tN~
\ c \01 (I m, ~Id \Ie ..ettUl& and \\lip. ICCID-
• m I lUlt.tu\Qlial. lub . . . .
"IIII/un " ,1" /nO' '''''' III d.., lillI/iiI/II of I.m !
hth 11/.
• \\ 111t.unl 1 1\
•
 II .. as arpropnate· bo\\C'\er. wben ultercd
--'c,.,.....,,'- e boIb undcrslOod .. b.1t that r..-ferred 10. 1 convolu
I
om--orrect ed I a/ COOSI IC'OI"lth n mfOrma'ly I"d

10)
'fn ~I ~ rea/l} 1001; Ii e a zhlub.'
~ n.!be IDlerprelau n of the preCIse reference I itrotted to

("_=£-.
'nten.e" unered. Also. the u-.e of an ethn' the Con,_
:b ... - . -',
~ u.:be or coarse person to"\ Idd'~h) "gnal an ~ ~ g 1e1ltt.
-~ III
~ •. 'nformat,~ ~
111 ~
"TIt thou ba\e mis man to my wedded husband
Lexical, morphological. and 'ynractic archaisllb ign;,1 thi
nrualized regi rer. (5y n[;lcllcally II may be an Open yes-no qu Ii fOr!naJ
a 'yes' 3DS\\er i expecred.) on.
12)
Pellagra IS charncrenzed. by cutaneous, mucous membrane C.
gastrointestinal symplOffiS. ~
This quotation from a medical handbook illustrates featur·s f
register (in the wrillen chan~eI) by its fully formcd entence.\lob a ~
explicitness. use of me passIve, and the presence of medical J~O~~ of
eumple of a techmcal regIster. l)
Table H.29 Type, of addre leons In English
13)
'Mangled by the nightmare-made-flesh from Mangere.· Tenn
Ersl name (8' ) Chris'
This appeared as a spons page headline in The G~lUrdilit/ new paper ~
Tille + last name tTL. ')
after the serru-final match m Cape Town between Eng~and. and :-;c" lea~ \\rTInc~y'
Title alone (T) •. Uf5e1
All Blacks to me. 1995 Rugby World Cup. ThIs headlme IS elliptIcal In f
La,l name (t.: 'j
as is cu,tomary m the tyle of newspaper headllDe~. But it is appro onn. StDlth'
. ' d '11 pnatc to Kin term;, (KT*) Granny'
the written channel 0 f communIcatIOn an I ustrdtes the imporlance of bar
knowledge in the interpreting of elliptical utterances. A rugby fan WOlJ~ .a1one or wllh F); or L·. as appropriate.
knov- that the captIOn refers to the defeat of England (45-29) which v-
a large measure due to the All Black.1. phenomenal player. Jonah Lomu. ~ Addre term' can be u. ed re Iprocall) or non-re..,p!O<..n). In tb£ fiN
lD .\fangere (a suburb of Auckland). I en. e. speakers addre each other with \he -;arne l')pe of term IP.' or TI.N
This is a ~ign of symmetrical ocial relation,hlp m vohi h boIh parna ba'IC
14)
the same statue (friend... colleague. and a onJ. In the of OOII-~
'Time to go bye-bye.' usage, there i an a,ymmetrical relationship. one in vobicll the diffcmIce m
The minimal syntax and choice of lexical items characterize this utterance as po\~er and tatu betw~en ~artlclpanls i, mar'loo. Thus. one prnoo • 11K
D.ne which mi~ht he directed by a parent to a child. It is an example of a F, " and the other TL Thl' I t)plcalof dQ.."tor-pauenl or ttadIet~
Imphtie~ register called baby wlk (termed /tI01herell.' in Chapter 12). Bab)
tal IS wlde~prcad. perhaps even universal. in speech communities in the
world. In Engli~h. il IS specitically characterized by ih limited lexicon. Imple
yntllX, and relalm:ly wide pitch. In these respects it is most similar to the
registers we use to peak to a pet or a lover and is thus both non-thn:at~ntng
rdation hip.

term, altogether when parti ipant are un.'i\llt which ~

I called no-naming In the c -.e of EngI~ ~
=ia.:--:
awidllldll:D
In Engli~h, and other language a, well. It i ~ pos.stbIe 10 1lia

.. i
 Iltl!'

boUT(
 It tdJltdlnAlbert\ l"manIHlu"'",1I 10" I' MI, ..... I 3, I IIId IWI, I ~ngh "~pc' r Will)
lJIIXMUCOfIlPOlK"'I 0 l'I J\ Kf ( , aud II In Plral"", I,,, tI"I".' Ill' I',. Detemll ne wltat I,· Al\:al'lerrl gr
'Jbe ....... " . (rom VeIl Hymn. amde M.", •• j I" I f ..
--....... f -11,1.,..,...~Ih.
..,.......-~ I f~ · w f)ur,..,wnJ In f)~xw IIII(IIUIII J 11,,- 1:.11t",) 1'1
olIn
h ...
'n al lir t fIIeal I,f the day (IIM""I \c hr
tlf'}ll UI 1.. _
rnl' d'"
. 'I",y mea'I ( eel-.day I n&l
..,..aaJ J J (,umperl and I) Il yme •• PI' l~ 71 ( .,.!
~:h.r '4 ( ,;::
b)

tdJ~ by 1972 ) 1bc oe<.lJun on n:gl leT I In pucd paTtI.II"~

if',11 """ ,
C)
d)
maIO eventng roeal wee day )
hght even,")! meal (weekday)
Will""" \ocwl \rmlnllC (l...ondo" h!warrl Am',f,! I Y hy "'. " ..
1~ltI,a ~ a d Iv. I • '17~)" r. I • e) large. fr)rroalmeal (wee rod)
H)", d ·olem:Jn. e . orArnx wr/h f.af/Ji A'.~I •
regrn:::_ I,Mn uf / ,anguag p f IJe rn W"rk rOn/"X/I (He'If"U'4J(" J\ Mill,' ~,. f) mid-mr,rntng I,r mid· day fi r r '
C{)fUURra
undcrlyw
'J
Ko' - d M (JIJh ttj"
TCC fur Ihe !>eCIl<Jn on a drc'S lerm, " Ihe: . ' " 'Je (" "'PI, g) meal midway thr<JUj1h an eve neat (wee~,
An ,,'bertGIIm:,", ~I he pmnour or p"w~r and "',lfd"", • Ttlcf" fry ,,"':"" I'", h) late aftem'J<m qUIck mtal rung or\ f
=~ by 'lbo A Sebe,,". pp. 253 7(, (( am!)ridge. Ma\~.: ~'I}/}I. 'n j:~,,,,, C"ntra~t their term, with Y'JUr JL
dl u 100 of / :ngJl h terms oj addre.s al.,,) draw, 'm Laune H. • I'" ~"'lt JI,,,,, . • -"ItS anyone ha
En II It Owng!!. Pr· 14/ 5 ILondon. Longman, 1'1<)41. The dl'<;uc:r I ~~~I~ :'JJ'I\ tor any <me I)t the'>e nl,\j<>o\'/ Under h;,t e 1IIOrt . . _ ...
af ~~· addr team afC tak.en Jr<Jm Angka!) f'alak'>rnkul' U ~J'", "'.j ""Iro. different term;" \)Id they vlJlunteer . W ~1Ild1\j0lll1lo 1IIey _ _
"""of PmnllmlfJtll Slrtll PXl IfJ Spok.!'n IJanX",ok 7htl; ( lJi~r.e
s:f,ud, I.,
.' s,,, ",I,t·. I
5 W'lfk 1\ elicited'i In what way\ dr, yllUr fir:,~Y < IIlC:a\ 1IaIIIQ . . . . __
rtaJHm' I . I '.. Ingi provide ~_~ _
reglona .I)r situallonal dltterelltratlCJrt "fl"nguage~ - , _ "
phi/Ill
TeD. 1972) 'rl'tr
l:ndc:rlylllg the ~ tJ "ns on text and dlM:IJlJrr.e I~ \.f/Lh"el St } I(
AnoI ~JI - Tlte 5o(/ollfJXUlJlll Antl(YJlJofNtI/uruI I Anf{uaJlP(() f . UbI)... " 4. English exhibits comiderable 'II arialllJl) (from
. ~ c}r(j' f:J lk~
speak.er to !>JX:l1ker In the . me regi/Jll. and ~ 10 .....
L. L
IY8J). fJll>CU 1011 of d/!>Course mar"er I oar.cd <m IJel><"ah S<:.;. "'lllj~ .. '"
uL-rr (Carnbndge: C'arn!)ndge UmverJ;lIy Pre • I ~lS71 'I Iffrlll, I),,, indIVIduals) WIth rel,pecl to the pr<mundauon of ell .. die ....
'fall da d . reatnlle 1
frlorA('
devICes I den"cd from M ,A Yo, ' I Y an I{uqalya flll'''n ( . L " Of 1.1 "
(Loodon Longman , h" 76J). . (h II'll,'n In f."
!4tt
!n
with lhe letters f)() lhe fl)\lowing I.\:U of "'or\k ~ . . . . .
group<; and determine which vl)wel you USe. If JIOIIiIIe. - ...
v--
rh'-lion 4 wa li liUggc ted by dat.llD Wham
(London Longman. IY83).
O ltll", I, I
J OilY A" /
nl"~l~
pro~unciation with that <}f a peaker of anOO!er v
whIch group(s) does the pnmunciauQII appear -:'. .....
:--,..

(uniform)'! In which i the lew.t I1IIiformuy 1CCa' Aa-:'

Allan. Keith . and Humdge. Kate 19')1 l~uph""lIlm and IJ h correlatIOn'> belween variations in pronunciaaioa ofoo ....I. . . .~;..~,
Yip i'It!' 11t! 1)11'4 the regional origin of speaker.?
Oxford Univcr ity Prc~~.
a pool. f (Jol, m{JCxi. loop. boon, doom, looie
Qwnbel's. J.K and 'I fudg'" Pet!."!' 1981). lJiall'uo l0f{Y ( arnbrrdge ( .
Umvenlty Press. ·ill, IJr b) good. fOOl. b<xJk
Coa/eJ. Jenmfer. 1'1<)3 WrJtnPn, M l'n and {.ongul/f{e 2nd edn J.A mrj'm: J"Rl C) hoof, mol', 1>oot. room. coop. hoop
FuoId. Ralph. 19M. 1111' SOl w!rng u lI Jir J "fSo{IP/Y. ()1( flJTd : Hladwell 81nan. d) blood. f1{JC.xi
PaIoId. Ralph. I'M). the Sot IfJling ul IIC r (If l .onf,{ uage, (Jxf<JTd: Hlacb, II
11'..... Ruth. 1991. 7a/king (in/der, A (iulde /0 N fJtJ1o.111 (ommuni< ,e . S. Carefully examine how your localllCW1piipaO'"
-..
Cow CJad; Pitman , UlfJn It;! language wllh re peel lO maum of ..... ,..
s.mJle-Troike, Muriel I1J89 Thl' /;Jhtlflf,{raplly "f ( oltJmunit ali(m ' AliI I "" gcnder-bia..c,ed or of gender-DeUlnl . . . .
2ad eda Oxford: 8Jad(wcll. • n rr"'II<//IJIo lhe cO\'erage of ports and note to _ _
language used i biased or DOt
6. c · c!ully examllle how yOIII' IDcII
. . . . 011 your knowledge of your pcech wrnrnunity. design a lunpk language with respect to
.....IIioIlDlUre (along the lines of the sarnple in 'I able 14.17) teiting i({ hla~d or of race-neuIIIl ......~
........ Jaical ilenu. If you live in a rural community, you Dllgll covel"'dge of i IUCI of ...
imiJar to !bOlle in the table, If you live in a CIty, loot i({ and note to what
""-_.. for type of buildings or houses, treets. paVementt. die Of not.
8Dd pavements, and 10 on.

01 eadeavour (for example, fanDlJll, COIIII*'-

• •- by IlllllIeCODdIry IOW'CCI or by _ ....
. . . . . . . die uaique of JIIIIII.
 h.'I ' ci,ill~ anu sidillg, You could also invest'
sUe' '. 'k I , I,' , Igatc k
h 'me' /tJ in words IJ 'e IOte ,At':/lls. lilt'e I t"e re I'
, erler, let, I ~ l?UtiO
pont:
8 Group' of people el'en a~ small as one's rami I eI8'8elo~Qr,~ Writing and \angu -
. /' , ! Ir 'S \\ hie'h set them oft from other groups, Y can Sk
e.1 l t . , , •
, /'u'llitl, ConSIder your own family s sociol ect
and p , "ate I'
rovlde
'.(ft.) "~
I~. '
age
'01..
)Iher features W h'h IC you bl' e leve to be uni andp' OInt Ouall],uI\"
casu "< Michael Dobrovolsky and W'//'
or'milM
I h C 'I 'I '
ilems from t e ,rum y SOCIO ects of two Oth qUe, C
OntrastI anYIcrIe",.'
" , er StUd theSe IC~
IlamO/Gra dy
9. LIst •,tnd classify (both semantIcally ,
and morphol'
oglcall
ents, "'itij
'ords from your communIty as you can. Do all g 'Yl as '"
a" particular community 'h or sc 00 I s hare the sameroupss 0 t' adole, "'anYSlatJ
'OVS of speaking differ? How are they alike? lang? /-foh,SCents'!
II"J' '~ d I~
, h h 0 the-
Outside of a dog, a book is man's best friend'
10 In early Modem Eng IIS , t ere were two funct' , It inside of a dog, it's 100 dark to read, '
• 7'1 IOnlng
pronouns: thou and ye, l'IOU was used by SOcial SU e ' second
(including parents to chIldren) and ye was Used p flors to ' Person ,.. Croucho
addressing the supenor, ' T.ZIOU h as been lost fro by th e in~lOren , Ors
Ian O'uage, Only ye (In ' the "lorm you) has surv'm generaI uSe' enor,In
'"
discussion of address terms In , th'IS Chapter, what ha IVed ' In view In 0Ur Speaking and Writing are different in both "
s caused th' or the , ongln and '
use language IS as old as humankind and tl practice, Our abllity to
11. Describe, with examples. some phonological, morpholo' ISChange? ' ' , re eCls bIoi '
modification that has ocCurred in the e I ' oglcal and Coonitive
and lexical differences between Standard English glcal, sYnt ' .. , vo Uhonary b' . e
Wnting, the symbohc representation of Ian , lStory ot Our ~pecie,
~
dialect. You should use some 0 f the reference item Qda I' non-Stan". C a comparatively recent cultural developmentu~gem storable graphIC form. is
Sources, s Isted ab oVe und "<ltd
five thousand years and only in cenain pansavlfnghoccurred v.ithin the past
Ct
12, Choose a conte~porary English-Ia~guage play Or fi lm, Tr ' between speech and wntmg..
comes into sh.rru>r 0foct e world
b'
I The conlra.\t
examine some dialogue, If no pubhshed version is av 'I ansCnbe and spoken language IS acqUIred without specific formal' 'tru conSIder
" - r- us w en we '
that
, ' InS Clion. whereas
' d d' h d' al able f wntlng must be taught and learned through deliberate effon Th '
consult. List an IScbuss t e ISCourse markers Used in the dialogOr You to , , ere are entire
out how they may e use d to achieve temporal sequ ' Ue, POint groups of people III the world today,.as well as individuals in every literate
related. IllVO ' 1 vement 0 f th e a dd ressee or audience 0 encIn~ ' b,
of eVen~ SOCiety, who are unable to wnte, WhIle spoken language come, natural! to
,
human be rng, " does not.
wntlllg Y
speaker's own POlllt , 0 fVIew,
' Try to compare this fictional
' r Interject'
d' 109 the
real-life conversations, Show how the play or film resembl~:logueWith
resemble naturaJJy occurring talk. or fads to

13. Consult with a speaker of another language regarding coh ' ,

'h' h 1
III tS or er anguage,
. re t"erence Items listed above ueSlve
Uslllg d SdeViceS As different a, they are. speech and writing, hare one major characteristic.
TYPES 0 F
. some types of such deVIces
try 10 determllle , n er ources
used in that langu iu t aspoken language shows an, arbitrary li~ between sound and IJIeIIIIIII.
WRlTtNG the \mou. ,ymbols and techruques used In WIlnen language show •
speci Ica y lor t e two types 0 reference mentioned ell'age,, Look
't- 11 ' h f' ,
' , A 11 f' h h'b' , , IPSIS and arbitr:lf\ link between ,ymbol and sound. All ~tingcan ~ grouped\IIIDtw
su bstJtUllOn, re a 0 t ese ex I Ited I ~ th.e other language? Do the' ba~ i.: t\ 'res . .:al led logographic and phonographic. depending 081be Irit:IIIiIta
appear to work III much the same way as In Eng lIsh? What other device; of IingUlsll': r~presentation they use,
does your consultant suggest you consider" '

I.t
I~ 'wold')'" 11),
• \ f'rom Greek "'11~
logographic writing The teon logographK: _ .....
111 whi.:h symbols represent rnorphemesorewa

logograms
 h.. ,folK ...,rlfjng

figUlt'I~ , 1 ,f4l1

ft., 11'''( (,I

HI ,(,

IIU I l
 , l
l ... TI "

, 02
I ~ I" 1~
\ ( .In.a..han built .a
k1)l; _.abm uot ,'IIdq.
","'/l-";\ 11(',10( .. \ tJ'i'('o,
f{
~
\ ,..n\ d cd
,,,,.
~ ~ .. .!~

~
, ~ hwft" n l\.1:.t aU
" h< ~ J... t\t
:<- 1 J
\ I'J' ""lok
n hOrW' "" h \tK'lIl'
tunu'\"'I.a~t
Iht'InJu\n\
\~-
"" ~
.'
Un \Sm '
'6
1';1.1
IIood Tht"ht".l(l "
fh dr, "" nN 1l()o1f
,..
nthl"watn

~ D.l t mio!

I Ufrl14 (," tor 'IlIlr1Wlg' , ""

'\
 rY-V-A
, I~ 11
I r
 Iph.l bel
",0.1
,~t

~
~
-

~~
:;
l:
A
8
A
8 ..... A
1 r Lorn"", B
Delta C
fj 6 l.p>iJ0<' 0 0
~ E ~ E
~ 1 F
G
I I
8 H fto e
® e, rta
H
I I
(J)

'\ L
"'-
""'\
M
'1 ~

0
"""
0
1.'_ _ _

l tbtf t - Ed"
1 iIt\~(/pm n ,

I n

)
~ P
r:
... J
R
s
T
~\ J

~~riting

V
X X
y
.n z
p.

115 A I (I AI:J
, \If I I
 , I
fill""

¥- ~
r:=
-'----

4
 t

<t
4

# ~ U
t J I

if
-p l' r)
j) ~
k 7.
-it. ~ A -\z ')

T :1 7- ';J -r
.
T

.
1 -r .::? /

t: 7 ~

H I
'" /j
H
l ~ 7 b

~
}~
1
r
..
- - - "'-~I- m31 'f ,-"ihz:lIjon, developed On the -' ~
-\ nurn,~f l , , ""lien
-n -;) :Ullne more ll13n e'ghleell writing " can en.. '
~f·);llI < - , }Slellls ....1In....'
• lH-"~.
- - A ~. - them mo~e 01
AnlOll>! _ the_ ~f:l) ans of the Vu
,caLan have ~lI. ..L
- In I'<llh .\, cern, \\e Lan see the evoluuon of' and the
Me\ , 1 , - , -" did PICIOl!h_ A.».'
.utl p-lk nec,,- \\ 1m SIgnS, JU-,>I as the EgyPtian hi :'""'IlS "".~ N
!l ' - - eroglYPhi ":"" b.. ..
m - "nOlI -' ..' c-s 1]Jl('~
~I un .yml'<ll, are called glyphs. Some were
I ~,mm,)_. BUI me "nang ," y lems re e on other II<~
lid read,.
- > Oflb ,-'~ I{
..., "'""

Th:_lret->u
.,. principle \\ as empl oye- d '
omeumes onl) PartiaJJ, e '&!Is _
o(the _I!:n fOf a -moking bundle of pine, f ! 1aa3l, to }, as in the~"
prep"-j{ion [3,', ~!ayan ~gns c~
U.t" - ' u J d be ' feprese
combmed fOf their !ltthe Iocai,~
,.~
:uooe III fonn ot yUab,c wnnn~. Glyphs that mh YUabt' I
'.,
~~:.. l!!r.lP/uC repre:.emanon are aJ 0 tound, c "lltin. .,
mJ
lord pa )
-na

hield ca
j P"QIi" lord PacaJ
.a

firure 15.23 !be

(:,

pi,
.i,
~
-<- t
pi
t> 0, Ii .. ,
"n .ti, .tl
V

.ti
>
)
po, po
to, to
< Jill

-orne ,-\meri~ \loriting ~_[erns do Dor date back [0 a di-uuJI an. . c ta

r M, el 'I et
thelonizauon of. 'onh America b)i Europeam. a nUmber of ~_.-\.~ CD, eD CI
(be/oped to pronde nati\e people with a : nn of wrinen co~ crt P IU, III 'I U d to, kO III
In one \\eU,-kilo\\n case. the Cherokee leader Sikayi ("~uoia) de .
-~ U C ~~np[ ( hO\\n ID . F19ure
' 1)._-)
- , ot fT!')re than eight}"
"'-'! Ymbols,11.<et!_ !
r iii, a(. 1 t ." ., - •
...
,. . ..
M, Ill.
don the ,hape of Engh h letter. and others newly invented,
<r

r' 4..c., 4-<-

lit

H
IJ

;
110,
40,
110

U
•&

\'a e 51mbol a.uE' S}mbo alu Symbol \ alue Symbol \" ~ f/i., yl. L., !ll .t rIO, II
a
a
R
e
T
Y
{) o (» 11
I P , ~
- C , k .. 4
Finals
»• ., •• • • ,
?'" .J\
gl

iii
A
..
go

110
J
r
Fi ure 15 .•5 _ern Cree syIabary

I Ie f' IT 6 10 M
Of H 1m 3 ~ .A
nipl leaf ~

f~we 15.26 TlTee~n \leslemCMe

'"

fNloIl II
URlIln(,I> rH
 Gt)l S Tf( ~

relalil}n~h) l:n~1i
Table 15.3
AllY LIN , WI' II conSldcr the nature and hi<t
. , we, scction 5.3 to examine the , "ry, I s)mbo/ Nump
."""....... In We
Ihis will
,ce llOn Ip I",t",..:.h Srgme1!l( ,
or words.
orthography.
wriling an d ,
readJIIg.
the n usc.
~" iI: ash
eth \"'1
"l> thorn
"'yn
(0, and II)
[Oland [0

,,~ ,,, "'''

' sed COIOP a I
I· 101 ahout l' llg" h ')lthO!!"I"hy "ll.I,ll II <J.
,,• 'I
p
('"
• enll}, ex prcs 'rc/ali"",hlp lCl",ceIJ SYIIJ'I) S aIJ" Ph"", I '"
1 15 1 !JIIS soJ1le
nol csla I
A'"'"", ,>h"l'
enls, Ta ,.- wd' ,,,"w,, """"p".' ,,' "" <. "'"''
seg m lI"f)hlc!'ln~ wilh I'ngl"h ""h"'1 Iphy
TlIhw /5.2 SlJme I r 111"'1,1"
Prflhln n

It·,Ihln~ iIll dllll/ lil IIIPII! h

,rC!!<J
s. lxopholl c /1.." exile 1Ir.'1 fIll
I d)
111
hot Inl, hone /~()/. !loe 'WII!

lu I III J1.!le. IQQp, '2.J!p. chew

sue, to. t\!,!!, shl!!:, sl!'.l!lh ~

poem RlI..harl/ Krogh vividly illUstrates

h}
rthograph~ dl'parts from the principle of one
vmbol)
~r3tions
 3}
football un... el\
,pOOnbill re-el\
landfill recall

carn. Carrl-ed
mem mem-I~
marT) marTi-age
Jet!) jelli-e"
beaut_ beauti-ful
The exi lence of COD\ention and
Engli,~ o~ogrnph) i- mu h I!l()re ~
It - mtncactes can be undet<; ood
.md ~ IJ1lcrure of the lingui tic -_ em

moo

Akhougb the
n:preselllro a;
immediatel. prec
---
 ItY II G'ST/ S
".".."....c:JtI"
W~I'
(c'ted below). John Sc".eo I'<t'"
- ~ __
fir. : : : : . - - - - - - : : : :-""n
::::'": unT\- ot the de\elopmem. of : : - 8 aOd
..... -:- r --- and helpfully hn the ent ire cha r .r~ nf t Dnor .. L
.. "' •.".-- found In }cR.... n. Gelb. and DcFmnclS (al/. 0 the, ". PIt, .r .... I_~
VSIrtn ate . 1/ d C'ted he,1 ~f"ld'
"Uabatt rna" not e~lst ""a~ ~~e to the a~thor\· iatle b\l.l),1'hc:' ",
• ~--------- -~~
port oflbe l W\-rrslty 01 • orthem Bnu ,h Columb'a (pc"oo. Ot"m by p 11<_", ~ carney: E. 1994. A Su,w>y of Lnx/jlh ~
Poser ani" ma" ha\c onglO3ted 10 record keeping W-th I com01l! _rf'f~ ~
i«lI thal .. n ~ -. bel Th C II . ' Clay •. k O'c,. • \ CummlOgs. D .W 19RR. A"", P"/,"~ I,
tunandr-8~o;era' tCHed 0",). e 10 0'-'"108 figures "' en,. ~klQ} 1Iid<""t.-...
Hop k·'os U' OIVer\ily Pre". '''an h •...iIIh ~""U ,;-:""'It
• 1- J I' ~ 15.ID. 15./3. 15.26. 15.29; from Ale,a"derc adaPledr"lak.n,lf.;
15 10 .'
of C,. l I.
c
15 2•• rom
0 • v.

?
. rth C
.
-alJon (\e .. Yor/(; McGra .. ·Hdl. 1972). 15. lb· f

180 15 16 (168
. '
OeFr:lI1clS (see tu er re,erences 10 ongins of th
.
0 rM . r<b.. r,~
"'h ...... j~'"
rOIl}~ . ac '. h
"<:h"",''''' k
e", fig Odt'lle "'"
DeFrancis. John. 19~9 Villh/ ~
Honolulu: Un,ve, Ily of
Gelb. I.1. 1
963
H': r"'h. rJ,.. IJ"
.a all h~
. A Sluciy of W",,"X ( -..... of __
", ~

r,.~ (Jr.-_
~ ~ ........
__
761.15. Ip 21. 15.L (p. ). . p. ). 15.25 (p. 127 ure'tbe, "" Gibson. E. and LeVin. H. 1'175 Th "'~iKC'. \.jill• ...., .• _
P rhc l D1ve",'Y of Haw"" Press; from M.W. Greeo. 'Earl I. COpy" «nj II
b! .• ~Io") 15.9 (p. -15); from Samp,on (ciled below) 15Y CUOC,fOf!n.ghtt: ") J Press. . , "1)("',&,., '1 R '" ~ .....
(_rrCU ,~ '.
'The In,enllon and
De I f h
ve opment a t e Alphabet"
. . 11 ' f . 'n <. <,
. 'oil} F . ...,~ Gleitman. L. and Ro/in. P. 1'177 'The 'Odin~c-..w;
' . are copynght () 19H9 h OCr felted .\"'"'.nk
Cros 59 d 15 17 . • 'n Sen between orthc,graphi" and the tn""u,. and act...., ...... '-'
J5 1- (p. 891. Figure, '. . an 1,••,
Y the Un htr..., Reading. Edited by A. Reher ~\UTe o!lanCU;-"'~I: ___
o.--ka Pre
. ellloL:l
"nd repnnred by permIsSIon. The POn pict
. _C '1 Fi
rle v of the Bntl h Sport.> ouncl. 'gure 15.5 " coune
. ograrn~ . . l\ter
. 10 F'gU, 'II)
... Erlbaum. and () Sc:art;..~ar"""",., -=-
~ou ~mcallon In titute. Exclusive licensee, 1982 and i, d 'Y of the !iii, e IS ~ '"
=beJ In the .. ork. Semanlograph.l. original cOP;'right C ~n~ed
froll}
R Ference to Arabic "riting IS from lame, A. Bellamy :Th' . li, . 1949 'Y1lJb..",
t~Y"'br, ~
len",n. H. 1970. Silln. Sym/x,/ and s.:
Unwin.
Samp<;on. G 19115. Wntl/ll( SY"tml: A I.ln
"PI r, UII'Ion. traa&
lIP 5 "".,..

~ o....~.
.....
- _ ..

Senner• (cneU bela,, ) l ohn DeFranclS . (Ln"ersuy

. . of• Ii C Arab'
. IC AIPiIab.r Schmandt-Be.... rat Den,<,e. 1911'1 'T KII/JlJc/lllmdoc..... ~
(lnlver irv of ToromolYoTl< Un"er Ity). aDd Brian King ~~a",. ~ tokens: In The OrigIn, "f W"'on.": PT<cunon of ~ ..........
Columbiai all prO\ided in I~htful .lnd helplul comment~ (e~lVer\Jty or ~ 'eb .. UniVeNt;, ,r..ebr", aPr OdittdbyWIol 'I-...:: ....... ~
Chinese "riung). so many, ID tact. that "e were not. able to makc~'a"y 'tga,d ill .Se nner. WM ...• ed . I 9 1I~. Th. OrigJlIJ
• ---",n-4Z,
here. Their "e" are not neee sanly those refle<.:ted to [he cha 'Ie of all of
. ebra,ka Pres~. of IVfIIIJt~ u...... Ma.:
Chinese "TIting I derived from DeFr~clS (cited bdo,,) a~ p~ The d,\eu, t!tt.i; Wallace. Relt 19fs9 'The ongill! nd <ltv
Figure 15.IS wa adoptedfrom .rom ' J eny onnan. Chinese I~ . abl e 15
' (Carnbrid l'ltItt Origins of Writing E!hted by W M. ~~ of dIt ' - ~
Universit} Press. 1988); ChIDese c.h...."'lIc.tCf'; "ere prOvided b gc. Calll~t
.. 1 (P.lfn
oL 'ebr31 ka Press. PI' 121 36.u......_~_ ......
presentation of Japanese "ritIDg ill. owes to [)eFrancis. a, weI/as ~n ZllJqlu. 1'h.
1M wnguage, of Japan (Cambndge. Cambndge lJnive",1 p M. Sh,I...
biragana and Ica(akana chart (!guTeFi I 5.19) arc adapted fromY Len'ro.\ I"'~ lbe'
......
''''I);
1. Suppose you are the user of a .
(}tItstio ns ~::, ~ ~~.Itji~.
already represent concrete objeas
JaptlMJt' Toda) (Tokyo. Japan Charles E. Tuttle. 1971) and reprinted Wahh', ktQd
0( Ihe pubb.sber example of Japanese wnt!~g were prO\ ided b K by Ptnn 0
pictographic _'lTIbol of _our Yaan. ..,
• dilalssJOll of Cherokee 1!ontmg. see aUve American Writ; aztoe Kanno. R~ these mho to represent !he foUowac_
u. ·-th ( <Is ngS:A.
SYltem' • bY'l.
Walter m C. Ferguson and S n= e ,. Languaf{e in the U a) hunt f) oak -
Cambridge Umverslty Pre } Presentauon of the Cree yl/abary I ~ ~ (Cambrtd.. b cold g) bred
~ Nlhiva .. artfUIhlkbun: A Standard Onhograplry for the err:: r'ilID [) C) f h et
(SMtMoon Saskatchewan Indtan Cultural CoUege 1977) The lAn2~, d):bite angry
...... African wntJng } terns draw on PIerre AleJlandre AnaC,CflIJnr n(
, Th ntmdu{,rIIJrJ ItJ e) trength weabca
I...,,u and Languoge In Afnca (London Heineman 1972)
. f ' . e example-. l(
. . . . 1adiaD p!CtDna/ scnpl are rom John Mar hall. MfJhenjoolJam and L_ 2.
4aI..... (lGodon. 1931) !,'" /fIIkJ

" . k e at die hi lory of Eng" h pellmg I b cd on A HlI/o'V nf &.

