UNIT – I

DIGESTIVE AND
EXCRETORY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

In this unit first we will deal with

digestive system or alimentary

system and with the food we eat.

The food passes through the

gastrointestinal tract and broken

down into smaller units for

absorption into the blood and utilized

by the body. We will be dealing with

various organs of the digestive

system, their structure and functions

and mechanisms involved in

digestion.
In the later half we will deal with the

organs of the excretory system and

the physiology of the renal system.

Our body will excrete the unwanted

or waste substances produced in the

body through urine, faeces sweat etc.

Here we will discuss on the structure

and functions of the organs of the

excretory system like kidney,

ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.

OBJECTIVES

By studying this unit the students will

1. Understand the structure and

functions of different organs of

the digestive and excretory

system.
2. Know about the mechanism of

absorption of carbohydrates,

proteins and fats.

3. Learn about the mechanism of

urine formation.

4. Know about the impairment of

renal function.

5. Learn about the structure and

function of skin with the

mechanism of regulation of body

temperature.
 UNIT STRUCTURE

LESSON - 1 : DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Structure and functions of mouth,

1.1 stomach, small intestine, large

intestine, pancreas and liver

Saliva and Bile - Composition and

1.2
Function

Movement of the Gastrointestinal

1.3
Tract

1.4 Digestion of the Food in the Body

Absorption and Utilisation of

1.5
Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

LESSON - 2 : EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Structure and Functions of Kidney,

2.1
Ureter, Urinary Bladder and Urethra

Composition, Volume and Formation

2.2
of Urine

Micturition, Urinary Bladder,

2.3
Structure and Filling of Bladder
2.4 Impairment of Renal functions

2.5 Structure and Functions of Skin

2.6 Regulation of Body Temperature

Let Us Sum Up

Key Words

CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS

Questions
 LESSON - 1
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system deals with the

digestion and absorption of food. The

digestive system consists of the

alimentary canal and the associated

glands. Food is taken into the body to

1) yield energy, 2) to build tissues,

3) to regulate body process.

The food we take undergoes

mechanical and chemical changes in

the alimentary canal and finally food

is decomposed to readily soluble

compounds and absorbed into the

blood.
Organs of Digestive System

The main organ of the digestive

system are a long muscular tube

opened at both ends and consists of

the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus,

stomach, small intestine, large

intestine rectum and anal canal.

The digestive system includes

various glands like salivary gland,

liver and pancreas which discharge

their secretions into the

gastrointestinal tract.

In the digestive system 4 main

processes take place.

a. Ingestion: where the food is

taken into the month, chewed

and swallowed.
 b. Digestion: of the ingested food.

c. Absorption: of the digested food.

d. Exertion: of the waste food

material.

The walls of the digestive tract

generally consist of 3 layers of tissue.

They are innermost mucous

membrane or mucosa, smooth

muscle and serosal layer. The

mucous membrane secrete digestive

enzymes and mucous. It also absorbs

nutrients. The smooth muscle layer

has longitudinal and circular muscles.

The serosa has a protective function.

 Structure of Digestive System

1.1. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Mouth

The oral cavity is the first portion of

the alimentary canal into which the
mouth leads. It is lined with mucous

membrane. When the solid food is

taken into the mouth, it is ground

by teeth. Due to the muscular

contraction of cheeks and the

movements of the tongue, the

ground substance is pushed between

them.

The mouth or the buccal cavity is

bounded by the upper and lower jaws

formed of bones. The teeth are

situated in the jaw bones. The root of

the mouth cavity is called the palate

which is divided into anterior hard

and posterior soft palate.

Tongue is the muscular organ

attached by one end to the buccal

cavity and helps in pushing the

substance inside. Tongue contains

taste buds which are seen as

papillary eruptions. Tongue helps in

speech, serves as an organ of taste,

mixes saliva with food, keeps the

food mass pressed between the teeth

for chewing and pushes the food

backward during swallowing.

The teeth situated in the oral cavity

appears first as a set of 20 temporary

teeth known as deciduous teeth. But

there are 32 teeth in the adult. The

temporary teeth or milk teeth will

drop off at 7 and permanent teeth

will be developed.
The teeth are of 4 types. Out of 32

permanent teeth, 16 are in the upper

jaw and 16 are in the lower jaw. The

16 teeth are composed of 4 incisors

in front and 2 canines on either side

of the incisors and 4 premolars and 6

molars.

Structure of the Tooth

The tooth is divided roughly into 3

portions. They are crown in the

portion seen above the gum, the neck

and the root which is embedded in

the gum.

The outer coating of teeth is the

enamel which is hard and resists

bacterial attack. Below that is a layer

of dentine softer than the enamel. In

the root portion of the tooth instead

of dentine there is cement. The inside

of the teeth is hollow, called as pulp

region filled with blood vessels,

nerves and lymphatics.

The buccal cavity is lined with

mucous membrane and cells of which

secrete a shiny fluid called mucous.

During the process of mastication

saliva is poured in large quantity into

the mouth. This mixes the food,

lubricates, moistens and reduces it

to a softened mass known as bolus

which can be readily swallowed.

Saliva is secreted by the salivary

glands, situated in the mouth. It is

secreted by 3 pairs of glands, 1.

parotid which lies below the ear, 2.

sub maxillary, and 3. sublingual

glands which are situated in the

lower jaw. These glands consist of

cells arranged in the shape of alveoli

which secrete the juice and it is

drained by fine ducts.

The cells of Salivary glands are of

2 types. They are serus cells whose

secretion is thin and watery and

mucus cells whose secretion contains

mucin and it is shiny and viscous.

Functions of Mouth

1. Ingestion of Food Materials.

2. Chewing and mixing the food

with saliva.

3. Appreciating the taste of food.

 4. Transferring the food to

esophagus by initiating

swallowing.

Stomach

The stomach is the widest part of

the alimentary canal. It is a muscular

sac situated immediately below the

diaphragm towards the left side. It

acts as a reservoir of a large amount

of food. The walls of the stomach

are composed of smooth muscle. The

inner most lining is made up of

mucosa and is thrown into numerous

longitudinal folds, called rugae. The

upper part of the stomach is known

as the fundus and the expanded

middle portion is known as the body.

The lower constricted portion is

known as the pylorus with a sphincter

called the pyloric sphincter, which

regulates the passage of food from

the stomach to the duodenum.

The mucous membrane of the

stomach is densely packed with

simple tubular glands which remain

arranged like parallel tubes. These

glands secrete gastric juice. These

glands are, made up of different

types of cells. They are 1. mucous

cells, which secrete mucin 2. peptic

cells which secrete pepsin and other

digestive enzymes of the stomach,

3. parietal cells which secrete

hydrochloric acid.
Functions of Stomach

1. Storage of Food.

2. Mixing the bolus with gastric

juice and convert it to chyme.

3. Digestive function by the gastric

juice.

4. Hcl in gastric juice destroys

bacteria entering through food.

5. Acts in hemopoietin function.

6. Many substances like toxins,

alkaloids and metals are

excreted.

Small Intestine

The small intestine extends from the

stomach to the large intestine. It is

longer than the large intestine but

smaller in diameter. It also contains

4 layers, outer serosa, sub mucosa,

thin muscular layer and inner mucous

membrane.

The mucous membrane of the small

intestine is thrown into numerous

finger like processes called villi

projecting into the intestinal cavity.

This increases the surface area for

absorption. It is externally lined with

columnar epithelium. In the centre of

the villus is a lymphatic vessel called

the lacteal. Each villus is supplied

with a small artery and vein.

The small intestine is divided into 3

regions called the duodenum,

jejunum and ileum. In man its length

is about 21 feet. The first 10” are

called the duodenum, encircles the

head of the pancreas. In to the

duodenum opens the bile and the

pancreatic ducts. The rest of the

small intestine is divided into an

upper portion called jejunum, and a

lower somewhat narrower portion

called the ileum. But there is no clear

demarcation. The small intestine

from the duodenum onwards is

attached to the posterior abdominal

wall by a fan shaped membrane

called the mysentry which carries the

blood vessels and nerves to the

intestinal wall.

The intestinal mucosa contains the

intestinal glands called Crypts of

Lieberkuhn which is found in the base

of the villi. They secrete the

intestinal juice or the succus

entericus.

Functions of Small Intestine

1. Mechanical function – Mixing of

chyme with digestive juice.

2. Secretory function – Secreates

many hormones which regulates

the activities of small intestine.

3. Completion of digestion.

4. It has haemopoietic action.

5. Villi and microvilli increases the

absorptive function of intestine.

Large Intestine

The large intestine extends from

ileum to anus and it is divided into

the Caecum, Colon and Rectum.

The caecum is a blind sac seen just

below the opening of the ileum into

the large intestine. To the Caecum is

connected a finger like process the

vermiform appendix. The Colon is

divided into 3 parts.

The ascending colon

The transverse colon, and

The descending colon

The ascending colon is the part

extending from the caecum to the

lowest surface of the liver and then

lies horizontal to the abdominal

cavity to form the transverse colon

and then bends down below the

stomach on the left side and opens

into the rectum. The rectum is about

5” long and extends till the anus

which is guarded by an anal

sphincter.

Functions of Large Intestine

1. Neutralisation of acid.

2. Secretes mucin and inorganic

substances like chlorides and

bicarbonates.

3. Synthesise B 12 , folic acid and

Vitamin K.

4. Helps in absorption of Nutrients

Pancreas

Pancreas is an elongated fish shaped

gland situated behind the stomach

with the head and neck in the ‘C’

shaped curve of the duodenum. It

functions both as an exocrine and

endocrine gland. Exocrine glands will

have a duct to carry the secretion.

Endocrine glands are ductless.

Pancreas contains a group of cells

called Islets of Langerhans. They are

divided into α and β cells. α Cells

secrete glucogon and the β cells

secret insulin.

Functions of Pancreas

Pancreas secretes a digestive juice

called pancreatic juice. The volume is

around 1200–1500 ml. /24 hrs with

an alkaline pH 8 – 8.4. It is composed

of H 2 O – 97 – 98% and solids 1

– 3%. The enzymes are trypsinogen,

amylo peptitase, chymo trypsinogen,

carboxyl peptidase, amylase, maltase

pancreatic lipase and nucleases. It

also contains small amounts of

albumin, globulin and nucleoproteins.

The inorganic constituents (1%) are

+ + ++ ++
mainly Na , K , Ca , Mg
– –
, HCo 3 , Cl , 8O 4 & PO 4 . The

most important inorganic constituent

I NaHCO 3 . Trypsinogen and

chymotrypsinogen are converted to

trypsin and chymotrypsin which act

on peptones to convert it into

peptides. Pancreatic lipase acts on

fat in the presence of bile. It

hydrolyses triglycerides to free fatty

acids and glycerols. Pancreatic

amylase acts on all forms of starch

and dextrins convertsing into

maltose. The nucleases act on RNA &

DNA.

Liver

liver is the largest gland in body

located under the diaphragm and

occupies the right side of abdomen

near stomach. The liver is divided

into a large right lobe and a smaller

left lobe. The right lobe is again

subdivided into the right lobe proper,

the quadrate lobe and the cardate

lobe.
The liver cells are arranged in the

form of plates. Liver has phagocytic

cells called the Kupffer cells which kill

foreign particles. Blood is brought to

the liver by the hepatic artery and

the portal vein which is finally breaks

into capillaries in lobules and finally

forms the hepatic vein. The biliary

capillaries are located within the liver

cells. The liver cells discharge the

bile formed from the constituents of

blood into small channels which is

carried into the bile duct coming from

right and left lobes. These ducts then

unite to form the hepatic duct. The

hepatic duct is joined by cystic duct

from the gall bladder and continues

as the common bile duct which opens

into duodenum where it is also

jointed by pancreatic duct. Here

there is the sphincter of oddi.

The gall bladder is pear shaped sac,

under right lobe of liver with a

capacity of 30-50 ml. It acts as a

reservoir for the storage of bile which

is continuously formed by liver. After

a meal especially of fat, gall bladder

contracts and discharges bile into

duodenum. Gall bladder concentrates

the bile by the absorption of H 2 O. It

reduces alkalinity of bile. Cholesterol

is excreted through bile.

Functions of the Liver

1. Metabolic function –It controls

metabolism of CHO, fats and

proteins.

a. CHO Metabolism: Liver helps

in the conversion of glucose

into glycogen and also

breakdown of glycogen into

glucose and thus maintains

the blood glucose level in the

body. Liver also helps in

gluconeogenesis, the

synthesis of glucose from

other sources like amino

acids.

b. Protein metabolism: Liver

helps in the deamination and

transamination of amino

acids. Ita also helps in the

 formation of urea and

formation of new amino

acids from fatty acids.

c. Fats – Fats are also

metabolished and converted

into other types of material

in the liver. It helps in the

conversion of CHO into fat

from ketone bodies,

phospholipids, etc.

2. Liver helps in the formation of

bile.

3. It helps in destruction of RBC and

transforming Hb into bilirubin

and biliverdin.
4. Liver helps in storage of

glycogen mainly and also stores

protein, Vitamin A, D, B 12 , folic

acid, and Iron etc.

5. Liver synthesizes plasma

proteins, albumin, fibrinogen,

prothrombin, etc.

6. Heparin which is an anti-

coagulant is synthesized in the

liver.

7. The reticulo endothelial cells in

the liver helps in phagocytosis

and antibody formation.

8. Liver inactivates certain drugs,

helps in the de-toxication of

some substances which are

otherwise harmful to the body.

 1.2 SALIVA AND BILE-
COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION

The human Saliva contains 99.27%

water. Rest of the saliva contains

0.2% inorganic (salts) like NaCl, KCl,

Carbonates, Phosphates, etc. It also

contains some protein material like

albumin, globulin etc. The enzyme

present in saliva is ptyalin or salivary

amylase. Other inorganic

constituents are urea, mucin,

maltase, etc. The saliva is slightly

acid in reaction. The average adult

secretes 1200–1500 c.c. of saliva in

24 hrs.
Functions of Saliva

1. It moistens the food and so

facilitates mastication and

swallowing by coating it with

mucin and lubricating it and

renders the food slippery and

easy to swallow. This action

helps in speech also.

2. The constant flow of saliva exerts

a cleaning effect. The mouth and

teeth are rinsed and kept free

from foreign particles, food

particles etc. In this way, saliva

inhibits the growth of bacteria.

3. Saliva keeps the mouth moist

even between the meals. It’s

absence may stimulate thirst.

4. Saliva is essential for

appreciation of taste.
5. All solid substances are dissolved

in saliva in order to stimulate

taste buds.

6. Saliva excretes many organic

and inorganic substances.

7. The important function of Saliva

is digestion. The enzyme ptyalin

acts upon boiled starch and

glycogen and converts it through

the stages of soluble starch –

erythrodextrin – achrodextrin –

dextrin – maltose. Salivary

amylase or ptyalin is most active

at a pH of 6. Ptyalin has no

action on cellulose and so the

starch must be cooked for the

ptyalin to act.
Salivary secretion occurs through

reflexes. The Salivary response

evoked by the introduction of food

material in the mouth is called as

unconditioned or inborn reflex. The

secretion following the smell, sight

and thought of food is called as

conditioned reflex or acquired reflex.

Composition of Bile
Liver secretes bile, a greenish or

golden yellow fluid slightly alkaline,

viscous with a bitter taste. It is

continuously secreted. About

500–1000ml. of bile is secreted per

24 hours.

The chief constituents are bile salts,

bile pigments, cholesterol, lecithin,

bile acids and inorganic salts like Na,

K, Ca, Mg, HCO 3 chloride etc.

Functions of Bile

Bile is essential for life. Although, it

does not contain any enzyme, yet it

acts as a very important digestive

juice. It’s importance is so much that

life cannot be maintained without it.

Lack of bile leads to death. Bile is

essential for the complete digestion

of fats and to some extent of protein

and carbohydrate. The action is due

to the presence of bile salts which act

in the following ways.

i. Absorption: Bile helps in the

absorption of fats iron, Ca,

vitamin A, D, E and K.
ii. Excretion: Heavy metals, toxins,

bacteria, cholesterol, bile

pigments etc are excreted

through bile.

iii. Laxative Action: Bile salts

stimulate peristalsis.

iv. Cholagogue Action: Bile acts as

its own stimulant. Bile salts are

the strongest cholagogues. They

are absorbed from intestine,

carried to the liver, where it

stimulates further bile secretion.

The taurocholate is stronger in

this respect than the

glycocholate. Bile helps to

maintain a suitable pH of the

duodenal contents and thus

helps the action of all the

 enzymes. Bile is an important

source of alkali for neutralizing

the HCL entering the intestine

from stomach.

v. Mucin of bile acts as a buffer and

a lubricant.

1.3 MOVEMENTS OF THE

ALIMENTARY CANEL

MOVEMENTS OF PHARYNX AND

OESOPHAGUS

Deglutition it is otherwise known as

swallowing. It is the transport of a

bolus liquid or solid from the mouth

to the stomach by the movement of

the tongue, cheeks and lips. The food

is pushed into the pharynx and

oesophagus in 3 stages.
The first stage or oral phase is

voluntary and the bolus of food is

carried into the pharynx. In the

second phase known as pharyngeal

phase, food passes through the

pharynx by the contraction of

muscles of pharynx. In the third

stage or oesophageal phase, the food

is carried through the oesophagus

and at this time the larynx will be

closed. But, if by any chance food

enters the larynx, it excites the

coughing reflex. Liquids and soft

foods pass through the oesophagus

very fast. But solid foods require

more time (4 – 8 sec.). Oesphagus is

a narrow muscular tube about 10” in

length and connects the pharynx with

the stomach. It’s wall is provided

with circular and longitudinal

muscles. By the peristaltic movement

of these muscles, the food is pushed

down.

Movements of the Stomach

Gastric tone

This is the relation between the

length of the muscle fibre and the

tension, which maintains good gastric

tone this is needed for proper

digestive movements. Hunger

contractions are peristaltic waves

seen when the stomach is empty.

This stimulates the nerves and

induces hunger. Digestive peristalsis
replaces hunger contractions which

cease when food enter the stomach.

Digestive peristalsis moves gastric

contents forward and backward.

Peristalsis moves it forward and

closed pyloric sphincter moves it

backward. This helps to mix the food

thoroughly with the gastric juice.

When the food has reached a suitable

consistency, it is pushed into the

duodenum through the pylorus by a

strong descending peristalsis.

It also shows a slow pendular

movement.
 MOVEMENTS OF SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine shows 3 types of

movements. They are:

1. Pendular Movement

This is a swaying movement up

and down the small intestine.

They are simple constructions of

the intestinal wall and results in

the to and fro movements of

intestinal contents and helps to

mix intestinal contents

thoroughly with intestinal juice.

2. Segmenting Movements

It is also known as rhythmic

segmentation movement of the

intestine. It helps to break up

the food into smaller parts and

 mix thoroughly and contents are

made to come in contact with the

absorptive surfaces. Thus food is

systematically divided into small

segments and pushed forward.

3. Peristaltic Movements

It is defined as a wave of

contraction followed by a wave of

relaxation by means of which the

food is pushed from one point to

the other. Mechanical, chemical

and electrical stimuli can induce

peristalsis. Peristalsis is always

towards the anal region, but in

certain abnormal cases, reverse

of this happens. It is called

anti–peristalsis.
 Strong stimuli such as irritant

may induce strong peristalsis

which sweeps over the entire

length of the small intestine

without interruption. This is

called peristaltic rush.

Peristaltic waves are seen in

oesophagus, stomach, small

intestine, large intestine, rectum

and anus.

Movement of the villi

The villi exhibit two types of

movements. They are the side to side

swaying movement and the pumping

movement (elongation and

contraction). These movements are

due to the contraction of the smooth

muscle fibres inserted in the villi. The

hormone villikinin increases the villi

movements.

Movements of Large Intestine

The large intestine also shows large

circular constructions similar to

segmentation movements. Peristalsis

and anti–peristalsis are also

exhibited by the colon. Mass

peristalsis – are strong peristaltic

waves which start at the upper end of

the ascending colon and move swiftly

over the colon and empty the colon

of its contents into the rectum. Mass

peristalsis after meals is mainly

caused by the duodenocolic reflex

and to a less extent by the

gastrocolic reflex.
Gastrocolic reflex is an important

reflex involved in intestinal activity.

When food materials like hot drinks

reach the stomach a reflex activity

is initiated by which, there is a

tendency to evacuate the colon.

1.4 DIGESTION OF FOOD

In the mouth, food is masticated by

the movement of the lower jaw, lips

and cheeks. The teeth cut and tear

the food. The whole mass thus

becomes thoroughly mixed with

Saliva.
After mastication it is carried to the

stomach. In stomach gastric

secretion takes place in 3 phases.

st
The 1 phase is the psychic or

cephalic. Here, gastric secretion

starts even before any food has

entered the stomach. Gastric

secretion occurs from the sight, smell

or the taste of food. Here the

secretion is by a conditioned reflex

nd
which is not inborn. The 2 phase

is the gastric phase and during this

phase gastric juice is secreted after

food has entered the stomach. It

continues for a much longer period.

In this phase, secretion is mainly due

to the action of local hormone, called

gastrin. This hormone stimulates the

gastric cells to secrete the digestive
rd
juice. In the 3 phase the gastric

juice continues to be secreted after

the partially digested food materials

have reached intestine. The products

of protein digestion continue to exert

a stimulatory effect upon the gastric

juice.

In the gastric secretion, autonomic

nervous system plays a vital role

which controls digestive process. The

secretion of gastric juice is more or

less constant. The rate of secretion

is generally increased during the act

of eating. The secretion is inhibited

under conditions like anger, worry,

pain, etc. Also active exercise soon

after a meal inhibits the secretion.

Gastric secretion is inhibited by fat.

This is not a direct effect but due

to the liberation of the hormone

enterogastron from the duodenum,

inhibits both the motility and

secretion of the stomach.

After completion of digestion inside

stomach, food is reduced to a thin

liquid mass called chyme.

When a product of gastric digestion

or chime which is acidic enters the

duodenum it causes the release of

gastrointestinal hormone called

secretin from the intestinal mucosa.

The secretin stimulates pancreatic

juice production and secretion.

Digestive action of pancreatic juice

is mainly on proteins. The action of

pancreatic juice takes place only in

the intestine. Pancreatic juice helps

to render the medium alkaline for the

action of intestinal juice.

The chyme entering the duodenum

after an ordinary meal is free from

coarse particles of food and acidic

in reaction. Much of the food is

undigested. Here the bile salts split

the fats. The pancreatic juice also

starts action on the food but its

digestive action is complete only in

the intestine. Pancreatic juice makes

the food alkaline now and helps in the

action of intestinal juice.

As the food passes through the small

intestine, it comes in contact with

the succus entericus which is poured

directly into the intestinal tract by

innumerable small short glands.

Intestinal juice is a thin colourless

straw coloured fluid alkaline in

nature. About 2,000 ml. of intestinal

juice is secreted during 24 hours. The

enzymes present are

enteropeptidase, peptidase, amylase,

nuclease, maltase, lactase, sucrase,

etc. Water – 98.5, Solids – 1.5%,

Organic – 0.6%. Inorganic

+ +
constituents – 0.9%, - Na ,K , Ca
++ ++ – –
, Mg and Cl , HCo 3 , PO 4
–
.
Trypsinogen is the inactive enzyme

present in the pancreatic juice. This

trypsinogen is activated by

enteropeptidase to form trypsin.

enteropeptidase
Trypsinogen → trypsin
Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen → chymotrypsin

Trypsin and chymotrypsin acts on

any protein which has escaped

gastric digestion and converts it into

proteoses and peptones and breaks

it into smaller groups of amino acids

called peptides. When the amino acid

groups are relatively large, they are

called polypeptides.