DO Sa.g (Manche leT Manehe leT UDlvcr Uy Press 1974) 1begdaQ
- hID P J4J of Carney (CIIed below) The Amencan repon 011.
IftIllfOea rbouaand databa<;e I hy P R Hanna. J S Hanna. RE
1IIIIIIII1. PIIDrrnM-Graphnne Corr" poflli"flu tU Cw /0
- _..... DC US [)qlenrnent of Health Educabon IIId
nib IeIISIUve to fIIOIJIboIoaica ~ a.
below o.a 011 hildmJ abilily 10 . . . .
_ _I Cllllil from L Y. Ubermu. rqJOIted .. GIla ..
 "
lth hm
",~', \ l"

\\ \ \ \lk"~1

\,\ • \ III 1.1

111\1\1\' " 1.111\

 :-3lJ\ ......~en[ communication i
. ,...,1 , mol<i-. In :-[': and mammaI ,. Che lllJcal : u"'d
, '--
uy ~
~ -, r (01" ,omm"ru.arn e ptUpO. 'are called ph" "Sed h) .
' -, , reprodu.oth e re.wme. through !he reI retno ...
mo...m ' -= .......... 3 f,>\\ of the", molecu]", need 10 be ea..., Oflles a nI... t
, all: vm} d _-,.
I1nn~ zig-ag UP\\1fl 10,," ~"" Its i>Olenlial
"""nted h..
Uj a 'llaIt
r_""
f.... t I> , :;m - urine-ru..-ed pberemone as an identificati~- Dog <iIld
'
lbe!r t m 1)1""\
•, and .
tD3J1\ non-human pnmale hale '''''''-a11l1art
-.-..1 J~
lo _ (>.
IOC • rurr<'''' ~~
Li hI Probsbl~ the mO'1 ,,:ell-I~"n l~~ U~r in _'Drth ~
tir:ih <JC hghming bUfde·TIll •. ma r ~dlngl _ e uses ligbl f1as":~-IlC:a II .
em' 10 '.;nal jc I n~l~: .ex_ an ()Calton_ Different s .~ In \
tn :1' h;)\ e d,iferenl :md di ungw hmg IIghl pattem _ Pecies Of ~
- '" Cenain ·pecles of eel: in the Amazon Rl\er "'•. _
£hctticr. . ·al- b~ mean 0 f e I eclncaJ
""""Ik'e and temron . I~
- """In Coo...
irn~.J -....,n
Jr , - - - 'mal 'fi ""'5es
fr: ncre Eachpecre:. '''tho.
atfa !"'-'
IC freqU~ ran" at v
rr3ll'lIllrung frequen',e._ like ;.e 0 mUlO and lele>; ion . , ' •
0\ erJ.ap. do lQ.
Colour The .:-oJour (or colour pattern of I?any anirnal pIa>· an _
n theJr denufi;:-auon b) member' of therr Own pecie> 'ft:' "''''_~
li e 1 .. / 4 !hi _...,., """"
The::t .han:e coJour,requent ~ anu colounng i Il.>ed ~
:e · lhat in IUde temtonaJ detence and maUng readines_ _ or a

P ture TIll 1':1 common rorrunnru~~\e de\ice among animaIs

for eump e, Io\\er the fr nt pan of _ err OO<le and eXlend their ~ ;
,,:nen the) are p 3}fuJ The _ 10,,: er theIr hole bod'e o !be Yound ": ~
Pastu :anon I found in both human ben
ill ~-
If'" til , H

'pl.lllt , It,I' In",

d 1'lIl1k,

wll"" "Vl\

1((",1 w",1", II'ft' II I

 Ibe me ..Ige trtl t1ure

moo Ie gns
g .~

:Iffil

=
r.aJ

bcr:rr
~16. rnrv .me
 ,I

r
e
•i I IOM ' .,,"- Illl' I.ll ,.11 "'P"·";UI1S.I, h, .111d'_ ( of Ilw. 1111C •
fljcurt' Ib. ,~ "'inOll' 1-!"u /l " . _ ~,-14~1(' rn k III
I ",,1... nil I t'(lIltinUllJ11 t'XP/(·!sstng It-',":..• 1, h.1 Ill'UIILll f1e", b 011 '.p
/lI.. rflH·l·P' ' . I . ,e>., r~.
E:'y.

It'lt ,Ill(
,
I
. , If ...... 1.' ..
C '\ l -
t·,. tlt'flll' 1t'<1'. L1CI 1 / xpn.·sslon gr<.ld(\s into 111(' nextpresses
t.....
I,.;,

TI
s~ L.""'q
1I&l1t
• I , . I . "lIt.' ..... nmlul{'S 111.1 gra(
Illt'I,.I)("II\((
t .... ( 1ll.1nnl'r. . 1ehal'\d
'I~on

••
/),,,"I,'Il' s'~II' (Fi~url' 16.6) nrc tfislinguished frOl11el\ch olhcrb
Dlscrt'tt' signs ,) ddTal'nl'l's. There IS no gradual Iransllion rro Y catego,.;
("ll'IHI'S' 111 one' «Cal
nt'\!. rhl' wortls of 11lIIllan language are good examples or d', Sign 10 th, ••
Thl'fl' i, 'lll illll'l'llletiialL' stage ht:IWL','1l Ihe \~'ords SlOp and Iscrete Sig '
, "I'l Ilnl which call he "\pressed hy olhl'!' dlscrele Words go In EngliSh
nl •
,\ll ' • h f" .• ' - Or COmb'
,1 t· 11"'·lb...,u,'h as 'slarl 10. go . T ,l' llgllal ulspluys of Watches' - <Ired' ,Inatio nl ••
lId/. "nel' Ihl') pmgn:ss Imlll olle "~lI1l1te ('~r ,'veil second) 10 Ih. ",crete ",
'r'llhli,,,, Traffic lighls. I(lO, are d,SL'rl'!l' sIgns; ther.: is no de next with
Jl(l f ' , . gra Ual sh' "
fWIll grl'en Itl yelio\\ IV red. . Ifllng,
s
o

~
Cry Audible b
ISl11pl (voiced Cry

~~
~4
.....,
~
~
, ..- ~~ ~ ~
~ e expiration)
intake of
breath
Time

/g;)ul
Figure 16.7 The graded contimrum from sobbing t05Crearmg\theheitla!he~ancI
blackened area, represents the a~bility of the~and!hewidlhal\s_
.1 /, both sob and scream are dl~crete Signs. el'ert though each pies m!he.
c
,.... 16.6 StHllt' ,h, 'I'l" ,,~''', " dl~it,lfli']l( d"pi.1V; /" Ir,ltli( fig"h.
,\tthet' tremt: ends (11' the continuum.1hcn inodifticIItJ 1 au ....
one or thl! other. although it is difficult 110 ...-., _ _ _1 ..
~~)\\nd a~
11 three tyPt'~ <l[ si 'ns - i,'/llIi('. illd<, \lcull.l \'IIII'I/llIIlIIic ' , <lIIlI,I'\'/II!lo/ic C~n
hccomes a 'scream', Thus we can say tbal '......
be gflldcd or disl·rt'tl'. ,\ photllgraph is inlllil' and di~rrl'll" blll a thr~atcning
dis.::ret~' s\ mplomalic sign', but each of lila . . . . . . .,• •
anin 's gflldual harin' of its fangs is il'ollll' and !'Ialk'd r-.l11rs~ c,x1c I~
ymboli and discrete, hUI a slow I) dlllllllin" Ii Iht that ~lgl1als lht' beginnmg gr'ldati\)n~ o\erlap. The same is true of ...
alhealricaJ perfonnanCt' i~ S) IIlholil' ,lilt! gra,kt! S~ mp(tllllatk ~ign\ 1\1\1, l'OtlUllunicallon,
m be eli rei (the tnillil' light a 'aill) PI grallt'd (till' l'l) ing or a child (lr the
b1USlllllJ l.
bl for a discrcll' si '11 to ht' intl'rnall) '1,llIt'lI, ,11\.1 l'wn tll ,hp
 ~NIf.\AI
in muddy waters, The dange h' (()f.\f.\\jNIf
galago 'IS 'd I ea 1 for nocturnalr W "tie
" of a 'rnall AIIO!; '3S
' Sou"th A
frogs III ' eomm,
menca eOlll lllu nlCation'
' ,Iree.d"'ell'
,"--_-----;-----:---':/. C'wi.rs watches ... the.V}lIs, reaCI. Theirg
... 7"11 "Il" /At'.>
~-'-21
T' ene"
< ' , " , I '1'lh<'1II whullO do, ",ey don 'r Ihink about' ' and hOh legs, 'd
I ea 1 f or sendll1g
'
messageunleate
'' b
YStiCk' In ""n".
A.
I~
109 Pri
Illatelike.~.
A . . . of ..,IR'-
io
t'/u'!lte t
t','r
B 1/ ''l'
.. Zookeeper en Beck (on golden r' o"es Q
, S,n Ih d' Ing ou ~"t S
do not try new combll1ations of I e '111 and ,t \heir I ' Illall iilll&lt ...
(8IIIIIIUIIkaf n " , Ian l'IJllar; "" original message, any more th eg Ill()Velllen.~ol'y iunol:"'llg and C()1n..':; "I
, ," communication, Il IS clatmed, shows lillie b' n Illon'- ' I someth,ng
order to signa ' it h..an
, the eICCtric -, InI order.', to tit'JUngle''''''flI
£tn..
Most amm, , t t' d h ar lira' 'e• b " ..s never ee ree C()rne u ,-~
• I' "'I)" icomc and symp oma IC an ence nOI del'b rlness I, ") tion appears to e hmlted in the conveYed c. "rnbine, I P "'I!h an
co Ix are-t:: . .. ' I erat
, ' , t nor symbohc In liS sIgn repe ory, Or eXampl
rt F
' e Or c. tl$ 'ai' But 'IS amma, I communicatio messag ' e, 'II can ""Inre, Ani""I' fp~1Ie '
IlCItl; in
m IIIt<n , f d
," C'"" in the presence 0 anger, It" IS assumed e, If a rnon,-ons'clOUS" ' n So Ve",
Recent wor k on ammal commu' , ' J unlike hu Y, ' conYe .. '" C()"'_ ,
.....unlta-
a certalll ' .I "ti b I' , Ihal lh 'ey, , " nlcallo h rnan \>.
sponlanc .
'ously signalling ItS ear y voca IZll1g, but is nOI d' e 100 give,
h d Th ' e"be nke human I mgUlstlc communicatio Th n as Often r ~,guagein l!
ther g roup members of t e anger, e vocaltzation is int ralel y 1\1 y is among several kinds of animals a~'d e ne~t 'tCtio~U'ednn it, re~,r.sPtct.?
o h nembers of a troop for theIr Own benefil erpreted a alll lng compareitWith~ eXatnine corn IO~hIPto
by at ert " f 'I ' ' nd u'
II t'0 Ilows from thI S vtew 0 ' amma commun Ication th
I ' althe
Sed uman Ian..••,age,mUfUcation
Inicative syslems by anima s was 111 the past ass acqUisil'
comtm 'd f learning and expenence, ' Rat her, It' was claimed umed h I0 be' I Ion Of
deVOl 0 , 'h ' I allhe 'ltgel
strictly limited by genetrc 111 entance, and in this se ,sYsle~ y
rat her , ,, f h' I nSe rad '''sar I have no doubl Ihat some will
aftempI I '
human language
" , the acquISitIOn 0 w IC 1 requires ev
~posure
ICaliyu nI'Ike bees as the resulls of reflexes and' ,0 explain' Ih
S tem, This limitation certrunly appears to be true in so 10 a Illa! e InSllncls e perfo,,""_.
sy,' d in isolation anima , Is as d'Iverse as th e to assume I ha I suc h perfectioll and fI ,::' for my p "'-ICes of ,''-
e lOX, them elepha e Cases, 'Whure withoul some kind of mental P'oc eXlb,ltry in beha\~n, I fllld il difflclAll
raise ., f nt seal th en
certain monkeys develop, the ~1I ran~e of vocalizations t i' e Cat, and bees
.' esses g0111,
8 on in lhe
lor ca ,.
n "" reac"-d
cies However, as we will see III sectIOn 4 of this chapte h Cal of th ' YP ' small "-ads of the
spe " , r, t e Situ ' elr
be more complex than this" , ahon can ... August Kro '
It is further claimed that animal commul1lcation is neith gil, SClenlific A__ ,
deliberate, II is not Widely ' be rleve d , l'or example, that a mOnke er consc'10USnOr """'""an
Forager bees display a remarkable sy t
situation and then delIberately chooses to warn group memb Y assesses a
" ' 0f ' a food source to other bees in theirs emh' of co"'- '
uUuunlcating the I~.~.
se/ecting a sign from a repertoire meaningful SOund Symbolers of' da nger by , , lVe, Whe' '''''''U\JII of
· Ius- boun d'IS also Used to ds at Its' dl sposaI, dIscovered, the forager flies back to the h' n a lOOd SOUtte baa "---
For this reason, the term St Imu ' b ~ , lVe and conun ' .......
communicatron, " sInce " rl IS f
0 ten c I' alme d th '
at al1lmal cOmmu' escnbe,anl/nal ' about It Y r-uomung special movements (W ' lilUcales infOl1llalion
before other members of the hive, The dane' hich h~ call ~)
occurs when rl, IS ,tnggedre
' d by exposur,e t0 a beertaln ' stim ulus Or IlIcahon
for ce~Y 0I !fig conveys Infn..-~. -~"'II
locauon of the.OO<I ource, Ill> qUality, and its distance fu;..~abouttllc
, t' ,

specific ends, AnImals 0 not commul1icate a out anything but th

now As the philosopher Bertrand Russell once noted 'No e here and
' ' a dog may bark , It' cannot te 11 you that Its ,'m a twt e r how
In
..~,

eloquently parents
honest, ' ere POOr but Distance i-conveyed by one of three different dances ~ till
Dislance or floor of the hive \ orne, pecies have only twadilfeRlldltll:a.:' WII
With respect to stnrcturc, animal communication is said to show ~
, heyon dh
of discrete structunng teo b' VIOUS f act that one group of sym eWtraces
t ' \:>e :3.1d to have a ,dlfferent 'dialect'\. In doing tbe\QIId-'_ - ..
graded signals may sound very different from another, Whining in ~ omalic,
repeatedl ~, ThL Illdlcate, a food source wiIbin file _ .
example, IS , clearIy d'/'j'
I erent /'rom bark'lng, bu( both arc assumedogs, to for
be The ,ickle dance mdicates a food source fromrc:::~:::::~=l
1m " 1t lS perfofl11ed b) the bee dancing a
symptomatic, and (he two may grade into each other. Combining' d
"fd ' /()' stnH;(UJ'C suc h as phonemes, morphemes',In d \\ agging dance lIldicates di lance funbu ........
~mblDlDg 0 'Iscre(e Utl/ts
wonfIllS not c aracteflstlc 0' the way anIma
. h " / ' I s communicate, Dogs do' annot the h<:e \\ ag, it. abdomen as it moves _ .... t.~".
combine whines and barks to producc novel mcssages, Ib ,tarting point. repeatl' the waggiaa ........ IWII.
c') de then he gins again.
'Dais doe not mean that animal communication consists of r,ltldlltn
.lOCloaal outbursts. Nor does it mean that animal cOllllllunil'ation doc, nil!
1II'IIctUre. Animal communicalion is !loth complex and organi/cd
1M1llll1ia..~ pressure has guaranteed that animal ~ommunication is oplimail) OirKtlon
cbc survival requirements of eal'h species, The eleclrical
. . . . . of Amazonian eels is an excellent means of communication
 1 ly J the dan 'j; and !h~
A JC Jood til 'UJce I

o f {"lot
 l "
rnentl lunhcr lroUppUJl II g 'n IIC lntc'pt
h ,,'p"n breedmg npcnrn~fll , Ihe ""e~ Ih \I ."I.I\('n "f
In a n'" ..r.1 h ' )(yr~
_ nrnum' ·tJ(lCl ltalun p= nl pe.. orm('u I" 'klc <Ian c • ph y
• to dJdf per cenl o f Ih" IIIlle, Inc hce Ih.n )"-.,.1 0 'fItI
- - ---f!3l di [3IICC ustnan parenl performed Ihc '!)Ulld <13 a phy
........_--=r to dJdf 9 nM' cenl 01 Ihe lime; Ihcy d,d n'lI I n"<· II, '1Jcl ..~
~--"'"'- cfLSL1DCe d.lnCC '-'
pall cm used In a pec ,ftc "PPe'he 1C~1t
- " "UilIlllO '''", -.:
at aIL 111<: "" ... nl along" 'Ih other mOre uh'"m g. aT If, ~
cenatO ....-- . nel,< I
fIOIII a D.1llI h phy JOlogl I Aug u I Krugh made lhe r.,
Ia I ..bt'D the ofthr ~/On, he ' truc k :tIthe W,d 'Iyacc P1r~1 '!lent
----...I lithe bCgiJIIUlll ~. e'theTthe result of o rne kind "I Clm<J I llOtu.,
-- ~'iOUI'''-
"".- "'''In
.><1\. m IIncti,e M uc h h3.\ hec n Ic,lrn('d ,nce' lhen & I"
III iJkIclined"of mforma tion Impartw hy gc nc ll(; Iran fer It ~
~ quanu~ a faJr degree of cen a lnly Ihit! I/,e ( 11m I' '.""
10 5UU' f ~ and other e{juaJly rc ma rl;ahle m~ ~ Ild
«'Olc::!l""",ed bdIa'')OVT °callV predeterminw and, unllt e human Ian I In at)
p . = ~ ~ 10 the mature sy'>lcm m o, dc rlo he IICqU/f d ~ ;.
~ -ery

~ -
~;$-_---- ------------reaJure lhal con (1mllJl! hIm PlI IM H mUll/I.'. I
tr.1 JJ D C Iu-ft,lIu..-mg J(lUnd uhr; uhr, "hr, Uh , , HII , k" I
~r,;nd{}ur. I

...ah.. ...ah .. Jake f'agc (110 hIS Arna / !/IJ I-

Ill)
 II

.....-
10
-
Tune m ~ nds

•II mil
----
-,---- - - - -- ...
y------
. l \. ,,-.

Inn
 VII,'ull/ alll '" s ' ~''' ''I(' ll''"1' ''1 I
"'~I
""'10\, I(
II 'Ill I I ~I
i\'\Pllllti lIPPlllPllIll l' l y III Ill' " 'II Y""k, I
lhl' '' IS'' I VI' S. 1\11 litIS 11Ik"11 I,I C,.lh, Vi '1\"'"1 • wllh II , I
lllH! 01 O hl ~~I' In Ihl' WIll '",'~t'III\',
I U~~t I ""c· ·'<tly..... , nl IIther __
. tn( iUt . I'
'lIh,I Il Il YSt1t1 ntl sltll pUIIII"C' I ,lhlll\Yh'1 nlll~t,C'1 Inllbtru...: '
til ~J\r ._-:...,.,.
(I",t "
, ,11 1111 ' 1I1~lh '"Ilyr ___
lIn Ihl: Ill' xl PIl ~C), t nllllilill II I It I' <If I ,"
III n·~p"II" I • ,Ill '1',.1 IYII') 111111\\
Th~ vt:lvt:1 may IIIlI Ill' , 'nlCOllQnll1(:""I'- ' •• Y 11111
"h,~" I" h .-It
... III I
Sp,'1 ~(lddll. ),' I'OUIl( I "." SOUlIt t\111~111 "ISl'hl 'CII !;"" I
I I · I 111,1 IS
Ihn:e I' WIle 1 lIll' used WI'''II I ' I CI ilSi", C I I "' 1 :1.1 '
I & Mr~l
'crre'l 'VIII I ....ty II
hllv,' ht:cl1 tward inlh!! prekt l1C' 1 11;,1 \lltl\;lh>r~' Ivellin., nl ~""I(O
,hlllll lhal l11onk"ys hllve Ih ~ II IIlIgc hillis, S dPh\lllliILh,.ndl' tall
.. c CII 'I1IliVe t"pOll III "0 WIIQlw~'
,lIlegl"I!!S Wll h vocali '/alrlllls I~ill"n locb
. . , " I Y h", U1'P<lt\ ,~,
The acq ul sll'ol1 01 lhese Si"I\' I ' , ~ Mlll;ue... • ..
IlPPl'UI to (I·lSI, ' . sh innalely0 ,"s ,1111"/1"• Vtrvel, I
Inglil ....r~uat
, . ,lOllIng h . Inlele
1'I 1< , IIII II' ,I "IIIIIIIIIII"",IIIIII.lIIII1I1/-,
, " Ihl' lIH1l1y V'lllt'I'I"
, I1/'N,LW1I11U ( hi Ids , but Ihcy also glvl' Ih" '" ,I IIl,"I'!:'\St I ling Inr~nl "_.
'I • 'I'" II'" ',I" Ip, Ihls lh"l'l 'I II OVl'l\lIl1plrl,cd l'l l' t1I1 ,~ r~ 1l )luW d , ' e,,~, C L'I\' " Iflam ·~.tIl
,. ,>11M , I ', ' nrl ' kopald ca ll wh'l\ IIIher ICIl''' 1 1'\ when nlh"l h mal" I\ll •••
... 'I,d",,, 1'1<'" IS 1'11111.111 )' " S} 1I11'1(1111'lIll· .\YSll'lll L I
HIP'" It "'t • ' • , • ,., - . 1I1I 0lll' th!
~Ll\ W.
'lilt hel wee n leopmtls and les, 11,\
"na 111'
atnnlal, "P""
, ltd
bpPru IIId' ~.~_ ...
"I 11111111>\'1 "I " ~ II' \\ 'Ih lII(1fl gl,ltI,111Il1l 01111(111" Ihl'l . , " ngcr"lIs,i1 I~'" Adul ...
I I,111:' " <
I
11, 11.111 l/
,II 'hilI<
\ (\i1l1 gc n'lIs llmls (as well as h"twe' , 1lI ,nnlal' l d ~ dlllnvul ~
<,'"111111111 '1I111HI pI 1",,""I1,lns, \11:\ Ihe
. . , en 'nak, , ' ,n ta I • 'Il
Ihl s ablht,Y Inust be perfected 1111\1 h e\ ilndslItksl 0 d e IIId Ie
(II ' sllllh 111 Ih,' 1l111111l'1 1\1;Il"''1Il' (IItll'"('1 I'1II1t1/11/) , l' lIg e~"" ' n 1\ I cl
, " III . I l\l' IIII11Ilili A'lito Ihill a mlXlurc Il l' innal~ ClIl11pon' I .~nenlC. This II"' altncdlltat
IIII"~" I• Il'\ l'I,'scllls
'
,I ",SI\'11I "'1\\1 ' " hilSll' p'llll'l ' <I ')()lIlh
I
1)\ I I'll '
" ,
cOl11lT1l1l11CaliOn systems arc nutllr'llly' .
cn S and I..
earning il lYPI"1
,~e aliln !lU
I&nb
Ifll 'll' ".<, .. d IIII<'I.I('II"IIS, 1I1,'llItflng l'Olllad a!'Onl\lll'l'll"( ',Ir" UStd 'a'4ullcd, ca IIf \he "ay
III I, ' " ' 111I1l~" I
I ' "It'I'IIII' , 'l' 11011 ,">ltloI, f. ,lIItI ,ilalill giving , rhC~I' \'\11" I ,nrilg.
II , '" , ' I ,II/uhllll,
I '1'llIllIll't! h\ ('(1I1<,Llllllg (1hSI'''''III(11\ WII 1 \pt'I'lrn~'I' lphil: anul ' . al\:
' , I' , , YSlS,lb,
III ',"
IlIl' 1,11'1'" ,II" ,d\(1 gil' II 1(1 ~hl 'l>l,1 1/.11'."11\ , 'Ill h ilS 1\'/'(1(1, 1'(1 I/ft ', • Lrtp. SltIct: the hlJ;ht:r primat!!s al!! close gen"I~1
II'h/.,t/,', illltf l'IIIA I hI'S(' h'I'Il' l'allt'llI \ ,lit' tI~'S('llhl'l1 us gl,"lillg 1111;;:"'1. I . vocal Cl1l11 l11l1ntc'llioll tIl,Ie Ie atwe<\ 0I'hUIlIan ,II is n ..._.
10 cxpect tlclr
, . . ,' resemble th f '--..
I'
1"ft,'1 II '1ISI1l'lillll1l'd Ihill Iftl'), OITIIi III ('11111 hi 11.11 1(1I1S. Thl' l\' is 11 ,clIch surp, n~tng l y, t:ommul1lcat\()n an,\OIl<' Ihe hi"h' ' at \I humans. I!..o.._
. t' .• 0 er pnmale~ doe ~":'''''''''''
Illl'SI' 1t" 'I >llIhIlIil IIlHIS 1111:" 11 .1Ilyl hllt g 110ve l WlWI11, 11 (J eVIl/clI"IC, il1lhcntl()l1 (I , ulScr~tc vllcal "gnqhul could he intc
lIf: 1Ie_
' t'
hl>\\'t'1't'1 Ill'll not 11UW1IIIcb
" " " , I'Y lIteur
rhl' CI1I1I1I1II1I,"'illll1l1 ,\~" 'rll1 ' 01 1110111) IIH'l1h'ys .IPlll'ilI' 1\1 hI' '" " hU111an words, ~athcr, the COl11l11l1nl('iltinn \ystcm~ as ~
, , '
t!t-I"111I1lIl'd, II1IS h;1S h'llt ,\I,I'1S1" , , " I I' I 'I I') I,\ls ing nl'wholl1s 111.. Cllt'hCitll\," I,' . up of groups ot graded \0l:,11 sIgns, antllla\
1\(1.\lllIn
Howell'l, Ihi\ 'I 1II'II1l'I11 \"11111111 b\' ItIddr 1111 all II 11l11!..l'ys , "01 SO me 11t()l1k~ "
'"pUI fn>11I Ihl' ,ld,,11 '1'\1,'111 dpP",IIS III bl' 'L'qUII,'d TIll' sludy of 011 y,
mOllk,'\' I"" \11 ,,,,'sll'd Ih,11 IIpl .", II 11111 "C) \'(ll,1I1/,111011\ art: 'Y IlI I'11l' 1'l11all
C> , 1llililC Gibbl111 S disrla~ inlcrcsttng. ronn of vocal interactioa Dowta ......
i\\\
lind Ih.11 \'\1',"11'11\'" .'l1d kall1l1l' \,;111 pia) a lOll' 111 tl1l' ueqUlslIion of Ih~ Gibbons and
Oul'ltin~, tht: l11tCl','hange 01 calls In a paIIemecI ~ .....
communicalin' svs I\' III ,
ordngutans l1ll'lllbt:rs l,fa peCII:S, is 1'(1\\110 amllngcenainbinla,. _ _
The f!lIsl 'rirall \('I\TI III(111"\' « 'I'/( '''/,illt''('/I\ ,l/'lltiP/'.\) is said 10 hnvc
PlIl'lting is, hOWe\\'I, atYPICal of primate ~
three dlslin,'liH' ,lIld ,lIhlllal\ l'alls Ilial allllllUIJI:l' 111l' PIl'Sl'IJel' of l'ilhcr
IWl11im)ids, onl) gIbbons pcrfonn it. Recent playt.:k ...........
.,1 , nukes, Of la, ,,' 111.1111111"" p(lsill ' a 111,,"11. TI1l'w ralls (11\' IIssol'iatcd dm'll ing anltln ' glhhntls scrvc~ to maintain
WIth dlfti renl /'CSPllflSl'S hy III,' IIHIII",' '.I, WIII'II (hL'Y Ill'al IlIl' l'aV'" ('all, Ihl'
dOL'S hi rtisong ('I:l' scetinn 4,1), Playback. Ii
monJt look up or rUII inlo 1111' hushl'S, TltL' SI1i1kl' call lilllSl'S tlll'lll In h~l~
tl'nit\1I \ \\ ill ,' ,HISI: il to approach the _ ..... ___
wn at th ground IIl'al' Ihelll, I'hl' IIlallllll,ll alalill "l'l'S Ihl'l1l 11111 up 1IIIIIIhl'
limb high r ill II Irl'l' illhLY arl' :t!rl'ad ' ill 11I1l' p'lssihl~' \\ ith till' i~ltcnt of dri~ina the
findin,s, whkh ppcar 10 h.IVl' hlTIi wl'll I'Sl,lhlishl'd hy l"IIt'n dUl'tlll1 ' f1\l11\ \)\ltlll a group ICIIiItIIJ
• •1IIi1oll th w re lir I rL'portl'd ill jtJh7, slIg'l'sl Ihal Illil "II Rl'l'\' 'l1lll\ln ,It indivld DOl
1 lnctl 011 rnplornalil' SI 'lUlls 10 \,OIlUlHllli,':\I\' or 1£ 1IIt'I1S ,
iow' In oth r monkeys, It i clilillll'd r:l111l'1 Ihal IIIl' wrl'l'l\ llnltl>l' 'ihhl.lns, whi b Ii
Ilu lion Ilnd lhen ChOUSl' II sperifi,' call with ,I thl'l1lsdws (e c pt for mo_"4~"
announ' th d nger, furth 'rmol", 'uch cull is a 1(lud ails s r
T£ POR ,,\
UNlaW; fles
indi vidu als w ho prOdUce th "~"t «(ll.\l.\ v
"
sumably to confro nt the intrud elll, I-j'Igh- , ~1 (; ..,
~--~-=----
rank
a reaS w here t h ey hear the call erf ' .wh'lIe Ie,,,.Ing "'_""'Ie..~

~~
~-rank'
words, .mdexes, which .
Stand" -0 hi"\-
... '-ranbn '11& bbl_ ,."''''''''-
- ..... tall
'd ' In fOr lh e Indivd -,., 'It'Ie 1I~,
. g Illltl- -':"""1:$ JlIt-

_~~~~~~-=::==::B:,a=C=k~-C~he~s~te~d~s~n:a~ke:=ea~g;'e~
Amcan hawk eagle ________~Martlal. ea91.
orangutans m ust I entlfy and

Chimpanzees vocalize with a

'lv
a.\\e\\ each (If I Ual ani • tal" art 11\ <lin
the'le Cal\,; ~
--, ""ay fr

lllhtr
""'Oft actIIlg ti• ar.\
onlhtnt
types have been reported , SonUlllber of grad.~
referents, Ch '
Imps typically hoot me of Ih ..... Call
, e\e a\lJle;u- s. A\ IlIan
in dense forest), HOoting is also to \Ignal IOCali! to ~hc,,,,
, used'
",r.iS
'n (a \no. --1I:f "'-'r.
I\Ittn
about somethlOg, A nother typical In greeling or-"'nd that ~"IC
and is given in the presence of a f vOCail'/.alion 1\ k"'he n ch,rnp\ ar "'ell
has led to the claim that trans~' avourite fOOd ",..no"'n iI.\ rllU.... e~':I~
, ,.,ISSlon of ' "",ree A. 6" .....\In
plays a role 10 the acquisition of certa' '~gQ, frornone' rece.u.t>.penmc:
on tradition, See section 7.1,) tn Slgn\ arnongC~tnera1!ontothe Iltx~
P<mlet<;. (For 'IlOre

Especially among highly SOCialized S .

~ Ea91eala"" izatlOns all show a gTeat deal of van . !lecie>. non.hult\an .
vocalizations fonn part of a coru.te:o . There "every 1Ild~ VOCal_
n
including gesture, posture, gaze (eve _ Ion of ~tdllndant com"",~~ Ibtir
f hi Ch be ' - POIntJng) and the ---''''UIQIJ~t atI$
all 0 1 w, h f must ,m~rpreted by other ~oc., me:~ 1011 of alfttt,
comp eXh;' 0 CO~,uruc auon sy tems amen -P ,''''-'m, The cbvious
level of mental aCUvlty devoted to C0lllInu ' g theo;e anllTlals ugg tbaa!be
,Despite the high degree,of intellige:~~~~lSquue~
arnmals demon trate , there b ve~ little e\iden<:e for ~_
between wund and ~arung among~, ben more l3!b!ttary ltlalioasli,.
e\'idence of recombmmg vanou sectJons of a ~!ben: 110
me 'age .' otbmg that parallel the phonemi or lIleSsage.1O fona _
tion of human lan",lla",e ha" been di ered in ~~
:\-tems of non·huma.n primate, ..
- It i poible that the la ' of paralIe v..ith human \iapisIic CI
tion in,
'ial
'I ' I l~ related to our o\\n may be . . III . . _
:: iU_~ n Th ~~ grOhuPS or family llllllitypallcidl'. ,._
ci" i-

Snake alarm I1\1l1" to luvu·n

g nIl. envlJoonXd 1IIy lilt __ . . . . . . .
J '\ 1'f III 'lit f ) other mode of CQIJ\!!!!!W!bnr .... _ _ _ _
llit ~dl lh'irn ,TIU d notmean.~ . . _ _ _. . . .
o lp ) tl~abilitia~ .......
~ nunum. lion '0 I human laapIIt. 1a
m ,11eft h ml pbere devnop.. af _ _. _
hnglll li lit!) number ~ ~::=:=;
h \ tt mpt I d tennine the CIW.Il •

. . . . . . . . 1IIII1MI1IIIriIeys speCifIC predatur

 "NI",,,, "'M"'I
ONTfMP()/( /()
JIN(,I!,.,'H ., C lever Ilans's pcrfclI'Il1ance rc ' I . ) f "I
hetween tralncr ' an tI anImal
' su tculn IIl\ d"",'Il
thtll depenu

u
o
' ven by Ihe trainer. The ClcYer Ii . SOnthoanlll\' I"t, a tYIlt 01 I
gtl'~cssage,
..
hu mans.

demonstrating
which ncctl "Ill inY()ly:n~ Ph. cn()Il\Cn\)~'IS'.lnierprtt'nt~
Th e h'Ighi Y tI cvelnpcd per con\Cl(}U, CI)Il\Il\U'
.

' nOlh'111&morelhan thcel'

cCPtual , b'I'
ammon to many anlll1als, Many . ' a I Ity dISPI' "n <>n lilt
lin tJ.c II

nltali
cgori li as Ihat lise sign lan guage a,,~CICntlSt' believe 7h"0 by ('\eo;tt 11_ fII
pen()rll\
, lIt hOr lan&at chllTt.~
The position is explai"etl a., foil CYerliansPhonllll\ uage'hke
__
"C1I[tlon...
,-__\II1II "..

' _l1li\
_
. I e h arges' to succeed. Th' llWS , liull\' . en"n. _~

D A""ll' their anllna

'let ions , wh .le h can b '
e sel7.ed
d. an IralOtr\
On hy 1\Ih eStrt'
w'
. 1\ trall\latedant' Vtf) ITttJtb 1111
~bi lilies: it is lhese CllCS lhal detennin,chanlll\al lIuc to it,'~tlllnvnllltllary
6 II/Then ,example o f' Ih'" IS IS pOinted Olll in Washetc
h'ls been recorde.tI on film (FirSI Sigll " ocf SW
. aI' S?en'Ill'tTt.-cen \ltrr-,~,
' anlll\'
SlDnln g 0,. k~k~ INanee
_......
~ I\. 1"",-,' ......
Ih interchange shows that the. hUlnu.\no u\ho e ). A carcfui e.:~.~~ "'lIicb
0

';S
fllurr 16, 14
.
signcd and thcn pomts " rapidly al the. cup P b YhOllis OUt the'-"'IliIiot!
repeatedl ob"'" ... '"
, I on t he h J'o" III~
mtenltona ulllan' span, , ro ably nllne oj. this c\lti
. S'l nh IC 'lrIllng aspc'cl S of human language Or w. Some so-called lingllistic aClivily l11ay be h' n& til
Bul W. I' , " . ' . .. . , .' , ,IS shc
tnjf)(.~( 1'.'// till.I'IIIS, who nr.: laughl 'lilli/,ll
. Skill, Pcrlollll lhelll as
, IVC /1 as ,to\),. the Clevcr Hans effect. Some report, of c e. l c result of fact~ other "'-
.. 1'1 ,'/ft 'Itll /() Ir'lI1s/alc.: Ihc.:111 11110 human language, They 'I ' urah ' 'd, ' .. , , . r alive \lgnlO h _
hUI' 11/]( I ul c , . , • PPI'O<lch h W\TI'R fllRD, an.: ISmlssed as reflex slgninglh I 'h g, uc WIIIale
l' IIIC)\' 111~ phsll C symnols around I" ohtalll.l rew<Jrtl 'Is 'I tC ' ' h . a s 0\\, no Inl .
. enllonoff~
" , P\J~Zlc h' comhinaltons on I c pan of the chtl11p, Report f h
'.
nc'relS" II eo' . . . ",.,
. 1101 1Il"l
I' '''''''II'l/y
.,." ,'lssm:lalcO
., ",th
. lang
. u.tgc . It h.ls heen suggeSted
• tllUt S'I ,,It of IV It (she oceasionall y produces the opposile',~)g~ l~ ~~;"a \(oko\ ~
". 1 'r/clf/lIin" 11ll' s"me 1.1110 01 puuk slllv lllg anti l10t tlCI110 I ' , <I:,lh
W,IS /, . " '. " .,", I s li UlIlI as I I' for D()W~) are also COIl\idered to be exag done TeqlleSled, SQCh
hUl1lan like IInl1ul,ll( 'lIp,lulIes, , , g "
thinking , " hers,
h) [<:scarc . gcr,llc or 'Imnl. "'Y J wi ~ .....
.....
...
'/'1 ,., slUOICS haw Il'd 10 a r,'surgl'nee 01 IIlleres l in hUlna ' ' Some rC(l<ms of Iingllislic behaviOUr are attribuI'd I .
Ic s, ' . " , , n- ,11I 11I1'11
' 1llIlIil'allOn, / ,<tlll!lIagl' IIstng oog~ , ,'ats, pi gs, anti evcn turtles hllV b ' • .' " , c 0 tnacCtJrate IX . .
,01111 ' . , , .... ' . ' 'h' e cell syslemaltC ohscrv tng, (I"or cxample,tfWashoe answered 'W!V.T'SllIAT'.
reporlc'dlclflhousands 01 years, / h' ,"'I~IS of I1IU~, Of, ~hc eurr~111 critiCism of am nllun sign, the answer. \1 as constdered correct) Other
,I'/1 0 /'Ihl's,' nr1l'nlll"lw, att-nbUled III t)\croptt~nisllc In,lerprelation of . ign , (Koko I : - :
.
rests on the pCI fOlll1.1rlle 01 a horse In Gel'ln',Illy <It
the' lum of 11m ""III1I1Y
intcnlionall) produce rh) mmg sIgns - Ihllse ihalillt very SUllillrtollle_
a. kcd for or e ~clcd) In ,hon, those \\ho do not Vlew~ . . . .

Wilt''' ------
//1/0\' Il'illl IIII' ClIl, 11'110/.1 In 1/1\' llilllll/\' C'tll /.1 //01 p/ayillg wilh iIIC'.'
,md "mhol llul1Ipulati,'n as IinguI'lical\y relevanl laimlhlllbia .....
I~ m(~rc impl) ~ pbined . ansing from tnightfOlTllll\,.... .....
Ie Michl'! dc Montaignc, J..'s,I'aY,I' J
'i. II n nl ,)r fHlm tire. ag~, ,and not a reIIectioa
,
Ii . . .
t n L ,on rc car(hcr t1l'I~d, tranung IWO plgeoIIS tollll a.....,..
In II}04, a IkJllI1 school karll,'1 II dllll'd Wilhellll von Oslen c:laimcd tn Possess
, n t Jl 1l"1 mean Ihallh~ ltird know thertllesef_rIIOI_
a hilI'S thai ,howl'd ,'vld,'lIn' of II hUllIan lil." eapal'l ly 10 Ihink, lIi s horse,
lever Hans (tit'!' /..II/XI' 1/111/.\ J, could supposedly eakulale and l'onvl'Y
messages hy lapping ClIlI tlut1lhel s or IUllIlhc'll'd /t' IIl'ls of Ih" alphahel wilh a
front hoof or hy noudin - his h,'ad, .4 Ilwl , , . litm,
lht Krral _,Pl'
perim lIIatioll hy a Sl'l'plil'al SCIl'lIllSl, (hklu !'Iun -.Sl,l'v,'nlually shllI\l'd ~batt
lev r Hans was nol so IIllldl a l'll',III\,~ Ilull""1 11\ ill'arcful OhM'1 Il'I. Thl'
perc IV d cu s Ihal indicalcd Ih,lI h,' had pc' I fClI t1Il'd ,'ol/l'rll , Fill
aa;pJe.• van t n IOvolUlu.trily lIloHd IllS head \l'1\ sll -1111) \\Ill'n ,ll'llrtl'l'1
bid n reached ThiS 1Il0VCIIl,'1l1 \\,IS llulsld,' Ihl' 1IC1lt11ill,WI""l'lual
Ituman obs rv rs (I ss Ihall Inc lIlillllllll ll' l, hUI Ihl' hOI\" h,ld
_._•••"." wIth th ~orrell ans\\cl. \\ hen OhM'I\,'" did /lol ~nll\\
~Naon, or wh n (I v r 1I.lIls \\a hhndloldlll, hI I.uled hI
OIl> -I"
H f 0\ 1

...
ttl 11 1 t t t1 I
tJrrt. t/tlIr II1lTIUIIIB
an 'uage't. 8cIr.; ; f t linnt
lppunmd IinuIId n
song <IIIIa: ~ 1\l!
an prtJIIIIIrI _ fIIIIIIII:IlIIl
11, 1.'\1 Ih.1l Ih.,. ~,.
th,lII ,'lit '" 'h"II' Ih,'
II

nlput~ tion llingui tic

J , .

"It !hat /un.;Jn ~ "hose contac ..

I ''''' yt"'*'s.,~' /0 Alit,..

",'lllnpuh..'r \\ i,luh.l h", ell)

'~I1IL'I"" like th.
/)
 o Tf t}'( ~ \~'I' ll""-llil "tit..,

", h I " i ... on.!alllzcu around ~lIbtit.'lds of ling uistics th.

I hi' I." ~IP c.: r. .. • • . •. d h ' at are d'
t . III IhIS D<.l<.l~: phonellCs
,II 4,.lrh(.'r I..'h'.IJ11'" . un P onology.
. morph 0 Iogy " cuRsed
. (., rhcfl.' is also i.1 ~eCllon on computaltonal lexic I • sYntUl>
IIlU ..;,-'m.w I' h h 0 ogy a '.
.IC~I
II... .
' l.."llrpU.'.'U1'I/\
(lr .. - - ,js. The tirst. part
. 0• .lee apler
. shows
. how eae h li I1d
~ Itl - US ... U 'I' the basJs for ..t l OllljJlIlll llo lla/ ling Uis tic Ilg ;
",/ll",
.,
" 'rt 01
L. ..
the chapler S' ho\'s
' some, ways
.' .
10 whiCh th . l1re sUbtield lfls1 C
"'CClHlu p..l eSe v..
L 'I'II', S an.. ~omhjned to create computer systems that use Ian g uage.anous 1500
~Ul·~).s L .

1000
1
COMPUTATIONAL
--~-------------------- 500

PHONETICS AND
msec 0 200 300 40 500
PHONOLOGY
( i
(I I
t. , 4000
1M talking machine: AI Ihe 1939 World's Fair in New York , a device called a VOc d 3500 •
displayed. The machine. developed by sc ientists at Bell Lab0 er was

1
~h synthesis
. by pro d ucrng
rec onstructed the human vOIce ' a Soun d SOurce which Ora tones '

--:~
. by a set of filters. The values for the fi llers were derived ~~
modified fro n
3000
' \
analysis of human speech. The vocoder system cons isted of a Sour~ the 2500 i
random noise [or unvoiced sound. an OSCillator to give VOiCing a e of
'
control resonance. .
and some sWitches , , Way t
to control Ihe energy level. Th's 0
2000 \
.. "
simulate the vowel sounds and fncatrves I was 10
(see Ch apter 2 ). Then ther
. ]500
controls for the sto~ consonants, Ip. b/. It. d/. and Ik . g/. An amplifier
e Were
Ihen
converted the modlfted source slg~al Into sound that resembled the hurna 1000
speech it was originally modelled after. n
The vocoder was nicknamed the Talking M achine. It was a crude de . 500
but il demonstrated that good sp:ech synthesIs 'could
.Indeed be achieved vIce.
Hz
given the righl values for the major frequencies. and the right methods i
concatenating and modifYing adjacent values. Early systems used differeo]
technology from that used today. but the principles remain the same. The gO:1
is to replicate the wave forms that correctly reflect those of human speech in
order to produce speech which. at the very least. will be intelligible and
Figure 17.1 A spectrogram of the words heed. hid. head. had. hod, h.Mm1nxt_*d
aesthetically pleasing and, in the ultimate. could not be distinguished from the
speech of a human being.
Chapter 2 gave a summary of articulatory phonetics, that is, how sounds , pe.:trogram of the words heed. hid. head.1tad.1tod. ........._ .....
are made when humans speak. Chapter 3 covered some aspects of sound as spoken by a British speaker. The diagrams give a ....
systems. Speech recognition and speech synthesis rely on a detailed the duration of the utterance on the IIorilaiaI ...
knowledge of acoustic phonetics as well as articulatory phonetics. although frequencies in the wave form on the verticallllL n.
there are correlations between the acoustic and articulatory propertics of formants. show up because they have IIIIR _ . , • •
sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the structure of the wave forms that 'ote the different locations of the fon_. . . . . .
CODititute speech. As explained in Chapter 2. the lungs push a stream of air the different vowel .. The ound IbJ .
CbrouBh the trachea. The airstream is modi lied first at the glottis and then hy across the spectrum because fbi is a,,_._
.. roo,ue and lips. constriction l:ee Chapter 2). 11Ie _ _!!
SIda IOUDd can be broken down into its fundamental wavc forms, as resembling fU/.l or tatic. The Ifr
fiaure 17.1. The figure shows a spectrographic analysis or 'voice bar' resulting from . . . . .,
 lA.llr
"'~ltl~,
J

, 1I C;l '5T1 '

How wou ld the 'Y'tem
analyses in Table 17, 20f th analyse. 111 .'"
e WOrd "re c b ..
. arc pn1p'"t:tl , If the base form is found' Previous example, In this e ' conCepI "l11p!e. f ~.
d n3,e loml S bl S . f 10 the b '
verbs, N otlce . ' xampl e, the , "0/,,,,.' tlfln'
t h at When -at "0,,, (,
;U1 Ihen the 'Hlrd is anal)'za e, . uccess ul analyses ro' uSe'fo
d,ctJ,m!lf), h I'mal structure of the words as well asP vIde info "" change, If no spelli ng rule. IOns atlaches ta"m. ' o"lm' ~th'th" h-~ ' -
uon
alltlU{ I C Jfl t : . &".
ldu :ed b) the rule. or a gl\'en affix Such
What rtna
eVer 0 h . would be allowed by the sy
o were W '
ntten th
con, "!at\,. ""<II ,_
·epI""lj. 'G 10 ~.~ ..
, ~lrnIJlI,m " pn L , as pan t er .d f th Mem F' ' en the ,~, !her -ulllIIj"
'" L
'han"e In
h 'nl ,,'manlic ch:mges (e,g .. -ess is + fe~: '
en: " I "ullIne)
of Sn.._
c"<:Ch the outSI e 0 e noun, For the ' Inally, the "'ord'ro. ~t" ..
L ~, • > abstrJCI, Luunale, slngu ar, plural). Most f . Or oth of speech, but only in the nu ~Iural sUffix. Plurallltul.""PliI4Il" '"
IDforma. u"n~ II<L;::~nsrrainl> on affix ordering such as describead these sYSte'::~ Observe that these examp~ r feature of t~' there is nt, ~h' ~ atlac~
a.n: en ... l£l h . . 10 th .• ~
on mllrrh0 10 ~.'
0" lntlectional. affIxes occur o utsIde derivation I
aI affix !h a affi
e chaPt
er dictionary entry, in this case es Illustrate a : "'ord ["Jill 3nge In lilt ill
be some derivauon es a( OCcur Outside oth xes, and /" COncepI ord'b Ingul", I'In
Ih~re ma~ . er derivutio and conceplua lZQtLOns are well-fa ' and the Co a.sed ~\te "I p\~
atlJ\e s, ", 'bl' nul rrned Words f IllPlex "'<lrd Ill, llrllb ...
T\\o diIl'",enI lypeS of d,cuonanes are pass I e WIth th~ stetnrnin , a English \ ro"" ...
d and stem based. A word-based system has a dletio g methOd' Table 17,2 I nput Word: concept I'. , ,P1"<Ili"
word base Il . h I nary with ' _ - : - : - - - - -_ _-=:::u~a~lz.atlons
I' F r word generation, a mput to morp 0 ogieal rules m Wards Analysis
on), dO rds and all output will be well-formed words For Ust be Well
forme \\0 • Th ' WOrd .
d bases will be words. e word-based system has analYsis concept
aII propose I h' proved ' -ual
vel'''' useful for projects that use arge mac me-readable dietionarje to be Adj
dictionaries list words not stems, A machme-readable diction s, Stnce -ize V
dlC' ('onary that appears m computer form. such as that availabl ,ary IS a -ation N
h Ikers or thesauruses. M ac h'me-readabl e d'IctLOnaries , hav e dIn spell',Ing -s N
c ec ' d !h . _& ' , e efinlti
pronunciations, etymologIes, an 0 er huormanon, not JUSt the s . ons,
synonyms. (See section 4 for more on machine-readable dictio Jlelhng Or
ane s
stem-based dictionary is somewhat more complex to build, s ince n .) The How would this system differ 'f'
, f d th ere are . 11lweret
' rrught be listed '1 n a Stemsd'em-bilSed
on-line dictionanes 0 wor stems. no morpheme -cep! o For th
. IS et>__
Table 17, I presents an example of the type of analyses given b other words ill English such Ictlonary due to' -"I"<, lite
based stemming system. To analyse conceptuailze as an infirtiti Y a Ward. . ' ' a
percep!LOn, Smce -ceive and .c
s recept' ' lis ........... '
IOn, cOnCeption . , .•......., III
form(inf)), firs! conceptua I m,ust b e anaI yse
d as an adjective. ve Verb (V
(Ad' , , . , ept are rei ted . ' lIIeePlIO!!,
relauonshlp rrught also be given in th a m a regular atII\
would be done by a rule statmg that the suffix -IU can attach to~~e ThIS e stem di ti
related by rule. Consider again conce t ['_ c, onary,orthewOtds~
lIIay ilia
adjectives to create verbs, Conceptual can be analysed as an ad' , naln in Table 17,3, p ua lea/IOns, ana\Yleddown1aa~
concept can first be analysed as a singular noun (N num(sg» This ~ectlve if
done by a rule for -ual stating that the suffix -ual can attach
., C ' d ' h d' .
;0
ce ... o~OUld be
''-<Un nOUns Table 17.3 Input word: conceptualizations
10 create adJectives, oncept IS store m t e !cltonary as a Singular no
this lexicaJ lookup serves as the finaJ step of the analysis, The analys uhn, so Analysis
, I essOWn Pan of speech
here actually result from recursIve ca Is to the morphological rules E h Features
bas conditions that restrict its operation. In this example, the _ual'ru~c rule con
b 'I Th d' , estates -cept :-'l
that the base mUaJst e a sdmgu ,ar n(obun , f e con, !l!on for the -ize rule is that num(sg)
the base IS norm l y an a Jectlve ut c , terronze, hospitalize where m' h -ual Adj
'l' eac V
case the base, name Iy terror an dh OSplta , IS a noun). Since each conditi ' -ize form(iBf)
,.
met. an an al ySIS IS POSSI e,
'bl Th d
e wor conceptualize is deemed a well-form d
on IS -ation N num(sg)
~~R~ e -s N ~)

'IldIIe 17.1 Input word: conceptualize

In this example, the prefix COft- atI.aI:bes ID",
Nttdysis Pari of speech Features earlier that a word-based morphology .,....._ ....
a~ its lexicon, but no uch conveuiaM:c .._~'"
CIWCIpt N num(sg)
order for stem-based morphology .. III
-till Adj
-lie V stems is required. (More on
[orm(in/)
lexlCology later in thi cbapler.)
 " liN ' II "

N
Wtllill
N

Nllh'
( " 'IIIPPII" 111
N
lUll
N

St llH \( 'I, /\ I d"ll'd Illllhlc lII '1I1 \ C' 1111' I

\: t1 OVC[t' htt
I / ,I> III ''''111\ illI '1 11i1ly" III I ' II 111\1", 11, rul
\Ie .I' ,IfIlI .. IIII.1I f 11'1 "t",1 '111.1111 III' . . ,
,",,, 1,,01, 1 IIIC,I11 II1 ' 10 'Ill y 11I1l' 1'\1 • a\lpl~
(" Viy,h\ll'll' Ifil ii , 1\ analY Ied 'filii.
II '"IItI'lne i1~aln', .. \" (111).
I ~\I 'H' lIuf ~ IIII.H ·" rqH t· ... t·Jll.llhJJl \, I IH~ l. 'olllp.ll n l II ' III ~' II ' I l~'\.' i l l I 'J'uhh'17,1. 1111'111 WIll " le" lIy
' , , , ' I I ' Illd \II
rult' ~ ~""IIII 'lIlh'cllllll fI' ".II" II.I",cllI'I" :-; 11111' \ 1'111 , 11", '11 1(" WOlll d I" iI/ltI/\',I/,1
h I'f Ih,' "'," '111 ,' , 'olllci '011"'1>111111 h' II Il' \1 11 1,11'('
~ " , It,ll'" ,111''0 1111 ,"'II 110"
Ill"",,,
1111 11" I (' -.itlo
.ht' /Ilk,
' . ' ''l1lll1l1 n
III,," ' 'h,,' "OIlI P,IIl I" l\'i ll 'lilt! " llIl iI~(' " 111 11 ,,'
fIlOVt' hOlll klllll' I/, hl. '0 II h<'II,1 ""', 1", 1111 , oll l's p' I/ItI('IIl'(' Is IIIi1d", lite Ililt, .illy
rn,I\'<" ,10lljl, (1111' "I 1111 , I,I III II'cI " 1"11 'III 01 IllI s 11I"ll1l1d " IItIl I, SlIlt'c Ih" "1It1\i1n! I
pnll: duft, 1110"', "0'" 1"', 111 '1 '101, If ,h , '111.,1, I), ,,' 11"1'1, IIot' "" I, lhlll PI'\l ple
prt ~' "~o,,, , SIIII l' 1'<'01'1,' 111,11 ,lI,d fl' 1111 ' /1 ' 11 h ho," ""Ilu " " hi (I ' I
~
be,mn",' ,..
01 .h,' Ilofll "h" ,II" h"'o' ,'II,,' ('/ld),,, s ,1"111 Ih" , III(''''I HII IIII', lit "
"" II,'
dl IIlllllllt.V 1111·111 h ,111.1( 111 II II l1lth'l 011'(,"01111;1111'" hlllh" IIIItH I'. ' inl'L'
Ih tWlllev<,1 s ",'IIII'IIIU"" S " 0 '" 1,'11 10" ·hl 101 111111 I'hlll ll~'"'ill llll'dy,, \,
it can he liS. I ,'CV"'Sl'" ,1I1t1 111111 110 11 "0'" " ·hl III 1.-1 1 III, 1III1IphIlI i(';11
IlV
lion Th ,,11111111 V ,h.mh,"'k 01 Ih,' 1\\0 11'1, 1 ~yS I " 1I1 I, Ihlll 111 1''1 11(''
11
iallzed stelll d,rlrollllv, "'''lIpl''h' \\, ,11 II'~I II "II II I\ 1111 111(' ' 1('1I1s so Ihlll
III affl u ~h without h 'S IIII'lio" , h ll t ,lIl1plt- , iI tlll'IlIlIlllI Y wOllld
laclud ',prlll 11/"
(/0' '1111/.'/1111 , \/lhlllll, ( "' /lIllI , ,11111 "1'"1)

p,ohknl ~ llIl'I II h'lIlb 10 II(' \ 11

tho,n
n nol Ii t ' d '11 I d'~III>II;1I " I'h,' I\Old
011
s nol IIppcUf in WChSll" 's S"I'I'lIlh N"II IIId
i tandant re lcrCllll' work III i\1II,'rk,11l not
""rUT TIONA'
t
,"1"111 , ,, ,01 'l "I''',','U''I1lPIs 10 h"li" wO'~'~'!\
"OW I,orn 1"0 S"lII ee, 0,,,, was Ih.
'YSlen" 10

,"~
h ," ,,,,,,,IlHtIl H " "II"'f •.. ,," Some (l I Ih,'sc 'Y' II,'''IS," , uch 'IS"'I'''ach,,, •,

" I I~J\ ~' lillUlll~ts

U , .. , ' " "
NT" " h 1/, ,' I Itlllil',. ",II" I,",,' U"!!C , 1,' '' lS , ' '' '''''' S'''l
, I I"
II, SC ll,,," " '"h"r,
pl. Ih'l • ll
.IIId g llll
I 111.'
I "'' I SI h\.'Oh.' I fl' ...I'
11I~ ·1
r 10 lI Sc I Ie. I,,' ll1P k r .,' \

",Ill. I IIt ' ,IIHI, .I . , H' Ih" p.ul 1 0 n ol ,1I Ill'I ' H,, i , "'k"Hl ll y, " ' " ste IO'l1 1. lItn II",

IOllH:lllSNlI~tn~cs
/",,,'
n , d p.1I I , '"cy 111 . 1"0 , U..l l'O\<"'U g c s In\\.: OnSl
'UI"" \\ I' ,Ill 1",1"11'11 "
.. ~,
. I 11 /'1 Wa s HOI
" 11" dl'ltIn .. , , " f'
' CII tn d IlL. II.: , H'
I . I I 'u' ,n. 'J h.'stln g HlH..I nn 11\
" \l". l • '11h.I" " II hU I ( l" S .
" I ' " ,.dlll \ • \, " lIl sl l'.l{ ( I I 0' 1) I,lI.: lh.',lI SYS I...' 111 S I'I hou ld
Ih,' f'" ,I' h1111"" ,",, \ , hi, ,111<
J.II ~II.I}- l I I' ...ll','I' , JelL-a
'"
1.. . ...III ,. 1IIIIuliislu: Ihl'OI l'lll' llt li s s hOU l dPU)'
11,,111', II 0'• I 11 0,II,11k "" , I 1111' I,I '
hl'l' lIlh ' ,'(ISC
" IS ' !! : II, ' ,'cCnl ' esearch
"'''''' ,I1h,,", In p', Il'IIl"" 1''' 'I ",'" 11Il' lId , llIp
"thOll !, I1 Ih, '
IIU' ' "' , Ith.'III1Clfl '''I d 1.111 )
nil p.1P,lIIg.. .

- I ~cc you '"

• In the 1111\ rll[

( I ' "In h,' .111,1, II "'lI ' hi Iuil's Inh, I SUhNlruelllres

·eI H1\\ "'III"II"CS
'
I .
'1 _ ' I)C'I'o.IIH1,.
1111,111,1"", " nl NO on , as ShOwn
'I1. '111<" 'i , h,I\\'
II I ... C.... I l ' , b l,h' Il" ",
/ I "1-', ,111 ' ,lI. I'll SI'I w ill hL' ah'" 10 hreak lip
,"'II~. U~llIrl".
, .
1,I, 'I' """"7 I' '( ,in , ,'n .1 , ,1<'111" I• UI I, , "rUl1l1n ur ":111
I \ ,.. , '"hc VIewed as
I ...
III ""IIIl' I ,I>, ' "" ' ,,,," 1111<' li S ' " h , ,' ( ,he's, r1,1,', " L ,111 hc nl dllkrclll Sh:lpcs , rlSurc, 17,7

hav~
IIUIII O'·':tIlI7,'
" I ,.1 "Ii II I , I(' / "1l' ", 1,111 '11.1£ 'I l' Il'I'I" I , 's" \ '1I1J'Sl'r
, ' s lite 111:tchlne
, .. Or

'1l·~pnl1'l
1<' '<" I ' I: '1\, , 111I'1lI ,hlll'.I r 'n ' 11ll' III'
0/ ru,," I', , ,\ fl, lI "'I L'(III , d,lf crelll
01 ",",''',, , \I
<'ngllll' Ih", I'
,11.11,' '11" /0'
'" ',I '' I,ll'
,II
" ' , ul,', ( I ',II'I "'
I... "1'1' le i C; ';,; I10\\ U'1 hl1\\ lhe IUles lor senlcnce

s
r
I
 ( \Ul~
'lin • /. I
\ , If

I
, 17 , 111 Hnl h 1111 UI) I h\ 1' .\ ' , 'I '.1 , \1,
hy 1\ 'pl.\( Hip I 1
, , 'IPII tl' lllllll." , \ litH ,I \.\1)111 III tilt' JUIILI"
II~,"I , '\I ~W IIY\'\II"I''W\I
/I / .,.,"'" . ' 1Ij.!" I{ , lWt""
(, II ,;f 'pn pi I I '/11 ' I\(' • " " " . " N "' N I' \ "'1111'"11/ " ' "' h" II hlU~!hl IIlh\'" II N,,",' 01' Ih,' lull,s ill ,I) 111'''111111
111\( kl '() l'nll1hil\~ II
I , 1 / )11""'111(' '' II 'i'IIIIIII. II I II pHI' 01 n \HHd DI " " . hi ii, I, II It \'111111 .
f'h~lIl1.II\ "1 1
1111 (aWIl 11' 1 I . ' lol i ll "- V IIlId I' 11' 1111"""" III ..
, IIH 1,111 ... \\lIh tlu, 1111. 110\ 1
l , _
I " tl \\ II p.1f II ,
,!I'\ .IY'
"'/,,111.1 " n", IIIII} ",''' '" Ih, ' \ "1, I , 11"1,,,
Iltl\h.'
I1I'h)
" 1IIIIId III'. II sl, (ll'hll e, '" SI",W,,', I "
, 111,"(, NI'
I"""
III\',
., ,",,1 V''''>ne "'-_
'1 ,"11/111 \' III II Sl'nl " lIn' Is h\lI11 1111111 h' I~II " ' I 7 II 11,,\,"",,
/I' I / / , 1\,1\ fI' '
) lor l ' , "lIelltt....
.....""
" ~'\'1l '
'" 1111 ,,," • II
\ h""" ,II I "lIft, ,7 H U"II, NP dlld \ P till' IIPII !t'IIIItIl; IIIIUd\" .., I , "
" 11,, '1\11 \' "\1111 I h I' 'n'1li lllll i1()(k\ "11/11 Ih' /11 "11<1\,'" 1\'''llh hu~ Ul\lallhe
Ihnhn ....

" ,11"1 Is 11lI' way hllllll!1I 11\'11111, 1'1" .. , 1 1"111 11'1\1 S ",,,1"1 IliIlnlollllt
, 111111 kIt
IIII' d ow lI ,Ippmlll'l1, hlllihis IS... II 1'11111 ,I" \('111\'11.
. . II' 1I11l1( '" U I "'nat.
nWI'1 "ill "'11\' la'e) """ 1111

I Ni'

,."., . I'

II 'II
'"11

'\1,"1<'
\ ' /'

Jop ~'\HII'.I/"'": III ~f"h'I"I.J/I',\\IIII'IlttlfJI'

III ,''''''\ ",111 N"" " ,111 "1111 ,"11'I'"d 1I"'lIlh\, VI' \'\
N V l'
1\
\)'" N
II
tIII.- nil , \"/,, .",' ,
,h\lll" '" I'I~'III" II} \1 Ihl1l1
,
'h N" .I """ "'11
1'111"',
.", In'lII
h 1\ /III" ,.,''',,",''.'', "'" Ill' I ,11'1" ,,,I,' /" \\,,,"1" h" Ih\' VI' 1111"
11
"iiI" \ \
,ut./( I III 1111' "'IIh II,',' h.II' ,,,,,'11 1111' "rllIl'l. lit 'II 111\ Nt' \\1,,,,.1 hilI'\' h"1'1i ( '\ll'Iy Sil l Ill\
Ih"
P ","'" h. 111'1 1111" N I hi' 1"'1\ "'" """'11111, S 11111" 1111 lilli'" I'\p.III'","
HIUkl 1/,/,11. ,1111' 1111111 ,1111111' 1\' 11',1' '~"III ' '"
WII,"', III ') 111'1."11 1111111' \'''"\\1
PUII'''"I11 111."1'/1 Ihl' 1111'"1 \\'111,'111'" ( 111/\ ',/II" 'lh, ""\\ IIII' dlll 1"""'1
ill
UIII f I /n/""I"',,, ,Ia,II .1 I""I'" ,,'d ","\ 1111,' " ,.""",' 1111/11 I'ln\\'1I
0111 rw,s

s s s
~ I I
InI1 VP NI' //11/ VI' NI' VI'
I ""
Ipl.l\ '\, ,hoI'. l'hilll.lllSI. a, . ,J
I 1\
N PSi N 1'" V NI'
nil VI'" Jl.ln~","
 t"'O ",onl, IIII' an(I/"(;y(, , arc Ih'O''11 I t,
by S • ,
'I he verb phr"'e (V I') ,
' " 1 '"h." ""U,
fl ·l\.( r,l
I
1('11
...
...
cd" (V) . lo\lowed hy "n('"n I. Ittl hy" 'II(!. ~r 1
,. "'~ CI.'
~pp). These ~hree cl>n~I'tue"I:;:;~~: I, \'" 1"I~~'~"'rr~ , on, <t.........
"' nee'
S II1CJ(l' Ih.HI III I .J wo,d" :1't "" I()WIl il1
I I "111\'r \ 1 '~'ICilll" 11M" till" "iel of we ll I, )t1hc(j( 11,1,1',., ,
.
What i I ad, 1Ierenl grammar "'cr~'"""'I"'I"ly l \"1 ~ pr ~~ ,t
u...'v ....__'
a
rno c 'he ~ " ' n,l, ence'! ('''n~ider the strU tl 10, cl;'''n" ""'n~\t<1 ~l\\t."
'II hp", 1 H'U 'JuHI~,rh lilt" vex:u huJw)' V 'w,
t~~"""-
, (Jr1hcr ," • I "'flltlt•.
se . Ure In I • tI'ft,
nrcn '" 71 I" .",' lUll'" ur 1111111111..- I h ' " I'' tWcau"lc 01 'y
r.. )( '.1 I 11111l: I ' -t, d ill e rc nl c la,m, ahoul the WUtt '\~urc 1'1 'Itf\t
"1
tI
r " C I nloJY
,tH.' I n u.
_ ("
, IIltllr.tI liln~UII!'t". ( laple.'r ~ (,:0111'11"",
C(.: II' 'tl(
. ",, H 'It. '
I" h
",ord ~ ~lay s I e ,same. 1 ~c Ircc '0 h ,
ure (,I I\> ' 2"1
".rllt'l<;t
lIttut--
0" "'al t f,. "'-
t I pn'pcrlY
rw,,,,,CI II ) II
tJ • - _ ' . 1 til " .
'l'I", e.'flOII 01 a Imll<. fllIl11rn.·( of recUr,- t:U'''ih"
'i'
One is yp' , whIch dUmlmlles tho. V,Ure 1112 h. . \.11 the iIM'~.. ,
,-. uk I. - Ive tl I fJI
r~~urA'VCI'C~
r I' I l l'",lI.JIII
I of we ll furlll" ,( l 'itt ll'e., re;lllt..
11" 1I11,"lIc lIumb(" '
'entenc e . exceplI he suh ,ect an,l \ II
~ precht· I
"C ',I 1\",
.. , 1'11,,1. ....... 1Iri..
~.I t' ,""'1lI
ml.mgWJ b
, ,." (,:.1
,It'lIleli um~ I " 1 01 voeuhu :try from !he ;"1 _
• Ig-.. ' ' n ) '\ h
the rnain verb and lhe dirCCll1h,CC; (. "ther" "1 \10 IIt:t (tvtfoJ\h ' "lilt " 'tIb_ ..~4It
/ t 1I"",I11/! (' , 'N r,) ,,,
I ,e " I
Hia \\cll1u'lII , M.
' 111,·",:,' ;/1 b'gl,," , II) and 9) arc n", ' 'Vh,,< 7) '"igure 17 , 12 dillers in str<>n" ~'Ih".v.r"rnr"~r .....h'lhd<l!l.'n''''1IIt
" general! oell'r'I"~
Fi"u re 17 ,n. Ilowever, hlllh "r'''n , Vt tapatl\y I' , '''~ the ""~ 'l1li}
I

7) '" , . h'" rn,,,~ rn'

capac Ity ~ lncc t ey ,,11th have Ihe' ~I ' ,\y ~Vt th. "nl, II.·
e' h - .....c
·It IJarn_. III
" du/d ,", , " . /IIIC .
(.l silo!' In the c
ha n~<n~
' mom. a", Ily II Ic'>!;nht
I, ' ""n,t weak -''',",
' lilt _.'" f
\llt,,~ "lit. -'~"'~t
Ii)
" hdd , III'" a,
S P",y., "'II
'I)
• /."., " ,htIC " ('/11 lei