The enzymes of the small intestine

complete the process of digestion of

and to a less extent by the
gastrocolic reflex. The final stage

in the digestion of protein is the

complete breakdown of peptides and

polypeptides into their individual

amino acids. This is brought

about by peptidase enzyme in

the intestinal juice and

carboxypeptidase in the pancreatic

juice.

Intestinal lipase completes the

digestion of fats splitting

triglycerides into the final products,

fatty acids and glycerol.

The specific enzymes like sucrase,

maltase and lactase breakdown

sucrose, maltose and lactose into

their corresponding monosaccharide

sugars. Thus the major process of

digestion takes place in the small

intestine.

1.5 ABSORPTION & UTILIZATION

OF CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS
AND FATS

Mainly occurs in the small intestine,

from the duodenum to the end of the

ileum. Absorption takes place only to

a small extend in stomach and large

intestine. Alcohol is mainly absorbed

from the stomach. In the large

intestine, it absorbs mainly H 2 O

and H 2 O soluble substances such as

glucose, etc.
In the small intestine absorption

mainly occurs in upper part of small

intestine. Absorption mainly occurs

in a passive manner. In active

absorption, it will be an energy

dependent process. Large intestine

absorbs glucose at the rate of 6 gm

per hour.

Monosaccharides are absorbed by a

process of active absorption. Glucose

and galactose are more rapidly

absorbed than fructose. Thus

intestinal absorption of

monosaccharides is selective. After

absorption the mono–saccharides are

phosphorylated. CHO are absorbed in

the portal system mainly. Glucose is

mainly absorbed in jejunum.

Proteins are converted into amino

Acids. Amino acids are absorbed

actively and pass into the capillaries

of the villi and then into the portal

blood flowing through the liver before

entering the general circulation.

Fatty acids and glycerols which are

the end product of fat digestion in the

form of minute droplets of emulsified

fat is absorbed into the central

lacteal of the villi and small fractions

enter intestinal blood capillaries. The

small fatty globules of about a micron

in diameter are called chylomicrons.

These absorbs protein to their

surface and keeps the protein

suspended in the lymph and prevent

sticking to each other. This fat

protein complex is known as

lipoprotein and fat is transported in

this form in the blood. Some fats are

transported by blood in the form of

phospholipids or cholesterol esters.

Soon after a fatty meal, the lymph

has a milky white appearance.

Defaecation

After absorption, all the undigested

and unabsorbed food is pushed into

large intestine and rectum.

The faecal matter is discharged from

the colon at regular intervals and this

process is known as defecation. The

anal canal is guarded by anal

sphincters. There is an internal and

external sphincter.
Defaecation is due to a reflex action.

When the faeces enter the rectum,

distension of the rectal wall

stimulates the nerves which carry the

impulse and cause the peristalitic

contraction and relaxation of the anal

sphincters which is under voluntary

control. Thus the faecal matter is

excreted.
 LESSON - 2
EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion is function of removal of

metabolic waste products by a type

of cellular activity. As a result of

metabolism, constantly different

types of waste products are formed

which is the end products of

metabolism such as CO 2 , H 2 O,

Urea, Uric acid, organic and inorganic

salts. These, if retained in the body,

are harmful to the body. The process

by which these waste materials are

removed is called excretion.

The chief excretory organs of the

body are the kidneys, skin, lungs and

the gastrointestinal tract. The

kidneys excrete H 2 O and soluble

substances, skin excretes H 2 O, salts

and fatty substances as sweat, lungs

excrete CO 2 , water vapour and

volatile substances and

gastrointestinal tract excretes

undigested food, heavy metals, fatty

substances and drugs through saliva

and bile and large intestine.

But the major excretory organ is the

kidney. Urinary system consists of 2

kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and

the urethra.

Kidneys have primary responsibility

for maintaining the composition and

volume of the body fluids, blood etc.

 2.1. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF KIDNEY, URETER, URINARY
BLADDER AND URETHRA

Structure of the Urinary System

Kidneys are 2 in number and are dark

red, bean shaped organs situated in

the abdomen, one on either side of

the vertebral column. The right

kidney is a little lower than the left

because of the large space occupied

by the liver. Each kidney is about 4”

long and 2½” wide. The inner border

of each kidney is concave and this

surface is named as a hilum. This

serves as a passage for the ureters

and for the blood vessels, lymph

vessels and nerves, going to and

from the kidney. The outer edge of

the kidney is convex. Each kidney is

covered by a thin but rather tough

envelop of firbrous tissue.

The ureter emerges from the kidney.

In fact, the kidney is the expansion of

the ureter. The urine is collected by

the ureter and runs backwards to the

urinary bladder which is situated in

the pelvic cavity. The urine is stored

in the bladder. The opening of the

bladder into the urethra is provided

with a sphincter muscle. The urine

passes into the urethra when the

muscles relax.

Internal Structure of the Kidney

The longitudinal section of the kidney

shows an outer reddish cortex and

an inner pale medulla. The cortex

contains the renal corpuscles or

nephrons and blood vessels and

hence dark red in colour. The medulla

consists of 8–10 conical structures

called the renalpyramids facing the

pelvis of the kidney. Each pyramid

contains a large number of collecting

tubules. The apex pointing to the

pelvis cavity is known as the renal

papillae which fit into the cup-like

extensions of the pelvis which

continues as the ureter.

 Structure of Kidney

The bulk of the kidney substance is

both the cortex and the medulla and

is composed of minute tubes or

tubules, closely packed. The

nephrons are the functional unit of

the kidneys.
Nephrons

The kidney is composed of a large

number of microscopic structures

called the nephrons. They are the

excreting units of kidney. There are

about 1 million nephrons in each

kidney.

1. The nephron consists of the renal

corpuscle comprising of the

glomerulus and the Bowman’s

capsule.

2. The renal tubule.

3. The collecting tubule.

The malphigian corpuscle or the renal

corpuscle consists of the glomerulus

which consists of some 50 separate

capillaries bent into short loops to

form a compact tuft of capillaries

forming a net work which fits into

the cup like cavity called Bowman’s

capsule. Actually, the renal tubules

end in a dilated cup to form the

Bowman’s capsule which filters the

blood. Bowman’s capsule joins the

rest of the renal tubule with a

constricted neck. The renal tubule

has 3 parts. The first part of the

renal tubule is higher convoluted and

is known as the proximal convoluted

tubule (P.C.T.). It lies in close

relation with the glomerulus in the

cortex. Then, the renal tubule is

continued as a straight tube into the

medulla and turns back ascending to

the region of the glomerulus in the

cortex. This forms a U shaped

structure, like a hair pin bend known

as the loop of Henle, comprising as

ascending convoluted tubule and is

highly coiled and lies in the cortex. A

number of distal convoluted tubules

join together to form the collecting

tubule, which reaches medulla to

drain into the calyces of the renal

pelvis.

Structure of Nephron
The proximal convoluted tubule is

lined by large columnar epithelial

cells with their free borders showing

a brush-like appearance. The brush

border is due to the presence of

numerous microvillus which

enormously increase the surface area

for absorption. Henle’s loop and

proximal convoluted tubule also have

few microvilli. The thin portion of the

Henle’s loop is lined by squamous

epithelium. All other parts of the

renal tubule and the collecting tubule

are lined by cuboildal epithelium.

About 15% of the nephron population

in each kidney lie in cortico-

medullary region and are known as

juxta-medullary nephrons. The rest

lie in cortex.
Renal Circulation

The kidneys are supplied with blood

by two renal arteries, arising from

the abdominal aorta. About 200ml of

blood passes through the kidney

every minute. The renal arteries

break up into tuft or network of

capillaries to form the glomerulus.

The capillaries of each of glomerulus

are derived from a single artericle

called the afferent vessel. The

capillaries again join to form the

efferent vessel which leads out of the

capsule, further divides into another

set of capillaries which are

distributed in the walls of the tubule

for reabsorption. They then unite to

form a small vein which finally forms

the renal vein which leaves the

kidney. The nerves of the kidney are

derived from the vagus and the

sympathetic nerve. During fear,

emotion, pain, etc the renal blood

flow is reduced.

Juxta Glomerular Apparatus

It is highly specialized structure with

both vascular and tubular

components. Adjacent to the point

where the ascending limb of the loop

of Henle empties into the Distal tube,

the D.T. returns to the glomerulus

and passes between the afferent and

the efferent arteries. The epithelial

cells of the distal tubule where it lies

in opposition to the afferent arteriole

is condensed into small tightly

packed cells that are collectively

called the macula densa and smooth

muscle cells of the afferent arteriole

shows an asymmetrical thickening

and contains granules called juxta

glomerular cells. In addition to this,

there is another group of cells called

the mesangial cells which is in

contact with both macula densa and

the juxta glomerular cells. These

three together constitute the juxta

glomerular apparatus.

It secretes a substance called rennin

which helps in the maintenance of

the blood pressure. Also it helps in

the auto regulation of the blood flow

in the kidney and secretes

erythro–poietin which is needed for

the formation of RBC.

Function of the Kidney

1. It maintains the normal

composition and volume of

blood.

2. All the waste products of

metabolism except CO2 is

excreted through the kidneys by

filtering the blood.

3. It regulates the normal pH of

blood.
4. It regulates the osmotic relation

between the blood and the

tissues by preventing the

filtration of plasma proteins.

 5. It maintains the composition and

volume of the plasma.

6. It produces certain substances

like ammonia and inorganic

phosphates.

7. It produces rennin by the juxta

glomerular cells.

8. It produces erythropoietin

needed for RBC formation.

9. It removes toxic substances.

10. It maintains normal composition

and volume of the body fluids.

The kidney can retain or excrete

substances depending upon the

needs of the body.

11. It maintains acid-base balance.

 2.2 COMPOSITION, VOLUME AND
FORMATION OF URINE

Composition of Urine

Urine is complex, water containing

organic and inorganic substances,

and waste products of metabolism of

body cells. Normally, urine is a yellow

transparent liquid. It has a specific

gravity of 1.02. It is slightly acid in

reaction with pH of 6. Colour of the

urine is due to pigment called

urochrome.

Urine is composed chiefly of water

96% and 4% solids in solution. Solids

consist of both organic and inorganic

substances. The main organic

constituents are urea 20–30gm/24

hrs) uric acid, creatinine, amino

acids, vit.C, hippuric acid and

pigments. The inorganic constituents

are Na and K Fluoride, Phosphates,

Sulphates, Ca, Mg, Fe, etc. The

abnormal constituents of urine

appearing under diseased conditions

are glucose, proteins, blood and

blood derivates, bile salts and bile

pigment and ketone bodies.

Urea is obtained by break down of

protein or by the disintegration of

body tissue.
Volume of Urine

The total quantity of urine passed in

24 hrs is 1200–1500 ml. This varies

depending upon the amount of fluid

intake and that through other

channels like skin.

Urine formation is reduced during

sleep. A rise in volume of urine in the

night is called nocturia. Even though

the urine formation is reduced during

sleep, the total excretion of urinary

solids (urea, uric acid, etc) is about

the same during the night as during

the day period. Kidneys excrete les

water during night, (i.e) more water

is reabsorbed from the tubules.

Therefore the urine passed in the

early morning is more concentrated

than the ordinary day urine.

Urine is also reduced during hot

weather or as a result of diarrhea,

vomiting, etc. The end products of

protein metabolism especially urea

increases urine production. Thus the

volume of urine is great after a high

protein diet. Even in muscular

exercise of strenuous nature reduces

the volume of urine.

Formation of Urine

The urine is formed by 3 individual

processes.

a. Glomerular filtration.

b. Tubular reabsorption.

c. Tubular secretion
a. Glomerular Filtration

The filtration of blood takes place

between the glomerulus and

Bowman’s capsule through, the

filtering membrane. This is

formed by the endothelium of the

capillary and middle basement

membrane and the epithelium of

the Bowman’s capsule. The

filtering membrane possesses a

number of minute pores which

allow the passage of only

selected substances. It will not

allow the passage of blood cells

and plasma protein. But in some

pathological condition, where the

membrane becomes damaged

and the filtering pore enlarges in

size so that serum protein, blood

cells may appear in the urine.

The cells from the plasma is

separated by simple filtration but

colloidal materials like proteins

and fats are removed by ultra

filtration.

Glomerular filtration depends

upon the hydrostatic pressure in

the glomerular capillaries. It is

about 75 mm. of Hg. The

colloidal osmotic pressure of

plasma protein is about 30 mm.

Hg and pressure in the Bowman’s

capsule or the Capsular pressure

opposes the capillary pressure.

So, for the filtration to take place

the capillary pressure (75 mm.

Hg.) should overcome the other

two pressures (30 + 20 mm.

Hg.). This will give the filtration

pressure (75 – 30 +20) which is

25 mm. Hg.

There are certain differences

between the filtrate formed after

filtration from the glomerulus

and the actual urine. They are:

1. The total volume of urine in

24 hrs. is much less than the

amount of glomerular

filtrate. It is known that

about 170.1 of filtrate are

formed by the glomerulus in

24 hrs. whereas only 1.5.1

of urine are excreted per

day.
 2. Some substances present in

the filtrate are absent in the

urine. They are glucose,

biocarbonate, etc.
3. The solid constituents are

much more concentrated in

the urine than in the

glomerular fluid.
4. The filtrate is alkaline

whereas the urine is acidic.

The process of filtration across

the glomerular membrane is

purely passive. Thus the filtrate

is collected in the Bowman’s

capsule and drained into the

renal tubules for further

reabsorption. The filtrate

consists of all the constituents of

blood excepting plasma proteins

and blood cells.

b. Tubular Reabsorption

Along the course of the

glomerular filtrate through the

renal and collecting tubule

substances are selectively

reabsorbed and the resulting

fluid entering the pelvis of the

kidney is urine.

The basic mechanism for the

reabsorption of the tubule is

divided into active transport and

passive transport.

Active transport is an energy

dependent process which is

supplied by the energy produced

by the metabolic processes.

Example: Na. Passive transport

is an inactive process where no

energy is involved. Example:

water.

1. Reabsorption of H 2 O

H 2 O is mainly reabsorbed

in the P.C.T. and D.C.T.. Out

of the 170 1. Filtered around

168.5 are reabsorbed. Out of

this, 7/8 is reabsorbed in the

P.C.T. by a passive process.

The reabsorption of H 2 O

in the P.C.T. is known as

obligatory water

reabsorption. Some

absorption of water takes

place in the loop of Henle

also. In the D.C.T. rest of

 th
the water i.e. 1/8 of the

water is reabsorbed in an

active manner. It is

controlled by the ant diuretic

hormone (ADH) of the

posterior pituitary. This is

called facultative water

reabsorption. In the absence

of this hormone, large

amount of water is excreted.

2. Glucose Reabsorption

Glucose reabsorption takes

place in the P.C.T. by active

transport mechanism. It can

be reabsorbed only in

combination with a carrier

substance present in the

P.C.T. Glucose forms a

 complex with the carrier to

form carrier glucose

complex. But the amount of

carrier present is very

limited. So if excess of

glucose is present, then all

the glucose cannot be

absorbed and will be

excreted resulting in a

condition called glucosuria.

3. Sodium

Na is reabsorbed in the

P.C.T. by an active process

along with water. In the

th
P.C.T 7/8 of the

absorption takes place.

Chloride is the anion

reabsorbed secondary to the

 absorption of Na. The rest 1/
th
8 of Na is reabsorbed in

the loop of Henle and the

D.C.T. by an active process

along with chloride. Na

reabsorption is stimulated by
aldosterone and to some

extent cortisol.

4. Potassium: Potassium is

completely reabsorbed in the

P.C.T. But the urine still

contains some amount of

potassium which is derived

from the secretion in the

D.C.T.

5. HCO 3 : It is completely
+
reabsorbed. H is needed

for this.
 6. Phosphates: Phosphates

are also actively reabsorbed

in the P.C.T.

Reabsorption of other

substances like sulphate,

uric acid, creatinine and

some amino acids also occur

in the tubules. The

reabsorption of amino acids

is more or less complete in

the renal tubules and is

controlled by the plasma

concentration.

c. Tubular Secretion

In the D.C.T., active secretion of

substances takes place. In the

D.C.T., potassium ions are

actively secreted from blood into

the renal tubule. Also NH 3 is

secreted in the renal tubules got

from the amino acids which help

to maintain the acid-base

+
balance. H are also secreted

which helps to acidify the urine

and helps in the reabsorption of

the filtered HCO 3 ions. Also

inorganic phosphates are

produced in the D.C.T. along with

hippuric acid.

The alkaline filtrate is converted

into an acid fluid in the D.C.T.

It is this filtrate which has

undergone all these changes

which is called urine. The urine

is collected by the collecting

tubules and drawn into the pelvis

 through calyces and then into the

ureter and trickles into the

bladder drop by drop. The

secretion of urine depends upon

the amount of blood flowing into

the glomerulus. If more blood is

sent into the glomerulus there is

more amount of urine secreted

vice versa happens with less

blood in the glomerulus.

2.3 MICTURITION. URINARY

BLADDER- STRUCTURE AND FILLING
OF BLADDER

Micturition

It is the act of urination. It is the

process of accumulation of formed

urine in the urinary bladder and

periodic emptying or evacuation of

the urinary bladder which is

voluntary under the control of the

nervous system except in infancy.

Urine is formed continuously by the

kidneys and driven into the urinary

bladder through the ureters. The

ureters show peristaltic waves which

originate from the pelvis and force

the urine along the ureters.

Mechanism of Micturition

Micturition is a reflex act and the

centres for the control and

integration are situated in the

regions of the spinal cord, the brain

stem and the cerebral cortex. When

the bladder is full, the tension on

the bladder wall increases which

stimulates the receptors in the

bladder which sends afferent

impulses via the pelvic nerve to the

spinal centre and other higher

centres and they send back the

efferent impulses via the pelvic nerve

to the bladder resulting in the

contraction of the detrusor muscle

and voiding of urine. The distension

of the bladder leads to relaxation of

the internal and external sphincters.

Thus it goes on as a cycle.

Structure of the Urinary Bladder

Urinary bladder is a hollow sac,

serving as the distensible reservoir

for urine. The wall of the urinary

bladder is made of 3 layers of smooth

muscle known as the detrusor

muscle. The bladder mainly consists

of two parts: 1. the body and 2. the

trigone.

The body is a hollow sac of detrusor

muscle. The transitional epithelium of

the innermost layer has got folding

or Rugae which gradually disappear

during filling of the bladder. The

trigone is a small triangular region

formed by connecting the openings

of the ureters and the urethra. The

smooth muscles around the opening

of the urethra form the internal

sphincter. Outside to this is the

external sphincter which is made of

striated muscle and is under

voluntary control. Bladder is supplied

with autonomic nervous system.

Detrusor muscle gets the

parasympathetic fibres via the pelvic

nerves. Parasympathetic stimulation

produces contraction of the detrusor

thereby causing relaxation of the

internal sphincter and voiding of

urine. Sympathetic stimulation

produces relation of the detrusor

muscle thereby causing contraction

of the internal sphincter.

Filling of Bladder

Urine trickles into the bladder drop

by drops by the peristaltic waves

inside the ureter. As the urine

collects in the bladder, at first the

pressure within it shows very little

change as the detrusor muscle

expands without producing any

urinary sensation. This is called

adaptation. The first sensation of

bladder filling generally occurs at a

capacity of 100-150 ml. and first

desire for micturitution is between

150–250 ml. The maximum volume

of urine tolerated without undue

discomfort is between 250–400 ml.

Filling the bladder beyond its

physiological capacity (i.e. 600–800

ml) leads to progressive failure of

adaptation and causes pain. The

further inhibition is impossible

beyond this state and micturition

may become an involuntary action.

 2.4 IMPAIRMENT OF RENAL
FUNCTION

Impairment of Renal Function

Suppression of urine is a serious

condition that leads to the failure of

the kidneys to secrete urine called

anuria. When the secretion of urine is

decreased below the normal amount,

it is known as oliguria.

Nephritis

When the nephrons are damaged by

infection and become inflamed due

to any toxic substances or bacteria,

usually the glomerulus will be

affected and it is known as glomerulo

nephritis. The chief symptoms of

kidney disease are retension of

nitrogenous waste products in the

blood like urea, uric acid leading to a

serious toxic condition called uremia.

Protein Urea : Protein urea is the

presence of proteins especially

albumin in the urine.

Hematuria : Hematuria is the

presence of blood in the urine.

Glycosuria : Presence of glucose or

sugar in the urine.

Odema : Odema is the collection of

fluid inside the body.

Hypertension : Elevation in B.P.

Acidosis or Ketosis : Presence of

ketone bodies.
 2.5 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF SKIN

The skin forms an external covering

for the entire surface of the body.

Most of the out contacts with the

environment is through the skin.

Structure of the Skin:

The skin consists of main layers. The

outer superficial layer is called the

epidermis and the inner thick layer is

known as the dermis or the cornium.

 Structure of the Skin

Epidermis:

It is composed of several layers of

epithelial cells. No blood vessels are

seen in these layers. The

nourishment is derived from the

lymph.
The thickness of the epidermis varies

in the different parts of the body.

The epidermis of the palm and sole of

the foot is thicker and has 5 layers,

unlike other parts which have only 4

layers.

Usually, the epidermis is described to

be found in 4 layers. These layers

from the surface inward are

1. Stratum corneum (corneous)

2. Stratum lucidum

3. Stratum granulosum

4. Stratum germinativum or

Malpighian layer.

The statum Corneous consists of the

outermost horny layer formed by flat

scale – like cells. They are dead cells,

devoid of nuclei and contain a protein

called ketathin. The most superficial

cells are being continually shed and

replaced from below. Hairs are

special outgrowth of these cells.

The stratum lucidum is the second

layer, narrow, thin and transparent in

which the cells are very indistinctly

marked off. They do not contain

nuclei.
The statum granulosum is the layer

internal to the lucidum. It is made

up of 2 or 3 layers of large columnar

cells filled with granules. This layer

contains the pigment melanin which

is responsible for the colour of the

skin.
The stratum germinativum (or) the

malpighian layer is the innermost

layer of the epidermis. It consists of

columnar cells with protoplasm and

nuclei. This layer is broad, thick and

made up of large cells. The

multiplication of cells of the skin

takes place in this layer. The skin

pigment, melanin is present in this

layer also.

Dermis

Dermis or Corium is composed of

connective tissue, which contains the

blood vessels and nerves of the skin.

It consists of an upper compact area

which is thrown into projections

(tongue–like processes) over the

epidermis. These are known as the

papillae of the skin. Therefore, this

upper layer of the dermis is called

the papillary layer or the superficial

layer.

The deeper layer of the dermis

consists of fine network of connective

cells. The tiny spaces between them

are occupied by glands, adipose

tissue, etc. This layer is known as the

reticular layer of the dermis. Beneath

this layer, is a layer of connective

tissue which usually contains the fat

cells called subcutaneous tissue.

Vertical Section of the Skin
There are 2 sets of glands present in

dermis namely the sweat glands and

the sebaceous glands.

There are two types of sweat glands,

eccrine and apocrine. The former is

present throughout the body. The

sweat glands are tubular, forming the

deeper part of the dermis. Each gland

consists of a tube coiled up into a ball

and it is made up of glandular cells.

The gland is surrounded by blood

vessels and nerves. The duct leading

from the coiled portion opens into

the surface of the skin by a small

opening–the sweat pore. The

numbers of these pores are

numerous in the forehead axilla,

soles, palms etc.

The sweat is secreted by the

glandular cells from the materials in

the blood and passed to the exterior

by the duct through the sweat pore.

Sweat is secreted due to excessive

heat in order to regulate the body

temperature or due to mental stress,

anxiety, sweat is secreted in palms

and soles. This is the visible sweat.

Other than this, about 500 ml/hour of

sweat is lost daily by evaporation.

The sweat consists of 99% water and

small quantity of salt and traces of

urea. The salts are mainly sodium

chloride, sodium phosphate, lactic

acid, calcium and iron and also fats

and volatile fatty acids. The quantity

of sweat produced depends upon the

amount of blood flowing through the

skin. In hot weather or during hard

labour, the blood vessels dialate and

the quantity of blood flowing through

the skin is increased. Thus increased

sweating is noticeable, and vice versa

happens in cold weather.

The sebaceous glands are seen in

connection with the hair follicle lying

in the dermis. Each gland is a

branched sac, which secrets on oily

fluid, the sebum. The sebum passes

into the hair follicle. It lubricates the

hair and preserves the skin from

drying.
Hair
Hairs develop from the epidermis but

penetrate into the dermis. Hair is

distributed over the entire body

except for the palms and soles. It

is formed by a group of cells at the

base of the hair follicle multiplying

and pushing it outward. The part of

the hair that is visible is the shaft and

that which is embedded in the dermis

is the root. The root together with

its covering of outer connective and

inner endothelial coatings forms the

hair follicle. The part of the follicle

present in the dermis is made up

of dermal cells and that part found

in the epidermis is formed of the

epidermal cells. The lower end of the

root shows a swelling known as the

hair bulb. Delicate strands of smooth

muscle arise in the outer part of the

dermis and run obviously inward to

be attached to the hair follicles.

These muscles are called the erector

muscles of the hair the erector pilae.

These cause the erection of the hairs

of the skin which result in the

roughening of the skin in man called

“gooseflesh”.

Nails

Nails are horny plates firmly fixed to

the dermis. The nails grow in length

because of the multiplication of the

cells.
Functions of the Skin

1. Skin protects the delicate

internal structures from

mechanical, chemical and

thermal injuries forming a

protective envelop. It also

prevents the invasion of bacteria

or other pathogenic organisms.

2. It regulates the body

temperature approximately 98.4

o
F irrespective of the weather.

3. It acts as a main organ for

receiving the general sensations

of pain, touch, temperature etc.

4. Skin excretes water, salts and

metabolites in the form of sweat.

5. It maintains the water electrolyte

balance.
 6. It secretes sebum which keeps

the skin soft and prevents

drying.

7. It is an important medium

through which the body

synthesizes vitamin D from the

ultra violet rays of the sun.

8. It is a storehouse for the fat in

the subcutaneous tissue.

9. The colour of the skin and its

integrity adds beauty to an

individual personality.

10. Role of skin as blood reservoir

– When there is haemorrhage,

veins in skin construct expelling

blood into the more vital regions

of the body.
 2.6 REGULATION OF BODY
TEMPERATURE

Regulation of Body Temperature

Heat is constantly produced in the

body owing to several activities. It

is also lost from the body. The body

temperature is maintained by a

delicate balance between, the heat

lost and heat produced

Production of Heat

Heat is produced through…

1. Oxidation of tissues – constantly

oxidative changes are going in

the tissues which results in heat

production.
2. Muscular activity: Due to

chemical changes during skeletal

muscular contraction, extra heat

is produced.

3. Circulation of blood: When the

blood flows vigorously it

becomes warmer soon, resulting

in high heat production. Also in

hot weather, the blood vessels

dialate resulting in greater heat

loss, while in cold weather, much

heat is retained because of the

constriction of the blood vessels.

4. Specific dynamic action of

protein during digestion results

in heat production.

5. Ingesting hot substances like hot

drinks.
 6. Endocrine activity increases heat

production. Thyroxine increases

the oxidation, which in turn

increases heat production.

7. Radiation from the sun.

8. Abnormal conditions like fever.

Distribution of Heat

The heat thus produced is distributed

equally throughout the body. The

blood permiates all the tissues and

serves as an absorbing medium for

the heat and evenly distributes the

heat. In its course of distribution, the

blood passes to the skin which is in

contact with the atmosphere. There,

it loses the excess amount of heat to

the tissues to be warmed again.

But in some parts of the body the

temperature may not be the same.

For eg. The liver and digestive tract

have a higher temperature

(maximum digestion) than other

parts, whereas in the lungs the

temperature of the blood is lower.

Heat from the lungs is constantly lost

in warming the air inspired and

evaporating the moisture.

Loss of Heat

Heat is lost constantly from the body

through different channels.

1. Major portion of the heat is lost

through the skin. This is due to

the large surface area of body

which comes in contact with the

 coller objects in the

neighbourhood. On a hot day,

the blood vessels of the skin

dialate and more blood are

brought from the deeper parts of

the body to the surface and heat

loss is increased. Thus variation

of blood flow is an important

factor in the heat lost and

retained.

2. Heat is lost through evaporation

of water from the lungs and skin.

300 ml. of water is vaporized from

the lungs daily and 500 ml. from the

skin. The heat for evaporation of

water is about 0.6 calories – that is,

this quantity of heat is absorbed in

the vaporization of 1 ml. of water.

Therefore, a heat loss of 800 x 0.6

= 1,480 calories is represented by

the heat lost by the vaporization of

water from lungs and skin. This water

loss (skin + lung) is called insensible

perspiration.

When the body temperature rises

o
from 0.5 to 1 F above the normal

body temperature the sweat glands

are stimulated and visible sweating

appears.

This out of the total heat lost from

the body, over 95% is eliminated

through (1) and (2). The remaining

5% is lost.

1. In warning the urine and faeces

2. Because of the clothing, body

size and age.

The regulation of body temperature

is a fine adjustment. The main centre

for the control of body temperature

is situated in the hypothalamus – the

region at the base of the brain

near the origin of the pituitary

stalk. The posterior hypothalamus is

concerned with heat production and

the anterior hypothalamus is

concerned with the heat loss.

Stimulation of the posterior

hypothalamus causes a rise in

temperature. The centre exerts its

influence upon body temperature

through the
a. The autonomic nervous system

causing vasodilation or

vasoconstriction, thereby

increasing or decreasing the heat

loss.

b. Sweating – the hypothalamus

stimulates the glandular cells of

the sweat glands to secrete the

sweat.

c. Involuntary contractions of the

skeletal smooth muscles –

shivering of the smooth muscles

of skin (goose flesh) is effected

under the control of

hypothalamus and this brings

increased heat production.

d. Liberation of adrenaline from the

adrenal medulla and thyroxine

from thyroid gland, in turn

stimulates heat production.

1. Increased heat production

by increased basal metabolic

rate. (The heat production at

its lowest possible level in

a human body at complete

rest).

2. Shivering of the skeletal

muscles releases large

amounts of heat, which

increases the body

temperature.

3. Heat loss is reduced by

constriction of blood vessels

and so reduced blood flow.

 4. Warm clothing used, during

cold weather prevents the

conduction of heat from the

body.

5. Increased endocrine activity

– resulting in increased heat

production.

In hot climates, body temperature is

maintained by

1. Increased heat loss by

vasodilation and increased blood

flow and increased sweat

formation.

2. By reduced secretion of

thyroxine and adrenaline

whereby BMR is reduced.

3. Increased respiration by which

heat is lost.
 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learn about the

structure and functions of Digestive

and Excretory System. We also learn

about the metabolism of

carbohydrate, protein and fat, the

mechanism of urine formation and

the regulation of body temperature

by skin.

KEY WORDS

A semi liquid mass of

Chyme - partially digested

food.

Dislutition - Swallowing

Pertaining to blood
Haemopoietic -
making
 The serous

membrane lining the

Peritoneum - walls of the

abdominal & pelvic

cavities.

The distal part of the

Pylorus - stomach opening

into the duodenum.

A ring like muscle

Sphincter - which closes a

natural passage.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is deglutition?

2. Name the enzymes secreted by

mouth.

3. What are the parts of the

stomach?

4. What is Micturition?
5. Name the layers of epidermis.

6. What is the uppermost layer of

skin?

QUESTIONS

Part – A

1. Give the functions of Digestive

System.

2. Name the enzymes secreted by

pancreas / small intestine.

3. What are the different types of

teeth and give its functions.

4. Writes notes on composition /

volume of urine.

5. What is nephritis?

6. Name some common impairment

of renal functions.

7. How body temperature is

maintained in hot climates?

 Part – B

1. Define and explain deglutition.

2. Write down the functions of

stomach / saliva / small intestine

/ large intestine / bile / liver /

kidney?

3. Discuss about the movements of

stomach / small intestine / large

intestine.

4. Explain the mechanism of

micturition.

5. Discuss on the internal structure

of kidney.

6. Explain the structure of Urinary

System.

7. Detail on Juxta Glomerular

Apparatus.
8. Discuss on Nephrons.

9. Explain Glomerular Filtration /

Tubular Reabsorption / Tubular

Filtration.

Part – C

1. Discuss on the digestion of the

food in the body.

2. Explain the absorption and

utilization of food in the

Gastrointestinal Tract.

3. Explain the mechanism of Urine

formation.

4. Discuss on the regulation of body

temperature by skin.

5. Explain the structure of digestion

system / renal system / skin.

 UNIT – II

BLOOD AND CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

In this unit we learn about

composition, volume and functions of

blood, types of bloods cells,

formation, fate and life span and

function of Haemoglobin and terms

like ESR, haemolysis, leucocytosis,

leucopnea, leukemia, polycythemia

and anemia We also deal with blood

on various aspects like cogulation,

grouping, transfusion and RH factor.

As a second part we deal with

structure and function of heart and

blood vessels cardiac impulse,
cardiac cycle, blood pressure, factors

affecting blood pressure, ECG heart

sounds, cardiac output and

regulation of heart rate and pulse.

OBJECTIVES

By studying this unit the students will

1. Understand about the of blood

2. Understand structure and

functions of heart

3. Know the mechanism of cardiac

impulse, cardiac cycle, blood

pressure, factors affecting blood

pressure, ECG, heart sounds,

cardiac output and regulation of

heart rate and pulse

 UNIT STRUCTURE

LESSON – 3: BLOOD

Definition, composition, Volume and

3.1
functions of blood

Types, life span, fate and functions

3.2 of RBC, WBC, and platetlets and

Functions of Haemoglobin.

ESR, haemolysis, leucopenia,

3.3 leukemia, polycythemia, and

anemia.

3.4 Blood coagulation

3.5 Blood Grouping

3.6 Transfusion of Blood

Rh Blood Group System and

3.7
Erythroblastolis Foetalis.
LESSON - 4: CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM
Structure and function of heart and
4.1
blood vessels

Cardiac impulse, and Junctional

4.2
tissues

4.3 Cardiac cycle

4.4 Blood pressure, if factors affecting it

Heart sounds and ECG, heart rate

4.5
and pulse

4.6 Cardiac output

Let Us Sum Up

Key Words

CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS

Questions
 LESSON - 3: BLOOD

Blood, a body fluid, has been rightly

termed as an elixir of life. We all have

blood flowing inside our bodies. Blood

has several important roles to play.

It carries oxygen and nutrients to the

tissues and carries waste products

away Blood helps maintain body

temperature and normal pH levels in

body tissues. The protective

functions of blood include clot

formation and the prevention of

infection.
 3.1 DEFINITION, COMPOSITION,
VOLUME AND FUNCTIONS OF
BLOOD

Definition
Blood is a specialized tissue in which

the intercellular substance is liquid.

The liquid is called plasma. The cells

stopped for a time in it are the blood

cells. In other words it is composed

of specialized cells suspended in an

extra cellular liquid medium. The

essential role of the blood is the

transport of many agents to and from

the organs and tissues. The

circulatory system provides the

mechanisms by which the blood

performs its vital functions.

Composition of Blood

Blood is composed of two distinct

constituents namely the formed

elements and the plasma. The formed

elements are the red blood cells,

white blood cells and platelets. The

plasma is an almost clear, straw

coloured fluid.
The composition of the blood is

summarized below

Cells

1. Red blood corpuscles or

erythrocytes.

2. White blood corpuscles or

leucocytes.
3. Platelets or thrombocytes.
Plasma

1. Water 90 to 92 %

2. Solids 8 to 10 %

a. Plasma proteins – 7%:

Serum albumin, serum

globulin, fibrinogen and

prothrombin.

b. Inorganic constituents –

0.9%, They are Na, K, Ca,

Mg, Fe, Cl, PO 4 , SO 4 , HCO

3 .

c. Organic constituents (other

than plasma proteins) – non

protein nitrogenous

substances, (NPN): i)Urea,

Uric acid, xanthine,

 hypoxanthine, creatine,

creatinine, ammonia and

free amino acids. ii)Neutral

fats, non esterified fatty

acids, phospholipids and

cholesterol. iii)Glucose,
glucose amine and products

of intermediary metabolism.

3. Respiratory Gases : Oxygen and

Carbondioxide.

4. Hormones, antibodies, enzymes

and vitamins.

Blood Volume

The average circulating blood volume

in an adult man is about 8% of his

body weight, which is about 5 to 6

litres. Of this 5 litres of blood

volume, about 1 litre of blood will be

in the heart and systemic arteries,

arterioles and capillaries : 3 litres in

the veins of the systemic circulation

and the remaining 1 litre will be in

the lungs. The plasma volume is 3500

ml about 5% of the average body

weight. The blood volume is higher in

males than in females due to more

number of red cells. It is influenced

by other physiological factors such as

age, body weight and surface area,

exercise, posture, pregnancy,

hypoxia and adrenaline.

Functions of Blood

The main functions of the blood are :

1. Respiratory : It transports
oxygen from the lungs to the
tissues and the excess
carbondioxide from the tissue to

the lungs.

2. Nutritive: It carries nutrients

absorbed from the alimentary

tract or produced within the body
to the cells for use or storage.

3. Excretory: It removes the

cellular metabolic waste products

and takes them to the organs

of excretion namely kidney, skin

and lungs for elimination.

4. Phagocytic: The white blood

corpuscles engulf or phagocytose
foreign particles and destroy

them, thus protecting the body

from infection.
5. Immunological: It transports

antibodies and anti-toxins to

protect the body against

infection and toxic substances.

6. Harmostatic: It prevents loss of

blood due to hemorrhage by its

coagulatory mechanisms.

7. Hormonal: It transports the

internal secretions or hormones

to bring hormal correlation and

regulation of bodily functions.

8. Body Temperature Regulation:

By storing a great quantity of

heat because of the high specific

heat of its water content,

distributing the heat throughout

 the body and carrying heat to

the body surface to be lost by

physical process and

evaporation.

9. Water and Electrolyte Balance :

It maintains water and the

interdependent electrolyte

balance constant, by facilitating

fluid distribution between the

three fluid compartments of

body.

10. Osmotic Equilibrium : It

maintains a steady osmotic

pressure in the tissues and body

fluids.

11. Acid – Base Equilibrium : It

regulates and maintains the

acid-base equilibrium of the body

constant.
12. Blood Pressure Regulation : It

helps in maintaining arterial

blood pressure by alterations in

blood volume.

3.2 TYPES, LIFE SPAN, FATE AND

FUNCTIONS OF RBC, WBC AND

PLATELETS–Functions of

Haemoglbin

The cells found in blood are called

as corpuscles. There are three types

of cells Red Blood Cells (RBC) or

Erythrocyte, White blood Cells (WBC)

or Leucocyte and platelets

(Thrombocyte).
Red Blood Cells

The erythrocyte is round and

biconcave, without nucleus, the

erythrocytes of shed blood show a

tendency to adhere to one another by

their flat surfaces similar to piles of

coins known as “rouleaux”. Rouleaux

formation is seen within the blood

vessels only when the circulation is

very slow. Erythrocytes are bounded

by a plasma membrane which is

about 150’ a thick. The corpuscles

consists internally of frame work of

structural protein called stromatin in

which the pigment haemoglobin is

packed.
Size and Shape of Red Cells

In man the erythrocyte has an

average diameter of 7.2µ and an

average thickness of 2.2µ near the

circumference and about 1.0µ in the

centre.

Number of Red Cells

In human males the erythrocyte

count is 5,000,000 per cu. mm. of

blood; and in females 4,500000 per

cu. mm. of blood. The red cell count

is high in the new born in the course

of the first few weeks of life. The

number of red cells decreases and

rises during puberty to the adult

level.
Life Cycle of the Erythrocyte

All blood cells originate from

undifferentiated stem cells. During

foetal life they are formed in the

liver, spleen and bones. After birth,

blood cell formation occurs in a

variety of bones. However, after

puberty, only the red marrow of the

flat bones and ends of certain long

bones function in blood cell

production. Active cellular marrow is

termed red marrow. Inactive marrow

infiltrated with fat is called yellow

marrow.
 Formation of RBC, WBC and Platelets

The red marrow of bones is not only

concerned with the formation of red

blood cells but also the formation of

granulocytes and to a less extent

monocytes and lymphocytes,

formation of platelets and the

destruction of worn out red cells by

its macrophages. The term

haemopoiesis is used to denote

formation or development of all the

formed elements of the blood.

Stages of Erythropoiesis

The reticular cells of the bone

marrow transform or differentiate

into primitive stem cells called

haemocytoblasts. The
haemocytoblast by a process of

multiplication and maturation

through various stages gives rise to

the mature red blood cell or

erythrocyte. The stages in the

formation of the red blood cells are

known as erythropoiesis.

The haemocytoblast divides into two

daughter cells called

proerythroblasts. The proerythroblast

passes through the stages of early

normoblast intermediate normoblast

where in haemoglobin begins to

appear. The late nomoblast extrudes

its pyknotic nucleus and becomes the

reticulocyte with a reticulum in its

cytoplasm. The reticulocyte matures

into the erythrocyte. A red cell of

normal size and haemoglobin

concentration is said to be

normocytic and normochromic.

The normal reticulocyte count in the

blood is 2%. A large number of

reticulocytes called a reticulocyte

crisis can occur during recovery from

haemorrhage and treatment of

anaemia. This is an index of active

regeneration of red cells.

During the stages of erythropoiesis

there is (a) a progressive decrease

in the size of the cell (b) increased

condensation and finally pyknosis of

the nucleus and (c) accumulation of

haemoglobin which gives rise to

changes in the cytoplasmic staining

characteristics from basophilic

through a polychromatophilic to the

eosinophilic stage. Factors essential

for erythropoiesis are Vitamin B 12

or cyanocobalamin, Iron, globin,

porphyrins, pyridoxine, vitamin C,

vitamin B 6 , certain trace elements

like cobalt, manganese and copper.

Life Span of Erythrocytes

The life span of the human red blood

corpuscle is approximately 120 days.

Fate of the Erythrocytes

The old and worn out corpuscles

disintegrate into smaller bits which

are ingested by the macrophages of

the reticuloendothelial system in the

liver, spleen and bone marrow. The

haemoglobin is broken into its globin

and porphyrin moieties in the

macrophages. The globin is split up

into its constituent amino acids and

join the amino acid pool of the body.

The iron is separated from the

porphyrin and can be used for the

synthesis of new haemoglobin in the

bone marrow or stored in the liver

and spleen. The rest of the porphyrin

molecule is converted to the pigment

biliverdin and then bilirubin. Bilirubin

and biliverdin are ultimately excreted

by the liver as bile pigments. These

substances undergo further changes

by the action of bacteria in the

intestine and pass along with the

faeces. The bile pigments are

primarily responsible for the colour of

the faeces.

Functions of Erythrocytes

1. Gas Exchange and Transport:

The shape, size and elasticity of

the red blood cells facilitate their

movement through narrow

capillaries and bring about

 gaseous exchange with all the

cells in the body. The

haemoglobin contained in the red

cells transports oxygen as

oxyhaemoglobin and

carbondioxide as carbamino
haemoglobin.

2. Reaction of Blood: Maintains the

reaction of blood by the buffering

action of haemoglobin and the

chloride shift mechanism.

3. Ionic Balance: Maintains ionic

balance with the red cell

membrane actively keeping the

potassium ions within the cell

and the sodium ions outside the

cell.
4. Blood Protein Storage: Stores

two thirds of the blood protein

through the haemoglobin present

in the red cell.

5. Blood Group Antigens: The blood

group antigens are attached to

the red cell membrane and they

are responsible for blood group

reactions.

6. Viscosity: Maintains the viscosity

of the blood.

7. Bile Pigments: Red blood cells

indirectly help in the formation

of bile pigments after their

disintegration.
White Blood Cells
The white blood corpuscles or

leucocytes are larger than the

erythrocytes, ranging in size from 8

to 15µ. Each cubic millimeter of blood

contains 4,000 to 11,000 leucocytes

; that is the red cells out number the

leucocytes by about 600 to 1 lakh.

Unlike red cells, leucocytes have

nuclei. The leucocytes are mainly

classified into (a) Granulocytes (b)

Lymphocytes and (c) Monocytes.

 Types of WBC

Granulocytes

The granulocytes have irregular or

multi lobed nuclei and are often

termed as polymorpho nuclear

leucocytes. There are three types of

granulocytes. They are the

neutrophils whose granules stain

weakly with both acid and basic dyes;

the eosinophils with granules which

stain with acid dyes like eosin and

basophils the granules of which stain

with basic dyes like methylene blue.

Neutrophils are the most numerous

type of white cells, constitution from

50 to 70% of the total white cell

count. They have a circular profile

with a diameter of 10.0 to 14µ. They

contain fine reddish brown granules

in the cytoplasm. The nucleus is

multibed, having two to six lobes.

The number of lobes increase with

age, the oldest one having five or six

lobes. Neutrophils are phagocytic and

are important in the defence of the

body.
Eosinophils resemble the neutrophils

in size and shape. The coarse reddish

granules in the cytoplasm are

uniformly large. The nucleus has two

prominent lobes connected by a thin

strand. The normal range of

eosinophils is 1 to 4% of the white

cells. The function of these cells is

not quite clear, however, they do

increase with great rapidity under

certain conditions, such as

infestations by parasites, infections

of the skin and in allergy. Eosinophils

collect around liberated histamine

and have antihistaminic activity.

Eosinophils are phagocytic but less

motile than neutrophils.

Basophils are smaller than the other

granulocytes, their diameter varying

from 8 to 10µ. They contain coarse

purple granules in the cytoplasm, and

constitute about 0 to 1% of the total

number of the leucocytes. The

nucleus is polymorphic and contains

three or more lobes. Their functional

role is minor and are considered as

circulating mast cells. Basophils

produce heparin and histamine.

Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes constituting 20 to 40%

of total leucocytes are further

subdivided into two types, based

upon their size. They are small and

large lymphocytes. The small

lymphocyte is about 8µ in diameter

while the large is about 10 to 12µ.

The small lymphocytes are more in

number, have a large nucleus almost

filling the interior of the entire cell,

and the cytoplasm is reduced to a

thin film around the nucleus.

The large lymphocytes fewer in

number, differ in having relatively

more cytoplasm than the small

lymphocytes. The lymphocytes are

chiefly concerned with the antibody

formation in the immune mechanism.

Monocytes

Monocytes are large cells and they

range in size from 12 to 15µ or even

more. They are about 2 to 8% of

the white cells. The nucleus is located

eccentrically in the cell and is

indented to a kidney or horseshoe

shape. They function as phagocytes.

Monocytes phagocytose the bacteria

of tuberculosis and leprosy since they

contain large amounts of lipase which

has the capacity to dissolve the lipid

capsule of mycobacterium.

Life History of Leucocyte

The development and maturation of

the white cells is known as

leucopoiesis. The granulocytes are

formed in the bone marrow hence

they are called the myeloid series of

cells. The lymphocytes are found in

the lymph nodes, thymus and other

lymphoid tissues. The monocytes

develop from the histiocytes of the

reticuloendothelial system, mainly in

the liver and to a lesser degree in

other haemopoietic organs.