A/I",,"g
h I)) ;~ /101
, . / ~ fOJ
limgu.lgc
in
<;/ "1111,11,
Ihl! liwgll:',f.W j , /ill blg/;sh "
'" II ('1 "," /
glvc" ,I, 1',1/" VO<:,IIJU
"ou /d
. L. I',lry,
NP
/1 Infl
VI>

A
j{))
Pst /
I'crdio utI /iJpa'CJ UlIllIrJO . VI"
I"~I " , IJ{)I~ " elil/d
/ PI>
'f'h c g r',IIITf)
J ,'If ,,/ /'/1"1,,11
' e would !l've i, "otreel
, ,
dcscripllllfl "I 7) • nUL not H) , V N\'
" () lil(' oilwi halfll II", I!,arntfl~' 01 Spanish Wou ld " I/ow hOlh 7)
y). rt .
L I
" J '
I II) Thl' "0,,1 01 ifn fftlp/ ct1ll'flll'( grwrll1l:1I IS l'Xa(;tJ y the '
and v)
J{

' Dcl N I /'

Det N
/
I ' sU me, A P
IJU flO , "',.
1 lementlltilln" ~trflp/ y a 1"""'It:" sySlCIff, f he grammar rW/, n \ \
I I
NP
mp
P '..
J '
f ' "ramified 11110 a t:ompull'l, ar" IriC t:ompfJlcr pnlgram Ihcn deCfCle 'I
I I ' , S I Ihe
CS are
\ \ \
/
SIring i~ pcrmitll:d jn Iht' I"flguagc, I : 1(' st(f~lg " pcr mf/led f/ Ihen has Ihe \ Oet
laNk 0/ giving the ,Cfltl'flCC Iht' clllret"l, ,.~( Ilpllll" , \ \ \ \ \
\
Natural languifges (as opp"'cd to l'(lfriputCf languages) ;111: highly CIHnplcx The player 10 I lhe L_. 'ID
/KJ dH,cCJvcrifl£ Ihe l'lI/rel'l !pilm",,,, I", lJ l:lI ve rr lallgulJge IS an eX lrcmel' '''''' die didi. . . . . . .
difficullla,k, 'I he cOIIJpl(:xl'y "'.)(1 suhllel y (,/ nalural languages conllfllfe ,;'
figure 17 . 12 Diffl 'f('Il<CIO "IK'f 1M!G1paal contra W1thfig!.e11.6
presenl a challcnge 10 Ifflg flf ~I~, / hef(: afe rn."ny t:OfnpC lllIg Ih{'(lIies 0 1 whal
die 'correcl' grall/Illar 01 natwal la"guage~ will he like, f:vcn the gram lnar Ilif
En,li,h, a very wc1l ~ tudicd natural lallg uagc , I ~ 1101 at all we ll undCrSI(lClCl,
One illue Ihal a1l thcories ,lWei' upon , howcver , l ~ Ilrat a gr:lIl1 lJ1af ~h{)uld ha ve
cettain properties, (.mlll/nars ~ hould give II ClJI rCt'1 CkSt:ffptiClII flI IIw I;kol syntax and
Wowin,:
I!fIIoInllcs
The trin,H of a lanj!uaj!c /,
The ICnIcIUre corresponding '0 III\' Mllngs ill/.
called weak .~n~rlltlvc ,·apadly. I'ropetty II I ~ ~1"Il'd slrfJnN
(Generative hr' docs not fIICllll 'neale ' hilI ralh"f

176 on pa,e 676 shOWN an illlalysi~ III whll:h th~ Iffll

 //I
lit.- 1111 Ilh.' d~.' \\ 1111 .1 .. lId~,
J I' ,lIb .. tilllh.'d Ipi lUI. \\otdd tltl' 'l.'111 ~
It
llf"nr. h .'1 II...
. If"
I d,'h.',,-'Hf \1.:1)
. III hllllll"d
" , (Ill'\.' hI...' \I..'Ill'
~\l\lICt\II"J '\'hc' Iex,con IS jusl on' link
11110,,01 am I coheSIve lClll ror
111""111
'Y '''lh'"1
I lin \lnli ' I lSI"
UI l hnl yolO have tielel'll1i ned 'III I I e, YIII S"I "S "Will,.
'fh.' h)ld hi' 1111.1 .. "d... , lilt crl" ' III 'cd I
,1\1,\ \\
IIInll e oul how 1(llmnsl"le Ill' d ,1I1~ 111"'1 ~II,II, "" I n tilt,,,
lIll el l I~" I ,,' pi ~Inl
"lflh,'" ",rcHl' .1",UIllt.' Ih.lt a '1yntu~li(' ;ll1aly~is Pl'l't.:cdcs a sc
<"
'I IHlI gu"ge, your gencralion "" Ylllp 1l1e" , p "" 'IT" "n \n"
' , / ... 'tIl.IIIII\., .... hould h\.' apphl'd (0 the output or synt" • 1~1~UHic on \ ' , '"slelll I ',I~C 1111 .11,11 I Ill(
IIIl/lh,1I III I 1"Utll1 nl . Ill'
I t:.lr
' I It:s
'I I1.llls
" ./'OIl'lHlI
. ,HJI1,-l1 whal veIl" 10 pick lind how 1\\ )' I. WI I hnve I I II \('ITk n "'<1tr I
,. / . 111 l I 'I,ICIlc
' 'I
~ 11\\lys.
C,
\ Ie, lh' "'Cl' 'lll">1 ~
, hi' I' t II Ilt - ' , l (C S wi' I.!s. vcd" , Csunicr\s I tl\ I Ilh (nlllll " U\; I\ IIIw"" I'
IIld1rp"I.Hc.:l..
,I IIlh) fII~ll1) l'\H11pUWII0l1uJ
, , I I '
SYSICI11s.
/
SOIl Ic..! sy,'
. SlClllS
11Ch \\1'1
..' S Suppose you wanl 10 CX pr" , I
-ss l"w r, ,
I
Ir,,\, 1\ >","" 'I

.. 111.11.:(11,.' I "'111'1111 i~ illl,tly,," "lilt 111 lallti , Olhc',. SY'I eltls it

4H1l.. I . . ' ...
1"\ 111 11 if as ,I M',.:ond·s't"p dt.'!"Ivallvc Iro.n Sl'l11:tlllic'
'Pc,, 1'01'III
~Hhllc th \
' ,1
Illi ghl IISl' lho; vel h ('1(/(lS", /(/(1(1 '
' ,
:1\1 lillie IS
,I" IS s'II\1 gOllig b
'(11),1
"""'lit
...
• •
,\ 111.U.'H•• \ l • , -Inal yses. c \ I
placc' Vc' ,), t IS Inlransitive, so il hk" til he a IIn~ h ' YITI Yl1I11 hi
1,'1111 (/1~1I 11/('l/f h 're rcl'o;rs tn "I"' 'Cs jll,l line IIr" p, (e 1l"dl • ,{,,,,
,. ... ,1111Illal1c' \ \ ,unWnt qle ,~ ......
III talk, ahllut lerln,ls, you 111:"(11 I , " I '~J1Clld"nl . th'IUhl "'"
- II ( l'Scr h ' Snl . etl (""-
Nl/fUra' 'anguag~ "if /III IS Iransillve: it lakes lw I' thc actinn " ,1,·"n.l\l, '",
, \) argUlll' Ill\( m·. ,'''' "'ant
pMf'iIflon insll"lllllcl1lal. a phrase Ihtlllcl\s wh' cnl\, /(11" 011 I~"l U\(! lhe
I t IlIS '· ,lllhc sun . '0 nh," 'erb
".anara.'onl 'r 'I ,,:nlen<'e a spc:lke, firSI !nusl deo:itlc on goal, phn Ih
l(l U, It.: • " _ I _. . - . ~ c Illlurn .
' sl'l1ll'II<.'C II) ,n case, 1,;1 can I' k' Je~1 hll "'II/I . U~" "'Ilit
uA. ... , .
t " ,I e Ihr~' "l'ln" L iIlI
' , ,'Ind'111"ulrCct lin "c ar~tllllelll<." I'Inall","
...- . ..-"~ ~ ., If. Il"Iu<kd • '-'mil Iho:n c"prc'ss. 11al In/Orln",llIlI,l In <t. .'c'lIlelle'l: () I' his 1uhnn
In P\.' _ . "011'(' takes a su 'Iee\,. , nhlecl · " !llr'I •n
I..lI1g Utl' b"l . The l·u,,'wI.!!C
.. t:' _
go:ncrallOn rro.h"','111 IS ollc'n, _ v,cwed ..'Is- IIlC rev' \nl. hcr, ht' "XPIC,SSl'd itS a subWCI, IIh'l cCI' I. JC~I, anulIII", Ih " ), a ,ttIt "I.e
.
""I"U'I"~ analysIS proh"'nl , hUI Ihls IS nOI "CCUI,lIc' III Ihc S' ' ' "III, ,\ reel " r.: ar~u
I '-
fIt' C" .. C" . _. • .' • ,
erSe Of
' ...\111~ W'ly
i\llt'rnallvo; Iy, ~I\'(' can under"n wh' I Plenl, Indic'n"d h IrO<lll,CIn
'elll'lil,ion of spcc'dl, dlscussc'd In sl'cllnn 6, IS 111 nn way Sinlply Ih' .', , Ihe in whICh case Ibo; IndlrCCI "blecl I .' c, al1le M,,,, ,I ,.. a In H,
. " . . . a IS c'llI ' I \) '.
!!/' ~,...
""ceil ,c'CO"lIIl1on Cnlflill prohlems 'Ire Iht' salllt' hUI 1l1'llIy '-'I r-: no(
C ICVerse . '(I~ ,IPlle'l ' menl a I
o t=' _ . _ . prc ~l'd '<.I by Ibe preposition 10. ' ,rs nexi In the 'erh' In 4)
I.angwlgl' gCllc,alHIII has hl'cn -"ll' undnlrn/! ol.c'nlilpulaliona l Irn " , andllV.ll
Till' rc'ason I()I Ihis nwy hc Ihal II IS a 11101"<; dllllclIll n'l'a 10 workgU'Sllcs, /3)
"III!!uagc una/Y'ls 1'0' language analysIS, 11ll' irngul;,1 i, glvcll a SCI ::~, Ihun Ilc gave a Slick 10 Ihe dn',
(,'".... s/rill"s 0/ Ihe /wI"";rgl'l w"h ~\hlc'h 10 work. hl(" lall"II'I'" dUla
' ,e-' . .~" 0- 'e-C geller'u'
Ihe: lin!!u"sl I"IS Ide:as ,lIld plan, Ihal Ill'l'd 10 hc tllll1l'd 11110 I ' lOll , I ·J)
lan"u'l!!c gl'ncralor 'IIU'I he a hi t' 10 ll1a~c' ' "ul'l'ISlons aholll Ihe en 'Inguugc
11 ' A
I:' ' . . ,. I cnl Ill' Ih'
lie gave tht.: <.log a stick,
/cxt aholll Issues 01 dlsl'ou, St' SIlIlCllll"c" and ahout l'Ohl'S/on nr th' " c
, I' I Scnlence ortcn \il'l"hs \\1\11 ~cr rlos" m,'anlll's l'lk, " If
and pamgral'hs. In cOlllrasl, a languagc' ana y'cr Illlghl hc illvokcd I ,s , .. . , l ul ercnt numben or
'· 'I I I
Proposah ahoul (I',s<,ourst' an( l"I In 1l',111 , 'ui I Ic' 1';1\,\ ll1alenal UI' ~w~
oll1,lke
h '1IllI In ,II Ikrcnl \liller, I-or ' .1111I, k "11" "'10 Oil -.-
, , '" '.. \1\ l1lCan donGIt 1M ........
guesses aft' h ...\l'd IS ;r/rt';rdy IhC't', h1l Ihl' 1,111 '"agt' gl'lIl'r;rlor, only, " dlll'S nlll !len1Hllhl' \,1111" ,1l\C[)\.\lil1ns as '1\',,, , -
and ideas afl' ;rv:ulahk "10 , W'" 1\ wll' IJ, ( ' f '
WItTS ,conccPls
01 words (lexlc'iI It' )
, . . ., ' (illS ~lId 15)
synlaelll' stfudllr~s iI/"t' pa,l 01 dt'USlOIIS 10 hl' 1Il.lIk III hlltldlll~ a Inl.
As wilh synlat'lil' illI.dYSl'!"S, Iht'lt' iI!"~ IWIl ilpplllilrht's 10 ge llcrat/()n : lop I It' dnn,lll'" a s\ld, III Ih,' do "
down and , 00110111 UJl. III Ihl' lop dow II appma,l'h, 111,'1 a vt'ly hi gh ft- vd 1(»
IlUClure of the: Ollipullnils (It'I"IIIUIIl'd , .dollg. wllh Vl'ly ;rhst l ,'II'II'VIJ"" '
(",SIOIIS
0
I k d"lIal,,1 Ih' Cll l ' ,I slll"\..,
of meaning and gOIl/. TIIl'JI IOWl'1 1l'Vl'ls all' IiiII''' ill 11I0!'II'S,slvt'ly, SUIlSl'"
dona /lie detennined, lind t'xalllp/,'s III Iht' vnlls wilh 1111' 11 slIlllc"'1s IIlId
ab If any, are propoSl"!. This IS rdllll''' , ullitl Ih t' pll' IlIIal slagt' whl'lI
Item /lie chos n from III' dit'lillnary, Wht'n III 'l'IIII'II""s han' 1l"c'l\
*I11IIIl1li upon, and wh n all lexiral Ill'IIIS have 11('('11 illSl'lll'd, Ih"I" IS a
. . . . .111 ro ' moolh' and ProV"!l' 10.,., In'eI cohelCllt't' III IIIl' Ic'\I , lh,s
ure that pronoun .Ift'uscd nllll'l'll , 101 ex ampll' , and Ih,iI
 \" ' \ N

\ \
,HI \;\\

I' '1 1\" lb l

,. 1 t
II~I"" '

18 )
,I.

\
I 11k.! hl111 h' '"

I )

'( l)

11 '1 11.1.1 ',I hl1l1 h' '"

II 111'1111, "11 , I
I I \ , "11111 '1' 'I ,I'I'\'\n"
1'1\1' I I
-------
 I George I home'
'I

~-I

CAller ored
An \\ r 'Ie

n:qlllre th I an er be
In'~ \\hkh ~101 Ie the m

na' rnn~iple

d rode mto th Ull t

 !tillite ~,
1\1111 ~
\1011
In
 !nne
Trans1:ttl n
Sy'ltem

H
The e eph~nt Iq:t
FiKure 17 ..m M.!< W1e If '" IIOf'

Illls was the thmkmg of c mputer lent t! nd

turned (Jut 10 be f..II" more difficult than

VIC\\ed
th . hUIII.1II tr.lIISlalOf makl!.~ fma. dcCUl<1I1
t..5 •
pee c h S\ nthesis
 ,n 1,,, ... - . ".
t \.\ US 1\ tn u g,h c:'Xal\\ , nhhnugh \
l'l ('nll ' l y" u ~i n g. ben'f'! lhll "~I\ .
n
,l "
,I,

I1:1 t tliffL'l'cnt, structures might a '

J, \ . . sy ntacti
fn llln\ Ing :l1nhlguous sentence,'! C

'I ) .. S hc saw Ihe man \\ nh a telescot>.,

t' ~ '

------
' ) Watch dogs hark,
~) Broad.:.t't pnlgrams like 60 1inute:,
d) 'fcn ri.:kshaw were reponed stolen b,, th e Delhi po\"
-knl,' P,lf~ , r' ' tk of a word that ha' many differ- . Ice
, ,111"mia:
5. Th 11 " , ent mean .
, "'I.'st, Then gl".c mloml::ttlon ah\.)U\ that . lng" ' lich a k. _,
11111 G' I \\ ord liMn" h vum; or
' 1'1110 17,4 I\e:n ea.\ \\IoOene ' I') ' "I ecate,'o ' .
,el: .. . .. . . u each jl "ne In
follow ing e .•l1upl" ha o~c en. e for the nOun .u: ,
01 'jlee-h. Ihe
,enses for the \" rl:> pan 01 peech, pan 0\ jleech, and t\\o
m llt/ : Bank
u) port (!(.P' t eh: , \ un
b) ,'/1St' nllllll t r 1
St'/l/o lltk rc 'rri rion, : n r
Pnm/Ill i rlOn' l)
'rol

J. \\ hat /..111<1, III pfl't>kJll\ 1111 ' ht ,I ",mputer h,I\1: \\ IIh Ih.:s" senlences')
3) Su' "',ught I ,tt ,ll'l'k' 1Il,1pl ullls. '
b) It \\.Is ,11,11", ,111I1ll I h"t",',
,) uSOIn Nk,'.! in klldtl'n
d) 'USllIIbak<d in tl1l' un
) usan bak~,

, ' 111"11"," ill

 Glossary
UI.llj,"-.JlIVC.:
\ulH all'x oll tI/lf
c) "-"ilt IUJII' ""J ,-"d ' '-I JlICHWY
ell \,.m",/I" Ih ... "kl
/'rtlllUII' 1I111t111 . .,' 11'" Illill
e) ( lilt'" tlml \H/' J. n U 11I:Y HI ,h, ' 10t'a l h.au(.'ia
fI (I ,'" stu- ".11110. " Ie.' I
,) }.ttlm,
Ie .. 01 ,: urJl
IlllI'lIion;t1
'. I/ /
'1ll~'UI""l.:"
appJU.'H11t1J1 ..... J lo w
ClI 'l
Ihn" - ,'''''''1' I ' '/lI'oIl1y ,,/ '" '" 1'<""1'/" Wllh /lhy ""'a'
6. these
("v", 1ty'f('rrl~ "11/" oW ' " •

d"u
Th
",." ,."
J J , I 1111""1/1('1 ,
,1111 / 1/ 1<" W"rld Wid,'
I WeI> h", """'~"'d II", W"Y,
" e ",,-iltl,,/, ,...II<'
pt'uplc'* ., 11,/0"""'11'" Illh,'
, ''''''''X' 0 I(" I'''''' "'P 11'/""''''';0" /'0"1

an.~It'llro"". "''",'('
,. , 'S wile,,' " II " " C 111/'""""11"1 W,," ld h,",p
lill ., 10 I 111< I y""
D.
1",/11",,, ""
YOur way,
I I ' Nl'I I ,,,, . ,'xlIIllpl,'.
' UfJlJJIf Iii ,
II III a,,' 'OOklll , , 'II y,,"
I ,,,hlltll.' \'
, ,"\. ,"!lH I wl/,n/(}J \, JI wou ( Idp III ytH lJ l , C'h
"1(.""
W/OllllallOJ f • ' 'l1l'qIJlvall'l1t ,., 1IfIIOIIl'\.'.
II I 1/111' AliI! II<" III
III knllw a. L'S W I Jc..:J,.,l /1'1"111',1<
r- ;lIl1hlgUlly WI 11111 ylll! III 'ea"'111 I1g
h' 1.i'llhl<·"""
I 'dUHJ (" I l'( '/ IIII
( IlIIl/y• I "rex 11111", , 111 look 1111' /111 "!fides. II Ii
oml. "("'~ . Yoil wdl /11111 11I1Ie/,·, Oil lIV,'" anu 111I"llcia l
/IIr IIIwllld
,h,'

inslilll/""'" I '1",,;1 cs ,h,,1 "oliid 'Ih' YOLI 1I'"lllem,,! l ~xpl"ill

What
/ur 3r~ ~
Wilt' wou ') .HIl
caeh ,'X1ll1l1' '"h
'
1 I" I
•'Ilhe Illohll'llil • ,,,"l "OW YOll l"" u '" Ve II ,
 IIIh, ,I, r'I'I\""1I1

111'1 I '1IIIId Ih' "1'1 'I

'~Ih. ' \ll ,

'111'111 1111"\1 ",11"111111'

I'lt ' I''' -'" III" 11I,'lI th,' 111,',111111' ,'I

1\\"1111"\"'111", 111\'"
" / ' 11\ lI"',f 1" 11I,',lI l 'III' ~I. ,II, ,'111111111")
'1\1111' ,"h II hh'h illl th - \ 111 lllldl.11I 1,111 '11,1' " \" \ '\'1'1 1111
'
11.1 I '~III1" \ klll ,hI", ) It,ll b ','II 1'1,1,'",1, ,1"-"ld lll' 111\111\'

11'1'" II' ,III I' "ltli,' 1 III

 lllltCS . tpi 'aH us ~l\ as w' \
,
(·I",,,~I"C .
'r Silce "h
C
S ~ l"IH1\V "
, , ', . M\I\It~r, '"lh"I~"
\

( ""'usc "1110rpho\o gtct\\ C'II ~\~ , \\1\) f\'\

• '.. ' • 'II-tl, " I al.~
ownt s gl,Hllmatll.:,,1 \\lie \ , t 1.\1 . 11 ' l~n'l
l '
' lIhl ' 'I'lhr~"xl.- l1\hlt
cOl\tfal",t I)l:,t ween 11(' t\nd Irm)·
/ (Iwtntiun )
\ (~nt'
l- .
",I' Ill1t .uilHl that lin"'~ '"
. l'glll('llh " It ~".. IIIe -rl1C requ\ .•I . q Ilh l~q . ""'11 llt\ Ith._
utclSt"Jf",t.·nf~ , ' I Ulllll IIlh..':-" \\ilh ( "uSC It,
, " , . 1<I1\Ol\t I , an,,·"11\ ..
hlll~'" ,'r h.'an n .... ~~ .1'" 'n·,ll.' l!t.'l!llr\ tlhll ,,~nt.·s '-" the specifi. . \1~ 111 a p,,,1l10n to whIch " .
'f
I 1.lt. v •
<ase C'ln \.. . of) N\'
I II"
I tt •
~,
. i n u,rh \ hll1l.'IH. \.'1' 01 a \'~..L
-\u,d... . ,I.' r,.t 11/1..').
L ... •

Cntllphorte re erenee T he II ' ne aSSI"I' In. I • ~

. •. . • 'U . .. • ,e 01 n • •d he l. 'til"
lc.." ." \ tn " • tlMt L.· h.lra.:tt:I1 J'\.':-; ~ol1nd, J.rtlculalt'u bel' dll~(,OUI Sl:. NOI10U J tile t' \:s.\\I.:u\
\ d'l • I fl.·.HUI ltnd th ~ nth'll • ~ I
ccntra' SU cus • 1 he sulcus' tit lIt eXI' _, • '.'.1 III an" h
.... .
fI,a( 1 til the ,,'r.lI \,..•1\ It) . . e
J J.ltal f(" 'tal! ) rh' p ..l.rt llf the.: tong.ue that I~ hindlllOM b " III the Iatenl" I I lSsure \[llso cull , nus Irllll\ l. r I.ltt
Bad. (of the ton!!Ul' e Ut stIli lies ed the \ I". I I~~
CerehraI \}I 00 d tl ow stUdy A "slIre 01 II "~III 'It
111 d14.' Jlhlurh . _I unt i .... nlade with the tongue positioned in U ' h
III Ih~ I1\'all1 t at uscs 1I rud ' tecltl II'1Ue I\) ""lal\"· ~III 'e'"h f.lcr...
11$'" lone! ..\ \ll\:t.:, ,iu! vowel soundS in hoot and hoard). lC bac~ '. \~)- \~QtQ ~ \ I)h'l! .~'\Q
l.., .\ \\
llt t h L'l' roll'
.. \1111 (c,!,·orJ ' h -
f~lnnalioT1 pn)cess I at creat\!s a new \\
mLlch blood IS gOll1g to puni, I' j1I! UCleq I 1\111& III
,
Cerebra cortex T he grl!y Wnn"\cd
<II ,\r " " \1 \ r tIl nr ,.,
' I. '" sol Ihe II lall\"''''""1 IIll.
nil"
""II.
Backforlll"twf I ' uPf,oscd alfix from another word in the hugll' Qrd by I
\ Ill" J ~~I III ; - . . I ') ~ dgc (e of (he hr:.tlll and IS the seat of, , ,11\.ISS Ihal ' Q\ hot...
rcllHl c. ft .rlhfllllCh tJ1C remO\'3 of -·or . .g., . b cognll\V. f ' It, Ilk.
't • line trll l11 t ( I ( dd d I' Cerchnll Ilcmlsp eres The I -I't '
I \\ hlch 3n alth is a e (e.g .. ·"0 . . " Ihe base for tl
d .. e lInCltllnll I .1 'ap II,
f' " , .
, d' e <lIld noh h 1~ Ir lilt
B..,se Th~ ronn "" li-.-" Ihe hase tor . h I't' I.
te a ". .,', 1 1IlIll''''''l'1Ii'~d)
Ie ani
x b) the longllll Illal fissure, e t alves nf
nb(",l..s,I11(,./(/1 .. ..... ' the Cer ,I..
.., I A'" I' landl thaI sho\\s the least 1111 lICIICC IrolH the "t' J
Ccrchro·' uscu ar accl. dcnt S " ·""\(n
B 'iled ee "trQlle 'lC~tI\
a..' . lIe" <hldl il -arose. (S,,<, al"o . ., 1
.... ero eel 'lIIl Mesoleel)
.. ,lnd'I_'
• 'U Characters Th e lIll1ts of Clint '
laJ1cuagc fnlnJ \\ . . "0- h' - . . . '
-
BiJahials . Ollnus
S
-
-., ..'
..
,. inn)" Ill!! hoth lips «.~ t < 111';[ sound 01 hOlle,,)
' .
. f
whIch consIst 0 two pans a ph
CIll\Xlra", C
, ' ] hlne,. l.
,, I ' ,,,,nil or C"I1lI1lUllIt) \\ Ilh a mas tel ) 01 two languages . oneltc dete' "n"ngr. h
Bdmgua ,"\ f'" . . ' b' . S .. I ~ •. Class I \ group 0 f Sound, that ,h, fln1nalhe d P \, III<lII nI
, lrphol(1"ic31 ciass of I'a sma emltle anguage c1l'lra t . ' are, Cen' an a .....\.... '"
Bin\'an ,"\ fll' ~ . 1 -. " C cnZed v(l\l.ed sOlin d s), Uln ~h"nc\ic . __
, 1'cuhr sequence 01 skeleta POSlIllllIS Oil whIch Ihe ' prn\lO!rtl
tn a PaJ I • . . 1 . ,ICIlIal Class no d e A \abel thaI repreSCnt . ttl all
- . '\111 and \l"Id segments are mappe( (e,g._ C\CYCY repr . ' S each [cal
cnn",". -/'()Itlpielcd action ' 111 Arabic), (S" .. also TempJntie 1110 e',CIIIS hic:rarc h Y (aIso ca\1Cd slmpl) a nod ) ure gr\lUpln .
• A dt- e, ~Inthtl
'P'ISI tens" l rp 10'. Clippln~ wor ormatIOn prllCCs\ tho . ~
. . .11 'onne
~v,) " h h' de\ctmg one or more. yllablcs (e .' (t' ns a \lIlIY"lIab
Blade (of the ton~uc) The arca ot the tonglleJlIs( e IIld the tip, - , . '" .. pro rom 11 t' ,I<; "'<q ""
Blend A word thai i,s aeated from pans of two already e.\isting items (e,g" Clitic A phonologIcally dcficlcnt " I d' I I . 'II. eS.\(\rl. "j
n\ r - I"e lor I· ... '
brullch limn h,.t'lI~fc/.l"r and lllll< II), that mu~t be attached to 'omc word be . . m I I C It in J \'f.!-.
cause II cann I -
Blissvmbolics A COlllcmpOraf) delelopmenl of plc/ngraphic wntin h Clo ed~llable A yllable \11th ac~1da\e be " IlCcurlnllOlilioa.
us~s a Ilumncr of n:combinabk symbols repn:sentlllg basic unf,s( ~~ co-articulation E len ion Ilf anIl:U\ .• t\ln·g~, Ith syllable Inc_
, u .) "e lure, ul\ed . -·or...
meaning, primaril) u,cd for non·speaking indil iduals. one sound to adJ (em ounlh, In\be~
Body (of the ton~ue) The main ma" of the tongue, Co-operathe Principle. the The general \)\e h'
Borrowing source of languagt: change that involves adopting aspects of , 'I ' ran: mil, &uitIeIiIe IIo-a..
underI Ie C)11\ er, at10na mteracltons: Make your C\ltIlI\ .....
one languagc inlo anolher. t~) the (0\1\ 'r ,\til n , bIIIiIIa _ .....
Bound morpheme A lIlorpheme thaI must be atwched to another element
Cod" ~ C) ,I 'mcnts that "'110\\ the nucleus in \be
Th •
(e,g .. the pasl/ense marker -I'd),
Bounded foot A unil of metrical rcpresentatlOn that consIsts 0(" a stressed l rfl 111 '14ml), '

yllable and no more /han one unstressed syllabIc, Co~natc \ (lId ,If dllfcrenl \anguag thai ba~ _ ...."
Boustropbedon The praclice of reversing Ihe direL·tioll of writing til the end l.'l'llHm'I\'~ tltl.'C, hown b) sy temalic pboocIitCIIIIlllli• •
of each line. Iypical of llIany old writing systcms , \ \l~h h alh r ,Illd (i 'rman \hler).
. . . . . apJuts.Ia A non fluc,nl aphasia in whid~ Ihc " pcl't:h is wry halling, Cll'nitiH dCHI~)pment The emergence
IlleR are numerous phonemiC errors. and there IS a 1;lc~ of Inlonation . ,) that mak up !be u_ _ •_ _
. .- . . . . . The area of the leti frontal lobc that plays an Illlpl1llanl rok'
ta . . . . production.
1=::::.~~ynl8ctic notion Ihat is involved in pnlnoun intl'rprl'laliou
.. : NP. c·commands NPh if Ihl' Ilrsll';t(L')!my ahoV<' NP,

. . . . . . . .IDIIIIIi.~ioll. short bursts of sOllnd (\I simpk palll'rt)s 01

 ,·vi"U>" C~"I\:CS sunil <\aYti ant\
I)ellotuhon ,) \Ol\ ~ 11111\ 1,1'1
' I ' II, , ,,~
( ' I.t1scrVII t Ive .. n~""~1! A ' IIIIW h-
I
close to t 'osc- ot the proto ,.
' hlllg \IHVe W\ , '''tl tt
lll
r M )~ '" ttN.tf
"ollsonun t i l c t'ton
(c 1\ ph ""gll'_ I\Rc III," I1)111\"1 h "to: .I IS •
(
. t 'gil" SIl.lll~~ll·"" II, ..-d h} I ., 1l"Ulh.'P., \IIh. , r I()I ' -
'"./'/il1s),
I"'Clte ; , , ' qj
'NnnlU.dt"l.lti4 1f1 ~t.nl t \ "n~ lII'lh..' kllll\\kdg\.' lu ~Hy \\.hlll th~tt they arc
(O "",,;IIlHl 0 P'Il\;C" Ih" t 1;'Yl:<\
Ih~ 1I("'I..,,·n ..:y \V'1 conso""nt wcukenln!!, 1\ ,II t illt e, !~"
J~l ku • , " '. p.;,.lphl.I,III!!) ... -Itt tt) procc '\ lhl
~ (ll1U1HIIII\ ~h. I ) 'h' lIt'l' \ .... pt:alo..l·r' 1IIllk'r(Ylllg I-..nuwl. I hct ween vowc I s. aCCording t \\ tOi't \\(1"4"\

Cc,,.IIt1unl,·
. &a,n t' ... .,111, l ',.., , c ( . gc t)f
,((.'11 1 .lIId IIll" mUIlI' lur Ih ..' ..lpplOplltlll' 'iOl',u.cultUI'i.ll the ( 'onsonuntal' b I\. major <:h' ,') Ilhc \C<llc (II Wtak"", ;( , It \ ~
c. ss c'\\l thn\( \:111\
1111 ,til,,,, '" . ' . If II ,pt.'l',.: h ~1(lIalJl)Il"", Usc of wilh a major 0 slrllction in II ' ' ,rc Ih:(l 'h' )"i1"till "'''<hI
1.11 ·u..
'\ 111 p.llt, .. , .
... J III~U;I':t'
f " \
fi.'Uc..' un.~, I ny
I " I'
ll'W." lIlI g methud onsonuntal stren!!,lh T~n IC vIlcal IratI t o\rat\t!'/.,I!tll~lh ~~I~
C I
Ih.... rC,U\\V - \oil.(
('Unlnu"JU,'l.ft\l • , ... il11l l'lI1pha"iIJ'IIIg. (ullelional Jungu 'lgc in II thai is coosonanlal strength , c PlaCCl1), lUll., \It
1111 'lI tH' III \ l r" , . • lC 'Hl' CIIIIII , '><I~
nU1I1I 1l ll1l1tHllllCilll\,C 1.:ullIpell.'nCl', ~ Cl11PL S
1...
nll u.' ~Il.l
'" •
\) II • . .. consonunts ,ollnds produced h .1 cII ",.,,,,
It' .HI.II . t,truc..',iun I fit.' n.!'(.;onslrtJCtwll 01 prupcrtics I' tract Ihat arc (norma ll y) usc I Y partillliy lIT "111 h,,;( >I_
... 11th .." n'(O' - _. . 0 a p'
( (,",,»I r "I 'tll llilaris llll of lis dcs,,:entlant language!'; , ,lrCllt ' (ut the" llllali" ""'\~
I 'tllc,,' rhtdll ~ I,.. ,.' • or cotI a), pcnphcr" I' Il1h,tru
;Ill~ '.. 1('II(lfh('njn~ I he- JnCI'CI1lClll III the uuration of . I' I\. 1 \l Ihc tltll~ lho:
,
(OIJ1,.- _
.... n"'tun .. " , "
• I f HillS dl'lc..'tctl or rl!a I/C( as a non -sy llahlc g lide
I vow
ci
I
Conste atlOn complex of c o ' \ylhlhl t (i "ltal
It '11 It.' 1Ic..' I~ 1 ) ( '
\\ l of U '('
"k '
-\ SCllll'nee I -c cnnstruc..:1I011 that is l!ll1bcd~, 'd '
' channcls, tnnlulllcalivc m(..', "Ihe.~
( ' lint plt'ntt'n', (II " - C With'
'I f ' (l' !!" Ih(/I hi,\' ,'(/r//(/el/""'11 ,\'1"/"11 ill J,'",,\, lo/d M III Consh't uen t 0 ne or more Word, h '\ItS lIn.,
""rall"o ,
.1 1.lf!!l'f .... lllll tJ l . . • Uf)' tit(lf ' TI st atoc' • '"d'lI
It . /1" htlll ht't'll ,\11.1, II).
.
lite app Ie tn Ie Clpple Jell {Jill I CUr tOI\Clh t ' ettnt
(J "e /1
. __ r a\a
/,1" , nil' d"IIIl'1l1 or ckrlll'lIb
_. _ -
lor __ hId, a head is sunc'lI' '
• cgol"lIcd
, '
SubstitutIOn test, and MovemA t , n(Jr), (See II 'Ynlatl,c II
(~onlp't'nl~n l.. ' . , dG' ~ntest ) II(lC nU(t
' 'h I",)\ld" IIllornlaltOn ""Olll l' nlllles and localion ' ', Constrlctc, lottiS ([ CG \) A la n :, ll4ltdlnalloQ ~
'Ind \\ h
"l'\I .s l(.'nl.c..Il
,,'I IIlll. t' h i
hy Ihe meanIng 0 t e lcad (c,g .. lit" book' I
l lied , .
s Whos,C
III 'JOU n l made WIth the glottis clOsed (in r?
~eal fealure lhal h '-.
L ,') (\"",,/.\'(I Hil'cd object ,)
I (IIU 1'\ • •
tIt' •
" I, Continuant A manner feature thantg'hlsh, Only,p\), C arac\cnl~ ~"",
nttln distributIOn Varran" 01 a phonclllL' thar never ' 11 ow through thl! (l ' canc\t!' '""
( ItRtp I,'nt,' " ' , ' " ' OCCUr i ncarI Y f rcc air I " nIt!, 'Ilund
Ihl' "tIllt' phOllelll' l'mlntIlJlll'lll 'Ill' III COlllpklllclllary dlslnnution, n , ra caVIty' "made '
liqUids, ,vowe". fnc't Wllhllttor
ComplclllcntiZt'r (C) A tUlleliollal category that lakc~ an S COlnp l~tncnt a%~~
li)rm",!! a ('P (l'IlInpkmcntlh'r phrasl') (l',g , Wil,'liIl'r In {\I'olld,,/, "'he/he;
Continuants Sounds that arl! produ' ,. ' , . 1"<11, IIId
CCu WIth a '
lhe mouth , COntlnut\u, ,'rt1
( ,N//II /ttl,1 ":Ii). .1 t\w~
( ' ~ pIt' ,X word A word thai eonlalilS two tit morc l1111rphc 11 I~
, , (c~ Contour tones Moving pilches On a ' I &II
, .. ' SlOg C \eg
l/t,'ori:,', 111/1'/11,,/01'//11'111), ' dlttcrcnccs, ment thaI sig1la\
ComlHlOt'nlitllllnalysis The rl'presl'nlaUOll of a wo,d's intension in Icr Contradiction relationship hetween " Il'teaniu&
ofsrnalkr sl'lItalltie eOlltpOIll'lIts ealled katures , tns , h f sentences wh '
sentence reqUire: t e alsily of another sentence' , Cl1!ln the IIII\h 0{ Ole
Compound levd The IllL'lril:aI le\'cl 011 whidl Ihe stress patterning of contradicts RlI\'I1lcmd IS a bCldldor), (c,g" Rlr\lllolld is IIIIIrrW
c'ornp<)unds IS r,'pll'sl'lIted, _ , Contralateral The conlml of the right side of h \,...
Compounding nil' l'!1Illh!lIalltlll l~t Ieslcal categories (N, V, A, or P) to the hra1l1 :lnll \ icc \ c~a, t e "VII)' by \be lek ....
foml a largl'r WOld (e ,g .. im' + OIglllt'),
Con trust c~mcn\arc~ld to contrast when their
Computatlonsllinguislics The Il'lm lefers either 10 Ihe usc of com put" ,
, I I" crs disttnglll h l~'nl\' \\ tth dillerent meanings fromeach~ .....
as a tIK)' to uJltkr.,!a,JIt 1/IntI' elll~ent , IIl g U""L theories or to working
, III Ihe \\\)['ll, sip no ~il' l. (e.a.,
computer systt'I1IS whK 1 require IngulstK' k now edge,
Computerized Axisl Tomography A technique for ohserving the living Com ersntiunal implicature Infonnation that is ~
brain thaI uses a narrow hearn 01 X rays to n,'ale hrall! linages which take I'll,,' I'llt Is nOI _\.:tlhlll said, • •,.
the form of a serit's of I'>rain slit:es (also ealled ('')' sl'llOning), Conn'rsion t\ \\\Ird fonllatilln proce that
Coaeordauc:e This shows which words IK'CUI In thl.! lleig hhourhood of \\ \)nl tt) ,I nt'\ " nt~KI\.: calcglll) (a1 called ...........
cenaiD other words in a l'Ilrpus, t ) tl'll\ll lIur t' (. »,
The sel of inllecll.!d lilfillS assol'latl'd WIth a wrh (also called COl.lrdinah: Structure Constraint, tilt
pend.lam), th.11 d\ t" 11\11 .\11\1\'1 n clement to be ....IlI• •
~'1,-A."."'. A functional calegory that joins together two or more (, tlordinatt' tructure phrase dill
....._oftbe sam Iype, limning a nlordinate stnlctull' (l'g .. Wid 111 CI
,.11 "Irk ofthc. ametypeW1tb . . . . . . .
.,),
"" 1/ mel that l\ oman),
of associalions Ihal u word's itS<' call l'vok,' (l'.g"
 Dc~cncr .. t c .ruot Ametrical I ~---~~~~~~~~~"''''':::::::::
"ini ma l l oot. {)Ot tha.\ t IAfj

D ~.. r ec word
..
prepOSlt,on .
(Deg) A rUnct,·
or an ad'jCcti vt: (e.''''al
, CUtcgIJry I '
<In'''I,
"I "nl
y.• •"";uj .
'~~
'"
g., q~lIe In hal It I\> ""'~It.!
/lAP u( R't tiN ,lI" If( C;
110 use )
. • tlw ..he pllra ... c struc ture ruJ e Iha l s ta tes th e ' DeicticS Forms w hose Use and q~II(. "r'd~·' Ihe lltt ~
( ~«",rdinatwn HuItt . " . \." )0 X" '" Con X ".
JJI1IU.' ,UlH.W rl , ,
CO ln p O\"
, I~ speaker andl or addressee w' h,nterprelat • v' ry In \ 'tlot.~
flO llt )' lIl"l)(Hl • \ t _,I u,cd 10 determine II u group 0 1 , ' 1t 1n • 1(\0 Qt. (-ry 1\ it.
'
(,'N) rd .OH
.ion ft'st
,
L I' d
• II lP i.lI101hcr g roup 0 wor s w ith a COnju
words .
. ' IS a
there). a Panicul. ·lltnn'ln 'Q, ,"-
l,,"l'.liIUL'1I1 P\ 'lllllln~ n e tl On s Uc h Delayed release Amanner feat lht
.r settin\( le I,,,,.,,,
.1'\ (/~Id()~ I'I'. "he operation thaI groups together two o r mo re catc , . consonants. Ure that eha . .g., Ih""..'" 'I! lilt
racter
("<H,cdm"lwn , t t l the heip of a conjuncti on (e.g .. M a ry a l/ I
Ihl~ ... 11 Ill.' I~ fX \\,
rOlles
(, I Ie
of
whi'e D eletion A process that rel11
'. \lVes a \
'I.e, all .
-nn
''«' , "-
,./
(e.g .. the pronunclatto n ofji"th . . egment f <mlYall
. rA J' .,as \ftf\ romc ~
!III!"." ). " .• {-aWre.: th al characteri zes so unds made. wi th th e I Deoasahza IOn commo n sub : . S ). Crtaln ph .
Coronal \p 'ltl, ~ It I sOIl. ongue tip tion that involves the repl ' !o.tltullon prOce' (Inet'C\:(lnlt
· 1>1 ,<.Ie ra"c<.l (c.!!.. l .
acem e n t " In eh' l ~\
(I', ,., .., of wntlen or spoken maten al gathcrcd to 'h counterpart ( e.g., come is pron of a n' I d lanu
Corpus A (NY h d get er ~ . Th oUnced \k ..sal SI- .ua~e,
. .. ... . Iy'" Nowndays. sue ala arc norma ll y stored i'l Or
Jmgw . . tIL , tn.1 . ... -. . Illachine DenotatIOn e set of entities to W ' "b\). . "'P by a ""qUi i
fl." luahk form on a compute.. .. ~ called its referents or extensio hlch a WOrd nQn-n~1
, II ' m The "'und/e or nerve fibres that serves as th · . n) . orexp .
Corpu., ca osu
..
h . h .
.... tween Ihc cerebral emosp eres. all ow,ng the tWo he a'n'
C 111 " Dentals S ,oun ds made With the t resslQn f
cnnOt.'d IOn IJt; erivation A process that fonn\lngue plaCed a.ain re er, (al\<]
' ,. to commu nicale with one an other. 111,_ D . th s a WOrd . " 'torn
sp here S • I b d h di stinct. from al of its ba.se th With am. earthe,"_,
• b' ry morpheme A margrna , o un morp cme lhat on ly 0 rOUgh th eanln. ' -\1\.
(ran ~r . I CClirs .
"sin!!ie word in a language(e.g., cr all rn camlt',.,.y) . . 'n form atIOn 0 f he Iper (N) from help (V e addition of· and/or Ci1lt
Creativity The chameter/sllC of human language that all ows novelt Derived (phonology) Resulting fro ))h' . an affiX (e .• ~':Y_
innovalion in response to new Ihoug hts. e~p~nences, a nd situatio ns. Y and ·
to un d er1ymg representations.
mteap\'
p Icallon of h
."UIC

Creole A language Ihat Originated as a pi g in and has become CStabr . Descnp Ive' t ' A h ' .
c araetemltc of lin . . ponolo' g\(:all1l~
us a first language in a speech communi ty. Ished · .. b" gUtsttc re
human I mgUlstlc a l!tty and know led search that seek
Cricoid cartilage The ring-shaped cartil age in the larynx o n which the preference to another. (See also Pr""~ ~e, .not to preSCribe S to descnbe
thYf(lid carli/age resls. , . . f t Ch '. ........nptwe ) one ly,l_ .
D eSign ea ures araeten slIc<; of h ' ~ .., In
Critical Period Hypothesis The claJin that the penod of c hild devcl
. lhe OplllllUm
. .' d t·or Ianguagc acqui sition
° Pl11ent compare animal communication S~ste uman language that ••
las(ing up 10 pu"'erly tS PI!IIO 'a , (D ] ms wah hu we UStd \I)
Ihal Ihe capacily 10 karn language with ease wanes. ' fter DeterOl mer et) A functional catego h man language.
I I he. e ), ry t at se!"les ,._
CT scanning Set' Computerized Axial Tomogr aphy, noun ( c.g .. G, lie. ill> UII: sptclfi
, . ti ( R ltIa{a
Cuneiform Writing lhat was inilialed in tht! f.ourth millen nium Be' a d DeterOllD1S c parser efep, to a par'~ Ih.' .
. n Was . a1' th . ~r at ts obI ed
produced hy presslllg a wedge-shaped sty lu s In to soft clay tablets. origmal an ~ I. at 1 Propo-.ed and· \. ro' Ig to ~ck \I) .....
'f' 1.0tdden tl..._"':
CV tier Sl't' Phonological skeleton. when nc\\ In onnau n ~ d ubt on Ih . . 0 -ilnck _
Cycle Each applicalion of a mle on a particul ar leve l of rep resentation P arser.) e tmtla! analysis. (Set ..
Cyrillic alphabet An alphahet thai cOlllhineu adapta ti o ns of Glag~r . Dewlopmen tal error. Error that cur in L\ Ian
letlers with Greck <Jnd Hehrcw ch<Jrac:tels, evol ving inlo Ihe alphabets t~~~
k arlllng, that re ult fmm the manner In which ~.u
are used to reprcscnl some 01 the languages "poken in the former S .
. . OVlet tl1l' 'h. lIl, m { ~ I ( ;" d u1 fromov~eneraIizaiaa
Umon and III Ihe Ba/kan.s.
Dr, l'lllpml'nt.l\ Th ta e f Imgwstic ~
Deaft'rj~t.Ion A lype of segmenl,tl Simplification which turns affricales
IJIto fncallvcs oy eltllllllaltng the Slop portlOll 01 Ihe aflricale (e.g. , Id I rd.ll i, '1) III , oro Ian u 'e learners.
becoming (31). :I 1I 111 ti n In ~hicb a SOUIIIl
a..lIIon See Nominal paradigm I ~d eg,lbtl.
~ A Iype of <Jl'ljuin:d dyslexi~ in which Ihl' pallcnl produces t p preceding it
• MlI'd that I relaled 10 Ihe word hl' or shc ts ash'd 10 read (c.)! prodUCing dt phonenc
wIleD eel 10 read mother) mool t
."l1li 1be truClure gcnemted hy Ihe phr.tse Slllll'ltll'l' rub in
widJ tile ubcalCgorizalion propertic.:s of 111l' he.ld s,
TIle eakening of a geminatl' l'onsIlllanl 10 a non geminalc
_1~I-.(aJ becoming (I/),
 • ,. •• 1l.' tl1hc r l" or a ~ pcd c~. .......-- In II
"'pros.,,,)
.
'1'1\ " 1al"",
J)Y~IIlt.:• .'I)CCc\1 0 1• Broca's
.\lIi<' "chtle a"achcu tIl II
• nt ~~ n\ "
aph'I'I <I\ce 1111\\11'1\'
" C!\, \ hln
1''111 ~r"~Q

.
'1Itt"
',1,.,,,,
gIl,'It .,", . (S,'" ,,/.w> ' 1\tic.) Ie cn" III " \" ~\.'I!'
"""'.,
"II "It,..
\
, ,"cl'"l.-ie compound, 1
I' ,,( .• ' 1- c( 111Pl'\l I ~ I.
' 1'nulish) lu Cll1I les the gene,· I 111,," .&., '.~
•
\onl ,I chss
helongs (c.g" k"'I/t'c/1'1I11 ' III \li0\II,~ r
.• '~hl"'I"
''''tr..
_
, IS a Iy '1\ Ih~
\ d )
,,"I"P"U," . ,
, d"plwrlC rl'lerence The Us' r
"I'll1111."'<allill
I '''''''''-
I'c \11 "'~
IS.. l <l\ ~ ~
I~"tl K d\SC{)lIr"~
&,

. I: III a p rOIlO\\1\ I .
. ( ,t1so ca II cd textu Q '0 b
..~
,
""'"
A I · 1\ l'~re ..., \lrel' ~
1':"tIliln\l'''~ " '" re :Ill()~ h~twcen sen; ~n~~\. 0'11) a ""ul\
· 'nll'I":l Ilcu:ss.lnly Implies tl ' CIICcs In" ~ ...
' 1 h . 11: lruth ' I'
I ,,,I)(/I/(Ient<tl s t ~ s~nlcncl! , ".
SC V,hl
~'anolh' c•1\ Ihe 'ft. ..
r tVil'l)lUllent The phOnl!lic conlCl( .' "la""leel) .•.. ShQ"". Q ~
11
' •

•: Ipellthesis A
" <:
- . • f.
( •. " .. Ihe l\1\el tllm 0 a schwa in l\ '
<,,(11 11.11' ;,

. process thai insen; till \lihich

. a Scg'l)e '
. 0, te.

a"~und
nl Inlo a
l'ICcU
"111 f

. 1\\.
.. 'I
'atlve 'f1t:l" '"
C,l\t: assOCia ted with11: IpronunqUIIQn ,.." IfllartlcUIat tn~~
I'X~tll'll of a n intransitive verh) t lc SUhjcct O\" 'Il lralh~... lIS\ __;:""IIl
<' uphemism
, . .
-\ term thai is Used 10 ".
. ansltj
Ve v~ ~
-""":t\).
,,, . .., " a\\)ld an -.
'IS 01 fen s " t: (t: .g .. lour SOli Itas leI' eXpression ••
•. . , . ere. Re/l II ulat ilia
llf }il/l/' .1'(1" /.1 I't"")' FIIICk; Pt'r.lpir, instead era fllll1inR diffic ~ be __
"'xdusivc A person Contra. t 111 'om' I. of sWear), lllliel~
r" . he C angua
•.\ u.ldn' SSl' l' IS to excluded In th,'_ t"1l1erprclut ges that . inn ....... _
~. ___
1110111hc111l', (Sct' also Inclm.he) Ion ollhe fint _
E,.xoccntric .compound .\ comPOunt.! wh ' . . ~-..
I' . osc meantn .1-.
, '<'1If ,)\ 'r rill' knglh of .\ If thc llll'.U1l1lg 0 It. part. (e.g .. rt'dllt'ck sinc " &"'Jt:lIlIIltfN,•. to.....
I.tli..· (1'1.>111 a - • II of
I'r,'\ lOll.' one (e.g .. Irell, E~perimcnta approac I h .
An approach 10 ct\tsnotahn... inves' . 'JI"'~~ '-_
whi ch lescarchen. mak' u e ofpe 'ialh d . l1gal1ng tbiId ......1~.1
. eSlgtled Iaska 10 oIW..
aClint;. re Ic\ ant to a pant~ular phenomenon. _
Extension The. ~ of enllttc 10 which a WOld Of
call1'J '(>; denotahon I r referents . ""11""'_
Extrumetrical s~ Habl ~ liable thai. falls <MIIsidt die
ruk~ .
Fact' Fa,-·. ~ 11\". I 1_ la;,. d behaviour lIIIINaiIa
fealurc Ihal j, ,Ihl hI Iglldl.\ dlllcrCllcl' 111 llll'anin , r 'put,lti,)1 , k!l1Il .. ' 'dlblht., and the like, wille .....
.11111111"'acs plus or minu ,alul' (e.g. Ihl' fluilire 1\ oicelill Ihl' \\l>rd~
i,)m.l, "th \ 'I
Ft'lltnn: ~phol\t'tk)
"I)lIlbm,ltll 11 l I \ hI 'h m
hOdy of Ihe
FUltun.' hit'rnn.'h~ hi
1 'til' I '.1 'h ,(her.
• 'e tun.',
 I tJ\ -" ,f '...,' ,ul,,:u' l,r Ih • ,-'\.'1 -bl.tl \.',11 h." l \ ( c' ""(I Nul.
\ I I 111l11ll'tth hf .. f1l1'1 ,\1 "uh r .UII..I pl",'ht "\.'d \\ h .... 1\ II ,I )
" It, \. h.' hll
,I n- rhl·· 1'111'.1"'--' 11.:1\1" 11 (1..', ' •• Itl N"ll1. \ 1~1I('
I
d/hl "
I '11,,'0.1111 111 bill r.II" II '/" ItC/), II ••
\11":'\1\
I
rtlt"'l1h\ I~ \.\ I h
IUhln,ll1 P'\ ." III \\ 11\.' •• I dl...·lH.d" "I th
\ n ,,, II . .·\l I,II'
) 'lfl'C'" h' .1 l1.ll' tl·h",lfttlllll.IIH ) 111 (hl' \.'1\\
u,:tnr I \. 1.
'top,
InlIUlh"ltl ot
" ,'\ nunu.;Ull' J I
., I'h" 'l,h,I"" Ih.1f ,,'\.'ur... lh.' tt) \. .ltuag.\.' (\1 P lit... I'
tl '"I "h,,·," 1 1 ' , Il Ih~ I
1M ' \ l -hUhf Ih,,' ,,',.:1111.11 ... uku'. t\."U tll1~ III t lh..'nt 'Pl'cl'h hUt , dl
,\ \. -1"1 l' ,'I ',ll1llll1 ' •• llId I1h l lllh l nn!! 1.1I1~lI"!-!C pnl\lu'" ~~i.\l
"fln":IIII\"',, "'.) \.:hnll {al,o
II 1 ,t'II ' 4U" lIJ'hu,w
" I " " . HII" ," \If ..I \\ ('Hi th.1I j, h.h,,"'d nil 'l) •
.. tlk to"~ nu' ('s.:.' \... , II I _ ,1 Inenn
• . I 1/\ 'I' .1Ih.l til ':" litH 1I_'1I.1 ~ ,tn'"l \ \.' .1 f..'\lIlSI,.'tnu, n _ I ~\?l
hl,hln\..l n. - 1 I I ll,.'I'111 .1
Ih' \\ llid tlll lilt.' 1',11 ( pI tit: " ......·a""\.·r ("",!-! .. hOlllbltl'u" I' . ~u
fU,'I II t " I II) ,,( I "lCtn
n'JI1.1J"\.',IIUhll",lllhllph\.'llh,·:o.. 1,1m .Itlt. '111):(''', g

.'Nttl~"· I I'.,I.'1 \.., ~'1,"'11,'11 ,,-.IIIl·pn·,,·nl.III,'"

, th"I" h<·I.,,, Ilk' \\ Ill'l II \..'\\..'1
.
. ",)n".,:nt'r tl" t" 1'1t· 1\
.
I • "I 'I'<:cd, 111,11
,_'"
I' 1\ 1'1<'''"\ "ddl'l.·"<·d t n "il'C)'
/'111"'1 d •. II.I,'I,·n/c,d h' s"d. 1'1"p,'r1I<" ", '"llpk' \\ '" \ 1111
IanO'rU.l ' " ' , , 'I II i Olu nru,
m,' ",,,-,' ,','1111111'" \ ,,<, •• 1>,,1.11) 11,'111' I.' "":-1 ,', 1,'II,'h,'!' Inlk ) or
• t 1'11' l,nll,'II"" ,',,",',·I1I1.III,II1S 01 hal1d, "I "Ik'r~\ III
fomu," , , 1 I " a 'I....·~d
III ,I \\",.:1\" lIC 1 ~I\" 11 II, 1',·<'II".lr .• udl'or\
" 111,,'111.1'''
II I (n
,,'u, " , '1 uaIH\ \
'( I::"~ I Spt~·fn)gr:utl .)
,.., iSi/iIBI/II" If Ih,' illl,·rI.IIl~ II.I~'· ~I,IIlUllar g,'ls slIId. ill " 1'111. alld ,
Il'l'nl\IIII.lIlIlg I" Ih,' gl.llIlII •.11 "I 1Ill' I,ll' '<,I 1.1Il!(lIa~,' it I' "lid tn ~::~~
hl~"lr l"""' ,
,..R't' form \11 dClll,'1I1 Ihal ,'an I'C,'lIt ill 1",1,11\(111 ,llId"'r "l1\\'I' !"'-'HIIlII
'''Ih /'1:,'/'<'" "'IIl'I~h"('lIrllt g 1'I.-l1k·nls " 11\" ,'utiI' 'I} fl\cd
,,'R't'mOrpht'ml' \ lIlorph '~\t'. Ih.II,',111 h,'.1 \\ "I'd'" II,,'I!' ('.. ~ .. J"(/r\.
FR't' , srlslioll ""lind, ,Ill' III tn'c \ ,111,1111'11 \\ 1ll'11 Ih,'\ dll 1101.:onll"1
'- s1. C~Ul
,l<.'1.·ur in id,·tHIl'.lll'hlll1l'lll· l'l1\ 11'<'111111'11". ,md .11" I'h"Ill'tll'ailv '1I1111'
" • d~
Frkation rhl' 'H·.Ih'nll1g ('1.1 "III' I~' Ilnc.HIY<' (l' g .. 11I1 hl"'\'1Il1I1g lOll,
Frkathes C,"I\"I1;1I1I ' pn'du<'l'd II lilt ,I e','lltlt1tI\'U' ,urnll\\ Ihmll'l h
' g1 I ~
moulh .•1<Y"lIll'anlcd Il\ ,ICllnllllll<'I" ,tlldtblt: IUllSC (e' g .. In.lJll,
Fricdonless rontinulIllt \" \ppro\.irUlIllt
Froat vowel Iltal IS lIIadl' \\llh 11ll' "'I1~lIe' 1'\lS\ll\ll1cd tn Ill ' I'
\, \\l\\l'l
c mnt
of~ oral Cal'll) (''.g. Ih,' \ (l\Il'! ,,'und, III I, al,lIId ",,'),
......... Iobt'Thl' "'Ix'
Ill' IIll' t>r,lil1 Iltal lic, 111 1'IllIlIIlr,hl' e'Clllral sUkw; and
In which Bn":lI's .lft';l is 10C.H,·d ,
common suo"iIUIIt'11
, ,
1'I\'c'l'" in chIld Ian 'ua 'I' a"qlli'llinlllh ,I' l
,.\101 the moving 101'\\ .Ird 01 .1 "'\lIl(j', pl;I\:\' nl ,lIllclllalion (l' ,g,. ci'I''''' I '
pnIDOIIDCCd It i; l /> .
..1I1.....~catioD morphologic-al pHle'l'" Ihal dupli"al," Ih,'el1ll1\' \\\lnl
,anak 'child'!lInaAalluA ·,.Iritlus l'IlIllhl'll '),
Word., . uc'h a, dl'll'rlnilll'ls and ,'olljulleitolls Ihal aI',' r'I.l1I1" ,
of BnlC8' aphllsic's, n:sulting ill Idc'graphlc' 'Iwl'eh , lui '~, it. I'nm f) 'I.) 1 hein
approach 10 synt,ll'Iil' .111,11 si, Ihal all,'mph Itl
...ItI,.1C1ic pbeDom na in tenus ofthl'ir eOllllllullil'ali\ l' fUIl,'linn
 (){'C u .. •• ~ , .

.\USivc A perSOn Conlrasl . In ..\~ l ...

\"C
. ddr<:ssee .IS l0 be 'mcluded .l In .SIl Ille I. .. ,. \'
'Il,,,,,,,,
.,
n
<I, 'Oll)heme. (See also EXClus .• the intc:rngU~g" I' . ~'-.
\( a ...(.~nh:n ...'t.~ (h.1t !'oope;.tlcn-. judge to be I
corporatIOn ' The combinati' e.I . ' p "1~1I "n nil' "~l In<l.<::,,_ ' "
Ik-al Iltc''1,11lI' , • a !>Os,ib\
G.......... 13I~U,ICc' e 10 fonn a compoun d vcrb . on III a "'Ord ( "C r, . ""\ 1"-
11\\ lIh. ........
. nr~ ,,\fd:k.:Jr ~~... C\'lh. ~J'(S lh;.lt .t.n: e\.pre~sed as atThe , I ' A ' u'u, II . -, "'" ~ ~
':-1ft'(! n·"''tP·
G ...... Rllltk
f . 1>, . .
-' ~ (ht' ",-"t.'lh..'t."pt (.1 0 l.gallon ~lS e"press d
s Or n
on_ (nde"lca sIgn . 19n that fulfils . ~ ~ ~n
k\.h.3r \."'3t(.'~~'I1"·'" (L~.' .e by the I' p,call) by beIng a panial sampl It, fUnclIon b nunl "'iiha
aU lliM) , ...'Ii' 'PUI'\:)~'n "'I.'lun( , hitt... that h)ok place bel\Veen Prot 'irect negative evidence Th e of it (e.. "~ \><lInt . ~t!\t II>
10d r" .
, ' m', , ... "
GrtIII·
Eun
The .'
J 1"'n'(l'..... (J -n113111('.
'3Il .lll h"
.
Ih -' \"'C'rebmll2'oI1t:''' folded ~.)Ul {singular: '
IS
O-Indo.. in the I nglllstlc envIronment
c\.idence.)
e assu ~., Ule Ir
mPtion tho at"
Ing ....
III
are Ungrarn~ at nOn'llct<Ii <Iiilltal) "
t I..,. ttl

<;,-n
• Th<: In.'''' \\ (.1
' , II h.I(l.oIl': ,<,ripl used 10
K g\rus)
repres,:m . orean. the sy~,bo" n th
nti" An a I I~ at OCCurs Within a
' ..alIcal uttln .
. <See g Irt... ..
H ......' llte, r'd I 'p"""nl thc' s~ lIables of tndl\ Idual morphe S Of J...IFL (InflectIOn) The node th base. also ~;;.~
"bi,,-h an" !!f\'lI~xThr~ . .~,~eJ dement of a metrical fool. llles. 1" structure tree an d d '
n--o of .. rootl . I <Thc' \H,rd aroun d \\ h'IC h a p h rasa I category is bu', ommates te at ap"" ...~ar, dir "'""'t
~( nse
Hdd (ofa pb...., I I (e.g., 'p erson and number); the const as \Veil as ~~~I~ Under S .
. 1tuents f Uler \ In a
\: .. A. P . rdl The nlL'rpheme that detennine.' the category of th . ·t"reement. INFL IS often abbre .. 0 11-.l'l.. .\. eIi:>al infl . ~
• =- Th' 'oilated t I l""e t\:tl
Hdd (of .. ''''
e""
. .
ern'" 111 gn.·t·/~/7\ ). . .
e entire Inflection e modification of a '>.Or .0 . Pan in 'ub lllt [I.e,
,,,lrd,'.blb'e
(.:" .'"'\ lIal>le \\ ith a rh' me com:umng a long yowel 0
~
suhclass to whIch It belongs (e d S form to Indic Jt\:t_ tI\I
.g .. the ·s in boo~te the ~.. _,.
Hnn' " 'h ' . r a sho
, '. d I> a( lea'( <'Ile consonant. as 1'.\0 moras and is s'd n suhclass) .
\<,"<,1 fc,II<,,\<" ~ " hI ) al (0 be
be:!'" (,-, ,1/'s,1 S~ liable. "elg. . . . .. I n struOlcntal motivation The d . Iltarks U;;.~
, --.i ...... -\n E!!\pua.n plctona1 writing . ~ stem. \\ hlch later d f .\.. e Ire to h \Il1ItaI
HJE'._·~ ... ,ICS ~'. e\'el_ language or Ull Hanan reason . h _ ac ieve T\ .
'
lJX"d tnh);I mi'\eJ \\nung ~~. (enl.
,
.
- , '. ' . ue as Job proficle"",
Integratlye motivation The desire promOtion "') III a .....
K';" A d"1"31 feature thaI ch3r.lcten ze' ·ound. produced with the tongUe . d
language In or er to Panicipate .
to a c l u '
e\e Pm" .
- ..
bod, mised. . ' . . In the . . IlClenC\'·
u ...... -e1 .'"'"m d thaI IS made WIth the lOngue r:used (e." the VOWel cornmumty. SOCIal life of . III a ne..
a __ '0" "..
I ntension An expre ion' inherent ~ . the ~
, JUnd' in b, ,II nd '!.!..It'). . . . . . al SOCIO 'IiDguIStiCS
" . nse theco
Hingana The lapane"" ,~Jlal>at! thaI IS used m conjunctIon with katakan I nteractIOn Soc' Ii ' . . lIcept> that '
and kanji to "rile Japane"" . .. " . a concerned WI. th the I anguage used in 10 ni!Ul>ll It eV1lkes
" . c re>ean:h ,1. __ . •
. J>eech SItu . "I4l IS -..'"
lfistoricaIlinguistics The ImgUl. tiC di"clphne that IS concerned with th Intercostals The muscles betv.een th ·b. allons. -,
- en,thath\
description and the e'planation ,)f language change, e pre -sure neee -sat: tor -peech prodUction. e p t() lllaintain lilt •
u ..........rases lueran,-e. produced b~ chIldren III \\ hlCh one word ex Interdentals Sounds made ith the tongue \'
...-..- . Id L., .,' ed' . ' pres,
the t) pe of meanmg that \' ou l"'Pi~'~()(Jat . with an enttre entence [8], [0]). . ~ p ed~eeulllt_\t.&..
m adult pen-h (e.g., up u. cd to mean ' c" me up ).
B_gplIon" The nUaUl)!1 m \\ hich a ,ingle foml ha. two or more enu' I . Interfaces The ~ a~ - 10 \\ hi h componen' of
~ Ib' a. o ....la I orgamzauon:
", re~ phonolog~ and ~, -uta:· re rehted I ea h other. a ~
distinct meaning (e.g.. (' /I club 'a blu~t
treapOII' ), Interference t T fer,
1IJpe.0H IKtion . ouree of languag change that occurs \\ hen a peaker Interlanguag "M;mn,~

wbo i attemptmg to peak another language or d:ale..:t overgeneralizes at .1 p.liti 'ulJ.r '0
JIII1icuIar rules. Intermll r c nlru 'Ii n
A bounded. right-headed metncal foot (e,g .. ('ol/c( I). l)tl th nal. i· 'f 1l1Ofph4.)prtO
A 'gn thaI bears ome re emblance to it. referent (e.g .. a Internltti nil Ph n tic
of a woman on a \\ hroom door). 'ril m Ih' Ul d f
medIod of leaching a econd language to children in \I hich 1 n. H
IR....". most of their course and. hool actl\itie, 11\ the larget
PI h ",..., ...""'"
rd m run
uni ersal of langua 'C "htdl pe ·Itic. that
...., uupb the presence of nother (hut I1<lt \ 1<'<'
rb that
In that " ' -...111
in me language (uch a rec),
 ~hich are from Lalin
IndIrectly through F . Maoy \ c
. L' rench uch • )
"Irl\" &y.... C.l 1... fit ... I rom attn. IIr '''nte 1lI"'Ilht ".
Lax vowel A vOwel th . "lher ~"IlI. Ita~t
'nl (h.lt dvt.·~ not pt.·rmit cxtfm:tion of a compone
Island \ 1.:t.)lI~Utu.~ hr:.l'l.' lillo' D,I1'e ami Pam). n1 Part
tn re Iat'lveIy Icss vo'caat"nt
.
I
d
Ira a e"'-lt'"a I
llIan,..
."" I,. h...
~ ~
~·l"".-
l'" C' I CllllrJ.O.IIt; r "I Jhlec( map [0 represent bOllndarie b bur). Ct consln' . P ae<~ --.. ~
c:.~ L Iut.' Jr..l\\ n lHl ~ S Ctwe - • Cl\(>n ( "'"01, f
lSOft'os'
.9.'