Leucopoiesis

The development of granulocyte is

known as granulopoiesis. The

primitive stem cell or the

haemocytoblast in the bone marrow

gives rise to a non granular cell

called myeloblast which is the

precursor of the myeloid serious of

cells. This develops into the

premyelocytein which the neutrophil,

eosinophil or basophil granules begin

to appear. These three types of

premyelocytes through their

respective myelocyte and

metamyelocyte stage mature into the

corresponding granulocytes

depending upon the nature of their

granules.

The development of lymphocytes is

known as lymphopoiesis. They are

derived from lymphoblast found ing

the germ centre of lymph nodes.

These give rise to large lymphocytes

which mature into small

lymphocytes.

The monocytes develop from the

histiocytes of spleen and bone

marrow which form part of the

reticuloendothelial system. These

stem cells or haemocytoblasts give

rise to the monoblasts which pass

through the premonocyte stage to

mature into the monocytes.

Life Span of Leucocytes

The life span of leucocytes is seen

to be much shorter than that of red

cells, being 2 to 10 days after which

they are broken by cells of the

reticuloendothelial system.

Functions of Leucocytes

1. Phagocytosis: Neutrophils,

monocytes and to a lesser extent

eosinophils play a defensive role

by phagocytosis.
2. Eosinophils: Produce

antihistaminic substances and

defend against allergic

conditions.

3. Basophils: Produce heparin

which prevents intravascular

clotting.

4. Lymphocytes: Produce the

antibodies called

immunoglobulins which are of

the nature of gamma globulins

to protect against chronic

infections. They also produce

antitoxins, bacteriolysins and

agglutinins.

5. Trephones : Leucocytes prepare

growth promoting substances

called trephones which are

 essential for the nourishment of

cells during growth and repair of

tissues.

6. Formation of Fibroblasts:

Lymphocytes may be converted

into fibroblasts in an area of

inflammation and they help in

the process of tissue repair.

Blood Platelets

Blood contains groups of very minute

cytoplasmic fragments which are

called platelets or thrombocytes. The

platelet is a spherical or oval

granulated body about 2 to 4µ in

diameter without a nucleus. The

number of platelets is constant,

averaging about 300,000 per cu. mm

of blood. Thrombocytes are derived

from the megakaryocytes which are

the giant cells in the bone marrow.

Their life span is estimated to be 8 to

14 days. Platelets contain histamine,

ribonucleoprotein, adrenaline,
noradrenaline and large amounts of

serotonin. Platelet formation is

regulated by a circulating substance

called thrombopoietin which

influences the formation of

megakaryocytes. The nature and

origin of this substance is not known.

Functions of Platelets

Platelets mainly help in haemostasis.

Their functions are:

1. Serotonin: When vessels are

injured platelets liberate

serotonin leading to local

vasoconstriction.

2. Platelet Plug: The platelets are

collected at the site of injury and

form a plug of platelets to

minimize bleeding.

3. Release of Thromboplastin:

Injured platelets give rise to

thromboplastin which leads to

the coagulation of blood.

4. ADP and Lipids: Platelets liberate

adenosine diphosphate and lipids

which are important for the

clotting of blood by increasing

the adhesiveness of the platelets

to the vessel wall.

5. Glygogen: The platelets are

depleted of their high glycogen

content which is used up during

clotting.

6. Clot Retraction: The contraction

of the individual platelet is

responsible for clot retraction

after the coagulation of blood.

7. Antigenic: Platelets have

antigenic properties and can be

agglutinated or lysed by specific

antibodies or thrombocytolysins.

8. Defence: The agglutinating

tendency of the platelets helps

them to encircle foreign bodies

and serve a defensive

mechanism.
Functions of Haemoglobin

1. Essential for oxygen carriage.

2. Plays an important part in carbon

di oxide transport.

3. It constitutes one of the

important buffers of blood and

helps to maintain acid base

balance.

4. Various pigments of bile stool,

urine etc. are formed.

3.3 ESR, HAEMOLYSIS,

LEUCOPENIA, LEUKEMIA,
POLYCYTHEMIA, AND ANEMIA.

Erythrocyte sedimentation Rate

When the blood is in circulation the

red cells are suspended uniformly in
the plasma. In blood to which

anticoagulants have been added, the

red blood cells being heavier settle

down. The rate at which the red cells

sediment is known as erythrocyte

sedimentation rate or ESR. The

property of red cells to remain in

suspension in plasma is called the

suspension stability. It is the

converse of ESR. The ESR is

determined using Westergren’s or

Wintrobe’s blood sedimentation

tubes. The normal rate of ES

according to Westergren’s method is

New born infants – 0.5mm/hr, Non-

pregnant women – 4.7mm/hr, men

– 3.5mm/hr, pregnant women –

4.5mm/hr.
ESR is increased in physiological

conditions of menstruation,

pregnancy, after meals and exercise;

and in diseased states like rheumatic

fever, tuberculosis and in tissue

destructive lesions. It is decreased

in allergic states, certain types of

jaundice and anaemia. ESR gives a

rough indication of the progress of

the disease. It increases when the

disease worsens and decreased when

it becomes better.

Haemolysis

Haemolysis or lacking of the blood

is the destruction of the erythrocyte

membrane and the release of

haemoglobin into the blood plasma

which turns red and becomes

transparent. The red blood cells

rupture when the osmotic pressure of

the plasma is considerably reduced.

Leucopenia

It is seen in certain infectious

diseases like pneumonia and typhoid

fever and is also associated with viral

diseases like measles, mumps,

chickenpox and poliomyelitis.

Leukemia

Leukemia is a pathological condition

wherein there is a marked rise in

white blood cells of the immature

type in the blood. Leukemia is a type

of cancer, characterized by the rapid

growth of one kind of cell. It may be

a rise in the myeloid or lymphoid or

monocytic type of cells.

Polycythaemia

Polycythaemia occurs in chronic

hypoxia, in conditions of

haemoconcentration following

excessive loss of fluid or increased

passage of fluid out of the vessels

into the tissue spaces as in shock

following injury and from a primary

over activity of the red bone marrow.

Anaemia

Any condition in which the amount of

haemoglobin in the blood is reduced

is known as anaemia. There are three

types of anaemia. They are 1.

Microcytic /Hypochromic, 2.

Normocytic/Normochromic, 3.

Macrocytic/ Hyperchromic.

3.4 BLOOD COAGULATION

Clotting or coagulation of blood is

its conversion from the fluid state

into a jelly. In clotting, the soluble

fibrinogen present in the plasma is

transformed into insoluble fibrin

threads. This forms a tangled mesh

in which the blood cells are trapped.

Clotting is the result of a complex

series of reactions involving thirteen

factors given in the table.

The clotting mechanism consists of

the three major stages (1) Active

thromboplastin formation (2)

Thrombin formation and (3) Fibrin

formation.

The mechanism of coagulation may

be summarized in the following three

stages.

Ca ions

Stage – I

Platelet Thromboplastin + Plasma

ca ions
Cofactors →
Stage – II

Prothrombin + Prothrombin
ca
Conversion Factors Thrombin
ions
→ Active Thromboplastin.

Stage – III

Fibrinogen Fibrin

1. Active Thromboplastin

Formation

The first reaction in the clotting

mechanism is the disintegration

of blood platelets and the release

of substance called platelet

thromboplastin or intrinsic

thromboplastin. It is released

when platelets contact wettable

surface and tend to disintegrate.

Thromboplastin is not present in

the circulation. The platelet

thromboplastin cannot initiate

clotting by itself. It is activated

by first combining or being acted

upon by a number of factors in

the plasma called plasma co-

factors, three of which are

especially important namely

anti-haemophilic factor, plasma

thromboplastin component and

plasma thromboplastin

antecedent. Lack of any one of

 these co-factors will prevent

activation of thromboplastin.

Damaged tissues release tissue

thromboplastin or extrinsic

thromboplastin into the blood.

Tissue thromboplastin is active

by itself. Activated platelets

thromboplastin has the same

characteristics as tissue

thromboplastin. Active

thromboplastin is also known as

prothrombinase.

2. Thrombin Formation

Prothrombin is a plasma globulin

present in the blood. It is formed

by the liver for which Vitamin

K is required. Lack of Vitamin

K or any liver disease prevents

normal prothrombin formation

and decreases its level in blood.

Activated platelet thromboplastin

formation and / or tissue

thromboplastin converts

prothrombin to thrombin in the

presence of calcium ions. Tissue

thromboplastin plays a major

role in this process. This

conversion requires the presence

in the plasma of prothrombin

formation conversion factors two

of which are most important

namely, (i) proaccelerin or

accelerator globulin (Factor V)

and (ii) proconvertin (Factor

VII). These are proteins formed

by the liver. Calcium ions are

essential for all these reactions.

3. Fibrin Formation

The long and large molecule of

the plasma protein fibrinogen

present in the plasma is acted

upon by thrombin. Thrombin

converts the soluble fibrinogen

into insoluble fibrin molecules

called fibrin monomers. These

molecules rapidly polymerize

into long fibrin threads which

form the reticulum of the clot.

The polymerization process is

aided by calcium ions and a

factor called fibrin stabilizing

factor.
Blood Clotting Factors

Factor Synonyms

I Fibrinogen

II Prothrombin

III Thromboplastin

IV Calcium

V Labile Factor/Proaccelerin

Proconvertin/

VI Serum Prothrombin Converion

Accelerator (SPCA)

Antihaemophilic Globulin (AHG)

VII
Antihaemophilic Factor (AHF)

Christmas Factor /Plasma

VIII
Thromboplastin Component (PTC)
 IX Prower – Stuart Factor

Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent

X
(PTA)

XI Hageman Factor/Contact Factor

Fibrin – Stabilizing Factor

XII
(FSF)/Fibrinase

3.5 Blood Grouping

Human red blood cells contain many

naturally occurring antigens or

agglutinogens. They are responsible

for the agglutination of the red blood

cells. Agglutinins or antibodies are

dissolved in the plasma and they are

naturally found in the blood. If the

blood of one individual is mixed with

that of another and if these bloods

do not have identical agglutinogens

or agglutinins, clumping or

agglutination of the red cells results.

Agglutination is a process wherein

the agglutinins or antibodies in the

plasma of the recipient’s blood reacts

with the agglutinogen or antigen of

the donor’s are red cells causing the

red cells to clump together

agglutination is an immune reaction.

The ABO System

Landsteiner (1936) discovered that

the blood of different persons may

differ in their immune properties and

that agglutination occurs when the

blood of the donor and of the

recipient are incompatible. He

introduced the concept of blood

groups which forms the basis on

which blood trasfusins are now given.

There are four main blood groups

designated as A, B, AB and O and

distinguished by the presence of two

mucopolysaccharides known as A or

B agglutinogens or antigens in the

red cells and correspondingly anti A

or anti B agglutinins or antibodies in

the plasma.

Any individual with antigen A in his

red cells is classified as belonging

to Group A; antibody B is found in

the plasma of group A individuals.

Group B individuals have the antigen

B in the red cells and a antibody A

in their plasma. Those with both A

and B antigens present in their red

cells belong to Group AB. Group AB

individuals do not have either of the

antibodies in the plasma. Group O is

characterized by the absence of both

the antigens in the red cells, but both

antibodies A and B are found in the

plasma.

The blood groups are inherited from

the parents, according to the

Mendelian laws. The antibodies or

agglutinins are immunoglobulins and

appear shortly after birth. The

characteristics and percentage

distribution of the blood groups are

summarized below.
 A B AB O
Blood Group
42% 9% 3% 46%

Red Cells
A B AB -
(agglutinogen)

Anti
Plasma or
Anti Anti A &
Serum -
B A Anti
(agglutinin)
B

In transfusion the donor’s diluted

blood is diluted to large extent by

the recipient’s blood, so that the

agglutinating tendency of the donor’s

blood becomes negligible. Therefore,

the effect of the agglutinin in the

plasma or serum of the recipient’s

blood on the agglutinogen of the cells

of the donor’s blood needs to be

considered. The following table

shows the reactions between plasma

and the red cells of the various

groups.

Recipients Serum or Groups

O
Donor or
Corpuscle A B AB (Anti
Groups (Anti (Anti (No A &

B) A) Antibody) Anti

A – + – +

B + – – +

AB + + – +

O – – – –

+ agglutination

– No agglutination
Persons of group O are often called

“Universal Donors” because their

blood may be given safely without

agglutination to any other person.

Persons of group AB are known as

“Universal Recipients” because they

can receive blood from any type of

donor. Recent analysis shows that

antigen A is subdivided into two sub

groups called A 1 and A 2 ; A 1

includes 75% of all group A

individuals and the remaining 25%

belong to A 2 sub group. Group AB is

similarly divided into A 1 B and A 2 B.

M, N and P Antigens:

The red blood corpuscles also contain

other agglutiongens, but there are

no corresponding agglutinins in the

plasma. The two agglutiongens called

M and N, give rise to three blood

groups M,N and MN. The presence of

these agglutionogens is determined

by two genes. Hence in blood

transfusions these agglutiongens

need not be taken into consideration.

They are useful medicolegally and in

cases of disputed parentage. The ‘P’

antigen is of little clinical or practical

importance.
Significance of Blood Groups
1. Transfusion: For transfusion of

blood into patients the exact

blood group determination is

essential, to avoid

incompatibility.

2. Disputed Paternity: Blood group

determination of the offspring

and tallying it with that of the

father’s blood helps in cases of

disputed paternity. Wherein

negative results are of greater

importance than positive results.

3. Medicolegal: Blood group studies

are of medicolegal importance.

4. Disease Correlation helps in

statistical correlation of certain

diseases with the different type

of blood groups.
 3.6 TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD

For transfusing blood any method can

be used that will transfer the blood

from a donor to a recipient without

causing coagulation or destruction of

blood in the process. The earliest

method was simply direct connection

between an artery of the donor, by

means of needles and a rubber tube

and vein of the recipient. Blood was

allowed to flow from the donor to

the recipient until the donor fainted

or until the recipient showed signs

either of improvement or of a

transfusion reaction.

The most usual technique now used

for transfusion is to collect blood
from the donor in a container while

mixing the blood continually with a

small quantity of sodium, potassium,

and ammonium citrate and a small

quantity of glucose. The citrate

compounds prevent blood

coagulation, and the glucose provides

nutrition for the red cells and keeps

them structurally sound. This blood

can be given immediately to the

recipient, or it can be placed in a

o
refrigerator and kept at 4 C, for

as long as three weeks prior to

administration. This is the method

used by hospital blood banks for

storing blood until same patient

needs a transfusion.
 3.7 RH BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM
AND ERYTHROBLASTOLIS FOETALIS

A third set of hereditary factors

causes the presence or absence of

the agglutiongen called the Rh factor

or antigen because it was first found

in the blood of rhesus monkeys. The

Rh factor was discovered by

Landsteiner and Wiener in 1940.

About 85 per cent of the population

is Rh positive i.e. they have the Rh

antigen or agglutinogen D in their red

cells and 15 per cent are Rh negative,

with no Rh antigen. Antibodies (anti

D) corresponding to these antigens

are normally absent. But if an Rh

negative person is exposed to Rh

positive blood (as in transfusion)
such antibodies may develop, and

subsequent exposure to the Rh

antigens may have serious results.

Another transfusion of Rh positive

blood to the same individual would

bring on the antigen antibody

reaction resulting in the destruction

of red cells in the recipient.

Most of the children of an Rh positive

father and an Rh negative mother

are Rh positive since the factor is

inherited as a Mendelian dominant.

Rh negative mother becomes

sensitized by the Rh positive

substance contained in the foetal red

cells. The maternal agglutinins or

antibodies to Rh positive factor (anti

D) thus produced penetrate the

placental barrier and causes

haemolysis of the foetal red cells.

This may lead to severe anaemia and

death of the faetus or the newborn

infant. If the child is born alive it will

be severely jaundiced. This condition

is called erythroblastosis foetalis or

the haemolytic disease of the new

born. The new born is jaundiced or

becomes so in 24 hours. Hence this

disease is also called lcterus gravis

neonatorum. The child must be

treated immediately after birth by

exchange transfusion of compatible

Rh negative blood.

Recent studies indicate that the Rh

factor is not a single entity. There are

three sets of antigens: C and c, D

and d, E and e, of the corresponding

antibodies only five have been found.

Anti d is yet to be found.

 LESSON - 4:
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The blood circulates through the body

in a completely closed system

consisting of a pump – the heart and

a network of tubes – the blood

vessels.

The movement of the blood is

maintained by the heart, which acts

as a pump transferring the blood it

receives from the veins at a low

pressure, to the arteries at a high

pressure. The blood is carried to the

tissues by the arteries and returned

from the tissues to the heart by the

veins.
 4.1 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS

Structure of the Heart

Structure of the Heart

The heart is a cone shaped, hollow,

muscular, four chambered organ

situated in the thoracic cavity

between the lungs, above the

diaphragm. It is about the size of

one’s closed fist. The heart and the

roots of the great blood vessels are

enclosed with a sac or bag called

pericardium. It is made up of two

membranes. In between these two

membranes is a space filled with

pericardial fluid. The pericardium and

the fluid acts as a protective cushion

around the heart. The fluid can

absorb shock and thus the heart is

protected. The back of the heart is

flat while front is convex. The walls

of the heart are made up of three

distinct layers.

i. an external layer or pericardium.

ii. a middle layer or myocardium.

iii. an internal layer or endocardium.

The heart is made up of cardiac

muscles.
Chambers and Valves of the Heart

The heart is divided into 4 chambers.

Two upper chambers called the atria

or auricle and two lower chambers

called the ventricles. The heart is

divided into the left and right

chambers by a continuous partition.

The atria are separated into the right

and left by the inter-atria septum and

the ventricles are separated by the

inter-ventricular septum. The

ventricles are larger and thicker

walled than the atria. The auricle of

each side communicates with the

corresponding ventricles through an

opening, the Auriculo Ventricular

Orifice, guarded by the auriculo

ventricular valve. These valves help

to prevent the flow of blood

backwards, that is, from the

ventricles to the auricles. Thus the

valves open toward the ventricles

permitting blood to enter from the

auricles but close immediately, thus

preventing the flow of blood

backwards. The right auricle opens

into the right ventricle through

auriculo ventricular opening guarded

by a valve – tricuspid valve. The left

auricle similarly opens into the left

ventricle below and the opening is

guarded by the bicuspid valve. These

atrio-ventricular valves are

supported by delicate tendons called

chordae tendinae which prevents the

valve from opening into the opposite

direction. These arise from the apex

of the muscular projections papillary

muscles given out from the base of

the ventricles. There are two pairs

of semilunar valves, one at opening

of the aorta in the left ventricle and

the other at the opening of the

pulmonary artery in the right

ventricle.

Blood Vessels Connected to the

Heart

The superior and inferior vena cavae

are the two large vessels (veins)

emptying blood into the right auricle.

The superior vena cava brings blood

from the upper part of the body while

the inferior vena cava brings blood

from the lower parts of the body.

The pulmonary artery arises from the

right ventricle carrying impure blood

to the lungs.

Four pulmonary veins bring the blood

from the lungs to the left auricle.

From the left ventricle rises the aorta

carrying the oxygenated blood to the

tissues.

The auricles receive blood from

outside and the ventricles discharge

the blood to the vessels connected

with it.

The right chambers of the heart-the

right auricle and right ventricle

contain impure blood. The left auricle

and left ventricle contain pure blood.

Structure of the Blood Vessels

The blood vessels are arteries, veins

and capillaries.

Any blood vessel which carries blood

from the heart to the tissues is called

artery and any blood vessel which

carries the blood from the tissues to

the heart is called vein.

All the arteries, except pulmonary

artery carry pure blood and all veins

except pulmonary vein carry impure

blood.
Capillaries are minute thread like

blood vessels which are found by the

sub-division of bigger blood vessels.

Arteries

The walls of the arteries are made up

of three layers.

a. Tunica intima or internal layer

made up of a single layer of

endothelium providing a smooth

surface.

b. Tunica media or middle coat

made up of elastic and smooth

muscular tissues.

c. Tunica adventitia or the outer

coat composed of supporting

connective tissue.
The diameter is approximately one

inch. The walls of the arteries are

themselves furnished (supplied) with

minute blood vessels. These vessels

are called vasa vasorum (vessels of

vessels).

The Arterioles

The arteries divide into smaller

arterial branches and these again

divide into finer vessels – the

arterioles, 0.2 mm in diameter.

They possess an endothelial lining

and a thin layer of elastic tissue,

their walls are composed of smooth

muscle, whose fibres form encircling

rings. The arterioles are supplied by

nerves, which, by bringing about

contraction or relaxation of the rings

of the smooth muscles, control their

calibers (diameters).

The Capillaries

An arteriole breaks up into a number

of extremely narrow tubes, the

capillaries. These vessels are from ½

to 1 mm long. The wall of a capillary

is composed of a single layer of

endothelial cells. This thin walled

membrane permits the free passage

of water, gases and nutritive

materials between the capillary and

the tissue. The diameter of a

capillary is 7-8 microns, almost the

size of an RBC.
The capillaries, though forms

inconspicuous part of the circulation,

the ultimate object of the circulation

– namely, to convey oxygen and

nutritive materials to the tissues and

to carry CO 2 and waste products

away – is fulfilled by the capillaries.

Veins

Like the arteries, the veins have walls

composed of three coats. The coats

are thinner, when compared to the

artery. The veins branch out into

venules and later into finer vessels –

Venous capillary.
Functions of Heart
1. The heart is a pump that

distributes blood to the organs of

the body. The heart is made of

4 chambers. The top 2 collecting

chambers are called atria; the

bottom 2 ejecting chambers are
called ventricles

2. The right atrium receives blood

deficient in oxygen from the

body and sends it into the right

ventricle. The right ventricle

squeezes the blood out to the

lungs to pick up fresh oxygen.
The oxygenated blood returns

from the lungs to the left atrium,

which then funnels the blood into

the left ventricle. The left
ventricle ejects the oxygenated

blood into the entire body via the

aorta.
 4.2 CARDIAC IMPULSE AND
JUNCTIONAL TISSUES

Cardiac Impulse

Cardiac impulse is the wave of

excitation accompanied by an electric

current which travels through the

cardiac muscle just before its

contraction.

Cardiac muscles consists of certain

specialized structures which are

responsible for initiation and

transmission of cardiac impulses at

a higher rate than the rest of the

muscle. These specialized tissues are

collectively known as junctional

tissues. They are

 1. Sino – atrial node (S.A. Node)

2. Atrio – Ventricular node (AV

Node)

3. Atrio – Ventricular bundle

(Bundle of His)

4. Purkinje Fibres

S.A. Node is a small mass of

specialized cardiac tissue situated at

the junction of superior vena cava

with the right atrium. It gives rise to

cardiac impulses at the rate of about

75 to 80 per minute and sets the

rhythm of contraction for the entire

heart. Hence, it is called the pace-

maker.
The impulse spreads as a wave –

the excitation wave – in all directions

through the muscle of the auricles.

The cardiac muscle responds to this

stimulus immediately (within 0.2

second) by contraction.

The AV Node is another mass of

specialized cardiac fibres located in

the lower part of the inter-atrial

septum. SA Node transmits the

impulse to the AV Node, through the

auricular muscle.

From AV Node, the impulse is

transmitted to the ventricles through

the Bundle of his. This bundle splits

into two branches, which runs along

the inter-ventricular septum and

later split into smaller ramifications,

thus supplying papillary muscles of

the left and right ventricle and end on

the myocardium as purkinje fibres,

supplying each cardiac muscle fibre.

Thus the impulses are transmitted

from auricle to ventricle in the

following order.

In certain conditions when SA Node

fails to work then AV Node takes over

its function giving rise to a heart rate

of 50 / minutes. When AV node also

fails the bundle of his gives rise to a

heart rate of 30 / minutes.