.
•
en Learrung strategies Th e·g ..th•• lhe ~>n
JI.llc. .· ts .. h' ( IS nol known (0 be related to any oth . uage input and develo e. Way, in whi ~'>".I ...~"'-_
,,,.,I..,t' '. B'.
.\ I ml!uag L r .1
<l"C Kutcn,,')'
.
.
Cr hVin
g Left-headed unboundnPdlflngul~tic k.no eh langua. '~'IlI1lItir~
lancua!!~ (t:'.,g:.. .), L' ll''''U'laCS \vhose words tYPically consist of h ea d'IS Iocated OVer th~ OOt Wltd·e I..",. --
• I uug-es d e 4:: ) (M only 0 I An Unbo ge. -'><1'\ """'.
',olatinll "~ll . ", c'lilcd analylic languages e.g., andann). ne Length The aUditory e eftntOSt SYllabi Unded llIe" , ....... l.-
I h propeny e (e ".tal f ~
tn(lrphctn< (al.
JaJ'jlon \"""oulal) p"
'culiar to some field (also called oee •
Upatiolla) sca e t at ranges from h of a So .g., pr(,,,,· '"It
in
Lesion Severe damag s on to long. und that ena~l\e I. ~ a.e
socioleell. . As 'mptotn of severe cases of Wernicke's aphasia in . Lexical ambiguity T~ to the brain. e~ u, 10 P~ .
JaJ'jlonaphas'" .. ,> Pry few real words of the language. wh'ch form has two or mOre e result of hO It <lit ,
"
thc 'p"Cc 'h conlalnS ,e
word for the Ch' h
mese c aracters used t nt0Ph
Kanji The Japanese
.
0 Write Lexical category ThemeanIngS, either r ~ny Or PolY\e
adjective (A), and pre Word·level sYnta:tatedor nOl. Illy inlhat, ......
Japanese. J ' ese syllabary that is used in conjunction With h' . diff' POSI\1on (1') Ie Cate . -......
K takana The ap.lO . ,rag ana LeXical USlon Lin ' . ' gone~ nOll
aand kanji (0 ~Tile Japanese. d gUISltc ch n( ')
wor s and then gradual\ ange that first . . ,~tI\! (\I
Ke,- See RadIcal
I
. . d'
~ alUre that charactenzes soun s articulated With language. Y spreads thr manlfe,>!, itscl
Labial A pace e one Or Lexical gaps Gaps in th I . oUgh the V"",I.. f Ot '-'
. e eXlcon h -""'IIiary 0(
both lips. d' ade with closure or near closure of the lips (e or contact WIth another c i t at resuit fr ~
Labials Soun, m .g., the Lexicalization The proc U ture. om technol~ .
. "a1 sounds of eall, !zan and !flail). .
IflIt]
Labiodenta s
1 Sounds involving the lower hp and upper teeth (e g h
.) . " t e a language (e.g .. the co~~!~h~~e~y concepts are enc
. ~
. "a1
~h rou
nds ofj;reedom and )!./Iltage .
' h ' d by the word roil). molton' and 'manner~lbe""GI
. I' Sounds made with t e tongue raIse near the velum and th LeXIcon A speaker's mental d' . ~-....
LablOve ars d t the same time (e.g., the initial sound of wOllnd) e · properties mlCltonary
lips wun e a d ' . . I d . h th bl d - . th e synt acuc ' ,W h'Ich contains' '-
. al A laminal sound IS artlClI ate WIt e a e of the tongue. language's words. ,eanlng, and phonolOgiCal lIIfOlllllliaa . .
Lanlln b'oprogram hypot h ' Th e IlypO th·· . '1 anties
eSls th at Slml .
eSls
Langus,ge e'nect linguistic universals both in terms of first langu
am
ong Light syllable A svllable wh
.
rh
ose yme c .
~
creo es r ' d . age one mora and i said to be light (S onlatns a lIloe. ...
. 't'on and with respect to processes an structures which are innate.
acqulS] I ' .
Lingua franca A third lan"uag~ ilifft also Syllablt-....
Language Contact A source of language . 'hh
chang.e that IOvolves the speakers f
k f 0
a IS used when
different I anguages comeeinto~ contac ~_S\l(",_
one language frequently interactlOg Wit t e s~c.a 'ers 0 another language.
Laryngeal features Features that represent. vOlcmg states. each other' language. t and are not fully -_1111
Laryngeal node The node ?f the feature hIerarchy from which branch out Linguistic competence peakers' ab'\itv
the features that capture vOlcmg states.
Larynx The boxlike structure located in the throat thro~gh which air passes
during speech production, commonly known as the vOlcebox.
· , d I 'J to \IIldIt:e
un1mute number of utterance. including
Linguistic typology An approach to Ian::
- ••
1Il
language' accordmg to ilieir tructuIal C11111C1. . . .,. .fIii
-1•.
Lateral A manner feature that characterizes all and only varieties of I. genetic relationship .
Lateral fissure The tissure that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal Linguistic uniwrsals Structural clw4'
ud parietal lobes. language, of the world.
LIIRnIlricative A lateral sound made with a nalTOW enough closure to be Linguistic The di ciplinelllallllll. . . . . . .
dauified as a fricative. Lobes ub~tructure' of tile caeIIIl
1.£ .......".. The unilateral control of cognitive functions by either the dlstlllet re. pon ibilities(e.g. . . . . . . .
Cll'dIe riJllt side of the brain (c.g., languagc is latcrali/cd to the left
Logographic writiD&
I,. . . . . . .re in most people).
mnrpheme or even emiae
SouDda made with the sides of the tonguc lowcrcd (c,g., varieties
l.ongitudioalllssure .,......
the back and sep.....
Buglish morphemes of classical origin thc majority of
 1·· .....······1"J • H \Or I"e ';E;~---------- _ _ _"",,;;:
Mcr~er A chan"e ' Or etlntent Ih
"{ l" TIC ...
phonemes collapse'
eo tn a h at·
P "no", "\'gn.,
j
90...
'Or'" of a _... Olllld thai enable." lh t ~tl:a\ ~In'¥
1''''''< - . that language, . into on e, therchy . ..
L . '
... rhc 4tH J I.I l " ,. . . ,ft (ll loud. Q pIaCe it on
>Y\ICtn "y,
J.oUd~
/' . . fhal r:ulg\.·... tn."n . to 'hanu..-(cril'cs , -o\vds made with the t Mcsolect A creole V'I ' re<luCln. thin "'hi,"
~'t
:J ..... ;1
I.. • {lin' (h~tt I..
\ Jdf':.11 h.'.I.
..' hi '
. 'mfal po-sltlOn In t C ora cavity,
Qngue h.... •
VUQy terms of the amount ' nety f' th lit >il, c • e nu, ..~ '-
10M J tnllli al.t: h h I "
Mctacogmhve strategi olnflu enee Irouct\li etn 'n Il\~ __
" -ch 'lnH'rt' h ·... m.tdt." wit [e tongue Owered (e g h
Jt.. UDI. ~. \ \tn\\.·' r ~I( I , ', l e Vo es Le· , 111 Ihe
d e lI'b erately '10 L2 learn' \\Crnl
10M HUH' rJ t',1f dnd I!l£ Wei ,ng orrllng >tr' 'tondard. <:ct 'Ill!
' ' lllWJ... w ch'" \\~l n ... -:rmn~la(jng from one language. SUch as En . Metaphor The underst " ategle\lh.t l""lIta "
lt
-h 'n e tra"., lutlO h" French. using a computer_
~. "UI.· "IS h . ghsh, to times responsible fo' ~ndlng of one "'eult(j~ ...
terms of 'war': She a~'l~nguage chancnncePt In Ie
, ..., J .'
. a"orh,'r IJn!!UJ!-' die/ionar) A dIctionary t at appears In cOmpUte -.....,,,,,
'\ •...
·hin.,..readable . llinu checkers and thesauruses,
/' ,nd ,n 'I'" " th
I' form
. Metathesis A process t~ ' lared hiln in ~~ le,g, 'arg;' <>1 ,
- u 'h .f' !har ,"
.\ , featur e s '
Fe'ltures that represent
I
e claSses
conson Saxon a [ks]iarr becam at reorders a e debale), Il\tnr UIll1t...~
'f8J'or
.-
da.<s . 'd glide. and vowe '
. 'II itqUl . d
ant, Metrical reet Units ore ask;, Old EnDli \heqU~nce or """011 ..
ot" [flJ,,n1. n.1', . A secondary strategy use to recOnSt metnc I . b \ b"d ._. '"&Il\c:
' / stra teg) d ' h rUet P an d o ne or more associat a structure ~arne b nl; Ie"

a,
<
\'8J·oril.' ru es,
' .•at -npulate.
. lhal the segment Joun tn t e majority of
c (S I Ph Cog n
rOto_ Metrics The study of st cd unstressed SY1~On\l\ting o{ "d ), ,
t<)mlS u . S d be the proto-Iorm, ee a so ooetic pI ..ates ess
should be assume W aUSlbllity Mid vowel A VoWelth:t Placel11ent. ables, r.n....
(e,g"t he vowel sOUnd inISmade \lilth ' the 10 '_
srrateg)',) Features that represent manner of articulation,
\fanner features h ode of the feature hIerarchy from which bran h
Minimal foot See Dege s£r), ngUe neilher rai~
- ner n ode Ten0 manner of arncu/atlOn
.\fan " , c OUt Ihe Modified input Simp\i~e~ate fOOt , ~~
!hat relale I 'fi' also Foreigner talk. ) Ie speech direCted
featun:. . uJ tion The vanous con IguratlOns produced by ,,
M o dillier An OPtional elem at nOn n .
Manners of artIe a e velum, and glottis in different ways (e POSition_ - a~ve S1lo>l._
ing the /lpS" wngu . ,g" nasal, in that blue car- thaI GI enIt that deSCribes a p ' --n. Uet
fri carive ' .IIqu rd),Those characteristIcs " h ' , ona Ike ' ropen
t at are conSidered to b Module (psychOlinguistiCS) A S In tile Ca r rhar Gl Yo! a~ (t.c..w..r
Marked trald/ ts niversaJly rarer in languages, e 1110re mous from other processing unit of prOCessing .~~Iikt!).
mp/ex an or u . Th' h h " ' , Units """ IS ltlil!iv.l..
co D' ....erential HypotheSIS tS ypot eSls Jnvestigat Mora ThIS IS the minimal rh th : , -."'J .....
of the syllable, (See also Sy~a:C:~It; itbeiongS10lberb
Markedness U1' k dn I I ' es the
' that the degree of mar e ess pays a ro e In econd la
assumpuon I ' k d f nguage
acqurs' rtwn " by comparing the re attve mar e ness 0 structures in th
eLI Morpheme The smallest unit f I elghl ) YIIIe~
O
and the L2, I 'fi ' meaning or functio n (e g bo k anguage that tarries ;od
Markedness theory A theory that c assl les trab!ts or patterns of languages Morphology The system " , O S ConsISts f ,"-
of cat ' 0 "t<:IWo _'"_ '1lIiIIIiaa
........_""'-
ked (those that are conSIdered to e more Complex a dJ , d- egones and lUI ' - ' " -_
as mar th th ' nor hon an Illterpretation, Its IDvo!vt:d iII ........
'
umvers ally rarer) and un marked (ose at are conSidered to be Iess Morphophon emic rules Rules that
complex and/or universally m ore common). morphs, account for al~
...:
M BUlK An array of features that represents a segment.
, h' h I Motherese The type of peech that is typicaU
Matrix clause The larger p~rase In ~ IC a comp ement clause OCCurs. other adults to young children (also y .....
u_":_ of Manner A princIple that IS thought to underhe the effiCient
,YA&UIII A 'd b' - d use Motor a phasia See Non·fluent &\lbIsia.
of language and is fonnul a ted as: VOl am IgUlty an obscurity; be brier
and orderly. Movemen t test A test used to determine u al!\lllli~'IIIII"
by moving them a a single unit toilWllll:llaa . . . ..
Muim of Quality A principl e tha t is thought to underlie the effiC ient Use of
lurmur The glottal state that produces _ • • ••
IaDguage and is fonnulated as : Try to mak~ your contri bution one that is true,
relaxed e nough to allow enough air to . . . . 1....
(Do not say things that are false or for w hIch you lack adeq uate e vidence,)
whispeI') effect (also called ~
....... oIQwmtity A principle that is tho ught to underlie the effi cient Use
ClfJau&uage and is fonnulated as: D o no t m ake your contri buti o n more or M utual intelligibility The
hetween language and dialcct:
cri&aQa.
_l1li." .
iabmative than required.
A principle that is thoug ht to unde rl ie the effi cient use can be understood by socaltl• •
formulated as: Be relevant. the sa me language.
Nasal A manner fealUle _ _ _
. " ltpCIIC1Jl1C princiJ:lles that ensure that con versational interactions
.,c:r..GJllnlti 1ve Principle. lowered .
 Ohject pennunenee A
ll~lll , .. I H ' ahi lil y 10 n:cogni/,e Iha 'Icvch'PI11~11 (,leI
inlcraction With them I "h"'q, h. Iill ""1 ~_
, Il~ effect (hul a nasal t'on sonaru CU I) I ' . Nl' A nOun .h <lVc iln .~i.'1""• th' "'-
. I'll ..' 11;1,,1 111 l~IVC \,) , Oblique ...
....1I181... n n ,In
Obstrllen t Any non.,P rllSe t\) III c'"n\)' 'I."t<' IIl<It~n't<I
"....,_. 1...
.

'
f "nl \~)n ..·"
..QlJs .'~ 1
h 'luu:h rhl..' 11.1,.1 r·
f t'l\ /t)\\L.'rtlig (he vdulll . allowing ..
.I...".t\-( . 1 IIld., pn.)j.JII~·"'·t
, 1 '-,,'i.lCt.·...
.,
.. )
, all' to Pa!)<,"
11;1\ aClluin.'c.1 a Innguage us a c hi Id in '
.,
Obviative A verh fo~"n(lnUll C\ll\,,, .'ne, "'ilh.
referred to by Ihe ve"b u'co In ,"~I.'nl: trltill;' pr<\I<"ttl
l1
1'<:, .j" lilt
"'e-
I I ..._
.lithe spt,at,.,t·r
Olle \\ l(
,
tl n 'll
~ uri.\! Ihe conversallon. , r I, n ·..c I"
(Se I' (It thc e"l' n~Ua~e ·" lir...,.·
Vc\ ' '>n
. . I e a ~() p Ily n hI I . ~ ,....,
OCCIpita lobe The a' . ' rllXilllat .. rcVillU I "dl'Olt '.:"'Ib...
'1
,trim:,
.,c.: ..
. h I ' "ftam granlll1Htl(;ai
I"~ \ Il'\\ ( .1 Lt, h knowledge
t' is inborn ,
'1 h ' leaoflh e hrainC,)
N at il-isH.
ll· ..
Ie..' \ d;t." . 0 t" •suunds Ihul s ares a Ci.-Hurc Or fe <'ll Liles ' ( w11IC 1 t e VISual COrtex' ,
'Yt\)
"It" <iii1.'>\ ...' ....,..e..;.
lun" ('I"", e,g" Old information See C~s IOC,ltcd, III Ihe rCar
, Words -\Ven i t' III lh
tho: r,-;. ..
a\lliccJ ShIp'), 'h An approach
investigating child In
(O
Onomatopoeic W ,n orlllati\l t a"~ular
. " Hpproj)(
NatunahstJ( 'rve and rccord Ch'I Id rcn
I.. .
' "S Sp o ntanCQngUagC
.
'
111 that they name (e g I ortl, Ihut hav ~ &Y,,- It\
which n: .,t..
. -.. "·Il\.'hcr:-. O"M.: liS verb. .11 ' ..• I' Ill' hi c '''Cn
Onset Wllhin a sy llabi ' Ss), crcalcdl
/><'h.1\ ill"'." '.' . th 'l! guides language reconslruction by d I
eac 1 nucleus th at do , ' e , the I(lngCsl Se ""'undlikt.h.
Natural ne. • ·
\ CfllL'1101i ' Ctcrrn'
·"·Ing..:s arc nawra/. Ill. ' question (e. es not, qUencc ()f tlln"'n '''III;..
iJl~ \\'helh<.'r or n<llCC'III'S uhoul grammaticality glea ned by I language In Violate Ihc ......
. 'dcncc c, ," anglo ham. sfer). g" hq fOrll), lh Phllnl\tuCllt ilIIl\ll)tho:t....
NegaUl'C e\l b',sis of whal IS mIssing or ungrammatica l in th IUgc '<Cl or
karners on Ihe "5::' 1/1'0 Positive evidence,) c data O pPOSI. t'Ion See Contrast C (In'Ct I'
n lhe tlln,,~,
F.ec "","" or lilt
'1 hI' to Ihem. (. " I , (; I 'N'
, "I'nnovation (C.g .../l'< /Ocraey In ewtound land E
Oral sounds SOund, P;A IItId "I~
a\al 'ma < A lexlC.1 ngh.Sh) throug h tbe nasal passag
rV\lUccd . iii
NeoIogJs
I . . . .
.• 'nformtllion. proccsslI1g units ot the nervou ' " "'llh lhe I
N urons The ntlSlC I S sYstclll . C cut off Ve UIll .
e .. 'ct nern' cells. . , ' Orth ograph Y A sel o f ' ral!icd and
also c?"~. The scientific :;tudy of the brain. convenlions r the IbrR...
"orm. . Or represe ' _ ....
NeuroscIence. Know/edge tbat is introduced infO tbe discours f Overextension A develo nllng \ang",_ .
NeM' informatIOn e Or the 'ld' d . Plllental ph, "'"t;" In "'"'--
Ch IS wor IS mOre gene I ,enoll)cnnn in h' .. _
lirsltime. . r 'd 'lddress t'I'ms h' , d It f ( ra Or Inclu ' '" Iththe
No-namin#! The prac/rce 0 avol IIlg, "~. w en parlicipants arc a U orm e.g .. daddy Used to f liVe lhan lhat r ~II("
unsure which term to lise, Overgeneralization A dcvel re erto any adult Illal 0 the~-
~
Node S,'I' Class node. . '. , ,.' . overIy b road application of aoPlllenlal I Phenolllenone),that
Nomna I J paradiom " The set 01 n:latcd fOlm s assoctated wtlh a noun (aso I Palatalization The ef1'ecl lh~ ef;~!·,falled instead O!ft~ fnIta lit
called a dec/ension). , typtcally have on velar. ahe I, . VOwel, and the ...,_.•
NOD-lIuent aphasia Aphasia that result~ irom damage to parts of the brain . I . 0 ar. and dental " - ......
arttCU anon more palatal (e.g th' f . \lops.IIIakiac ...-
in front of the central sulcus .Illd that ts c~araclenzed by slow, effortful Palatals Sound produced \\Ct~h l~,"'l \\lundo! ~episnallhl:.....~'
speech production (also called ~otor llphasla). Th hi h c t()ngue on or '--.otII).
Palate e get pan of !he rool' (If the 11CIr ...........: ; . _ . _ , . .
NOD.'exica' category See Functlona! ~ategory. .
Paiato-aiwoiar (area) The area JUst be~'
Non-tenrunaJ iDtonation contour RtSlIlg or Ie~el Intonation at the end of
an utterance. often signalling that the utterance IS IIlcomplete.
roof of t~e mouth n harp\) (also calledlid tile IheoI.r
Paragraphia An ~rr(lr In \\nting SOC-Wida
OUD (N) A lexical category Iha! typ.ica~ly names entities,. can Usually be
inflected for number and possesston (Ill English), and functions as the head Parameter Th~ ~t f Itemativ for a \lIIIicaIIr"'."
of a noun phrase (e.g., k"I', Boh. fl1'I'CI'plioll). ,1\ ,\tlahk h) t.:ni\cr al GrilIl\l1lartoiDdi'fllllll

Moyement A IranstiJrlnation that moves a noun phrase into the SUbject Pnraphrase, 1\\ 1 ntences thal have ...
--.'
poation. tl'.g..I,::,,!' Ila,\ written bv Gotdw
. . . . . . (N) A vocalic element that Ii mils the core of a syllahk (c,g., Ihl' •I- l/.I"
I.
lel i the nucleus of the tirst syllahle 01 Pli/ric/..) . l'nril'lal loht>
(Pronoun drop parameter) If' a language allows Null ,\t , l t h ' tl mporallobe
lit...... subject noun phrase may ne omitted without r,'ndering till' Pill' l'r \ d \I that
• pptopri Ie label of .....1&l1li_
lDOIphoJogicaJ category that expressl's contrasts involving I'~r ing The illpect
•• 4111"~ ( ,. in English. the two way distinl'tion netwl'l'l\ I the aualy
f ilts 5~yDUlcac 1_ _
 I'honolo l(icul s keletOn '
't , • t I J It ... \)I" m() hl ~y T he COln ,~ " ,. Sk~I.\
principles thai dC\e POlle1l1 "I " "I]
. \ IHtl'1"hlhlgl '"'~lf p n.l\.'l.',,,"' Ih •.tt duph . . . all~s ) .. Phonotuclics •
T he.rn11nc 1low \ ()' grO t
' l1\h\ilt
Pard,.' n'CII",Iit.'urwn I • ( . b' III J:1t!.lIl1~. IlIl.bllll 'run' and Iu/ ~;llt or lh~ Se\ 01 C lind, nl.~
N'''''' h' ~\ hh,'h HII''' I"" u 'll/r ',viII Phruse level T he 111 ' 111l' lr"I/I\ P,,\\.,. '
C\nCu" l Iev(.', un''''I hq". "In·ij I "I,,~
t.
,IS repreSen ted. "It.~_
nUl') , \ t1hlf11htlll l!! i...,.JJ pnl\,"t,.'" (hal Ill.lrks .1 gr"
Parti,.' 1'1 h,' rfl~ p. ,,1 ",f .I
IliliU",,'t·tU)11 fIlll r r1k"lI1l' (l.'.~ .. thi"k/lhou~"t) . anttl1~ttiC~lI
\'hrnse One Or 'nore WIlIth I <>1 -" ....
p _ . • I• ' I' , Ir<~
"l'Utr.I .. r \ h . • \ ,,,'lHl'lh.'-l' III \.\. 111,,: 11 IIH.' noun phra.'iC' hearing the
WOl'd, lh'
\ wo eVe S, .1 phrase leVel , ,Il 'Ire hu I 'P4tlt~,D1ll....
_""
Pa"';u' ,,'nlt'II""- ,, - '".- 1 (l.' ,Co .• 1I1f' Il'por! wax 1'rt.'I'ar('d 11\"It .. lhelile II,,' "pple, Bob, h"rried I ,ll1d a Word I' \ '''\lund. . I~& \l(~
I'\,It.. I' t.'lh,y,h'd I'''U .I'" .. • «. o"""itree "hr"se structure rule () class) , cVel, anu: 'k<I'''If\' '-~
mMn). . . ... III \\ hk h the meaning of a \Vord bec phrase (e,g" XP -. S A ,~Ie of grll 'I"" ~n, ' -
•
Prjttn,wn I h...• 1'1'''-''''' .
11 U,cd hl mea fl simp Iy '"gil" ). onlcs' Ics~ "hyl" The groups ( peclhcr) X) IlI111afthai ~\,' ~\lI
"" «(.',c Jl t'nf I' h "slocks
, ""me placed . (alInlo whi Cll'- PlIrp' '\"1.,\h,"()Il]
't'
I:" ,>1/1," ,', ', ,,) The s\ lIahk he ore l every "Ist Olle ill 'I \ t ..
(.r~l n) t: II u' . vOrd
,'ictogrnms PiClOI':'l~o called Super~ltnCdly rel"lcd ""'~\lI
13ft' . .
Pt'nll '" \ IIH)fl' ' I H) I~)~·iI..,·,1 l,;,IL'.:on Ih:1l Iyr '''' y ISlingll ishes, '!l
'I ' 0
'~l'rl ' (Ihe aduresse ) 'Inu IOno
....
' , • Icpresc Oeks)~1l] . ,
""rson
Ii I '
It'r'~lll (f h..' 'IX' .
Ihl' Sl't'l1l1d
~.
persoll
h d' 'f' e • ..
'- e- l e
lilc U . Pldgm A speech variel ' ~tU\iol1' of 0', cnndllll
U-..I I ·
l1rrL""~(lU (jf1.\(lUl t
, 'bL'l (<, .g" 111 f:l1g h' h, I e If erence belween I , llrd
• .'0ll. ~llld
dIfferent languages Y lh'll dCVCln bjtq, tlr e'. ~
languages, , corne 'Ill\t) COO\a "P, \lih el] 'Peale
'eo\, '
{ht 1/1. 'i III fs llIade Ihmug h Ihe modifil'atlon of airllo\ ' , , Th e ~YSle rn of " 'r, \If lWQ or
Ph .• "nn""8/' . '" ,. rht..' h)lJ ,l!; LJC ()r CO n .slrrCllllg
. " I " In e lo Pmym
'C\ UOd d
0 nO\ I.
a.,..
hln 11\ In n.•tr.ll. . -rinc I '1(, pharynx.
... .. h uscd fOr Such thi ngs a Wnll ng MaOdun, n\l\\ ~ ~
P '-
Pharl n\ 1'/' ' " '1 "f Ihl' Ihi'll" I helween
1C.. iHt:. . II " e IInl. _
i.l and Ihe laryn\
I' ' T he aUdi tory 'propc
S streel " n With -ooq-
• • . eh 'Inil'''1s u",~d h) aluma s speclilca I) lor <'omlla " ' Pitch . Igo, and hr'Uld a IlIOdifted I
Phl"lTm()n~,'j ( tnh.:U l IVC that ranges from low to h7 of a SOUnd thule nalll."
Y -"tin ~
Place features Feature. h ,
gh nahle\ u, \0 pi
pU'1'<,,,\',s , , , IUlld USl'd 111 hUlI1all lang uage (also called a speech so
Phone I 11.\ " , 'h' , ,,' , , ' u nd ), Stat rep <lCt II
rh' phonolo",cal 1II111 11110 \\ Ich PICdlllahlc varnllls f' Place node The nOde of h' ' rc,enlplace f . . 0Il'1tIIt
Phone-mt' l: l:' • T. I' h ~ , 0 nOn t e leuture hl
l',mtr.b I'·, e"lIll'lIl', art' g rouped (e,g .. 111 leng
1\ l ' ".
IS ,III and III bclon g to the- major place features erarc: anlcUlu\llI!\,
i Irnlll \\hich ~
- ,
pho/lt'llIt'II;), , Places of a rticulation' Th, ' .
Phonl.'nll'(' paraphasia Specch errors Ihat result fmm phonemic Sll
' hSlIllI_
' to produce different soun~POIOts a\ \lhich th' ' tl!l __
'
lion, ;lIId llnll,sS/(lIl,' (C ,!! , ,1/'(1,,1/ ilia) he pronouncl'd as 1'0(11/ l, Plural A COntrast assOCiat~'d ' e UII\\Itatncanb:-..,
' , e \\nh th ___
Phonetk determinll'hl' The pa~'1 of a Chinl'''' characler Ihal provides an d assoCiated Wllh noun ' th' , e nJOrphlll al
intilrllwlion ahow IhL' pronUIlL'I.llIllll or Ihe eorrl'spolldtng morpheme • ' f s Ut relen l oOi
• C ca!Pa.-,
Pohteness ormulas \\'U\S 'h' (U group, --&"-, Qf-...
. ' IU \I leh re ___
Phonetic phlU,sihilit,r ~lralcJ.:.l Thc pri l1lar~ slr.lIeg) llsed 10 rl't:o n:~truc '
dIrect (e,g" Could You ,hul I d quest, 01 com",..,
pnl/o-ti>nm; il rl'4Iml'~ a,l1) sound c hanges poslIed to he pho netica l! I ~ Th ' IIC OUT ') in to • A . ' -_ _ . . . .

plausible, (St'<' ,,1.1-0 MIIJorll~ 1'1111',\ slratcg,l , ) ,

Polysem y eitu3tion In \\h' 'h ' ...... of S"," rlItA.._. _
Y I " ' I~ a \lord has tv; __
Phont'tk sound change A '('II/Id change thaI rl"ult, III a Ile\\ a llo pho ne of (c,g" mg It ' \ntelhgent', brl~hl \hin" oorlllllt ......I.......f~
i>ol)s)'nthetic language Lan»'
an a1read) t'xi,ting phOnt'llll',
PIIouetkaJI.' condlliom'C/ sound change S(lund l'hance thaI heg 'I11 ,
~ ' . - s as
lo~g stm~g., ot Ie Icale3tl'gllne and In
"
01 an l'ntm: "C11l'n 'e in EnglLh(e
gu3ge
tng ),
affiIlObich .in
_ .... .....
lnukti'ofIta ...._ .
1_,.
ubde a1lera,jons in Ihe ,S(lllnd pattern 01 a la nguagc' In pan lc ular phonctic
cnvironmenls, J·osithe e,idence E\lde~~e obtai~ b ~
I'loaecks Th~ br.tnl'h ot' lingu/.\IIl" thaI naill/nl's the inVt:nlory and --.,_.~. .
fllr llled 1Ilh'r.ln,' II) whIch they are actually
IfnIcture oflh~ sounds of language,
.....1fnpIJk wrltinJl A I) pe of \\Tilillg in \\h,ch S) Illhol s Il'plesenl
qiIIbles or 5egmenls,
.......... da8JJie A sound change Ihaf rt'slIlts in 11ll' addition , l'llIllina
IeIITaIIg m nl of phonellll" (l'.g .. splils, Illl'rgc IS L
........ Iype of al'\julfl'd d)"Il' ia ill \\IHeh 11ll' palienl
the abilily to USt spdlill ' to -sOU lid rult's anti can onl)
or h n before,
rhal denv phonelic rl'pl("<'lIlallon, Imlll untlt'I-
ling for allemalions amnII' allnphnnl",
 use V I Will en \ WithOut an hlC r~1
rFA~p("",~ \ lINl.;L 1:->' II .. en tl. ly. (S ee a Iso 0 bViati"oven ' uhil!<;lu'llf
. I htc
°adlca. I Th e pan of a Ch' .e.) hnd'It~le"n~ .rl;,j ......
_q
lhra .. l.· and (k.:cur.. betore irs complement (c.g .• int
P~P',·"I(jlln:tl morpheme s meaning (al . . ~e Char. .ltrt""'~'"
I" • lne "itt 111ft
I 0, \Vi/h.
lilT ' : . charJc[Co,rjc of certa in no n- li.nguistic approaches t Readmg . Th' e mterprelatio~o Call ed a \(eaC",r Ihal .... '" ~,"',
Prt":scnpfH t' A ' .. k t 1 pR~."L'ribc o ne syste m In preference to an 0 &rUrn_ Real world knowled ge F~ fO r a pan/I)' pr')'i~
act~ ....... tl~
mar rn rh.l( rh(.·) "c:' l
Desc ipth e ) . f' ,.
Other. (See
do not I aug h and rOcks do . """PIe -u kn ar uller~n . li).
ab" -: .r The ""umption or be"e Imp led by the use of a . knowledge.
. A sOurce of I
nOI ~Ieep). "'" a""uI~' ""
\l<,"eQ •If "">rId I
,...."...ppo-.. uon PartIcular ReanalYSIs ~~
\\ (In:lll~ 't~.l.·tur.;:he most prominent ~tress of a w.or~. attribute a compOund Or ro:~gUage Chan I Iletiflt~~ ~
Primsr, sl,.",.,s Is Analysis A hJg hly quantHatJve approach
not broken down Into com '\- affi x \tru ge that In Y"Q~
Pri"CI'"",..- .Compo"e" -
• -h using statistical ' ues th at a I/ow the i to sOc'
tec b n1q . 10_ Rebus principle The ext POnentl1l0fph ClUte III a ~"I~e\ ~
IjlJ£UI.,UI.n~31ar!:!en
~ re . . t:an.:: . u~ber of lingui stic 'variants.. nVeShgator
like the word whose meaens IOn of a sinel1le, (e.g ..•"td lh.1 (I~
10 e ,,,",1 " Th ' principle that cons tra ins the Interpretation of
Principle ..\ d e formulated as: A refl ex ive pronoun mUSt ~efJexive
P
Received ronunciation m,p) nlng th e SIgn · tept
"n to,any ""ltd +~'g.,)
'''''''II... b 'h_
pronoun., an I.' d 't aVe an h· h ' b d Th e\tnltQ . "'4l
- d nr that c-comman s I . . . w IC IS ase On the upper_ e Pre\ti i lnilial\ 1\ PI,%
.anr.ec e ~ The pJincip /e that cons tram s the mterpretation of prono . is generally regarded as re . class ' !leC\:h gfous acee Y. ,
PrinCIple I ted as' A pronominal must not have an an tec d I11Jnals Red uced A dorsal feature lh glonally neUtral °
Ihe nl f)( Il .
'><:luthea, 'Uilb EA••..
and IS form u a -. e ent that at cha ' oI 'Iofl'.!t~~ ._~
c-commands It. . . I . Reduced vowel An (unslressed racteriz.es
.
. . I fCompositionallty, the A p nnclp e underlYmg senten . the tongue in central regio' 0/ n
VOWel prOdu Y'>ChV;a.
PrinClP e 0
pretatJon
. that is formulated as:
.
Th' f
e meaning 0 a sentence is det
art d h .
Ce Inte
. r-
ertnined [l]. (See also Schwa.)
n
%
the l1louth!,Q V;lth thth ~
th
e= .
aning of its component p s an t e manner In which th
~ ed in syntactJc structure. ~~ Reduplication A morpholog ' I
h' h .
Ill>Ou%\c_ Poi1II,
.., ~
base t~ w. IC It applies. (See al 55 that dUplie,,_
ICa proee
D-.~~!!..
~-~
Articulatory adjustments that OCcur during the prOdu t'
. . . /atlOn).
. C I ~~ reduphcation.) So Partial ....., all or
' III
speec h (e .g ., deletion. epenthesIs. asslIm '. f .
Proclitic A eli tic attached to the begmrung 0 a follOWIng Word ( , Referents The set of entities t . ~~~~ ~
'the' in I'ami ·the friend ' French. (See a/so Clitic .) e.g., I cailed its denotatio n Or exten whIch a Word Or ? ...
• 51On ) e\pr~
Productivity The relative freedom WIth whIch affixes can Combine With RefleXIve pronoun A pronoun th . 1C\l!efQ\
bases of the appropriate category (e.g., himself, herselfJ. at mUst have ac-toTnrn."",
............,~ive assimilation Assimilation in whIch a sound influe Regional dialect A peech Vanet . '-..uJ&~
• 'V5'~ -d-g I'd
.
following segment (e.g., Jlqur I e d eVOlcIng).
. nCes a
(e.g .. 1 Tev.foundland Engli hl. Y'POken Ina P<Uti.CUlar~
Pronominal A pronoun whose interpre ta tion may. but does not have t b Register A peech Variel. appropnate. ...
detennined . th e same sentence (e.g., he, her ).
by an anteceden t In 0 e'
fonnal v ca. ual . to a panlcu\ar ~
Pronoun A word whose interpretation can be determi ne d by an th Register tones Le\el tone \hat 19na}. ~-_
element (an . th e same sente
anteceden t) In . nce (e.g., him she them 0I er
herself). ' , se Yes ,
R egre iYe assimilation I1ni~ ~arung diff~
. . f· t on In which
Pronoun drop parameter See Null Subjects.
precedmg egment (e.", .. ill e a __
r..a
--It
ma~ become [p1in anti, ipati n of the ~'die
Prosodk morphology A theory that highlights th e ways in which Prosod'
0 ogl'ca I proces~es.
. . morphI
units condwon IC in the phra e r!tar pen [ <rp penl _ P 'dIe _ ....~
ProIodk properties See Suprasegmental properties . Related langua e L guage that deve\opcd III.
......lorms Fonns of a proto-la ng uage, written with a precedi ng asterisk ",e.
to indicate their hypothetical characte r.
.....European The proto-lang uage from which evol ved most of
JMsuaBes of Europe, Persia (lran )_ and th e northern part of Ind ia.
A language reconstructed th rough the me thods o f hi,tor-