If there is an interruption of the AV

bundle above its point of division into

the two main branches, there is

complete heart block.

In other instances, one or other

branch of the AV bundle may be

interrupted by disease. The defect in

conduction caused in this way is

called bundle branch block.

4.3 CARDIAC CYCLE

The series of movements that take

place during a single heart beat is

known as Cardiac cycle.

Starting with any particular event in

cardiac action (e.g) contraction of the

auricle or of the ventricle, the series

of changes which take place in the

heart until the first–noted event is

repeated is called a cardiac cycle.

It consists of contraction (i.e.,)

systole and relaxation (i.e.,) diastole

of both auricles and ventricles.

During the Cardiac cycle, both the

auricles contract at the same time.

Then the auricles relax and ventricles

contract.

These events of cardiac cycle are

repeated 70 to 80 times per minute

and so it needs 0.8 seconds for a

beat.
A. Period of Isometric
Relaxation
During this period the auricles

are filled with blood (right auricle

with impure blood from superior

and inferior vena cava; left

auricle with pure blood from

pulmonary veins, bringing them

from the lungs).

The valves between the auricles

and ventricles (bicuspid &

tricuspid) remain closed. The

ventricles are relaxed and the

valves at the arterial openings

semilunar valves opening into

the pulmonary artery & aorta)

remain closed. This period has a

duration of 0.08 sec.

B. Period of Rapid Inflow

The valves between the auricles

and ventricles open out, and

blood pours into the ventricles

which are still relaxed. This

phase, lasts for about 0.09 sec.

C. Period of Diastasis

The auricles and ventricles are

full and there is little or no

movement of blood. As the

ventricles fill, the flow of venous

blood becomes slower and then

virtually ceases. This interval

following the period of rapid

filling is termed as the period of

diastasis. In continues for 0.19

sec.
D. Period of Auricular Systole
At the end of diastasis, the

auricles contract (systole) and

empty into the ventricles which

are over–filled with further

stretching of the ventricular

muscle fibre. Auricular systole

has a duration of about 0.1

second; at its termination the

ventricles contract.

Throughout all phases of the

cardiac cycle just described

(isometric relaxation, rapid

filling, diastasis and auricular

systole) the ventricles are

relaxing or are completely

relaxed – that is, these events

occur during the resting period

or diastole of the ventricle.

 Ventricular systole, follows

auricular systole and is divided

into period of isometric

contraction and period of

ejection.

E. Period of Isometric

contraction

The ventricles contract and close

the openings into the auricles

(auriculo ventricular orifices

guarded by valves). The pressure

inside the ventricle increases and

when sufficiently high enough to

overcome the pressure in the

pulmonary artery (and of aorta),

the valves guarding the orifices

of the arteries open. The

ventricle remains as a closed

cavity for 0.04 sec.

F. Period of Ejection

The arterial valves (semilunar

valves) have been forced open

and the blood is ejected into the

pulmonary artery (and aorta)

and lasts for 0.3 seconds. After

this period, the ventricles relax

and period of isometric

relaxation commences and thus

the cycle is repeated.

Whatever happens in the right

side occurs on the left side of the

heart also simultaneously.

 4.4 BLOOD PRESSURE AND
FACTORS AFFECTING IT

Is defined as the pressure exerted by

the blood on the vessel walls while

flowing through it, especially on the

walls of the arteries. As the blood

passing through the blood vessels is

viscous, there is some resistance or

block to its free flow. This pressure

exerted by the blood on the arterial

wall is called blood pressure (BP).

The pressure is greatest near the

heart. It is lower in the smaller

arteries and less in the capillaries

and least in the veins.

The maximum pressure corresponds

to ventricular systole and known as
systolic pressure (120mm of Hg). The

minimum pressure coincides with

diastole and hence it is known as

diastolic pressure (60 to 80mm Hg).

The difference between the diastolic

and systolic pressure is known as

pulse pressure (40mm Hg). The ratio

between systolic, diastolic and pulse

pressure is 3:2:1.

Factors affecting the blood

pressure

1. Age: B.P. is less in childhood and

rises gradually through childhood

and attains the level of 100 min.

th
by the 12 year and reaches the
th
adult values by the 17 year.
th
After the 25 year, it starts

rising slowly.
2. Sex: Men have slightly higher

B.P.

3. Body size: When the body size

and build increases the blood

pressure also increases.

4. Diurnal variation: Lowest in the

morning and highest in the

afternoon and decreases during

sleep.

5. Digestion, exercise, emotions,

excitement – increases blood

pressure.

6. Pathologically there is an

abnormal increase in pressure in

old age due to artheriosclerosis

 which is the deposition due to

the gradual loss of elasticity in

the walls of the blood vessels.

7. Hypertension is an abnormal rise

in blood pressure.

4.5 HEART SOUNDS, ECG, HEART

RATE AND PULSE

Hear Sound

The heart gives rise to certain typical

sounds during events of cardiac

cycles. There are 2 types of heart

sounds in all subjects. They are

1. Audible heart sounds

2. Recorded heart sounds

The audible heart sounds are those

which can be heard and two sounds

st
which constitute this. The 1 heart

sound resembles the spoken word

LUB and the second heart sounds like

st
the work DUB. The 1 sound is of

deeper pitch, booming in character,

lower in frequency and longer in

st
duration. The 1 heart sound is due

to the sudden closure of the atrio-

nd
ventricular valves. The 2 sound

is mainly due to the closure of the

semilunar valves. It is of higher

pitch, higher in frequency, snapping

in character and of shorter.

The recorded heart sounds are those

sounds which can be recorded and

 rd
studied. This is constituted of the 3
th rd
and 4 heart sounds. The 3 heart

sound is due to the rapid inflow of

th
blood, and the 4 heart sound is due

to auricular systole.

ElectroCardioGram

(Abbreviated as ECG) The activity of

the heart muscle is always

accompanied by electrical changes

called action currents. An ECG is a

graphic record of the action current

of the heart read from the body

surface. The electrocardiograph is

the instrument used for recording the

electrical activity of the heart.

The electrocardiogram (ECG) of a

Cardiac cycle consists of a series of

waves called P,Q,R,S and T waves.

The P,Q T waves are positive-that is

above the base line of the record; the

Q and S waves are negative. P and

T are blunt waves of relatively low

amplitude. The R wave is tall spike;

it is the most conspicuous wave and

represents the highest voltage

developed by the contracting

ventricular muscle.

The P wave is caused by the spread

of the excitation over the auricle and

hence is called the auricular complex.

The Q,R,S waves are produced during

the transmission of the excitation

wave or Impulse through the

junctional tissues- auriculo

ventricular bundle and its branches

and Purkinji network. Since this

Q,R,S complex is related to

ventricular activity (i.e.,) the

excitation of the ventricles, it is

called the initial ventricular complex.

The T wave is due to the relaxation of

the ventricles, after the contraction.

Since the P wave is caused by the

excitation wave passing over the

auricle and the R wave by the

excitation of the ventricles the time

interval between the commencement

of P and the commencement of R

(i.e.,) the P-R interval gives the

conduction time from auricles to

ventricles. The normal duration of the

P-R interval is 0.12–0.16 sec. But,

when it exceeds 0.2 sec. it indicates

delayed conduction of the cardiac

impulse.

Heart Rate

It is the periodic beating of the heart

whereby the cardiac output takes

place. In human beings the average

heart rate is about 72 beats/minute.

The heart rate is regulated according

to the needs of the body to maintain

adequate circulation of blood to the

active regions.
Increase in the heart rate is known

as tachycardia and decrease in heart

rate is known as bradycardia.

Physiologic variation occur in the

following conditions.

The heart rate decreases from birth

which is 130/minute as age increases

upto adolescence. But in old age it

is shiftly higher to 75-80/m Exercise,

emotions, rise in environmental

temperature and during digestion it

increases. It decreases during sleep.

Heart rate is regulated by 2

mechanisms. 1. Local Control. 2.

Nervous Control.
Pulse

Pulse is meant as the expansion and

elongation of the arterial walls

passively produced by the pressure

changes during systole and diastole

of ventricles.

Each beat of the heart causes a pulse

in the arteries. Though all the

arteries pulse, it is more conveniently

felt on the radial artery at the wrist.

Pulse rate is around 70–72 minutes.

4.6 CARDIAC OUTPUT

It is the output of blood by the heart

by which blood flows through all the

individual organs and tissues.

It is expressed either as stroke

volume or as the cardiac index.

The stroke volume is the amount of

blood pumped out by each ventricle

during the one heart beat. It is about

70 ml. Minute volume is the amount

of blood ejected by the right or left

ventricle in one minute which is 5 – 6

litres / minute.

Hence minute volume = stroke

volume x heart rate.

Cardiac index is the minute volume

expressed in relation to body surface

which is 2.8 to 3 litres per square

meter of body surface.

Under physiological conditions, the

cardiac output varies.

1. Age – higher in children

2. Sex – lower in female

3. Body size – more in heavily built

people

4. Diurnal variations – Cardiac

output is increased during day

time and decreases during sleep.

5. During exercise, emotional

disturbances, metabolism

(digestion), increase in

environmental temperature, the

cardiac output increases.

6. Lack of O 2 , Increased CO 2 in

the blood, adrenaline, histamine

increases cardiac output.

7. Pathologically fever, and

hyperthyroidism increases

cardiac output.
But shock, haemorrhage, etc.,

decreases it.

The factors maintaining are

Cardiac Output

1. Venous return.

2. Peripheral resistance.

3. Force of contraction of the heart.

LET US SUM UP

We have learned about the structure

and functions of blood and its

components, type of blood cells, their

formation, life span and fate. We

have also dealt with blood

coagulation, grouping, Rh factor, and

transfusion of blood. In the second

half of the chapter we have learned

about the structure and function of

heart and its vessels, cardiac cycle,

impulse, cardiac output, heart sound,

pulse, ECG, etc.

KEY WORDS

Corpuscles – Cells

Agglutinogen – Blood group antigen

Fibrinolysis – A normal ongoing

process that dissolve fibrin

Myofibrils – Muscle Fibres

Vasoconstriction – Narrowing of

blood vessels

Spasm – Sudden narrowing or

constriction.
Thrombosis – Intravascular Clotting
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What are the types of blood cell?

2. Name the vitamin and mineral

responsible for blood clotting.

3. List down the types of anaemia.

4. Expand ECG.

5. What is cardiac cycle?

6. What are the two types of heart

sounds?

QUESTIONS

Part – A

1. Define Blood.

2. What are the types of blood?

3. Define Erythroblastosis foetalis.

 4. Define blood coagulation.

5. What is leucopenia / leukemia /

polycythemia?

6. Write notes on blood volume.

7. Give the functions of

Haemoglobin.

8. Expand ESR and give the normal

ESR rate for infant and pregnant

women.

9. What do you meant by

haemolysis?

10. Give the life span of RBC and

WBC.
 Part – B

1. Give the composition of Blood

(RBC / WBC / Platelet).

2. List down the functions of

blood(RBC/WB/Platelet)

3. Explain the fate of Erythrocyte.

4. Discuss on the Techniques of

Blood Transfusion.

5. Write on cardiac impulse.

6. What are the factors affecting

blood pressure? Explain.

7. List down the factors needed for

blood coagulation.

8. Detail on erythroblastosis

foetalis.
 Part – C

1. Draw and explain the structure of

Heart.

2. Explain the functions of blood.

3. Explain the mechanism of blood

coagulation in detail.

4. Brief on blood grouping.

5. Detail on Cardiac cycle.

6. Explain Rh grouping System and

give its importance.

7. Enumerate the classification of

WBC and discuss its structure.

8. Discuss on the stages of

erythropoiesis / leucopoiesis.
 UNIT – III

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Respiration is the process which

deals with the act of respiring or

breathing, the act of taking in and

giving out air, the aggregate of those

processes by which oxygen is taken

in and carbon dioxide is given out

of the body. This unit will deal with

the organs of respiration, and their

fuctions mechanism of respiration..

 OBJECTIVES

By studying this unit the students will

1. Understand the structure and

functions of organs of the

respiratory system.

2. Know about the mechanism of

respiration.

3. Learn about the types and forms

of breathing.

4. Know about the artificial

respiration.
 UNIT STRUCTURE

LESSON - 5: RESPIRATION

5.1 Respiratory pathway and lungs

5.2 Mechanism of respiration

5.3 Regulation of Respiration

Gaseous exchange in tissues and

5.4
lungs

LESSON - 6: LUNG VOLUME AND

OTHER ASPECTS OF

RESPIRATION

6.1 Lung volumes

Types of breathing and modified

6.2
forms of respiration

6.3 Artificial respiration

Let us Sum up

Check Your Progress

Key Words

Questions
 LESSON - 5

RESPIRATION

The term “respiration” refers to the

gaseous exchange between an

organism and its environment. All

organisms need O 2 for cellular

metabolic activity and to carry on the

biological oxidation and produce Co

2 as a waste product. Breathing

promotes the transfer of O 2 from the

atmosphere into the lungs and the

removal of Co 2 from the lungs.

Respiration consists of external or

pulmonary respiration which is the

exchange of gases between the

external environment and the blood

by means of the lungs. The internal

or tissue respiration is the exchange

of gases that take place in the tissue.

Respiratory system consists of the

respiratory pathway and the lungs

which constitute the main respiratory

organs.

5.1 RESPIRATORY PATHWAYS AND

LUNGS

The respiratory pathway consists of

nasal cavities, the pharynx, larynx,

trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,

alveolar duct and alveolar sac.

The air is drawn by the nasal cavities.

The nasal cavity extends from the

nostrils and opens into the pharynx.

Nasal cavity is divided into two by

the nasal septum. Each nasal cavity

is partially divided into 3 narrow

passages called meatuses by bones

called conchae. The nasal cavities are

lined by ciliated mucous membrane,

highly supplied with blood vessels.

The nasal cavities not only serve as

a passage for the air, it warms,

moistens and filters the air. The dust

particles and bacteria are caught up

in the nasal mucous and are removed

by the cilia outwards. It also has a

sense organ for smell and the smell

of the inspired air can be easily

detected.
The nasal cavity opens into the

pharynx and the purified air now

enters the pharynx. It is a muscular

chamber forming a common passage

for the air and the food. From the

lower part of the pharynx leads 2

tubes – the trachea and the

oesophagus. The opening of the

pharynx into the larynx is called the

glottis and is guarded by a flap of

tissue called epiglottis. This covers

the glottis, whenever, the food is

swallowed, momentarily arresting

respiration.
 Structure of Respiratory System

Pharynx leads to larynx. It is situated

in the neck at the beginning of the

trachea or wind pipe. It is also known

as the voice box. It has a framework

of cartilage and contains the vocal

cords, which produce sound when

vibrated by the flow of air.

The trachea or the wind pipe is a

tube extending downwards from the

larynx. It is cylindrical in shape about

4½” in length and ¾” in diameter.

The walls are made up of rings of

cartilage called “C-shaped hyaline

cartilage”. It is also lined with

mucous membrane and has ciliated

columnar epithelium.

The trachea, then divides into the

right and left bronchi, one for each

lung. Each bronchus after entering

the lung, breaks up into a greater

number of smaller branches called

branchioles.

The bronchi first divides into the

primary, secondary and tertiary

bronchi, which again divide into the

bronchioles namely terminal

bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles.

This leads to the alveolar ducts, then

the atrium and finally end in thin-

walled dilated sacs called alveolar sac

and pulmonary alveoli.

The two bronchi resemble the trachea

in structure. Walls are made up of

smooth muscle and lined by mucous

membrane. The walls of the alveoli

are supplied with capillaries of the

pulmonary artery. Trachea and

bronchi are supplied with

sympathetic and vagus nerves.

It is in the alveoli, the air and the

fluid blood comes in contact and their

surface tension increases, which may

lead to the collapse of the lungs. This

is prevented by the surfactant by

preventing the direct contact of the

air and the fluid and reduces the

surface tension. The alveoli may have

openings by which the adjacent

alveoli is continuous with each other,

for equalizing the pressure between

the alveoli. This opening is called the

vent. Phagocytes are present in the

walls of the alveoli.

Lungs

1. Lungs are the essential organs

of respiration. They are two in

number one on each side of the

thorax, separated from each

other by the heart and its blood

vessels. Each lung is enclosed in

a doubled walled sac of serous

membrane called pleura. They

are light and porous in structure.

2. The right lung is larger and

broader than the left lung. The

right lung is incompletely divided

into three and left lung into two

lobes.

3. On examination the lung feels

spongy.

4. The outer pleural membrane is

called, the parietal pleura and

the inner one is called the

visceral pleura. There is a very

thin intra pleural space

containing the fluid.

5. The lobes are again divided into

lobules.

6. The lobules consists of the

alveoli and their bronchioles,

which join with each other to

form the larger bronchi.

 7. Each lung is composed of

immense number of air spaces

arranged in clusters. Each cluster

is called a lung unit.

8. The walls of the alveoli consists

of certain cells which secrete a

substance called surfactant for

preventing the collapse of the

lungs.

Functions of the Respiratory

System

A. Respiratory function

The primary function is to

maintain the O 2 and CO 2

concentration of the arterial

blood. This is done by

 i. Gas exchange between the

air in the lungs and blood.

ii. Transport of gases from the

lungs to the tissues.

iii. Exchange of gases between

the blood and the tissues.

B. Non-respiratory functions

i. Lungs function as

physiological sieve and

purifies the blood.

ii. Phagocytic

iii. Reservoir of blood.

iv. Water balance.

v. Maintains body temperature.

 vi. Elimination of volatile

products for example

acetone in diabetes mellitus.

vii. Acid – Base balance.

viii. Produces surfactant and

prevents the collapse of the

lungs.

5.2 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION

Respiration consists of two processes

namely inspiration and Expiration.

Inspiration is drawing air into the

lungs and expiration is drawing out

air or exhaling air.

During inspiration O 2 is taken in and

during expiration Co 2 is given out.

Expiration is passive process, while

inspiration is an active process,

involving the contraction of the

muscles.

The movements by which inspiration

and expiration are affected

constitutes the mechanism of

respiration.

Respiration is effected by the

expansion and contraction of the

thoracic wall. when the thoracic wall

expands, the pleural space increases,

the pressure falls and lungs are

enlarged and the air is drawn in,

because the atmospheric pressure is

greater. Then thoracic cavity size

decreases and pressure increases

and since the atmospheric pressure is

lower than the pressure in lungs, the

air is driven out. Respiration takes

place at the rate of 14-18/minute.

Muscles Involved in Respiration

Diaphragm

It is a dome shaped muscular organ

like an arch, which separates the

thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity.

Inspiration can take place only by

its action. Impulses reach the

diaphragm through the phrenic

nerves from the respiratory centres.

During inspiration diaphragm will

descend downward and helps to

increase the vertical diameter.
Intercostal Muscles

These muscles found between the

ribs, which contract and relax to

increase the anterior–posterior

diameter.

Inspiration

Inspiration is effected by the

expansion of the thoracic cavity. The

thoracic cavity is bounded on the

upper part by the neck muscle, below

by the diaphragm, anterior (or front)

by the sternum and ribs, posterior

(or behind) by the vertebral column

and laterally (or on the sides) by the

ribs and intercostals muscle.

In the thoracic cavity, important

organs like lungs, heart and major

blood vessels are situated.

During inspiration, the thoracic cavity

is increased or expanded in three

dimensions.

1. Upward, downward plane or

vertical diameter.

2. Backward, forward plane or

anterior–posterior diameter.

3. Side to side plane.

1. Upward Downward Plane

The diaphragm which is dome

shaped, on concentration

becomes less arched and

descends downwards pressing

the abdominal contents by the

 impulses arriving through the

phrenic nerve from the

respiratory centre. This increases

the vertical diameter of the

thoracic cavity.

2. Backward Forward Plane

This is brought about by the

rising of the ribs with the

contraction of the external

intercostals muscles. The first

pair of ribs along with the upper

part of the sternum. moves as

a single piece and assumes a

horizontal position and increases

the anterior-posterior diameter

of the upper part of the chest.

The external intercostal muscles

placed between the ribs and

 diaphragm contract

simultaneously. This elevates the

ribs which increases the thoracic

cavity in backward forward

plane. This movement of the ribs

resembles the movement of the

handle of a bucket and is known

as the Bucket handle movement.

3. Increase in side to side plane

As the ribs are raised, the curve

of the ribs disappears and

thereby the thoracic cavity

increases from side to side.

The final result of all these

muscular contraction is to

increase the volume of the

thorax, resulting in the decrease

of the pressure inside the lungs,

 due to the enlargement of the

lungs. The atmospheric pressure

which is higher drives the air into

the lungs.

Expiration

It is passive in quite or normal

breathing. Here the air is driven out

from the lungs. At the end of

inspiration, the walls of the thorax

relaxes, the diaphragm and

intercostal muscles relax and by its

elastic nature comes to its original

position. The diaphragm ascends up.

The pressure inside the lungs

increases than the atmospheric air

and the air from the lungs are driven

out.
 COMPOSITION N 2 O 2 CO 2 H 2 O

Inspired air 79% 21% 0.04% Varies

Expired air 79% 16% 4.4% Saturated

Alvedar air 80% 13- 5– Saturated

14% 6%

5.3 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION

The activity of respiration is

involuntary (i.e.,) automatically the

respiration is controlled mainly by

the respiratory centre situated in the

bilaterally upper part of medulla and

pons in the brain. It is a group of

nerve cells.
Respiration is regulated in 2 ways.

The normal rate of respiration is

about 12–18 min. in adults.

Respiratory movements are brought

about by the respiratory muscles,

mainly the diaphragm and

intercostals muscles. The diaphragm

is supplied with the phrenic nerve

and intercostals nerves.

1. Nervous Control

The medulla respiratory centre is

further divided into inspiratory

and expiratory centre. When the

inspiratory centre is stimulated,

it causes strong contractions of

all the inspiratory muscles. 2.

When expiratory centre is

stimulated it gives rise to

inhibitory impulses, stopping the

inspiration and thereby causing

expiration. These two centres are

further influenced by two

bilaterally situated respiratory

centres. They are the apnustic

centre located in the lower part

and the pneumotaxic centre in

the upper part of the pons. These

centres are responsible for

initiation and maintenance of the

respiratory rhythmicity. 3.

Pneumotaxic Centre the relays

excitatory impulses to the

expiratory centre 4. The

expiratory centre then exerts

intermittently an inhibitory

influence upon the inspiratory

centre. Thus medullary

 respiratory centres, control by

their connections a spinal

respiratory centre which gives

rise to the phrenic intercostals

nerves.

2. Chemical Regulation

The respiratory centre is highly

sensitive to chemical changes in

blood. Excess of CO 2 stimulates

respiration and low CO 2

depresses respiration, when CO2

is increased the chemoreceptors

are stimulated and this

stimulates the respiratory centre

and increases respiration.

Extreme O 2 lack depresses the

centre. The PH of the blood also

has a direct action, a slight

lowering being excitatory in

nature.
 5.4 GASEOUS EXCHANGE

In man the circulating blood forms

the medium for the exchange of

gases which constitute respiration.

Gaseous exchange takes place in the

tissues and lungs.

Gaseous Exchange in Tissues

The exchange of O 2 and CO 2 in

the tissues constitute internal

respiration. It consists of passage of

O 2 from the blood into the tissue

fluid and then into the cells and the

passage of CO 2 from the cells into

the tissue fluid and then into the

blood. This passage depends on the

following principle. Gases diffuse

from a region of high pressure to

a region of low pressure, since the

pressure of O 2 in the tissues is low,

when compared to that of O 2 in

the blood and similarly because the

pressure of CO 2 is greater in the

tissues when compared to that of the

blood, the O 2 diffuses from the blood

to the tissue and CO 2 diffuses from

the tissue to the blood.

Gaseous Exchange in Lungs

The exchange of gas in the lungs

is called external respiration. The

impure blood is brought to the

atmospheric air and so O 2 from the

air will diffuse into the blood and

CO 2 from the blood which is at a

higher pressure will diffuse into the

atmospheric air where the pressure

of CO 2 is low.

Transport of O 2

Blood transport O 2 in physical

solution O 2 in combination with Hb

as oxy Hb. which, becomes reduced

Hb during the gaseous exchange in

tissues.

Transport of CO 2

CO 2 is carried in the blood in 3

forms.
in physical solution – (5%)

in a dissolved state as carbonic acid.

as bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) ions. (65%)

In plasma, it is present as sodium

bicarbonate and inside the red cell it

will be as potassium bicarbonate.

as carbamino compounds (30%)

mainly as carbaminohaemoglobin and

carbaminoproteins.

Inside the red cell, CO 2 + H 2 O

gives H 2 CO 3 (carbonic acid) which

immediately dissociates to give HCO

3 and H+ ions. This HCO 3 either

diffuses into the plasma immediately

or in the red cell, it combines with

K ions to form KHCO 3 . This later,

dissociates to give K and HCO 3 .

HCO 3 diffuses into the plasma and

to make up for this, chloride from

outside diffuse into the red cell and

form KCL. In plasma HCO 3 combines

with Na forming Na HCO 3 .

This is called “chloride shift” or

“Hamburger’s phenomenon” and

helps to maintain the acid-base

balance.

+
The H ion released during the

dissociation of H 2 CO 3 combines

with deoxygenated Hb to form

reduced Hb (HHb.) The reverse of

the reaction occurs in the pulmonary

capillaries where CO 2 is released

from H 2 CO 3 as the Hb is

oxygenated. The chloride shift helps

in maintaining the Ph of blood

constant.
 LESSON - 6

LUNG VOLUME AND OTHER

ASPECTS OF RESPIRATION

In the second half of this unit we

will deal with lung volumes, types

of breathing, various modified forms

of respiration and different artificial

methods of respiration which are all

the important aspects we have to

deal along with respiration.

6.1 LUNG VOLUME

1. Tidal Volume

It is the amount of air inspired or

expired at a time during rest. It

is about 500ml.
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume

It is the amount of additional

volume of air drawn into the

lungs by deep inspiration. It is

about 3,300 ml. of air.

3. Inspiratory Capacity

It is the maximum amount of air

that can be inspired. It is got

by adding the tidal volume and

inspiratory reserve volume.

(i.e) 500 + 3,300 = 3,800 ml.

4. Expiratory Reserve Volume

It is the additional amount of air

that can be expired after a

normal expiration. It is about

1,000 ml. of air.

5. Residual Volume
It is the amount of air that

remains in the lungs, even after

the forced expiration, which

could be expelled under normal

circumstances. It is about

1,200ml.

6. Functional Residual Capacity

Expiratory reserve volume

(1,000 ml.) and residual volume

(1,200 ml.) together constitute

the functional residual capacity

(2,200 ml).

7. Vital Capacity

The maximum volume of air that

can be expelled with deliberate

effort after a maximum

inspiration in known as vital

capacity (I.R.V + TIDAL VOLUME

+ E.R.V.) 4,800 ml.

6.2 TYPES OF BREATHING AND
MODIFIED FORMS OF RESPIRATION

1. Eupnea: It is the normal

breathing.

2. Hyperpnea : It is characterized

by an increase in the rate and

depth of respiration. It occurs

during emotions, pains, exposure

to heat or cold.

3. Tachypnea: It is a rapid shallow

breathing without increase in

depth. This occurs when the

temperature of the blood passing

through the chemoreceptors is

increased.
4. Apnea: It is a temporary

stopping of breath.

5. Dyspnea: It is difficult or

labored breathing where the

person will be gasping for

breath. It occurs during exercise,

Co2 inhalation, hypoxia or

asphyxia.

6. Periodic Breathing or cheyne:

Stokes breathing. It is an

abnormal respiratory rhythm

marked by period of hyperpnea

and apnea. It is normally found

in healthy infants and adults

during deep sleep and at high

attitude.
Modified Forms of Respiration

1. Coughing: It is a strong

expiratory effort when any

foreign materials enters the

respiratory tract.

2. Sneezing: It is a strong

expiratory effect due to irritation

of the nasal mucosa.

3. Hiccough or Hiccups: It is

caused by the contractions of the

diaphragm, the sudden

inspiration thus produced, being

cut short by the closure of the

glottis.

4. Yawning: It is a deep

inspiratory effort usually as an

indication of fatigue, sleepiness

or of boredom
 5. Sighing: It consists of prolonged

expiration.

6. Laughing: It consists of a deep

inspiration followed by a series of

short expiratory blasts.

Hypoxia o Anoxia

O2 Lack in the body is known as

Hypoxia or Anoxia. In a broad sense,

it is the inadequate oxygenation of

blood. It may result from various

reasons. According to the causes

hypoxia is divided in 4 types, they

are.

1. Hypoxic Hypoxia (Anoxic

Anoxia): The main cause is the

defective oxygenation in the

 lungs and the result is

incomplete oxygenation of Hb,

causing low o 2 tension in the

arterial blood. This is due to the

low tension in the air, as in high

attitudes and inspiration of

poisonous gas like carbon

monoxide, nitric oxide etc., and

also inability of O 2 to diffuse

into the blood in certain diseased

conditions.

2. Anaemic Hypoxia: This is due

to the inability of the blood to

carry a sufficient supply of

oxygen to the tissues as a result

of a reduction in the Hb. It is

caused by anaemia
3. Stagnant Hypoxia: This is due

to the inadequate flow of blood

to the tissues. This may be due

to lowering of the speed of

circulation or obstruction of

blood flow.

4. Histotoxic Hypoixia: It results

from the inability of the tissues

to utilize the oxygen supplied to

them. Cyanide poisoning is one

of the main reasons for it. The

main symptoms of hypoxia are

head ache, vomiting, nausea,

dyspnea, drowsiness, loss of self

control, muscular weakness,

sudden paralysis of upper and

lower limbs, increased heart

rate, depressed breathing,

unconsciousness etc.
Asphyxia: It is a condition of

improper aeration of blood. It is a

related condition to hypoxia in which

air flow in and out of the lungs is

cut off. If continued for some time,

produces a series of pathological

manifestations and ultimately death.

In this condition, mechanical

obstruction to the air passage by

foreign objects or external

compression of trachea as in

strangulation increase the blood Co 2

level.
Hypercapnea: It is a condition in

which the CO 2 level is more than

normal in the blood.

Cyanosis: Bluish red discoloration of

the tissues due to accumulation of

reduced Hb in the capillaries. The

normal level of reduced Hb is 2.5g/

100ml. If it increases to 5 g more/

100ml cyanosis appears.

6.3. ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

Artificial Respiration

In any condition, where respiration

fails but heart continues to beat,

application of artificial respiration is

important.
Respiratory failure occurs in the

following conditions like suffocation,

drowning, electric shock, gas

poisoning, asphyxia or paralysis of

the respiratory muscles etc. Hence

the artificial methods must be

employed to bring air into the lungs

until natural breathing is resumed.

There are different methods of

artificial respiration. They are

1. Mouth to mouth breathing

The subject is placed on the

back.

Kneeling on the side of the

subject, the operator puts

his thumb in the subject’s

mouth and grasping the

lower jaw between the

thumb and index finger,

pulls the upper jaw upwards.

With the thumb and index

finger of the other hand, the

nostrils of the subject are

closed.

The operator then places his

mouth over that of the

victim and exhales smoothly

into the subject’s airway.

Noting the degree of

expansion of the chest of the

subject due to inflation of

air, the operator removes his

mouth.
 This allows for passive

expiration by the elastic

recoil of the subjects lungs.

The procedure is repeated

12 times.

A handkerchief may be place

between the mouths if it is

desired to avoid direct contract.

Mouth to mouth breathing has

found superior to all other

methods of artificial respiration.

2. Schafer Method

The patient is made to lie down

in a prone position, chest and

abdomen downward- upon the

ground and face is turned to one

side. One arm is extended in

front along the ground, while the

 other is bent at the elbow

providing a rest for the side of

the head. The operator kneels

down by the side of the subject

and places the palms of his

hands over the subjects lower

ribs of either side and press, so

the abdominal pressure rises,

diaphragm is pushed up and the

air is forced out of the lungs.

Then the pressure is released

and air is drawn in.

3. Holger Nielsen Method

The patient is placed in a prone

position, with his head resting on

his hands. The operator kneels in

front of and facing the patients

head; he places his hand with

 thumbs near the mid-line and

fingers spread apart, on the

patient‘s back below the shoulder

blades. The operator then bends

forward with elbows extended

and brings his trunk again into

the erect position at the same

time he grasps the patient’s

arms just above the elbows, and

draws them forward that is,

towards the patients head. This

movement expands the chest.

The movements are repeated 10

to 12 per minute.

4. Eve's Rocking Method

This method invented by Dr.Eve,

makes use of the weight of the

abdomen to lower and raise the

diaphragm in limitation of its

normal inspiratory and

expiratory movement.

The subject is placed upon a

stretcher or a board which is

balanced in the centre. Each tilt

of the body, either in the head

down or feet down position, is to

an angle of 45 to 50 degrees.

In the feet down position, the

abdomen drags the diaphragm

down, in the head down position,

the diaphragm is pushed up. 10

double movements are made per

minute.
5. Drinker Mechanical Method

(Iron Lung)
This method is used when

artificial respiration must be

carried out for long period–days,

weeks, or even months–owing to

paralysis of respiratory muscles.

The patient lies upon a bed

within a closed steel cabinet,

only his head seen outside the

apparatus. A flexible collar is

fitted around his neck, so as to

prevent leakage of air. A motor

driven pump causes alternate

variations in the air pressure

within the chamber. Reduction in

air pressure below that of the

atmosphere causes expansion of

chest (inspiration).
 The patient is kept continuously

in the chamber until respiratory

muscles resume their function.

LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learn about the organs

of respiratory pathway mechanism

involved in respiratory process. We

also learn about the gaseous

exchange in tissues and lungs, lung

volumes, regulation of respiration,

types and modified forms and finally

we learned about artificial reparation.

KEY WORDS

The process of becoming

Acclimatization accustomed to a new

environment.

Apnoea Cessation of breathing.

 It is produced by occlusion

of the airway (strangulation,

Asphyxia drowning) accute hypercapnia

and hypoxia develop

together.

A bluish coloration of skin and

mucus membrane due to

Cyanosis
excessive reduced

haemoglobing in blood.

A thin dome-shaped skeletal

muscle that separates the

Diaphragm
thoracic and abdominal

cavities.

Excessive carbon dioxide in

Hypercapnia
blood.

An abnormal increase in
Hyperpnoea
depth and rate or respiration.

Reduction of oxygen supply to

Hypoxia
a tissue.
 A cone-shaped tubular

section of the alimentary

canal that extends from the

Pharynx mouth and the nasal cavities

to the larynx, where is

becomes continuous with the

oesophagus.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. List down the organs of

respiratory pathway.

2. Define anoxic anoxia.

3. Define cyanosis.

4. What are the two processes of

respiration?

5. Name the muscles involved in

respiration.

6. In which situation artificial

respiration is needed?
 QUESTIONS

Part – A

1. What is reserve volume?

2. Define anaemic hypoxia /

stagnant hypoxia / histotoxic

hypoxia / hypercapnea.

3. Differentiate between coughing

and yawning

4. What is tidal volume?

5. What do you mean by expiratory

reserve volume?

6. Write notes on vital capacity.

 Part – B

1. Write about the types of

breathing.
2. Write notes on modified forms of

respiration

3. List down the functions of lungs

4. Write notes on lung volume

5. Give an account on artificial

respiration – any one method

(mouth to mouth / breathing /

Schafer / Holger Nielsen / Eve’s

rocking / Drinker mechanical

method)
 Part – C

1. Explain the organ of respiratory

pathway

2. Detail on the respiratory and non

respiratory functions of

respiratory system

3. Brief on the mechanism of

respiration

4. Discus on the gaseous exchange

in tissues and lunges

5. How respiration is regulated

6. Write about any three methods

of artificial respiration
 UNIT – IV

REPRODUCTIVE AND
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Here, in the first half we will deal

with the reproductive system and in

the next half we will deal with the

endocrine system especially

pituitary, thyroid and adrenal glands.

OBJECTIVES

By studying this unit student will

1. Understand the male and female

reproductive organs

2. Know about the menstrual cycle

3. Study the process of

reproduction and lactation

4. Know about the terms conception

and contraception

5. Understand the structure and

functions of pituitary, thyroid

and adrenal glands

UNIT STRUCTURE

LESSON - 7: REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Structure of Male and Female

7.1
Reproductive Organs

7.2 Menstrual Cycle

Process of Reproduction

7.3 (Conception), Lactation and

Contraception
LESSON - 8: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Structure and Functions of Pituitary

8.1
Glands

Structure and Functions of Thyroid

8.2
Glands

Structure and Functions of Adrenal

8.3
Glands

Let Us Sum Up

CheckYour Progress

Key Words

Questions
 LESSON - 7

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction is one of the biological

necessities for the preservation of

species. The reproductive organs are

the testis, in male and ovaries in

female. The sex cells are the cells

that have been set apart for the

perpetuation of the race are called

germ cells or gametes. The testis

produce male gametes or sperms and

the ovaries produce the female

gametes or ova. The sperm unites

with an ovum resulting in fertilized

egg which develops into a new

individual. The male reproductive

organs and female reproductive

organs are structurally different.

 7.1 STRUCTURE OF MALE AND
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Male Reproductive Organ

The testes are the gonads or the

primary sex organs of male. Other

accessory organs are penis, prostate

gland etc.

Testes

They are 2 ovoid glandular bodies

enclosed and supported by the skin

called the scrotum which is

suspended from pubic region.

Spermatic cord of the testes is a

compact mass of narrow and very

tortuous tubule, the convoluted

seminiferous tubules. Fibrous

partitions divide the testicular

substance into a great number of

wedge shaped lobes, each of which

consists at least a convoluted tubule.

The tubules of neighbouring lobes

unite to form a series of large

straight ducts which after a short

course unite in a plexiform manner

which is known as rate testis. This

after a short course becomes

enlarged and tortuous and ultimately

unite into a single large convoluted

duct. This is called epididymis. From

its lower part a straight tube the

vasdeferens ascends along he

posterior border of the testis and

enters the abdomen. There it joins

the duct of the seminal vesicles of

the corresponding side. These

vesicles secrete a fluid substance

called semen which is needed for the

lubrication and for keeping the sperm

alive.

The vas deferens unites with the

seminal vesicle duct to form the

ejaculatory duct, one from each side

and opens into urethra, into the canal

of penis. The seminiferous tubules

are lined by several layers of cells,

each layer representing a particular

stage in the development of

spermatozoa. The outermost layer

has got 2 types of cells. The

columnar cells and supporting cells

which are spermatogenic. They

produce the spermatozoa (sperms).

Mostly matured ones are present

nearer to the lumen of the tubule

cells, as they mature become

separated from the tubule wall.

The connective tissue lying between

the seminiferous tubules contains

scattered cells which are called

interstitial cells or cells of leydig.

They secrete the male hormone, the

testosterone.
The sperm is about 0.1mm. long. It

has got an oval flattened head and

a long tail by which it propels itself.

The head contains a large nucleus

surrounded by a narrow rim of

protoplasm. The sperms are carried

from the seminiferous tubule along

the complex system of canals to the

epididymis.

Spermatozoa show no movement in

the tubules but becomes actively

motile in the epididymis. During

copulation contraction of the

epididymis and vasdeferens propels

the sperm through the ejaculatory

duct into the urethra. At the same

time the seminal vesicle contracts

and expels a viscous secretion called

semen which is essential for the life

and motility of sperm. Secretion from

prostate gland is also added to

semen.

The sperms deposited in the vagina

during coitus propel upward, pass

through the uterus, enter the

fallopian tube where fertilization

normally occurs. The head of sperm

penetrates the ovum and the tail

disappears.

The life of the spermatozoa after it

has been deposited in the vagina is

from 2 to 3 days. Once the ovum is

produced it must be fertilized within

2 days or it will disintegrate.

Penis

It is the copulary organ of male which

is suspended from the public region.

It is composed of erectile tissue

arranged in 3 longitudinal columns

and bound together by fibrous tissue

and covered with skin. The 2

columnar tissue lying side by side

are called corpora cavaernosum

urethrae, because it contains the

urethra and is highly supplied with

blood vessels. During the sexual

excitement the penis becomes firm

and erect which is controlled by

certain nerves.

Prostrate Gland

It is a body about the size of a

chestnut and lies in contact with the

lowest part of the bladder. It secretes

a thin fluid into the urethra.

Female Reproductive Organs

The important female reproductive

organs consists of ovaries, fallopian

tubes, the uterus, vagina etc.

Ovaries

The gonads of the female are called

ovaries, which produce ova or egg

cells. The ovaries are a pair of

spherical glandular bodies. They lie

one on each side of the pelvis. Each

ovary weighs from 2 to 5gm. and is

about 4 cm. long, 3cm. wide and 10

cm. thick.

Ovary consists of the following

structure-germinal epithelium is the

outermost covering by a single layer

of cuboidal cells derived from the

columnar epithelium. It is the parent

tissue from which the primitive

graafian follicle of the ovary

develops. The ova or egg are

produced in the graafian follicle of

the ovary.
The next layer is called tunica

albuginia and another layer called

stroma is continuous with it which

carries blood vessels and nerves.

Graafian follicle are small group of

cells in various stages of

development and scattered mostly at

the peripheral part of the ovary.

During development small group of

cells separate off and become

arranged with a large one in the

centre and others in a single layer

around it. The central cells finally

develops into the ovum.

During childhood before puberty the

immature cells are seen and these

are known as primordial follicles. But

during puberty the follicles become

mature. Puberty means being

functionally capable of procreation

and is characterized by sexual

maturation. Between puberty and

menopause (stopping of menses)

large and mature follicles are found.

This happens under the influences of

follicle stimulating hormone.

Graafian follicle

The large ovarian follicle consists of

2 or more layers of cells. The outer

coat is called theca externa and the

inner theca interna. Now the cell

mass is separated into 2 parts by the

collection of the fluid, liquor folliculi,

near it’s centre. A heaped up cells

remain at one side and are called as

the cumulus Oopherus. As the follicle

matures, it become distended by the

accumulation of liquor folliculi and

moves to the surface of ovary. It

projects from the ovarian surface as

a small cyst which eventually bursts

and discharges the ovum. This

process is known as ovulation. It

occurs once in 28 days.

When the graafian follicle ruptures

corpus luteum develops from the

remnant of the ruptured follicle and

becomes filled with a clot of blood

which is soon replaced by a mass

of cells filled with an yellow fat like

material called Lutein. Corpus luteum

is a temporary gland and it secretes

progesterone. The function of corpus

luteum is to prevent further ovulation

and prepare the uterus during

pregnancy. But if the fertilization is

not taking place then the corpus

th
luteum will degenerate by the 28

day of the menstrual cycle.

Ovaries produce 4 hormones namely

estrogen, progesterone, androgen

and relaxin and with the help of these

4 hormones it controls the whole

reproductive life of the female.

Fallopian Tubes or Uterine Tubes

They are 2 in number, one on either

side of the uterus. They extend from

the upper end of the uterus in a

tortuous course between the folds

and along the sides of the pelvis.

They are about 14 to 17 cm. long. At

the point of attachment to the uterus

they are very narrow but gradually

increase in size, so that the distal

end is larger. The distal end is

surrounded by a number of finger like

processes called Fimbriae.

The function of Fallopian tube is to

convey the ova from the ovaries to

the uterus, the movement of which

on the fimbriae and in the tubes

produce a current which draws the

ovum into it. Then it is carried to

the uterus by the peristaltic action of

the tube and the movement of the

cilia. It is in the fallopian tube where

fertilization takes place.

Uterus

It is a hollow pear – shaped muscular

organ. It is situated in the pelvic

cavity between the bladder and the

rectum. The length is about 3 inches

and width 2 inches at the upper part

and thickness 1 inch. But during

pregnancy the uterus becomes

enlarged and attains the length of

12” or more and nearly 6 to 8” in

width.
The cervix is the lower constricted

part and leads into vagina. The

uterus walls are very thick and so the

cavity is small. The uterus is triangle

in shape and has 3 opening (i.e) 2

opening at the top on both the sides

communicating with Fallopian tube

and the third opening below to

cervix. Vagina opens into the

external genital organ by the

external orifice. Blood supply is by

ovarian arteries. Uterus is suspended

by pelvic ligaments.
Vagina is a highly dilatable muscular

membranous cord leading from

cervix. The inner mucous membrane

is thrown into the folds called Rugae

which allow for extreme dilation of

the canal during labour and child

birth.
 7.2 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

By the attainment of sexual maturity

a reproductive cycle is developed in

female, ova produced in every 28

days, called Menstruation. The

Menstrual cycle is the name given to

the cycle of events that take place

in rhythmic fashion during the

reproductive period of women’s life.

It consists of periodic discharge of

blood, mucous and certain other

substances from the uterus. It occurs

every month from puberty upto

menopause with the exception of

periods of pregnancy and lactation.

The menstrual flow lasts for 3 to 5

days. The amount of blood lost is

100 to 200 ml. During the period, the

endometrium of the uterus breaks

resulting in bleeding. This bleeding is

known as menstrual flow.

The menstrual cycle lasts about 28 +

or – 3 days. During this cycle ovary

and the accessory organ of sex,

especially the uterus undergo a

series of changes. The day on which

the bleeding occurs is taken as the

first day of the menstrual cycle. The

cycle lasts from the beginning of the

menstruation to the beginning of the

next.
The uterine changes occurring in

each menstrual cycle can be divided

into 3 stages.

st th
1. Menstruation stage. (1 to 5

day)

th
2. Stage of Proliferation (Upto 14

day) or follicular phase.

th
3. Secretary phase (14 day to 28
th
day)

st
1. Menstruation stage. (1 to 5
th
day)

In the first stage the duration is

th
from 1 to 4 or 5 day. During

this period menstrual flow

occurs. There is dilation of blood

vessels. Blood, Mucous,

 Shredded endomentrium and an

unfertilized ovum pass out in the

discharge.

2. The Proliferative Phase

At the end of menstrual stage

all but the deep layers of the

endometrium have been

destroyed. During the

proliferative phase the

endometrium have been

destroyed. During the

proliferative phase the

endometrium rapidly increase in

thickness. Follicle slowly matures

and Oestrogen secretion occurs

by the ovaries which is controlled

by follicle stimulating hormone.

th
The period lasts from 5 to 14
 th
day. Here the uterus enlarges.

Graafian follicle will completely

th
mature by the 14 day and

ovulation takes place on the 14

th
day. That is rupturing of the

graafian follicle.

3. Secretory Phase
th th
It extend from 14 to 28 day.

It is also known as pre-menstrual

phase or Luteal phase. The

thickness of the endometrium

increases further. In this phase

oestrogen and progesterone is

secreted in large amounts. After

ovulation corpus luteum

develops inside the ovary which

secretes progesterone. The blood

 supply increases. The Corpus
th
Luteum grows till 27 day and
th
degenerates on 28 day.

7.3 PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION

(CONCEPTION), LACTATION AND
CONTRACEPTION

Fertilisation

It is the penetration or impregnation

of ovum by the sperm and the fusion

of these nuclei or it is the union of

sperm and ova in Fallopian tube. This

occurs probably within a few hours

after ovulation. Soon after

fertilization, a single cell embryo

results. The zygote, fertilised egg,

contains the full number of

chromosomes. The Zygote undergoes

cell division. The inner mass of cells

develop into embryo and outer cells

assist in the formation of foetal

membranes.
Soon after the fertilization, the

Zygote travels down to reach uterus.

th th
About 8 or 10 day it becomes

embedded or implanted in the uterine

mucosa. This process is called

implantation. Foetal membranes

grow over it are Chorion, Amnion,

Placenta, Yolk sac and Umbilical cord.