'DIe best exemplars of a conce pt (e.g .• rohins Of magpie, are

_ .... - coacept ·bird').
uti 11 t
lana used in some languages to indi cate th a t the suhjccl h. mg trnph
 wking on tt' ncw~ o ft en rela .
c uslOlnary ), tl'< t. IHl~'
.
Semantics Th e Study <>1 . '"'11\"e I . I,
C
" t"· , Th · n1 C;'IJHn . l • "t" .,
Se mJO ICS
R\ l' (l"
,c stUdy <>1 'i ~ I" V III h"'II' '''''''1 ~
C.
111
) :1 If'tlf)(' ,HhHl rh.u " , 1I11 1.~.~ng.l"r.Il~.rI~tlnc.d, . Sensory aphaS Ia See 1<'1 ." " 11 101\. ~~,
.. Urr-'llll r l'h ' /nptllh t.·"' " th.H l..I~olt::\ .tll,: I..lr~cly fC lonncU
'Se((uentta ' I . C h. ange SOund U""l" c ~'I"\i"
c VIl"."
... .....
.......
Rrkt.;n...·Jlrj(UlJ' (t."p I :h""...... ·1 -lit ,) t 1c..' \l c.:tJ Item .... rcrulJ1rng the gr'llll oVer lime
1
(; . l • mar . (c.g .. asslmllall~n). h~nge th"t
IhmughIn)llJ IlL \\ III\.," h 111,' •, d<,\ " lllp"d. h
01 the Shift A change In a phon I . 11I'II\v_
rh,fgtn.. \ I >rphll ll)~" l ca l p r ocess l at slIb."ililUlCS systema t ·Ica II y l11odified. () ogle'aI 'Y\l. "' . "tilt
. nl I n, ~, .. . One
Replat t!'nlt' .
h ~Ilill.: ,,- gmt:
'Ill III a \\ o rd by a nolher (c.g .. .\lIlg/W,Ulg).
, _ 1'1'
nOn_ olher .IS a I tered (e.g. the GSo th·at th clreln II I "'hieh ar
morr ( . . ('r.lphic p re."'iC' lI wlJons 0 eaturc Ch~lngcs. Stride~ts V" r~anl /~tl
.. ......."'''''')1''
.. n.. ,
....p ·l ·h'L r 01 ,Id<, I'IV . I' h
. ~ ILh cr " ur mg L e ,tongut! .
. back into th
LIp e rn
S ibilants See
. .
rcal l-'. ngli\h
h'W.\ . 111\ ~
"\tnt ...
"'1 Ph.,\ha

.... ,n>h "unl.:h 1ll L! Ih t.:' I"""''''

eo upI.varus and bac"
. m.
Lhe mouth
' OOth Sign A unll of eOlllmu . . .
. f" d nlCatlon
t Shih Ith r r..:,"<1llt"
I. \l<q
,'r >. \ ~, P" of we<l)..enmg Lhat typIca lly Involves the eh', signr ler an SOmething " '. strUCtu
. slgnlhed re th.
b, t>-L
.....
Kholacl., m , < nge of [1.1
Signal A sIgn that triggers a : d' CIIII"
Ir~. .
I"
RholaclzatlOn
-\ n>wel articulnti on with r.eolouring.
f
traffic lights). SPeCIfic aCti \I I 1,\ '''''
. R l The nue/eus nnd the coda 0 a syll ab le (e.g .. [u:tsl in th Signilied The real WOrld oh' e "n"ll \hepanllt, '~ '
Rh.~m" ( e Word conceptual Content. J Ct that a sign he r<:qIVtr
boof, l. . h' h
Right ear a d ~ ·antaue
., The phenomenon 111 w IC people
. with la nguag . Si,mifier That part of a sig h repre\ellts a, It,
the left hemi.'phere ho:ar speech louder and clearer wHh the right ear. e In ,., . n t at Sl' , "'til
recei vcr of a message. . Irnulale\. '" lht 0-
. h h ded unbounded foot An unbounded metncal foot in h' all tall ..,
RIg t- ea . W Ich th Simple vowe I s VOwels that d eJnct.en
head is located over the nghtmos l syllable (e.g., col/eCI). e during their production (al 0 not show a It I"&an 01 JI._
Root (of a word) The morpheme 111 a word thal carries the rn . so Call d ne>tICea\)1 ...
sounds 0 f cg,b and gel). e lllonOPh h e chan
mponen t of the word \ meanIng and belongs to a leXical C'lteg aJOr - that con lOll11,<i ) Ie.~elnllll>l'"
co . .
'ol/ecl in the word collec/IOn.I).
' ory (e
.g .. Simple word A Word ,.... __,
Ststs of . ....... v
R~t (of the tongue) The pari of the tongue that is contained in the u Singular A contrast aSSOCiated . a Single llIo"'h
. d . With the ." ellle(
Il'IItI
part of the throat. . PJlCr and associate with nouns that f mOllJhnloo' e.g .. fro'l
Root node The highest node of the feature hIerarchy. (eV .
Skeleton . -tier) A sequence of tia~lngleentity.
re er to· ~tCal calt e)
g<l!yCJ!1ItIt!iber
Round A p lace feature lhat characterizes sounds made by prOtrud' syllable structure and segmental st mlng \1Osltl on\ ..
lips (e.g .. [:) /. {w /). ' . Ing the Slang Informal or faddish Usages o~cture. llledtiUlng ,
Rounded (sounds) Sounds made wu h the lrps protruding (e g [ 'J Social network analysis An app ahnguage.
[:))). . '. u .• [0) ,
the researc h er ·tS a panlclpant.ob\ '. roaCtoocr· 10 tngul\tic ~
S Rule the The phrase structure rule that states the COmpOSI'tl' . , vanauon " .In tenns of therver
•
sentence: S~ NP Inn VP.
. on of a lingulsuc k' of a '''''' ",,-.al YIlIlp atId ~_
--"1111\"""-'.

experienced b) peakers. e md\ and dens~ or __

Schwa The lax vowel that is characterized by briefer duration than
the other vowels (a lso called a reduced vowel) (e.g .. the underlined any of
I Social stratification The differenll t'
. . , a ton of lanl>l .. _ .
~
' " bOl/al/o. po/a·e. S!!ppose ).
m amid. vOwe s vertlcal conUnuum of OI:lo-economic tatu c,;~ V1fiaiea .......
Seeood Ian~age-acqujsjtjon (SLA) The acqUIsition of proficiency' S o ciolect A. peech \ ariet) 'poken b~ a s.
· not one •s IiIrst Ianguage.
language that IS In a parti~ular .·oclal characteristic Such as oc~ of \lCIO!IIt ... _ _."~'
Secondary stress The second most promine nt stress of a Word. age. ll-ecooomic _., .....
SepneataJ change Sound change that invo lves the s implifi cation f S ociolinguit.ics The t~d) .of\he SOCial8Speclsof-""
complex consonant (e.g.. deaffrication). 0 a Song In .In an c,mUllumcatlOn, length~ e ....
......u Individual speech sou nds. , (mild. . labonte llll
.
broadening The process in which the meaning of a W d Sonorant A maJor cla~ feature that
~ " . .. or
8 more mcluslve than lis earl ICr form (e,g .. bam uscd to mean 'a • III .. ble ': \o\\cb. glide ,liquids.aad
,r.ce to store barley' ).
SOJlorit) rhe rclatl'oie loudness of a
See Compone ntial ana lysb .
(\pcl1n~ f lh \ ocallract involved ........
The process in which the meaning of a word becomes
IllllIIilwl dwJ iu earlier fonn (e.g., m eal used to mean 'any type of
S(lu nd • hift The y lematic lII0III1II. . . ..
,r imm ' La\\
Spe ifier \\ rd that helpllO . . . .
its fo rmer meani ng.
 Stress ctash I\. C{~'l l- 'I
•
il11l11<':'\ "Hlie ly neX t I" Igl11'"tH'n (IIe,,,, PI ... ,. (

corn!spomhng 'Ire".cU\.'h lither' I II

'" ~" 11\ "I
and thllt ,",:,-w, IIlHllI..·...h.lh."h tx·,h.·~llh :\p (l.•. ~ •• ~~'i" C\ on 11 tin III
Stressc(I vowels VOWels 1c level,," I{' I.
Itl
"'h'th
((/)( phr~' '" \1", due [0 the eombineu fl th'l\ l<rt h,.... Vtl 'I" I "".
.. ) \I~JNl' 1I I1•1.g • "t lhL" . • h.:O(I'''£I(.' prtlfX·nll,,~ ... uf speech e cC[, Pcrc ty,._... ,
"':_""v~nult
.~- tb\ .,,-, . ..JU~llh.lO.
t '''Ilil'n ...... dnd Inh:n,u} . 'ounu\ Strident A place featu 01 PItch 1. 'v'<I
Itves an d a rfncales (in rc
If
"tu\.:h sht),,"s Inlllh..~l1r th.u rn>Jlh.~t..·' ,"'pel."trogranh E thoat aClIu "ll(nt, I ., It I<lIVtl
. ~rnJgnl P .
h
\
\n In' - .......
CTl'Up \\hlht." 1l1Cnl v\.:fS s
h
arc both u . . Stroke A haemorrhage In!!olish, h I '}ICal\y (b~;n~ 'ttt~i IlI<.r \lI
• ".....·h "'lDJmUm,I~I\ "f 1.;IIEu~gc .!nd Ihl! numlS lor its apprOPri~:"CUIUr causI ng bratn darnagn ( n the brain (:\ II d31" "IClt", '
l
tmgU;lfl or \ at uSe In Structurally ambiguo~u aSO, called 'I '''b'b e 1<,<;\.'" I:dlltq\he Il<~,
" tal l)nrl"~r.
)"'nJlltl "
n... ... lIl1ularion
'""- -
of the process of decOding th
e SPe
h S 'Th
whIch I e meanings of Ihe' e relall{)n n;u-\a\tUI: ' tete\-, "g, , ru\>lurbib.:'
""'" I
. 'p<-«h ",,'t, . JI lir,1 'II!P 10 L1nderswmjing speech. ech ' e
"11,.1l1e""1.1111 . . h' h h . than one way (e.g.,fcls f eCI Ir COIllPonen t.... ttn a''&ttitl., <\I iIIl_
"gll.1 • .
• ·".....·h ,;(w.ll",n
\
"
1.:';lI,lIu;llion In W IC I ere IS approPri
ate USe Of Subcategorization The I rs lind IIl010r .t W('rds c~b'"1<: (~IIt) " l
I.tnguagl.' - ~ Phone options (e.g., the verb de~~~~:I!ication ()~~~I). n "" «Inlh~ III
· h ,,,und .\, t' .. - h d . b Subject The NP oCCurrin . ISSUbcutegO . 'ds In ttTnt 'n "-
• p<-« h' Thc ,iIllu/a!Jon of speec pro uct,on Y COIllPUt
·.......·h "nr I'Sr~ ' fI er. g 1I11Il1Cdlately Ti/Cdfllr<lt"lI)ftbtlrl;"
• r--- '.
'p<-«h ,arret)
Th' language or lorm
C -
anguage used by any group ° of
rador).
Subject Constraint the A under S Ie ~PI'llltnl ~
I h clements f rom being 'c remoonstralnt nn •. , hen• III '"I
"~ °
",·.!kL·CS /.
· ronunciation A source anguage c ange Whereby a d
s,wlJmg p 'Iris"s Ihat renects more closelyt the spelling of th e word
ne" Subset Principle, the Th:ei frOIll a SUbjec:ransfOrlltut\(,n 11<, Q
Pnmunc,..'JaCllln
correspond to the mOst restr~lttal Or defaUltPhra\e.
I. • •
.
1<' ,T ojlt'" pronouncl!d as [oft;>n] rather than
f h[n anj). !hat \!ltv
· '''''-\ 'wation in which allophones 0 t e same phonellle co fewest patterns). Cltve OPtion (i ~etllng of a ~
SpIlt . ,I hI ' f h d'" Ille to A .e., the l>ar:.~_.
OPtion tha;~'1Qer '-In
. t'
Loncrast··ch\\ I each mher due to t e oss _ 0 t e con I((Onlng envlro nlllent Subshtu Ion tYpe of aUditoril
· In
re,u IClng . one or more new phonemes.
" , . •.
, of one segment With anothe . y based Chang . Ptrtnl 1bt
Split brain experiments StudIes that mvest lgate the effects of \urgicalJy 1 d[ . r Slmtlar ' e tnvol .
(f] rep ace x] In some Words) seglllent(e.g ' Vlngthertjlb.-....
. c"ering the corpus callosum. '. .. Substitution test A test used' to .,tnlhehil\lJryo{F::~
S 'sm A slip of the tongue mvolvmg the tranSpOStllOn of the' '.
JHHmen InitIal constituent by replaCing them . h detelllline if ~
sounds of word.~. in an utterance. . .
S read G lottis ([SG]) A laryngeal feature that dlstmguishes unasp' Substratum Influence . The i Wtt fI a 's·lngIe Word. a group of "'otda
. 1 n uence of ",
Pfrom aspirated sounds. . . Ir'lteu dommant. anguage on a dominant la a .\l(llitica\ly or
Standard language The superposed vanety of a language that is elllpl of words mto English from Am . dnguage tn the area' CUllU!ally.,..
agesl. \e.g .. lhebo.....~-
d
b} the governmenl and me d·la, us~ d an d taug h' t In ed '
lIcattOnal oyeu
institutions Succee s .R apl'd' , Jerky movements ennoflanlangu
th '''--a
and ;s the main or only wnlten vanely. , for an object. e eyes Used in reading
Stem The base to which an inflectional affix is added (e.g.. modification is Suffix An afflx that is attached to the d . or~
the stem for -s in the word modificatIOns). n
Sulci The area where the cerebral coen OffIts base (e.g., '!YiaGIIirW..
Stimulus-bound communication Communication that only occurs when' Superstratum I. nfl uence The influe ex ts olded·· '---J
IU(sUlgo\;r.--.._
i triggered by exposure to a cerlam • JliS or tior certain Specific endsIt
. Sllmu . nee of a poll' --..
(e.g., the warning caJJ of a bird). dommant language on another langua' ticany or
Nonnan-F rene h on English) . during the gelDthearea(
Middl E ' e.g., lie ......,.
Steeb The groups inlo which purportedly related Amerindian language
Suppletion A morphological process that m~...~g\isbl*iall
families have been placed.
StGppiog A Common substitution process in child langllage acqUiS ition that by rep I aCIng . a morpheme with an entirely ~ .......
·-r.liallillll
be/was).
iDvolves the replacement ofa fricative by a corresponding stop (e.g., zebra
pronounced [di:br~J). Suprasegmental properties Those Pl'Operti.cs of _ . . .
Sounds made with a complete and momentary closure of airflow their makeup no matter what their plac:e or __!• •
fl!:"t_• • tbe vocal tract (e.g" the initial sounds of pleasure and grab). loudness. and length (also called prolllMl\£ . . . . . .
The mental processes used by language learners in forming and Surface dlslexia A type of acquired dJIIaIia II
."ilJipoilftcses about linguistic input and in using linguistic knowledge unable to recognize words as wholes, _1_-,
l!IIJI_aliVe situations. a set of spelling-lo-sound rub
The process whereby extrametrical syllables are Ijretftl)·
 Template
TempLatic:

,) II hi nucleI Ie.". !be

- • 't .

"ritin~ In "Ju-h eacb .ymbol "'Prese

a
~ ..uu.:ture r.h.u ... On..·.. i ...b OJ a ~. !J i ele .
::J ed ilb it. ,s.-.. also Onset.. XUcJl'Ils.
~

I Iu
.1 ~~1 ab e itb""'o,

relation:hip 10 its ref~

e.~ .. the de eoon of the

~ 01" more re
anes f
Taboo E pres I e and are therefore often
f'UJlh=Ized
T.,.c ~ (~I!e ~ ) The!3Il~ ce th4t an 1-2 learner i
Jeannng
...... h page (translation The, n~ a:e mto e I in Ihe 'OIIrce
Iquage is translat,ed.
,..,.... e Forftgner IJIlk
r-" : II~ speed! peech I and hoc
..,.-....s
The ge In child langu

,
~:
......... ~ aR generall) Ion er than t
~.:::=~ _1D05I JIOO.~ucaJ
'lie __ bluepnnt
..... !bar
0
 Language index
------ CUl>hitic.4{)\
C/Cl.:h. 379, 191

Dana, 378
Dakota, 377, 594
Danish. 350, 391
Delaware, 397-8
Dutch. 53, 343, 350 373
39 1.493. 565 57:'
Duwai, 1\ 1-\2
Dyirbal. 58,169_70
'-

Efik. 377,403
Egyptian. 401,591.598_9
Eng •. 400
Bambara. -'03 Bulgarian. 367. 393 60 English. See American
.\tokh.u:. .N7 ... 1b 7 Buntu I:mguages. 165. 170. Bunak. 400 . 2
-\I.:adlan Fren("h.:"I.. , 339.368-9.390. -103. Bumlcse. 377. 378 38 EngliSh: Black
.\(n ..:an /.lfl!!uJ,ge ...., h ,- 55-1 398-9 , 4. English; British
-\tfiJ..,un ... JQ I. ~ 1- 1 Basque, 167.375.384 Byeiorussiull. 393, 602 Engl~sh: Canadian
~fn')-A"i.lU;:. 3Nl. 400-.. Bemba.215 Engltsh: COCkney
~08 Bengali. 39-1. 395, 563 CambOdian. 73-4. 380 Englt sh; Irish
175
.-\1;!(3. Berber. 384. -10 I 398-9.6 13 ' English: Middle
-\inu. )T;• .t07 _ Biblical languages, . .W I Canadian English. II 3 English; Montreal
Akk,dian. ~O I. ,97-8 Bilo."<i.551 53n, l21n, 329 3.37. English;
AlbJOi,n. 391. 393 Bini . ..J5 341-2. 349. 372 See Newfoundland
Alc!ur.377 Black English. 560 a/so NeWFound"
Aloonqui3II . .JO.I. ~5. ~06 English; North
Blackfoot, 37 English and
.~Iiaic. 360. 3%-7. ~08. Breton, 391. 561 Canadian French 57 6
American English'
~lIn Old English; ,
British English. 27. 33. 34. 327.342.343' I ,
-\merican Engll'ih. 33. 3-t.. Received
50. 3~1. 347-8. 349.
37.39-11. 42, -13. CantOJles~, 373. 380. 399 pronunciation (RP):
347. 349.312. 557. 56_.606. See also'
372.555-7.566-7. Standard English
563-71. 694--5 Chinese
617.674--5.693-1 Non-standard English
Belfast English. 544--5 Cape Town English. 372
Amerindiwl languages. 61. Cockney English. 50, 54, EskimO-Aleut, 404, 405. 406
114.282.317.343. Cape York CreOle 574-(;
326. 328. 558. 565 Catalan. 392, 565 . fukimo. See InuktilUt
356, .160. 362. 576.
594
East Somerset dialecr, Cauca~ian languages 61 Estonian. 395-6
568 397 '. European French, "7.62. 317
Apurinii. J8J
Arabic. n.139, 252-.1 ..160. English dialects, 566-7 Celtic. 342, 357. 39 1 39? Ewe, 403 -
37.1.401-3.413,467. Geordie. 565 Chadic. 40 I ' -
507,514-16.537, Lancashire dialect. 565, Chamorro. 175-6,400 Faroese. 391
572. 602-1, 612 571 Chechen. 397 Farsi (Persian). 394
Aramaic. ~O I. 604 London English. 317. Chemehuevi. 114. 115. Fijian. 309--10. 400
Arapaho. 377 372. Seeals() 117-18,1/9 Finnish. 48. 156. 155-•• 360.
Arawak.407 Cockney Cherokee. 404. 610
Midlands English. 570-1 377. 3 9.395-6.630
Armenian, 391. 393, 409 Cht Bemba. 170, 173 Flemish. 391
Assyrian. 40 I Northern English. 41 , Chinese. 219. 373 378
317.3-19.570-1 French. 2'.+1. --.5.61.
Athapaskan language.s . .17. 398--9,563·,591'.
Northern Ireland English. 6~. ,I. <0, 1\3.-1 ...
134. 159. 362, 404. 604-6.607.609,620.
406 566 See also Mandarin 11°. l~~n. 130.142.
AlSugewi, 282 Recei ved pronum:iatlon Chipewyan 366. 404 165. 2~0-1. 316. 320.
Australian English. 558, 570. (RP). 27. 33. 36. 19. Chukchee. 155. 156 32.t. 32:-6. 32~. 33~.
571 317.570-1 Cockney English. 50, 54, _~51-{>. }o -.3'0.3"2.
Australian languages, 167. Sconish English, 38. 566, 326, 328, 558. 565 3'6. 3~:. 390. :N2_
169-70,375,389.400 570.571 Coptic, 401 50-1. SO'. 511.513.
AUlII1aJ1 Gennan, 565 Glasgow English Cornish, 392, 562 51 t>-I Q. 52+-'5.
~Asiatic languages, (Glaswegian). 103. Cree, 5,48, 370,380,404. :'i3~ -4 )~X, 5b~. 5
398,399 555-6.558,565 531, 592, 611 5(>:.5,2. 601. ~ff
AuIInJaNian. 399-40 Hawick dialect, 56!} Creole lan~lIages, 563 , I CUI dtan
AN 397 Senu," (Liverpool Capc York ('rcole, 57 .. 6 h< lh:h; Eumpean
All,ji.413 dialect), 14. 565 I'rendl hased ('reoles.
41."2:,396 Somerset dialect, 565
Southwest England
5(,1
Jamakall ('r~olc. 562
1-1l.'11 'h; . 'onnan-
rrctkh. Quebe.:
dialect, 565
French: Standard
Crow, 17X.404
Yorkshire diaIe,t, 5/)5
Fren 'h
Cullan Sp,lItish, 34X
I'n lan, 91
 . .............. .... -'vu·::a·" u
Areal d"s~ificl\1U,ln :\")7
Argot. 557--9 ....
Argument. 683
Ari~totle. 268: 416, M 1
Arttculatory teature ... 69
99-101. 101_~ .
449-50. S~e ai.~o
. Features, phonetic
ArtICulator)' phonetics
18-19. 666. S<~ als
Phonetics 0
Articulato!)· proc:esses. Se~
~r.HnlU.lti"'·'I •• (i(lll .tnt.!. ~esse..,\, phonet
\ .;ttth .. ';&"-4 1('0('1 "S'-4 Aryten01ds.22 Ie
\ ",,1
3Ul ; ..... II1tl~:(;~ln..l1. lt1()-J. 1$4, Aspiration. 31-2. 81-')
\t-""ru,' Unl\N"tf""" ':15, .1J~-5 91-~. 100.361:'
\~,,\'lutn ~ ... ,\'. '('I l.ll\gU~g~ l.'h.mge .mJ. co-articulalion and -
\t-.. rrn..1 (\~ ... n.:'! ·0 31-2.50 .
\ -- f J.n..1 \11 •.r~,,-·'·"(\·"I rn:'II..Iu...·U \ ir~ llf. 103.
.. ~fltlt."f\'I'k.'~'" dn" \n~ . derivations and, 103-5
-'j'S~
',"'d- r \ (frh.'.He ... JO.ol.IOn. 101. morphophonemic rul
and. 24S-{i e,
~.lf" ' ~"" (\ ,
\ .... t ..k·nr.I' J~(l. 325-6
\ .•u ....tn'..... ,.. ,('00(\ .. Atl·r1",',lfil'ln. 32tl. 357 rule <;>rdering and. 104-5
" '01' n.' '" \(n. .,,10 ...:ripr ... tll2 spelhng and. 592
~ ..'\lIJ .. th_-t'll\'l(l,·tk"': ' I ~. -\ a!c.••. ,U1J L.:'! ,ll.'qui"Hwn. ,yllables and. 91-3
:-'. ttl. (I~, N'C\ \( (
. ""l,, A:-.sertion morphemes") >-.t
" l ·\ 1I111-'UI.Ul (lfl .l !
l\ ~t'nr r:,i;. ~Sf,-92.. 433. ~5 A.,imilation. 53. I{)(,' -
pl")f1t.~h·" ~ p..\!'~h '!- ,md, 22~ .~{l . ~49-50. 66&. 670
, ..._ ..... :1\'
,,'.~li
,\ t1'uJ.l
",...-\.jIll ... U,)!I,
2SQ-.~2 .. *..'O:n-- ~ aphasia and. 431
\ R,l!luttn.uiug r.mgu.l!=c..· ... child langua2. and
't. ',' h.113n~u.lf"·
1~1. .lSI 470-1 - •
-~.II"lrrtlf1
'\ Ui\lllnl.ui ... m. 4 32-4 ,ound change and.
"'nfl-d . .'i'~ ,'" ",.~.f' ,," \ ~r.lrhl:l. 42Q· 31
01", L"I~. - tt.. ' l) 319-21 Sua/so
\ ...' 1"(\11\
\ Cn--c..·IlWl1l. I~S 1.).3,'('1.54
..-nftlh-l!1 1..• pnn .. ipk .... :0- .
- !>M C<>-anicubuon
5 VCJ .""'-->ociauon Ime. .!4. -
\ U'ln.'.Ull nlt.'chanl ... Pl. 5...
\ ..-U\l' :. ,t1 109-10. Ill-1 2'
jtl-6(l
\ .. ft)(: (\0().. 1 Auden. W.H .• 10
\ ' I..' \ I.I.• ·c ( 0, .. r(,\I~l
Audi[orily-ba..~ 'OOnd
I".'. \ lhll1l(\f},h ... j,--l ·5. ":::4,) -I.
4.'1 change. } ~t>-c
Autopsy ~tudi~ -:1-::. ;"'
Auto-.egmental -
Au:<ili~ ern. 1 ~_}.
l~:':' I - I
52 -~ .:. talso
II-
 OM.
C,0mput311(C.aJ bngUl '[11..."'.
I'N--" )
" k"'Wh: \!roUnJ for
1Ik"";:O "0. '00
'"no:- I arrlic-3tioo, of.
693 '
OIIII"'t:lUonaJ ~~
0'1-:
morpboIc, .-aI.Ul 1) ".
tt -.1-:
morpbok, "3) 3ll3h rer.
6'5
1l1(lfP/X'1 _:.
du-omro' 1K'I1. 0' -
morpb<>I : ",31 po: '<'.
()' I--l
meaning otnd. l":--., :!.: (\
pmgmati(' .•md. 30"
Cun~ifonn. S'l? -
C"-tier 'q
C) be"~~ Jargon. 5t>O
c~ C)cle. ::06-7
pinse (CP 109-2'~ C)nllic alph3bet. lQ. t>O~
)n-jIO qucsaon 2!ld.
209-10 I).suucru", S" Deep
Cw.," J nlS I 7-". SI.ru.:tUI\:
/96-. < Dal3.ba.~ aprll~atllln~. b93
C- Rules -'. ,61, ~ Wt:lba... ~ue~. b"9
.aficn -'. ~H Dati\C~ca..-..e, lbO. \.3-4
. - - SII1ICIIR ru Dati\. \Io\emetlt. _
811..1 90 Compu!<'f Ian gu g • DeaffiiC31lon. 325-(:\. 35"
...-c roles and. Coll1putenzed -\. 131 [)e,:len'h.'In. I~
T"IOOg.r..ph~ . .l22 De..-oiling speech. b"O
..... • __ 106 Coo.:.,pL.'::'~
. . . . . . __ 194--6 Deep 'tnJ.:r=. ~5-<J
lk:qw lOon of. -I 3-: Ca.so and. c6.L1
a..-..... 133 J3S-8. fuzz) • .:!~b-\: I",e",oo and. C64--S.
graded.':: 6-- ,(
grammatI 'uauoD of. \,;ontraq, :UOOD~ langU3ge processmg II1II.
2 2-4 con~onJ.nb Yn 4~
inIanaI lrUc!ure of. Engh'h. 0-1 thematic roles II1II. 289
27~ \O"e) C n!ras! • -I "'It Mo, meoIlIIII.
lex....."urioo of. 2 9-1C ComeNlUon.300-5 205- .21\-12. D1-9
meaplKws and. .7 9 COD\eNluOn~impu~ Degeminaboo. 324, 3SS-6
,.-ypes and. 241. JOO DegmenIe fool.. II
48J....4 Com ersationaI principles. DegRc WOld. I
186-'
lmilltlum .ml.1 I.:h,l1.1 hutgualf-=:.
1MM l) phi '~2~ iU\d IIlU.
111\I1,,:,",U \ n l, nlgr.tmtnes..
'nterf~rc:nce .\11- '1 4"'J()
~." -1
lmplc m t:'utullo n .6 &0 tll\(JTransfer
Rl!gaUve
hnll h cuu ('o na\ unlve"ub.
Interl iln @uaBe.504- '
:\74 •.'77 -K. :\8"2. 5\ \- 23. 524-- 5
3M" b. 5 \ 2· \4. 535n tntema\ change.. t41
Imp licit know le d ge. (9). Su
n/.\o Ltn g: U' ...lIC
Imernal .tcconstruc;uan.. "'\51
Intematuma.\ Phonet.K
com pete n ce
Im pl0 . . ' .. c ..... 60 ~~hahet. \ 'J ,'\ 63
\ ndll!'oh c. prom'IUns. 57 6 .... )mbo\s~lffc:t1n. onh
\ ndc~ i c l\\ ... ign:>.. 630 . 63 2.
Amencan )'Uem. \<j
631.645-6 30.34 . 51
Indexing progl.lm:>.. 693-5 Internet. The , (+)S
Inu iun :>.cripts. 6 \ 2- \3 Inte~ntc:n ... ta.\ link. 50&-J)
Ind irect o bject. 683 Imonauon.-\\_l, ~ '30\
Imhl' t llf\.)pc!,-m . 357--60 66&
Infi ni te lun guage. 680 3.cqul itl n uf. 480,..\.90
\lltinithc "\(:rb. 67 2 . 673. 685 aph~l3. and. 416 ...\.....
Infh. ':\Q . .3QQ ...\.19 -
Inne~l'on. 160-70 . 6 7:! phra.......e intonation. 610
.\\:qu;:>.iti.on of. 47 4-5. \ntran··.. ithe ems, 167
,\77 \nuu."i\e r. ;
.lphJ.!'oiJ. ~Uld. 4.:!.6 . 4-:!q. \n\ers\on.2.0
.\31. .\3~ . .\33-\ acqublt1.0n of -1.
tkri"\ J.t;l)O ,"s .• \. deep ·tTU..:ture and
t>1-3 ~O.J-S. ~()--9
,n Eng\l ... h. \ 03-4 lang £c ~han et a.ncL
and \e
i(al ~ategories. 33 'Mn
I~.\ l..Jni'e~ Grammar
fl(,"nnJ.\. 105---.;"" ~\ - ..........
n:\!ular \~. irregular. \\ h lo,"etnelll >nd.
- It>}-\ ~O&--
uO\\(.":'f'ab and. 3 ~. 3 :'1 1 land,.. ~ \.J
\ 0[\>.11. I toS-- 0 bll2.tO ..... 5f4 MO
Intllm}.;.\U('In retrie val. ~95-6 holm!!,. -m,-
IIl~''''\ <!.60 h L.mn.; \an::u3:;:e
in c l..'Omp'-')o~ nl' ('If -\n )t1C '-"J,,,ua,,,,,
\,; mmum..:atlon
.:;- .b3~ .
I. ().j4. t4 5
 l.angu:tE~ nL.1.lnll'n..llk:~.
\.·Qrn~
:'('11 :.
\.·on\~;:ht.ltn8' b .• Lun~ l.:on.,.onl1nt ... .:l~
M~\l)lh
Lart~"" ~'l'\l':C.·"UJ~ 'l't" ck' ,Ion ~'II.I, l..t.mgiludinul rl ...... ure. 411
251
p.." ..:h...'tlmgUl'u...·, n"allOn ilIld,IS,S,)
Loullne ...... (of ..ound". 4' MC'fI\all~"ltc
1An8U01S~ rl"\.·llfl'rru . .·U('IO. 147_9 '">d. I......
4K- 9.670 MC'&c1 • '2'tJlO. 'k r l.c"ltub
w<J,....("I~ ••r.l rntleclion. S 'Ac "c:c:t.s'n
phra.e 'tru""d. I... Low feature. \00. 102. 122n
.."l.11l1J'lf!lfn.:.350--6 Meli1phctf 21, I

U . 185-90<tu,. an.. Low vowels. 37-8 ~56 I 14<,.. \~

hl .. r\lr:' \11, 357~)
nl\ersaJ -""',
IDr~rn..ll, .1.57
rn~h)-lnJ\')-European ~15- C"""
Lexicaj d .16
.lllJ.357-62 ex.:I~lon
r"J'l'I\~g) and. 361-2 -4 "rnen1s''l.!2
wn~u.tg~ "hifr. 561-2 L' 51-3
LMlguJge "pecitic sound e.llCaJ items. 67 "<l
also w: 8·697
pattem:-.. 79-82 entry. 686 ol'd"
Lant!uJge \ matlon
Insenio n 6
1~\kl1j \ariillion. 566-7 Le.xicaj re ' 84...5
mQrphological variacion. presenta .
67-9 See a/~o lJ hOn. 674
represe nderl'
s}nractic variation. 569 LexicaJiza t : ntation YlOg
phOnological variation, . . . on of
Le' 23'l-42 conc"PI..
569-70
X~cograPhen
LII) ngeal features. 98. 99.
LeXIcon 132 ,695
100.148 , .249 1
Lar}ngeal node. 102 340,441 .-6 1,317
451-2.4;;.448. '
Larynx. 2(}-1. 50, 364n
of chimpanlee. 648
684--9 S , 530,58
Corn . ee al.fo I
Lal< closure. 456 . PUlalional
. IeXlcolo
Laler:li feature. 98. 101. 102 LIaison, 77-8 gy
122n
L.1Ieralized. 380. 395. 561 L~ngu~ franca. 57'
LinguiStic auton ..
La lerals. 29-30. 51-2, 100n
Lalln alphabel. 600-1, 608 · hYPOlhe,~ITlY
Linguistic corn' S, 652
Lax vowels. See VO" els:
· 416 pele n«·4-5
tense \is, lax
Linking. 77-8. See
Leamabilily.658 · vOCalic r all() PO\l
Learning a second language. LIps, 14. 27-8 j Rhol tc
See Second language co-' ,0. 59 666
a.nlculation and'
acquisition 51 .50.
learnIng stralegies. 527
rounding of 14--
Leavis. FR. . 10 96 '·),37 51
Lefl-handers. 41 8-19 Liquid-glide de\" . . ' Matrix clause. 199
Left-headed foo l. 114--17 70-- Olclng
217 . 122~' 97. 104-5~ III.
Lenglh. 41. 48. 52. See also
acqulsilion of. 470
Vo wel s: long H. short
Irqu lds. 33-4. 70. 76. 17
LevellOnes. 44. 377
Lexical 99. See also Liquid_ .
g lrde devolcing
acc.,s. 441-4. 451 -2. 453 non-English. 6 1_1
ambiguilY, 270-1 , 6 95.
phOnOlac tic s and.-1l+-5
697 pilch and. 41
change, 340-4, 346--7 unive rsals and. 377
diffusion. 300, 313 vOIceless. 53
gaps. 340-1 LISP. 559
semanlics of words, Loanwords, 511-12. 572.
689-92
See also Borrowing
Lexical calegories. 279-82. Lobes (of the brain), 420--1
678-9. See also Pans
location role. 286, 287 "X)
of speech Locative ca<;e, 166-7 ' -
C81qory labels, 678. 679
compIementizers and.
Logographic writing. 591-2
595-6. 597-8, 604-6'
200-2 610.620 ' 698-9
Lowth. Roben, 12
MCtult\ol
Lungs. 14. 20-1. 666 Melnl'.lll~'il~l
""''''"-
MaChin~9~~Med translation.
Machine·readab\e dictionary
(MRD). 672. 687
s., Machine translation. 693.
696-8
Major class features. 99-\01.
248. See also Feature
hierarchy
Major classes (of sound..l\).
23-5
Majority rules strategy.
351-2
Manner features, 98. 99.101
Manner maxim. 300. 302
Manner node. 102
Manner of aniculation.
21-35
aspir.llion and. 31-2
features and, 98. 99.101,
102
minimal pairs and, 70
sound change and,
319-20
Mapping problem. 690
. Markedness Differential
Hypothesis, 512-14,
518-20
Markedness theory, 314-5,
319.386,512-14
Maternal speech. See
Casegiver speech
Maxims of conversation.
300-2
Meaning. 2, 43 . 682- 9. 69\.
See also Semantics
aphasia and. 426-8
compounds and, 154--5
concepts and. 276-84
contrasti ve segments and.
70-2
lexical categories and.
183-4
nature of. 268-76
o f sentences. See
Sentence
interpretalion
syntactic categories and,
\82-3
thematic roles and. 286-7
Medical record keeping.
~( ,
25S-f,(1 '2\
Metril.: \1:\ 21
Mid \lowe"•. 11_l J
Mtlr~y. Lt:llley. 5-l4
MI.OImal atllil:h
Mmimal fool, ~I\l, 4Sft
Mtmmal P<lir;, 11)"" 1
328 • 4-5,
Minority lan@u,\ge
matntenan~e
Mod program mes.S3 1_2
e\<.. of langua@e
proce......mg 4S(\....6()
Modifier.. \93, 2i5~
Module. In language
proce"mg.454-1
Morphemes. 133-5
acquisition of. 41 \-6
416-1,520-3 .
allOlTlorph, of. 134-5
245-50 .
bound and f!<e. 134
cranberry. 14-\
~rroro; of exchange. 440
Identlfy mg In unfamiliar
language,. 112-3
Ll and L2 learning
. compared, 520-3
In ~.enta\ lexicon. 45l-3
Wnttng and. 591. 604-5
6 \1- 19 .
Morphology. 4, 132~. Set
also Computational
morphology
aphasia and. 431-2
complex derivations.
\47-9. See also
Compounds.
derivation and
inflection
language change and.
376.332~
language plllCe'Sing aDd.
4S \-3. Set al.ro
Morphemes
Old English. 3\4
operations 01\ bales,
\3&-44
passives aDd. 229-33
phonology al,:M5-M
Prosodic. 2S1-'
iepiESCiMl'"
.,.,.t..a . . ".
 t ·",\\\l .... \,)~ \\\.::.

"".• "" ... '" .!t

\\~''',''',''\ , ,Ilh.\. :~, '4
\~\\."'\'\h:
•
,an.""""'\ U\,
,s'
nth.· ... H",s ~
"""h'hn,~,u"\h:" and,

\. " "
,S,'\Hh\,.-h.a1
"'t ...... \\ ~ .:. \
...,\l t'k ... $~ o.l.:'-
... ,\1\';\' "" \. .:.s.... No'
\\\,,\ ,'1"...\\ ... 'f ~ ~ _- S
. ~'\\
\'1 .,,\{.h.'ll.;-....~q -('0...':'",-,
,., . +>'. -,<,"- •
 SI'II..·u,k·\.
SI')(.:"l\\1\lo\U"\II.. l'\ lm\\o,.·'I..· "I\' ,
l L ( s 'ilN
S\'l\.:ln\I1\)!:\\\,t\~ .... c,.\\\ c,tl{'
I..'n."'l\c', .... " h
sun.::olD:! tOUs natun: ,h.\\('\.·\\,\u}::~.
'ih' 1\
R\!'~llIatlun, IO.l
!~e~.e'S ng 10 n
,,:hil,J liln1Zua.f:~ ,h"'l:\lUr,.: ,\1)'\\)''''. ~~! ,
R\!',\ 113blfk (h~. Q~ "'\.'4Ul"tt~"11 and. ':Ul'hl!1\\I""I.\I\d \.\\'\('\(1.
~.:;·~I..ln)&.-(" 109 RI.!'tn.ltll"\ . lJ ........
503 -4 ~~4 ~ ~nl"t\ \\lI\h,"hll1\

Rhoct.,.· m, .'':'" :;;

cognatl\e ra("lOf'Ii., 526-7 hmn~ \1\ .\ddr~ ...... ~~ \ ! htO.h ..
"-lW (reque",-") and, 694 good language learner hmuamC'l\\ah ut. s·m l Sr~' ther ' l'.h 1
~ycholog'\. 5 1 RhOlI\,; •.1..N. 5 I. Srf!' dJ.flJ the. 52:7--8 .
PutrnOfU\. ~"'<) p\)-.(·HII.:ali\.· r~ .'"rll-0n .md artJ,l.lt, ~~1 hO e.\ C'",u\c \\llt'ltl\
Lmlmg Imn~~~~n programmes. \al\~ua~e imd ~..:.tll\~r. Nl'.1... .,h4\
Puns 10- 11
Rh)ortk". Xl, X()-I.)(), 45~1 ,49 S4 ntt !nn.'1 \\
Rh.·k.41)~ .3
12 da..~room. the
Qual • C'r Qual. I 6-- -. I. 528-3 t • hngUl,\IC "1<\p.... 56(1 1 \lhr.\ t,' \I\Il\\\1C mh!
.'9 RighH'Ir.Ulching language~. L::! morphology, 510-3 p"!l!-ltls.51! ,mI.\' \~q llll
.1.'Hi-Q rcgish!r. 511.)· ~ \ \ 1 \\1"'~' .1\ (If,\nml,1t 1I1l\
QuaJH) \.·Control de\i\.'C' . &JQ L2 phonology. 531-6
Righ( ·ear ad \ anlage. 413-4 L2 syntax, 516-20 rc ... l:nn:h method .... 540 h. 1\4
Quaht}n:u.lm f •. 00 301
QUe-stl 'n Se-~), S'-no Righl-hea.ded foot. 11+-17. modified input. 529 564 (:, X' l:<\\~~on~'s ,\t\I\. \'Kl
qut.·'uoo,: U'h
queS(H1ns
'"
Roman -;,phabet. 60 I role. of Ihe first language
10.50+-5
S1!'\ und hmgut\ge. ~I'f'
LangUl\ge 1,\1\d gC1\der
S~"tt\l~ram, h'l) Hl. htl1
(*'~
Root node. '0 I. 2-1-8 roll! of the 'iecond
Root (of n ",ord). 135-8 slang. 555· 7 Spc~d\, \ ~ 2'. ,"I'C" II"H
Radical. 605-6 language, 50S socil\\ slmt ltlcatlon . Phmlt:\II.;"
Rom (of the lo ngue). 26 Interlanguage
R~ l Rasmu ... .15, See al.fa
542·Q Phnnll\llg
R.:adine Round feafure. 96, 100 Uni\ersal Grammar and
Rounding (of lips ). 34. 37. 512.516.519 . ,peet.:h ... 1\oo.\HOO .... SI6-S5 S\l\'lf;\S~~mel\\.,\ ,U\\\
dhl~rbance In apha,ia. 51.57.62 "arieties l)f Engh . . h . Speed, ')'1\\he \
-l~9-Jl ..H~ Second language teaching.
R P..3.1 Su al...o Recei \"ed 528-34 54&-q dt\C\~n~y\'\ ,,\ 1
e:tperilTk!'n .... 441_7 pronuncialion Le\och' mulle\ \1\ \)( h
"ntmg and. 619-~O Secondary stress. -1-9. 114. Songs. b"J. 524 b38.
Rule ordering. 101-8.247-8. 117-18 b3'l-lO. 645. &5&-9. pn"M.\\lI.;H(l\\,-\-~i\ t'*.l
Re-.lding ma..:hine" 701'1 331-2 Segmental sound Change. 6&On pen,:cl'Hl'" 1~ 4~ \)
Real ",odd knO\l, ledge,
Rules. morphological. 675 J 19, J::!5-6. 511-12 4~1\
~5 Rule,. morphophonemic. Sonoranl .... 48. IN. \!2
Reanal} 'IS. 3 J 6, .lJ5-6
Segments. sound. 19-20. phoootJ.ctks. and. & 5. pre p\.mnlng. 4 '9 41\
245-{5 68-71.112 rh-.,\hm n\, S«'C" ~\t~"'!i
Rebc pnncipJe. 596, 610. Rules. phonological. 101-8, 81\
Sp~alw
contmsUve segments. . da...h
431 70--~
un\\eno.a\'" and. 371.
Determinau\"e' Rule ... phrase structure. See "1\17-8 \\-nttng anJ, ~q\
duration. 670
Recel\cd pronunciatioll Phrase .. tru..:ture rules Sernanfll.: analysis. 670, See ,o~d \englh amI. q2-3 Spec..::h I.:,)mmun\\,)'. '\~O.
(RP). 33. Se~alw Rule,.. , tr<lmfonnatipnaJ. Set' S-I1554
u/Jf) Computational Sono"I\. 2-1.56
English Tran .. formiluom. :-emantlc~ Sound ';hange. 3 \&-.12 Speech nrg;ns D \ 4, 21\- l
ReCipient role. 683 Runic \Ioriting, 601 Semantic broadening. 344 audllon\y-basou.326 Speech fc~ogm'\l)n, ~
Reconstruction. Set.' Rus ...cll, BcnranLl. 268. 634, Semamic decomposition. 671\-1.0\)1\ 4.71--'1
Language calaJogue of. 3\ \I
664 274-5 Spe~..:h ... \\\I\1t\\'1\<:\. Sltr
reconstru(.'tioll phoneuc. .3~b-7"l
Semantic features. 675 phono\,,!pcaL 3.7-9 , Speec\"ynlhe \ . t+l9-7\Xl
Recur I\e rules, 680 S Rule. The. 192- Semantil:- Information. 689 spec·h )nlh ller.ftIi&
Reduced feature. 101 's·strm:turc St't'Surhu.:e rule o"knng <Ind. 33 \-.
Semantic narrowing. 3-14-5
",,,,,,enla!. .1 \ 4. '25-0. s\l<',en \.nguag~. b'l5
Reduced \owel. 19-40. slrut.:ture Scmantic propenies, 686. 04 ,b4'l S. also
122-1 S,,'C.<le,. 4:1Y. 445-6. 456 689. See a/so - .. ~ ho Le
Rcdundann. 636 Sarah. 649-50 p\.1l'no\og) "l"'t,
:p=h
Semantic I"'ken sou!C~ \an&UI&C
Reduplicatt;>n. 143.254. SI..·.mdma\ians, 3-1~ decomposition cquentlal. 3 PI . .1 \~-.-
39'!--IOO St..'hlcit.:hcr, August . J6() 69
Semantic representation. 691 . ('lund pattern:... fC
part.al. 254 Sch"a.39-40 Semantic shift. 345 Ph\.'nl..)\og.) ,po"""
ynthesis , - .
Referents 273.629.1>44-5. deletion. 55. IM--5. 106 St!mamicity, 657 " lUOl.l pn~u("lng :..y~tcm.
69
648.657 epenthe;i,. 106-7.247 8 Semantic!'!. 4. 268-312 Sp=:h ,an~. 54\
RegIOnal d.aJl"CL 541. ~O--' 'pelhng.4\. '1\).15 \
features and. 101 iKt)uisilion of. 4ft 1-8, S lUn.! ,hlfl, "\~~'I.
563-71. Seea/", plural allomorph~ and. 489 . ,,'~) 325.686
D.alects 247 aphaSIa and. 432 apbuia-
Re,ISIer. 541. 559. 572. vowe-l rcdut·tion and. cornponcnrial analYSIS,
\.mnd~ .... pet.!'ch.~, b 1 7~ ,hecUn,fI
579-81 J22-3. St.'t' also 274-5 s. e aho Phonente f.na\iIh. \5
Regi lei' Iones. 44. 377 Reduced vowel Ph,)n~nc'; Ph,)m)\ogy
i,;om::cptual sy\h!l11.
Jteareuive IIS5lmiialion. Srcom.llanguage af.:quil"llion, 276--84 mplemenl~
53-4 109 502- W c:onvcr\atinn and, lOO-5 dl tnbuuon of. '72 3
_ _ _II)IDlactic anaJy IS. age and. 521 5 language l:hangc and, frequ n"es of. 661
hilingual education, 344 I> n rural clal of 96-7
S31-1 pragmatics. 2Y5 lOS
characteristics of pronoun Inh:rprl'tallon,
learners. S25-11 292 -5
 q~ ~~c::~~~------~~~~--------------------
Te),t. ~OR. SKl 5,6Kl
l'cx.' i\nu\y~I~, 66(" 69, ~
Tt!x\ ami ...e ltoaly",'!o ,
1
..
69dll'tt.'uur
\ Nt' MU\ltOIt'"1\\
lhcll\O\\I(; 2, \
fh\t& 1\e1

Tt:x.lua\ coheslun. 5K4- 5

TeJll,\ua\ compc u:m.:e. SOR _lj
2~9 _l)'l
Um~ersa\ (irammM 1.1\1\
Thctnl\\IC roles. 286-91. 41) _\5-1o.1.\'!C.--l1
~I "'~)II"'-I:" 486-S, 685. 6l)()\' Wh !;1u'Iemcnl, 2h~·1
IlklUUtlt: ruL: Theme rolc. 23()-\, . - -:-' \--\1. 'lK4,4'6(}- \
'J-~'l :0. WlO
r'" , h rh".tbm:tnO '286-92. 411. 4 \.'.1 Tra.m.ltlona\ (,;0" ..\'" \
-<>0 • UhM.,H1coror
'ltl 7 ru <tno The,auru e . 411 1 C H,"'.
ua '\i~NOU: Wld.. , hJ S~ltt.J:lrl..H 211 lo! s s ..612
6~5
Thorpe. W.H 656 TranMll .... e \leTb .. , \61 065
m""-' l. l~U:~f) anll4q .'"
. .....
'-7,~. :'i"~,
h.m.547
I) N) Thyroid cartilage. 1 1 6&3, {~n\e.n .
Tree diagram,
IOZ ""'0-. • Wo, S)lIahl~1 ~4~l~::!U 7 -t.) , Tiers, \0\ -'2.253. See ahio \86--1. ,'9\ __1 'S·e:.!,
tn) e " e~br \Oa: 'ul
Ilo.tUHJ: <In./~dl...l) A.\.t\o~egmenta\
no\i.\\\on~ a'-':o Structural ~"
.'\ :mn ldent .u- ~ntI08. 591 ah. 34 . .54 amb\gu\\y
, ~r;J,U'C' l..'ap;.lL'U) om -.597- 8
R epl'e!iien\(l\ions~ bui.\dmg. '236--9
~truclur:~1 :J~I;II '- •
SylJ.lhlt.: Ph-9.611 - 12 .
107~nlogy. 90-5.
Prosodic morphology Tree s\ruclure~ (word,)
. IJUI.'1ure ut W~!~JU~IY. ;X~-.6 Tilde. 51. 58 \3(>-,1'
q)uhlplc I • • I.L -xo umblo;yll' b'
~C)ole. h~5 \:\el'i. J·n-9 Syllable Fin~ ~~(y and, 91_' Timed-rending experiments, Tri.\\,6\-'2
Ot!voit.:i ~lruent -
444-5 Trochaic. 114
Ubc.HegOJ'l.lal",n. 1Y6-7
Syllables. 2-1. 4~g/()5. 512 Tip (of Ihe longue). 26. 29, Truth conditions. 213
Sutxo I~S-l}. 205-0, 6X5-6 aJlomorph . K3-95 33.50.61,91.100 Two-word stage. 411
l'[ ",.. I Us n.Uure closed .. s ~ and. 245 Tokens. 628. 648. 651 Typolo~ 361 2 '
gr.lmm..llical defined 6~)pen , 79 Tonal assimilalion. I 11-12 b" -, ,14-\\9,
9
of ,:;o\l.leJ g c:. 7-'), 6N hea..'y, 94-5. 5~l Tone. 43-6. 41-8. 605 512-14.520
Umlaut. 141.318.320-1
"" 1~"£f! rnl(:es~lOg. In langu~lgt! re . assimilation and. I I 1-12
450.... 1 P X:e5\lng, Unbounded foot. 1\3-14
SUbJCCI Lunslrai 01
iJgh~ 'J+..5
placement of, 142-3 118-19 •
S ut'lJ<.'d • IQJ "'3 , The. 214 representations and,
68.1 . - -In. 66-1. nat~ralnes.'i and, 36' Underex.tenslon.4S4
\00 27 54- procC:i.'M!'i ~p - .1
and 111 - 1'2 Underlying (basic) fealure,
~ ~on.md.~ 91 '-~ 'oISC .!OJ 106-8 110. Set' "i,\'o-s
UH- 5. universals and, 378-9 103,105 .
lmllam n and ,,;- ~~~f SR~es and. 2tll -::! phonulogy )' liabllt; Tone language. See Tone
lab
dent.> ~i
,_
.;
.- ~ 4
5.1-4. +l9
.5 j ~:;dparamett!r.
5.15n .5 1 1<-~(),
seltlng up, Kf>-9{)
~lrcss and, lJ3- -:'i I
Tongue. 14. 25_6.33.34,96.
Under\ying representation
103-4,245.246-51 ,
dJs . - - •.,4. 58--9 II) 21 . 1J6. 12'2n 43 1-2,614
trt'/:ndaru: n .tn<f. 54- 5 m,:n 520 co-articulation and, 50-I Underlying semanlic
• C!T1.atlOn ilnd '75 !.lructurc of. Ii:\ 94\ movement in diphthongs,
p.I'i"IVe" anu "'),
2X9 'i' • 0 - 9~ H. IIl7 ·X. 2~7 H . infonnation, 691
8 otta... "'17 R ..,- ' • TabOO, 554-5
non £nih -h:5~Jo()(J 41>9 70.5J.1 '16 Talking Machine. 666 36 Urnt' of metrical
palatal 59 h~ril:.llld, 2t;9 300 unit... fli ' Targel , in priming vowels and, 36-9 representation,
,I n:prc'l'IHalulO
transfonnatHlOs anLl Top-down parsing. 617-8,
2 I 4. 22X. 2Q(~ I . :!O].
ph >nota t <iOu, I () .20 6K- 9 eltperiments.443-4 \13-14
puc.h an~ ~J arid. 88- 9 102· 1 . . 682 UnilS of phonological
uudcr~wod. lotJ Targetlangua!\e ..
unnersal, and. 374 ":l'lghl, l)~ 5,516 in L2 acqUlSltlOn, 507 Top-down processing. 449. analysis, 68-9. 83.
\I..('rU oruer <lUU 117
ln$ . lX'- . . . . ·9, ",f1tlll~ .lnd 19- ""II)
5lJ7 :-<' - . 59~. in O1ach~ne translation. 454.456 102- 3
U\ ular 'i9 S ~..j Topic. 299-300. 301. 383 Universal Grammar. 2\4-21.
Straregle;';r L2 I
,.uthC,t Pnn..:tplc.5IH 10 ~ylvlan rl . . s~re -+"0
696-8
Stra} sylJahl earne". 527 ~uh"'lUut~on. 126.470 ... Symbolic 'Igo;. 630.-1 ') Teacher talk, 529 Trace. 208.212.433 493-5
L2 acquisition and. 512.
S u"~trarum. J~ 1-2
120 e adJUnctIon. U~ ... [ltUIJ(ln le~l. ItJJ-l ""7 . 1>:14,1>.17 65' ,03_. Teeth, 14. 26, 29 Trachea, 2 \. 666
Srn:ss 48-9. J 13-' I
.-- Symptomatil..' "'I~n~ ~~(;
.. 654 Telegraphic speech. 426. Tran cription. See Phonetic 516.518-20.524-5
Sufi : . J.1R 631. 632-3:6.17 . 429.432.477-9 Transcription Universallendencies.314
255...(j(). 359. :13 ' mtlectional \0'\. Tran.fer errors. 506 Univen;als oflanguage.6-1.
668.670 - 64J-...l. 656-7 660 Template
dcr~\"ational. 161
~Oflle English 86.88. \\8-20.
SYIKOpe. 322 . .3:!3, ,3', n bird song. 641 Transfer. negative. 504-5.
ai, rerna ring. 114-1 7 3 Synon)ms.269 . 1.363 511. 512. See also
cash. 258-60 phrase strUcture. 190. 361-2. Set also
deri va ti o nal suft- e
compounds and. 153 145.,(, . IXes. Syntaclic analysis 669
69()""1 . -70, 194-5 Interlanguag Uni"etsal~
255-7 • Templatic morphology. Transformational models. MarkedDcsS tbiMJI7;
Sulcus: .j 17. 41 9. 420 Syntactic t.:ategories. 182-1
metnc and. II 3-21 ~umenan writing 595-7 .214-16.477 -. 252-3 682 ParameteR
~and. 255-7 Superstratum. 341 342 Temporal lobe. 420. 428 Tran. formatio nal syntax. child \anguaF""
cntena fo r determ"
..._rmd.4S-9 ~UPPletion. 141 -2' 183-5 IOlOg. Tense. feature. 10 1 182, 203,229 469-11
TransfomlatiOns.202-1 4 •
~­
P - l o f. 142 157 uprasegmenlals. 41 - 9 Syntac tic features. 668 Tense. verb . See Verb tense
346-7 •.
.178- 9. 668 . S yntactic parser Tense vowels. See Vowels: 238-9.337 aeo\eS
...-,..49.113-14 Surface dy lexia.430 co mputatio nal lingui stics tense vs. lax acquisition of. 479-81 expIei i •
111-11 . Surface representations 67(>-,82 ... Tcmlinals (words). 679 . See constraints on. 2\3-\4
. ._ _ .... 54 91-2. onhographic. 674 psycholinguistic. 454-7 ll /so Words inversion. 203-4.
phonemic. 674 457-8 •
~ .• _____ 2S1 Surface structure. 204-5 Syntax. 4. 181 - 244 666
_ . .411. . . .
Inversion and. 205. 207 669. 697 Se~ al'~
 hono\ogiCU\ language , {I,.".
p and. 69 . . wnUc.o target
sychohngut.l-iliCH 44 \ 3 language, (fJ~
P rescure h to.to. Wug-le<,t.414-5
sctTHlotic re\~~~~'; \
uroonl\'f 132-80 X' categories.. \94---6
a"'nMl'OIt"''''1I ',,'rIc ~l~lIC~~r~o;:'e~!., 100. See XP Rule. The. \90, \<.IS 41 ,
204-5.226
Work1ng,t Y'APph cuuon<,
II .~o e Web, 695
world W'~9_20. 591-624
gnunmalh.'U:lUOQ and. 1O\1.· ..... i'-ln .md, ~Il-~ 'lluple H~"eh. Jb Yes-no que~\ion$. 339-.4(),
:
~ ... 1m.·~Ulat. (>64 ... lre'is und. ~8-9
Wnung. . nd 429-31. 5\13--4
hi..rlWl..·.:aJ tmgUl,n.:<;..llk.I. Ilklll111ir.:r. \.\1. ~::'5·6 tense \S. la:~. 35 . .39-41 aphaSia a , acquisition of. 4R(}.-1,
'"
Imph....:uwn.:tl•.17....
~T' so, JS~ 3S .... ('t,
",U(II.)II,
phr"'~
::,stl-2
,Iru..:lure and,
IS;;: .•.)(}
71. 78-9. 92-5.101'
107.327
univen.als and. 375-7
.
619
Chinese .6Q4.-6 h
English orthograp y.
49\
inver!o>ion m . '20"3--\.
... .3~n lfl1l\l.'p..,J1 Gramm.tr and. 387 . 207-9
nl(...-plkll\lb~al • .lSI).. ~ ::'1.:'i.::'1~::'1 VY!;l:oL<;ky. Lev. 491 613- 19 -604 U niversal Grammar and.
l~ \ emt.'r·, Lm. ,159-6() history of. 592 9 2\1\-\9
phonoJ"gl .."3.I. :-;<l(l. \"t.'ne[ mllnJ."C"l. 64+-5. 657 Ui:1l1 Sll"e~t Journal. 686 Japanese. 607
}S7
_r~
Vili. 507 . Washoe. 648-9, 650-1. 65"1 I pes of. 59\- 2 Zero der"i.vat\on. See
~\"J)f!k:th..·. 2J~-':!~ . .1S~-('I , \lx:.ltlulary. ",7'> Wave ronns . 666, 670 - Y. lan guage, Conversion
3S~-·t,l \~K;JJ ":llnJ.i (H)C.II fold:.). 14, Weak g~~~~tive captlcity. wnt~~chine translation Zero e nding. \67
and. _17~q
f) JX1Jll,S) :;!O-.l. 27. '"' 1-42. and. 695. 698. 699
l!nmad.cd. SN' \Iar/...l'dnes:-. of chimpiln7ee. 648 weake~~! (of meaning),
,,,,,,-,,, \~"k;alt.rt'le-t. 20. .15
l ....lJ;c.".686 "lx'al l) h.tndic3ppcd. 699 Weakening (of sounds), 318.
l ,'uJa.';:"T Vocoder. 666 ~~~5. 348. 353--4.
l'\ubr.>.. ::7. 5Q, 62 ·\.oi~c b;Jr', 067
Voice feature. 69, 95. 96. 98. Webster. Noah, 616
\dan •.:. :'9. 60 99, 100. 101. 105-6. Wernicke. Carl. 428
\("3l'S. ::6-7. 3-+-5. 60, 319 III. ././9 Wernicke's aphasia. 428-9
,,;o-arth:uJarion and. 51 Voke lag. 31-2. 51. 1220 430. 435n .
fcature:-. and. 101 \.(lil,.'cd ... ounds. 22. 23. 27- \Vemicke's area. 422, . H9
pht.')no(;Jc(jt,;>; and. 04-5 .15 . ././9. St·, also 43~ .
Ve-lum. '26-7. 51. 58.10 1 Vowels ",h Movement. 205-7
\,."O-artIcul.1tion and. 50. Voi<.:cles .. ness. 22. 28-32. 33. 211-12 .
51 .14-5.52.5.1.72-7 relative c1au~s and
na."3li7allon and. 53 Voicing. 22, 3640 227-9 .
\'c.*f"h .\h"'J,ement Parameter. <1"plrallon and. 31-2 thematic roles and, 289
51S ':Issilniialion. 43--54. 248. Universal Grammar and
\em Rai,ing. 219-222.5 J8. ~70-1 219 .
5~J-2 co-articulation and. 51 IVh quoSlion,. 219.480_1
Vc.-ro(cnst'. 8. 46. 184. 216. language t:hungc and. SeeCllso WII
234n.664 .118 . .114 . .131-1 . .152. Movement
compound... and. J 53-4 353-5 \\'hispery voice. 23. 59
infle.,.·rionand. J60-I, Vowel harmony. 361 'White nOise', 667
16]-1. 168-70 Vowel laxing. J27 Word-ba.,ed morphology.
mternaJ (."hange (ablau[) Vowel lengthening. 92-3. 137.672
and. 1./1 107. 2~9 Word boundary. 103
ooo-Engti,h.169-70 Vowel redu(':lion. 56. 322-3. \Vord formation. 144-60.
suppleuon and. 141-:! .1.15.354-5 559. See a/so specific
tone placemenr and. Vowels. 23-4. 35-41. 666 pmct!Ht!.~
142-3 acqui!-OJlion of. 468 acquisition of. 471-6
universals of. 283 co-articulation and. 51 compounding. 151-6.
Verbal hedges. 552 <... ontra~ls. 71-2 556
Verbal parad'gm. 168-9 diphthong' . .16 derivalion. 1+1-51. 556
Verba, 2-3. 135-{i. 182-5. fealure matrix for. 99

-
Inflection and. 160-4
297-8.481-2. 664. flopping and. 5~ language change and.
685. s,~ also Verb lionl and back . .17-9. 96 340-1
long v,. 'hon. 39.48. ,lang and. 555-7
oomplemall. of. 197-8. 71-2.75-6.92-5. Word frequency. 693-4
226.685 107.329. :'76-7 Word game,. 45(}-1
_WI'IIOII of noun 10. monophlhon8', 36 Word manufacture (COinage),
3 157 na....u. 27 . .15. 51. 5.1. 58. 159-60
f I U-..u pmperues 79-81,97. 109. 122n. Word order, 5. 7.166
'IS 375.376. animal communu,,'UlIon

J:;=~~~ 673, 685 non-English. 57

pilch and. 41--{i
and. 649 ,50. 654
chIld language "od. 477.
pbooeIic ymbols for. 42 49.1
pure vowel • 36 in hiSlory of English. 314.
awduI:ed, 40 337-40