Chorion is the outermost membrane.

Next is Amnion. It is a thin

transparent sac filled with fluid which

surrounds the embryo. The fluid is

called Amniotic fluid which protects

the foetus from shock and helps in
lubrication during birth.
Placenta

Placenta is composed of an

embryonic portion (chorion) and

maternal portion. Exchange of food

and oxygen takes place through this

between mother and child. It also

acts as a temporary organ of internal

secretion producing chorionic

gonodotropin (HCG), oestrogen and

progesterone.

Umbilical Cord

It connects the placenta and the

embryo.
Pregnancy

It is the term applied to the period

in the reproductive cycle occupied by

the growth and development of

foetus within the uterus of the

mother. This period is also known

as gestation. Pregnancy covers the

period from the time of fertilization

(conception) to the birth of the

offspring. It is roughly 280 days from

conception to parturition.

During pregnancy the complete

physiology of the mother is geared

up. Cardiac output, B.M.R., E.S.R.,

etc are increased. So also the activity

of the endocrine glands.

In the early weeks ovary is essential

but in later stages the placenta takes

over the functions of ovary and

furnish all the hormones needed.

Lactation or Secretion of Milk

Active lactation starts only after

delivery and removal of placenta.

This shows that placenta inhibits the

action of prolactin. For the

maintenance of lactation, following

parturition, secretions of prolactin

along with ACTH, STH, TSH from the

anterior pituitary are required.

Oxytocin is required for milk ejection.

Mammary Glands
They are 2 in number which secrete

the milk. The breasts are convex in

shape. At the centre of the convexity

is a popular projection which is called

the nipple. It has the opening called

galactopores, of milk ducts. The

nipple is surrounded by a small

circular dark area known as areola.

The breasts are composed of glands

which is divided into 20 lobes which

carries the milk by ducts which open

it nipple.
With the onset of puberty the growth

of mammary glands occurs.

Oestrogen and progesterone takes

the main role in the development of

breasts. Prolactin acts as the chief

lactogenic substance. During

pregnancy the growth of breasts are

complete.
Mechanism of Lactation.

Lactation consists of two processes,

the secretion of milk and its ejection.

Prolactin of the anterior pituitary is

essential for secretion of milk.

Activation of the alveolar cells by

prolactin induces lactation.

Oestrogen inhibits lactation.

Adrenocortical hormones are

necessary for the mineral and fluid

content of the milk. Thyroid

influences milk secretion by

alterations in the metabolic

processes and insulin because of its

role in carbohydrate metabolism.

Expulsion of milk is by a reflex

mechanism. Sucking by the infant

causes a stream of afferent impulses

which reach hypothalamus and this

brings about the liberation of

oxytocin by the posterior pituitary

which is taken to the mammary

glands. This reflex is responsible for

the let down of milk. The

hypothalamus also stimulates the

anterior pituitary to produce more

prolactin. Sucking thus helps not only

ejection of milk by contraction of

mammary cells by the action of

oxytocin but also helps in the

formation of large quantities of milk.

Thus lactation depends on co-

ordinated activity of neural,

nutritional and endocrine factors.

Contraception (Family Planning)

The world population at the present

time is estimated to be three billions.

In India, the population is about 900

millions and according to

demographic experts, the figure is

likely to be doubled by 2000 A.D. So,

the population problem has assumed

serious proportions.

In the female, reproductive

processes consists of the following

phases:
 Release of gonadotrophins by the

anterior pituitary.
Action of gonadotrophins on

maturation of ovum and

productive of hormones.

Ovulation and entry of ovum into

the fallopian tube.

Fertilisation.

Passage through the Fallopian

tube and endometrial

implantation.
In the male, the different stages are:

1. Production and release of

gonadotrophins.

2. Stimulation of spermatogenesis

and testosterone production.

3. Storage and maturation of

sperms in epididymis.
 4. Passage of sperms through vas

deferens.

5. Formation of semen and

ejaculation.

Birth Control

Sex satisfaction and desire for

procreation are quite separate. The

sex urge remains in spite of not

wanting to have any children. Hence

the need for birth control measures.

Methods of Birth Control

Natural

Controlling sexual intercourse.

Withdrawal method (release of

sperm).
Safe periods – Natural family

planning method : (Ovulation

method)

This is based on the fact that

ovulation in the females takes place

14 days before the outset of next
th th
menstrual period or 13 to 17 day

after the onset of present menses.

The period about 3 days before and

after this ovulation (or roughly 10

th th
to 20 day after the outset of

menstrual period) is taken as the

fertile period. On this assumption the

period other than fertile period is

taken as safe period from conception

point of view.
This method does not involve the use

of actual contraceptives. However,

time of ovulation varies in different

females and even from cycle to cycle

in the same female. Hence this

method is at times unreliable.

However, this method, being

inexpensive, is being practiced by

people in developing countries.

Artificial Methods of Family

Planning

1. Condoms and sheaths are made

of latex and commonly used by

males. This method is quite

simple and easy to use and quite

reliable if the quality of latex

used is good. The condom is

 applied to the penis along with

a chemical spermicide. The

government is supplying at

subsidisedrates, a brand of

condom known as ‘Nirodh’.

2. Use of diaphragms and cervical

caps, of various designs in

females – The combined use of

diaphragm with spermicidal jelly

enhances the safety from

conception.

3. Use of chemical spermicides in

the form of tablets, cream or

jelly. The jelly is introduced into

the vagina before intercourse.

4. Use of Oral Contraceptives:

It is quite effective method

although expensive. The pills

 contain oestrogen and

progesterone in very small doses

which inhibit ovulation. Various

minor side effects, may occur in

some cases. The pills are used

for 21 days from the onset of

menses in a 28 days menstrual

cycle.

5. Intra–uterine Contraceptive

Device (ICUD) :

A plastic zig zag loop introduced

into uterine cavity through cervix

with the help of a plastic

cylinder. It excludes the

possibility of carelessness or

forgetfulness as in case of other

contraceptives.
 This might, sometimes, involve

complications like bleeding of the

vagina, backache, persistent

abdominal pain etc.

6. Operative Technique (i.e)

Sterilisation:

Vasectomy in males and

tubectomy in females is

performed. Vasectomy is

relatively quick, effective and

ideal for males. For females, a

technique of laparoscopic

sterilization or tubectomy are

used. Sterilization is very

effective and permanently safe

method and ideal for those

already having two or three

children.
Usually the following procedure

of contraception and sterilization

is recommended.

For newly
married Condoms
couples –

For those Loop or oral

having one pills (for
child – spacing)

After second
or third child Sterilization
–

Sterilization is the best

procedure for those couples

having larger family.

 LESSON - 8

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system includes a

number of ductless glands which

manufacture certain chemical

substances that play an essential

part in the life processes of the body.

Endocrine glands pour their secretion

directly into the blood stream and are

often called hormones. The function

of the hormone is to cause excitation

or stimulation of a specific tissue.

 8.1 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
OF PITUITARY GLAND

Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis

It is known as the ‘master gland’ of

the body as it controls and regulates

other endocrine glands and systems.

Pituitary gland is a small nut like

structure at the centre of the brain to

which is attached by a stem or stalk.

The pituitary gland consist of two

main parts or lobes. They are

different structurally and

functionally.

They are known as the anterior and

the posterior lobe

They are fused together by a narrow

band of tissues along the line of

fusion known as the intermediate

lobe.
 Structure of Pituitary Gland

Anterior Lobe

It is otherwise known as

adenohypophysis. It is composed of

irregular group of cells supported by

connective tissue network. The cells

are epithelial in nature which are

divided into two types –

chromophobes (non- Granulated) and

Chromophils (granular). The

chromophils are again divided into

acidophils and basophils.

Adenohypophysis produces several

hormones which nourish the other

endocrine glands. These hormones

are known as trophic homones. They

are as follows:

1. Growth hormone (GH) or

Somatotrophic hormone (STH)

2. Thyroetrophic hormone (TTH) or

Thyroid stimulating hormone

(TSH)

3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone

(FSH)

4. Luteinishing hormone (LH)

5. Lactogenic hormone or prolactin.

Growth Hormone

It is protein in nature. The main

functions are:

a. It promotes growth of the body

especially the growth of long

bones in young children of

individuals and increases skeletal

growth.

b. It produces sexual maturity and

help in the development of

secondary sexual characters.

c. It is involved in protein, CHO and

lipid metabolism. It promotes

protein synthesis.
TSH

It acts on thyroid to increase its

secretion. The stimulus from the

pituitary is important for the

production of thyroxine. TSH also

influences the structure of the

thyroid.

TSH helps in the uptake of iodide

and thus help in the synthesis of

thyroxine.

ACTH

It controls the growth and secretion

of adrenal cortex and maintains the

blood flow to the adrenal cortex. If

injection of ACTH increased, the size

of the adrenal gland increase along

with excess of production of the

hormone. ACTH has a role on CHO

metabolism.
Gonadotrophic Hormone or Sex

Hormones

These hormones control the sex

glands and produces the changes

during puberty. It controls the

process of ovulation and

spermatogenesis. FSH acts on the

ovarian follicles and helps in the

maturation and production of ova. In

the male, it maintains

spermatogenesis. The LH helps in the

production of corpous luteum and

helps in the development of zygote.

In male LH acts on the cells of the

testes and interstitial calls promoting

the formation of testosterone.

Posterior Lobe
It stimulates the milk secretion by

the fully developed mammary gland

and it aids to complete the

development of breast during

pregnancy.

i. Prolactin

It is otherwise known as

neurohypophysis. It is situated

just behind the anterior lobe.

Blood and nerves are supplied.

It produces two hormones

namely,

1. Vasopressin or antidiuretic

hormone (ADH)

2. Oxytocin.
ii. ADH (Vasopressin)
It controls H 2 O reabsorption

in the distal convoluted tubule

in the kidney. It increases the

permeability of the renal tubule

by increasing their pore size.

Oxytocin

It helps in the production and

ejection of milk. When given to

nursing mothers it increases the

flow of milk.

Another action of oxytocin is to

cause contraction of the smooth

muscle of the uterus especially

during parturition and oxytocin

secretion is increased during

labour.
 In non pregnant woman oxytocin

facilities sperm transport in

female genital tract.

8.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

OF THYROID GLAND
It is composed of two lobes which

lie one on either side of the trachea

just below the larynx. Those lobes

are connected by strands of thyroid

tissue called is thymus in front of the

trachea.

The functional unit of thyroid gland

is the follicle which is composed of

a single layer of epithelial cells

surrounding a cavity filled with a

proteinaceous substance called

thyroglobulin. The external layer of

thyroid is connective tissue which

extends inward as trabeculae and

divide the gland into closed vesicles.

The glandular tissue is composed of a

mass of alveoli or follicles. In these

follicles are present, the fluid like

substance called thyroglobulin. This

substance is the source of thyroid

hormone. The gland is supplied with

nerves and blood vessels.

Thyroglobulin is the storage form of

thyroxine. It is hydrolysed to form T

3 and T 4 which are triodothyronine

and thyroxine is respectively.

Thyroxine contains large quantity of

iodine in combination with amino

acid. Iodine is formed by the

oxidation of Iodine present in the

diet.
Functions

1. It increases the rate of cellular

oxidation and increases the basal

metabolic rate (BMR). 1 mg of

thyroxine increase BMR by 2.5%.

2. It is needed for normal, mental

and physical development.

3. It is needed for CHO, Protein,

Fat, Vitamin, Electrolyte and H 2

O metabolism.

4. For proper muscular action.

5. For proper sleep.

6. Influence on circulation by

increased oxygen consumption

by cardiac muscle.

7. For proper nervous functioning.

8. For increased appetite.

9. Causes increased body

temperature.
10. For increased gastrointestinal

mobility.

11. For increased heart rate.

12. Thyroxin influences output of

milk.

8.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

OF ADRENAL GLANDS

They are a pair of triangular flattened

bodies one at the pole of each kidney

weighing about 10–12 gm together.

They are also called supra renal

glands. Each gland measures about

1–2” in length.
 Adrenal Cortex

Adrenal gland consists of two

portions. The outer portion is called

cortex and is yellow in colour,

whereas the inner brown portion is

medulla. Though these two portions

are close anatomically to form a

single gland, they are yet structurally

and functionally two separate glands.

The blood supply through renal

arteries is derived from the aorta.

It is composed of cells arranged in

3 different patterns. They are outer

zona glomerulosa, middle fasciculate

and inner zona reticularies. The outer

zona glomerulosa is a thin layer

beneath the capsule with small

columnar cells and a few fat droplets.

The middle layer is the widest zone

of layer cubical cells with abundant

fat droplets. The inner most layer,

the zonal reticularis consist of an

irregular network of cells with blood

spaces in the meshes. This layer is

rich in vitamin C.

Adrenal cortex produces a large

number of hormones each with

distinct chemical properties.

Cholesterol is the chief lipid of the

adrenal cortex and precursor of
all adrenocortical hormones. The

adrenocortical hormones are

generally called corticosteroids. They

are divided into three main groups.

1. Glucocorticiods.

2. Mineralocorticoids.

3. Sex hormones.

Among the glucocorticoids, cortisol is

the important hormone. The main

functions are as follows.

1. Metabolic Effect

Carbohydratres: It stimulates

gluconeogenesis by the liver

from amino acids made available

from the breakdown of tissue

protein. It helps in glycogen

synthesis in liver. Increases

blood lactate and pyruvate level.

Protein: Increases catabolism of

tissue proteins especially during

stress and Emergency conditions

like starvation etc. This will lead

to negative nitrogen balance.

Fat: It mobilizes fatty acids from

adipose tissue to liver and

stimulates fatty acids from

adipose tissue to liver and

stimulates fatty acid oxidation.

1. For the regulation of water

balance and absorption of

sodium and water.

2. It has a stimulatory effect on

brain excitability.
 3. Regulation of digestive

system and in deficiency

vomiting, nausea, loss of

appetite etc, are seen.

4. It controls BMR.

5. It regulates the volume

comp & pressure of blood.

6. Regulate normal kidney

function.

7. Resist the body against

physical & mental stress.

8. Reduce body temperature &

toxins

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone

secreted by the pituitary gland

controls the structure and

functioning of adrenal gland.

Among the mineralocorticoids

aldosterone is the chief one. The

main action of aldosterone is the

retention of sodium and

increased excretion of
potassium. It acts at DCT

increasing sodium – potassium

exchange. It maintains the acid

base balance.

The main sex hormones are

testosterone, oestrogen.

progestrone etc. They are

needed for the sexual growth and

function of the reproductive

organs in both male and female

and for the development of

secondary sexual characters.

Adrenal Medulla

It is the inner brown portion of

the gland and closely related to

cortex, but different in structure

and functions. It is composed of

large polyhedral cells arranged in

groups. These cells are called

chromaffin cells.

The hormones secreted are

adrenaline and non adrenaline or

epinephrine and non-epinephrine

respectively. These act upon

structures innervated by

sympathetie nerves and their

effects closely resemble those

caused by stimulation of the

sympathetic.
 Functions of Adrenaline

1. It functions along with

sympathetic system to help

the organism in meeting the

conditions of stress like

starvation, exposure to heat

or cold, haemorrhage,

emotional upset etc. In such

conditions the hypothalamus

sends impulse to the

sympathetic nerves and

adrenal gland.

2. It causes dilation of pupil

and improves vision.

3. Increases the heart rate and

cardiac output.

4. Increases respiratory

movements and causes

dilation of bronchioles and

 increase pulmonary

ventilation, hence used in

asthma treatment.

5. For breaking down of

glycogen and increases

sugar in blood.

6. Increases the body heat

(calorigenic) and BMR is

increased.

7. Increases sweating and

dilation of the walls of the

intestine.

8. Increases salivary secretion.

9. Its overall effect upon the

vascular system is

vasodilation.
In normal state, very little

adrenaline is secreted. But

during any emotional crisis, more

hormone is secreted and poured

into the blood. Hence called

emergency gland.

Adrenaline is used for medical

purpose. For example it is used

in asthma, added to hasten the

clotting of blood and so used in

minor operation.

Functions of Noradrenaline

In hyper secretion, causes

proximal hypertension, constant

elevation of blood pressure due

to constriction of blood vessels.

It constructs all blood vessels.

 It causes reduction in blood flow

through the brain.

Hyposecretion of adrenal medulla

causes addision’s disease

LET US SUM UP

Here in the first half we learn about

the structure of male and female

reproductive organs, Menstrual cycle,

process of reproduction and

lactation, conception and

contraception. In the latter half we

have learned about Structure and

functions of pituitary, (anterior and

posteriors) thyroid and adrenal

(cortex and medulla) glands.

 KEYWORDS

Liquid that surrounds unborn child

Amniotic
within the membranes inside the
fluid
uterus.

One of the membranes that

Chorion encloses the foetus within the

uterus.

A combination of birth defects

Down
caused by the presence of an extra
syndrome
chromosome.

Non-cancerous growth in or within

Fibroids
the walls of the uterus

Graafian A vascular body in a mammalian

follicle ovary enclosing a developing egg.

Basal metabolic rate is the rate at

which heat is produced by a person

in a resting state endocrine internal

secretion
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define conception.

2. What is fertilization?

3. Give the uses of placenta.

4. What do you mean by Graafian

Follicle?

5. Name the harmones responsible

for lactation.

6. What are the stages of menstrual

cycle?

QUESTIONS

Part – A

1. Define Contraception.

2. Explain sperm / penis.

3. Define Fertilization.

4. What do you mean by Lactation?

5. Name the hormone secreted by

Adrenal Cortex.

6. Write about the structure of

pituitary gland.

Part – B

1. Write about the mechanism of

lactation / conception.

2. Classify the methods of birth

control.

3. What are the functions of

Endocrine System?

4. Give an account on hormones

secreted by Adrenal Glands.

5. Name the hormones secreted by

posterior pituitary and give the

functions.
 Part – C

1. Explain Female Reproductive

Organs.

2. Write an essay on Menstrual

cycle.

3. Discuss on various family

planning methods.

4. Pituitary Gland is called as

“Master of Glands” Justify.

5. Enumerate the functions of

Thyroid Gland / Adrenal Gland.

 UNIT – V

SENSORY ORGANS AND

NERVOUS SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

In this unit first we will learn about

the organs of special senses

especially eye and ear. In the

previous units we have studied about

various systems of the body but here

we learn about the sensory motor

and autonomic and control apparatus

of the body mostly constituted by the

nerve cells and fibre tracts – the

nervous system.

Finally we also learn about the

theories of sleep physiology.

 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you will be

able to

1. Describe the structure of eye and

mechanism of vision.

2. Explain the structure of ear and

the transmission of sound.

3. Understand the structural organs

of the nervous system and their

functions.

4. Understand the theories of sleep

physiology.

UNIT STRUCTURE

LESSON - 9: SENSORY ORGANS

5.A.1 Structure and Working of Eye

5.A.2 Structure and Working of Ear

LESSON - 10: NERVOUS SYSTEM

5.B.1 Structure of Neuron, Synapse

Structure and functions- Brain:

5.B.2 Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla

oblongata

5.B.3 Functions of Spinal Cord

Functions of Autonomic nervous

5.B.4
system

Reflex Action, reflex arc,

5.B.5
Receptors and Types

5.B.6 Physiology of sleep - theories

Let Us Sum Up

Chech Your Progress

Key Words

Questions
 LESSON – 9
SENSORY ORGANS

There are a few organs in the body,

which collect information of special

significance to us from the external

environment and are therefore called

the ‘organs of special senses’. Special

senses include vision, hearing, taste

and smell. The range of these sense

organs is limited. For example, the

eyes are sensitive to only a limited

range of spectrum – the rainbow

(VIBGYOR) and hearing to

frequencies 20Hz – 20KHz and that

too only if the intensity of the sound

is above a certain threshold. Thus the

information perceived by our sense

organs is only a fraction of what

reality is.
 9.1 STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF
THE EYE

Structure of the Eye

The eye is a complex structure

formed by closely integrated parts

each serving a specific function. The

adult human eye is shaped like a

globe and has an approximately

diameter of 1”. The anterior part of

the globe is transparent and known

as cornea and the posterior wall is

lined by a light sensitive tissue called

Retina.
Eyes are enclosed in a bony case

which is a depression known as eye

socket or orbital cavity and each of

them rests on a pad of fat. Eyes are

protected by the eye-lids and

lachrymal glands protect the exposed

front part of the eye. The eye-lids by

closing and opening protect the eye

form excessive illumination and from

foreign bodies and also help in the

spreading of tears over the exposed

parts of the eye-ball and thus

preventing drying of the cornea and

conjunctiva which is continued

forward and to the inner surface of

the lids.
The surfaces are lubricated by a thin

film of tear secreted by the lachrymal

gland which is situated in the upper

and outer part of the orbital cavity.

About 20 drops of tears are secreted

every day, through the lachrymal

ducts. This secretion keeps the

surface of eye moist and lubricated.

The tears also contain an enzyme

called lysozyme which destroys

bacteria.

Each eye is provided with muscles,

the contraction of which causes the

movement of the eyes in different

directions.
The eye ball or wall of the eye is

composed of 3 layers or coats – an

outer, middle and inner coats. They

are outer fibrous sclerotic coat,

middle vascular choroids coat and

inner nervous Retina.

The outermost coat or sclerotic coat

is fibrous in character made up of

tough and dense fibrous material

which preserve the form of the eye

ball and protects the more delicate

vascular and nervous coats within.

The major opague part of the sclera

which is continuous in front is

commonly termed as the white of the

eye. The portion of the sclera which

forms a transparent buldge in front of

the eye called cornea is made up of

several layers of flat cells.

Choroid coat or the vascular coat is

the next inner layer to sclerotic coat.

It contains the main arteries and

veins in the eye ball. It completely

surrounds the eye ball except for a

small circular opening in the front

called the pupil.

It is a thin black membrane. It not

only nourishes the eye but also

prevents the reflection of light by

absorbing it. The vascular coat

consists of the choroids, ciliary body

and iris which is the circular ring

shaped coloured band surround the

pupil. The iris contains pigment

granules that give the eye its colours.

It is abundant in brown eyes and

scarce in blue eyes. The ciliary body

lies between the anterior limit of the

choroids and the edge of the lens.

The lens is kept in position by the

ciliary body. The lens is biconvex in

nature. Sudden increase in the

intensity of light and paralysis of

sympathetic fibre, causes severe pain

and certain drugs cause constriction

of the pupil whereas the sudden

decrease in the intensity of light,

accommodation of distant vision,

fear, excitement etc. dilate the pupil.

It is to regulate the amount of light

entering the eye and improve
definition of near objects. The

innermost layer, retina or

nervous coat contains the receptors

for sight (i.e) those elements highly

specialized to respond to stimulation

by light and to convert light energy

into nervous impulses. There are two

types of light receptors called rods

and cones. When light strikes them

impulses are set up and transmitted

to the nerve cells. Rods are

concerned with the vision in dim light

and cones are for the vision in the

bright light. Rods contain a pigment

known as rhodopsin or visual purple

and cones contain iodopsin, visual

violet. Rods are numerous and are

found in the periphery of retina. The

cones are found at the back of the

retina especially in the fovea which is

a small depression on the retina. At

the point where the optic nerve fibres

leave the retina, there are no rods or

cones. This region is therefore blind

and hence known as blind spot.

The Retina is highly specialized to

convert the energy of light waves

into nerve impulses which are

transmitted by the optic nerve to the

brain.

Iris and biconvex lens divide the

cavity of the eye ball into 2 unequal

chambers. The small anterior

chamber is filled with a watery fluid,

the aqueous humor and the large

posterior chamber is filled with a jelly

like substance, the vitreous humor.

To reach the retina, light must pass

through these structures namely the

cornea, the anterior chamber, the

pupil, the lens and the vitreous body.

Accommodation

Adjustment of the eye for the clear

vision of objects of different

distances is called accommodation of

the eye. Objects away from the eye

send parallel rays. Objects nearer

than 6m. are brought to a focus by

accommodation. It is accompanied by

constriction of the pupil,

Convergence of eye ball and increase

in the curvature of the anterior

surface of the lens.

The lens is a transparent circular

biconvex, elastic body about 10mm.

in diameter enclosed in a capsule.

It is suspended by the support of

ciliary body. In old age it becomes

broader and cataract results. In the

resulting eye the crystalline lens is

kept flattened.

Working of the Eye

Eye can be compared to that of a

camera. Light is essential for seeing

an object as for taking a photograph.

Like the lens of the camera, the lens

of the eye also brings the ray of light

from objects outside and focus upon

the retina. Light reflected from an

object enters through the pupil, the

size of which is regulated by the

contraction of muscles in the Iris. The

light rays refracted by the camera,

the lens and vitreous humour

converge on the retina forming an

inverted image. The muscles of the

eye ball make it to fall on fovea

where the vision is sharp. The retinal

cells stimulated by photochemical

reactions converts the stimulation

into electrical impulse which pass

along the optic nerve to the visual

centre in the cerebrum. The

interpretation of these impulse in the

visual centre of the cerebrum results

in vision.
Dark and Light Adaptation

A person entering from a bright room

into a dark room will be blind for

a few seconds and then the object

around the person starts becoming

clearer. This process is known as

dark adaptation and is due to rods.

Similarly a person coming from dark

room into bright room will take some

time for adjustment before he could

clearly see without discomfort. This

process is know as light adaptation

and it is due to cones. Defective

vision in clear light is known as night

blindness or hyctalopia which might

arise due to vitamin A deficiency.

 9.2 STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF
THE EAR

Outer Ear

The outer ear consists of the

irregularly shaped appendage of

cartilage and skin situated on the

side of the head called auricle or

pinna, together with a short funnel

shaped passage known as external

auditory meatus. It leads to the

temporal bone of the skull and is

closed at its inner end by a flexile

membrane called ear drum or

tympanic membrane.

The walls of the external auditory

meatus contain hairs and glands

which secrete sebum or wax. It

prevents the entry of the insect and

dirt. The auricle and auditory canal

serve simply to collect and direct the

sound waves to the ear drum. The

tympanic members separates the

outer and middle ear.

Middle Ear

The middle ear lies on the inner side

of tympanic membrane between the

external and the internal ear. It is

a small chamber, and its walls are

composed of bones. It is a six sided

box having a lateral wall, a middle

wall, a roof, a floor and anterior and

posterior walls and lateral wall is the

tympanic membrane.
The middle car is connected with the

nasal pharynx by means of

Eustachian tube and serves as a

passage of air between middle ear

and atmosphere and equalizes the

pressure.

Structure of Ear

The middle ear contains three

miniature bones or auditory ossicles

called malus, incus and stapes

depending upon their shapes. Maleus

is outer most and shaped like

hammer and attached to the

tympanic membrane. Next is the

incus which is in shape of a anvil a

small bone attached to the maleus

and next to that is stapes which is

‘U’ shaped like a stirrup. It fits into

the opening in the inner wall of the

middle ear called the oval window.

Nearer to that is the second opening

known as round window. Through

these 2 gaps in the bony wall the

middle and internal ears are in

functional communication. The

purpose of the 3 ossicles is to

transmit the vibration of the

tympanic membrane to the oval

window.
The tympanic membrane is made

lighter for the perception of high

pitched sound. There are 2 small

muscles in the middle ear arising

from the neighboring bone or

cartilage. They are tensor tympani

and stapedius muscle. Tensor

tympanum is attached to the malleus

and tympanium and gives protection

against loud sounds serving to

prevent too violent movements of his

tympanic membrane. Stapedius

muscle keeps the stapes in place.

Inner Ear

The inner ear or labrynth lies internal

to the middle ear. It contains the

organs of hearing and equilibrium.

The special organs of hearing or the

auditory sense organ is known as

organ of corti. This special organ of

hearing is held or contained in a

spiral chamber or passage. Since it

resembles a snail’s shell it has been

called cochlea. This sense organ of

hearing is specially designed for the

conversion of sound vibration into

nerve impulses.

The impulses upon reaching the

brain, give rise to the sensation of

sound. The outer and the middle ears

serve only to convey the sound

vibrations to the receptors of hearing

situated in the inner ear.

The spiral canal makes 2 ½ turns,

within this twisted bony canal is a

membranous tube and which follows

the turns but is separated from the

bony wall by the perilymph.

Membraneous cochlea contains a

fluid, the endolymph and is separated

from the bony cochlea by perilymph.

Two membranes divide it, length wise

into 3 tubes. Each is called a scala

due to its resemblance to a spiral

stairway. The upper one is known as

scale vestibule, the middle one is

scala media or cochlear duct and the

next scala tympani.

The scala vestibule communicate

with the middle ear through the oval

window which holds the foot place of

the stapes. The membrane stretched

across the round window separates

the scala tympani from the middle

ear.

The delicate membraneous partition

separating the scala media from the

scala tympani is called the basilar

membrane. Upon it, rests the

sensitive receptor cells and here

arise the nerve fibres essential for

hearing. This collection of cells is

known as the organ of corti. The cells

are long and narrow and stand

upright side by side. Some have a

row of hair like processes and are

therefore called hair cells. Overlying

the hairs is a very delicate membrane

called the roof membrane. Tectorial

membrane.
The nerve of hearing, the auditory

nerves enters the cohlea and breaks

up into branches which pass along

the basilar membrane. Each hair cell

receives a very fine nerve fibre.

Sense of hearing

The sound waves are caught by pinna

or auricle and directed down the

funnel shaped auditory meatus. The

sound waves reaching the bottom of

the auditory meatus set the drum

membrane into vibration. The

membrane beats in time with the air

waves. The vibrations are carried

across the middle ear by the chain of

small bones to the oval window in the

bony partitions which separates the

middle and inner ears. This window

in turn communicates with the fluid

in the cochlea. Thus the vibrations

of the tympanic membrane are

transmitted to the inner ear where

the receptors of hearing are situated.

The ossicles help to magnify the

movements of the drum membrane

and since the area of tympanic

membrane is much greater than that

of the oval window. The force of the

sound waves is concentrated at the

latter point. Vibrations are

transmitted by the stapes to the

perilymph of the vestibule, through

the membrane of the oval window

and from there to the perilymph of

the outer canals of the cochlea.

Vibrations of the basilar membrane

cause movement of the hair like

processes against the tectorial

membrane. Thus a series of laps is

applied to the processes of hair cells

which serves as mechanical stimuli

to the terminals of auditory nerve.

Nerve impulses are in this way

transmitted to the centre of hearing

in the cortex.

The inner ear holds in addition to

the cochlea another organ which is

concerned mainly with the

maintenance of equilibrium and

orientation of the body. It comprises

the semi-circular canals or ducts.

 LESSON – 10
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is the most

important organization which

controls and integrates the different

bodily functions. It maintains the

stability of the internal environment.

It controls all the functions of the

different parts of the body.

The nervous system consists of two

parts – the somatic or voluntary

system and the involuntary or the

autonomic system. Functionally, it is

divided into three parts:

1. The afferent system comprising

the receptors and the sensory

nerves.
 2. The centre.

3. The efferent system of nerves

and the effector organs.

The central nervous system includes

the brain, spinal cord and the nerves.

There are 12 pairs of nerves arising

from the brain (cranial nerves) and

31 pairs of nerves arising from the

spinal cord (spinal nerves). These

craniospinal nerves and their

branches constitute the peripheral

nervous system.

10.1 STRUCTURE OF NEURON,

SYNAPSE

Neurons
Neuron consists of 2 parts – The

neurocyton or the cell body and the

nerve fibre. Again the nerve fibre is

composed of the axon and dendrites.

The cell body consists of a large

nucleus situated near the centre of

the cell and contains a single

nucleolus. The cell consists of a mass

of granular cytoplasm surrounding

the nucleus called the nissl’s

granules.
The cell body gives off numerous

processes which vary in length,

thickness, etc. There are 2 processes

the dendrites and the axon.

1. The axon is continued as the axis

of the central core of the nerve

fibre.

2. They are long, simple and

unbranched.

3. They are not uniformly

cylindrical but constricted at

intervals to form the nodes of

Ranvier.

4. The space between 2 nodes is

the inter node.

5. It conducts nerve impulses away

from the cell body to the outside.

6. The neurons especially the axon

are covered by a sheath of fatty

material called the myelin sheath

or medullary sheath which acts

as an insulator and prevents the

dissipation or the scattering of

the nerve impulses.

7. External to the myelin sheath is

a thin membrane completely

enveloping the fibre called the

neurolemma.

8. Sheathed cells are known as

medullated cells found in the

brain and spinal cord and the

rest are non medullated found in

the sympathetic ganglia.

9. The dendrites are usually short,

branched and non-medullated.

10. They carry impulses to the nerve

cell.

11. Neurons, are classified on the

basis of number of processes as

apolar – no process

- any one
Unipolar
process

- any two
Bipolar
processes

Tripolar - 3 processes

- number of
Multipolar
processes.
Synapse

In some places of nervous system

there is no continuity between one

fibre and another. This small gap is

known as synapse. It is a junctional

region where one nerve ends and

another nerve starts. The entire

nerve i.e. the nerve before the

synapse is known as the pre-synaptic

nerve and the nerve after the

synapse is known as the post –

synaptic nerve.

There are 3 different types of

synapses. They are

1. The axo-dendrite synapse where

the axon of the pre-synaptic

nerve ends in the dendrite of the

post synaptic nerve.

 2. Axon – Axon Synapse: Where the

axon ends communicate with the

nerve end of the post-synaptic

nerve.

3. The Axo – Somatic: Where the

axon of the pre-synaptic nerve

ends in the cell body of the nerve

or a muscle. It is called the neuro

muscular junction.

The impulses are carried through the

synapse by certain chemical

substances secreted by the pre-

synaptic nerve ending. These

chemical substances are known as

neuro-transmitor substances.

Example acetylcholine,

nor–adrenaline, and serotonin.

Synaptic Transmission

Synaptic transmission is the transfer

of information across a synaptic

junction. When an impulse reaches

the pre-synaptic nerve, it secretes

the neuro –transmittor substances

which carries the impulse across the

synapse.

10.2 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is the largest and most complex

mass of nervous tissue in the body. It

weighs about 3 pounds. It is situated

in the cranial cavity and protected by

the bones of cranial cavity.

All that parts of the nervous system

lying within the cranium is spoken of

in general terms as brain. The brain

is composed of the following parts

from below upwards.

Structure of Brain

Brain Stem : Composed of medulla

oblongata, pons and mid brain.

Inter brain: Composed of thalamus

and hypothalamus.

Cerebrum: Major portion

Cerebellum: Major small portion.

 CEREBRUM

It is the largest part of the brain.

It weighs about 2 lbs. It lies just

beneath the skull roof. It is egg

shaped and fill the whole of the upper

portion of the skull. It is divided

incompletely into two halves by a

longitudinal fissure and gives rise to

two cerebral hemispheres. The

surface of the cerebrum is no smooth

but shows numerous irregular folds

called gyri. The raised portion of the

folds are known as convolutions and

the groove in between the

convolutions are called sulci if it is

shallow, and fissure if it is deep.

The hemispheres are composed of an

outer covering of grey matter called

the cerebral cortex and a central or

inner mass of white matter composed

of nerve fibre. The irregular folds or

fissures help to increase the brain

surface without increase in the

volume of the brain.

The 2 cerebral hemispheres are

joined together in the middle by a

mass of white fibres called the corpus

callosum.

Brain and the spinal cord are

ensheathed by a thin membraneous

covering called the meanings. They

are from outward – inward.

 1. The duramater.

2. Arachnoid, and

3. The piamater.

Between the arachnoid membrane

and the piamater there is the cerebro

spinal fluid.

The brain contains cavities called

ventricles. The lateral ventricles are

situated one on each side of the

cerebral hemispheres. There are 2

more ventricles.

Some of the depressions in the

cerebrum are very deep and thereby

divides each hemisphere into 4 lobes.

They are:

1. Frontal 2. Parietal 3. Occipital and

4. Temporal corresponding to the

respective bones of the cranium. Two

main fissures which divide it into 4

lobes are the fissure of Rolando and

the other is fissure of sylvius.

Functions

Cerebrum is the seat of memory,

intelligence and moral sense. It is

considered to be the organ of

thought, reasoning, power, etc. Only

man has this part of the brain and

this is what differentiates man from

animal.

In the posterior part of the frontal

lobe immediately in front of the

fissure of Rolando is a long band of

cortex called the motor areas gives

rise to the cortio spinal nerve fibres

which descends into the anterior and

lateral column of the spinal cord.

The cells in the upper part of the

motor area cause the movement of

the muscles of the knee joint. Lower

area causes the movement of the

face, tongue and throat. The area in

the middle causes the movement of

the muscles of hip, trunk, shoulder,

arms and hand.

Centre of speech is situated in the

frontal area, situated in front of the

motor area is the so-called-premotor

area. It appears to exert a controlling

influence over the motor area itself.

It causes purposeful well coordinated

movements. Concerning the

functions of the remaining and

greater part of the frontal lobe, little

is known this region is therefore,

spoken of as a silent area.

 Various Lobes and its Function

The cortex bordering the fissure of

sylvius, together with what that

buried in the fissure itself, is the

temporal lobe a region for the

perception of sound. It is therefore

called the acoustic area or the centre

for hearing. This area of each side

of the brain, receives impulses from

both ears. The temporal cortex

adjacent to the acoustic area is

concerned with the interpretation of

sounds – that is, with understanding

the meaning and significance of the

various kinds of sound (eg. Words,

music etc), and with the association

of a particular sound with visual,

tectile or other sensations. It is

therefore called psychoauditory area.

The temporal lobe is thought to be

the seat of memory, a region of the

cortex from which auditory, visual

and other impressions stored in other

regions. (eg) psychoauditory or

psychovisual area) can be recalled

to consciousness. In the depression

of fissure of sylvius is situated the

centre for smell.

The occipital lobe forms the posterior

pole of the cerebral hemisphere

behind the parietal and temporal

lobe. The inner aspect of the occipital

lobe is the visual area. Impulses from

the right halves of two retinas are

transmitted to the visual area of the

right hemisphere; impulses from the

left halves of the retinas to the left

visual areas. The remainder of the

posterior part of this lobe is

responsible for recognition and

interpretation of visual impressions.

Hence, it is called the psycho visual

area.
Behind the fissure of relando is the

parietal lobe. It is an area called the

somethetic area which has a sensory

function and receives impulses from

various receptors of the body of

touch, heat and cold taste centre is

situated at the lower end.

Electroencephalogrm EEG is a record

of the electrical changes occurring in

the brain which is obtained through

electrodes applied to the shaved

skull. This is of valuable help for the

diagnosis in various mental diseases

like, eplilepsy, tumour etc.

The Cerebellum

It is the largest part of the hind

brain. It occupies the posterior

cranial fossa and lies below the

occipital lobes of the cerebrum, form

which it is separated by the fold of

denamater called the deuterium

cerebella.

Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum

has a fissured outer cortex of grey

matter and an inner core of white

matter. It consists of right and left

cerebella hemispheres joined by a

median portion called the vermin.

The cerebellum is separated from the

pons and medulla by the cavity of the

fourth ventricle.

The cerebellum is connected to the

rest of the brain by 3 bundles of

nerve fibres called the cerebellum

peduncles. They are superior

peduncle connecting with the

cerebrum, the middle peduncle with

the pons and the inferior peduncle

with the medulla.

Functions of the cerebellum

The activity of the cerebellum is

unconscious and not under the

control of the will. It is concerned

with posture and movement.

1. It helps to maintain muscular

tone.

2. It coordinates muscular

movements.

3. It helps to maintain balance and

equilibrium. It is able to do this

 because of the impulses it

receives from the semicircular

canals, joint and muscle.

Cerebellar disease therefore results

in erratic and uncoordinated

movements (ataxia) which may be

associated with an intention tremor

(not present at rest) and a tendency

to fall to one side when standing or

walking.

Medulla Oblongata

It lies just below the pons and rests

upon the floor of the skull. It is

continuous below and just outside

the skull with spinal cord. It is conical

in shape. Externally the medulla

resembles the upper part of the

spinal cord but internally it differs.

There is a cord in the medulla

continuous with the spinal cord. It

transmits all the bundle of ascending

and descending nerve fibres.

It contains many groups of nerve

cells some of which are centres in

which the cranial nerves arise.

1. The activities of vital organs, the

beat of the heart, the diameter of

the blood vessels, the respiratory

movements etc., are governed in

the grey matter of the medulla.

2. It acts as a bridge between

spinal cord and brain.

3. Controls many reflex actions.

 4. Respiratory centres both

inspiratory and expiratory

centres are situated here.

5. Cardiac acceleratory and cardiac

inhibitory centres are situated.

6. Vomiting centre is here

7. Also it controls, swallowing,

respiration, sneezing, cough etc.

10.3 STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD

Structure of Spinal Cord

Spinal cord is a long white, soft

cylindrical, structure situated in the

neural canal. It is 18” long and ½”

diameter. It lies within the vertebral

column formed by the arches and

bodies of the vertebrate

and protected from shocks and

injury. Many nerves leave and enter

the cord and serve to carry the

impulses to and from various parts

of the body and Central Nervous

System (CNS).
 Structure of Spinalcord

Functions

1. It is centre for spinal reflexes.

2. It is a two way conducting

pathway because it passes both

motor and sensory impulses by

the ascending and descending

tracts respectively.

3. It acts as a link by which

impulses travel from brain to

different parts of the body.

4. It acts as a minor co-ordinating

centre responsible for some

simple reflexes like stretch

reflexes and withdrawal reflexes.

 10.4 FUNCTIONS OF AUTONOMIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Autonomic means self governing or

involuntary without consciousness.

The functions are independent of will.

The general function is the

movement of the gastrointestinal

tract, the diameter of the blood

vessels, secretion of sweat gland etc.

Functions of Autonomic Nervous

System

1. The autonomic nervous system

supply all plain muscular tissue

in the body, the heart and

glands.

2. Sympathetic division exerts a

regulatory influence on a great

number of structure.

a. It increases the heart rate by

cardiac acceleratory nerve.

 b. Splanchnic nerve inhibits the

movement of the intestinal

tract.

c. Maintains the tone of the

arterioles of the abdomen.

d. Helps in the formation of

glucose from glycogen by

liver.

e. Causes liberation of

adrenaline from the adrenal

medulla.

f. Causes pupil dilatation.

g. Causes salivary secretion.

h. Causes sweat secretion.

3. Every organ has a double supply

of both sympathetic and

parasympathetic nerves. For

 example, iris, heart, intestine,

pancreas, salivary glands, etc.

In such case they function as

antagonists and oppose each

other. For example in the case

of frequency of heart beat –

sympathetic increases and

parasympathetic decreases. In

the case of pupil sympathetic

cause dilation and

parasympathetic cause

contraction.

4. Autonomous system maintains

normal fluid in the body cells.

5. It regulates the composition of

the body fluids and distribution

of body temperature and

circulatory, respiratory and

glandular organs.
 10.5 REFLEX ACTION,REFLEX
ARC, RECEPTORS AND TYPES

REFLEX ACTION

It is an involuntary muscular

contraction due to a sensory stimulus

or an involuntary motor action due

to a sensory stimulus, For example,

sudden closure of the eyelids when

any object touches the eye or when

bright light falls on it. Also sudden

withdrawal of the hand when it is

painfully stimulated.

The reflexes can be cerebral reflexes

originating from the brain or spinal

reflexes originating from the spinal

cord.
Two types of reflexes are seen.

1. Conditioned Reflex

It is an acquired or learned reflex

(eg) habit of doing certain things

(switching on the light, as soon

as one enters his dark room).

2. Unconditioned Reflex

It is an inborn reflex and cannot

be changed. Eg. Closure of eye

when a bright light falls on it.

Reflex Arc: It is the complete

pathway of a reflex action.

It consists of three parts.

 i. An Afferent Limb:

It is composed of the receptor

and a sensory nerve which

transmits the impulses to the

respective centres.

ii. An Efferent Limb:

It consists of an effector (muscle

/ organ) and an efferent nerve

or a motor nerve which brings

message from the respective

centres.

iii. Connecting Neuron:

The connecting link between the

afferent and efferent limb is

known as the connecting neuron.

Reflex Centre

This is the centre situated in the gray

matter of the central nervous system

and consisting of the cell body in

between the afferent and efferent

nerve and it modifies the impulse.

Receptors and Effectors

Receptors are specialized nerve

endings which receive the impulses

from different parts of the body or

outside and sends back the impulses.

These receptors are sense organs.

There are two types of receptors.

1. Exteroceptors They receive

stimuli from the external

environment, eg., Eye, ear, skin

and those of taste.

 2. Interoceptors receive stimuli

from inside the body itself like

skeletal muscle, lung, heart etc.,

chemoreceptors, baroreceptors

etc.

Effectors

The structure where the motor nerve

ends is called an effector. It may be

muscle or gland.

10.6 Physiology of Sleep –

Theories

Sleep is a condition of body and mind

in which the nervous system is

inactive, the eyes are closed, the

postural muscles relaxed, and

consciousness is suspended.
There is a phenomenon which has

interested physiologists for a long

time is the cause of sleep. Mongold

and Sokoloff (1955) have shown no

changes in the cerebral oxygen

consumption along with circulation

during sleep and sometimes they

have observed increased blood flow.

Repair and Restoration Theory of

Sleep:

According to the repair and

restoration theory of sleep, sleeping

is essential for revitalizing and

restoring the physiological processes

that keep the body and mind healthy

and properly functioning. This theory

suggests that NREM sleep is

important for restoring physiological

functions, while REM sleep is

essential in restoring mental

functions.

Support for this theory is provided

by research that shows periods of

REM sleep increase following periods

of sleep deprivation and strenuous

physical activity. During sleep, the

body also increases its rate of cell

division and protein synthesis,

further suggesting that repair and

restoration occurs during sleeping

periods.

Evolutionary Theory of Sleep:

Evolutionary theory, also known as

the adaptive theory of sleep,

suggests that periods of activity and

inactivity evolved as a means of

conserving energy. According to this

theory, all species have adapted to

sleep during periods of time when

wakefulness would be the most

hazardous.

Support for this theory comes from

comparative research of different

animal species. Animals that have

few natural predators, such as bears

and lions, often sleep between 12

to 15 hours each day. On the other

hand, animals that have many

natural predators have only short

periods of sleep, usually getting no

more than 4 or 5 hours of sleep each

day.
Information Consolidation Theory

of Sleep:

The information consolidation theory

of sleep is based on cognitive

research and suggests that people

sleep in order to process information

that has been acquired during the

day. In addition to processing

information from the day prior, this

theory also argues that sleep allows

the brain to prepare for the day to

come. Some research also suggests

that sleep helps cement the things

we have learned during the day into

long–term memory . Support for this

idea stems from a number of sleep

deprivation studies demonstrating

that a lack of sleep has a serious

impact on the ability to recall and

remember information.
 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learned about

the sense organs like ear and eye.

We have also learned about the

nervous system ie., the structure of

neuron, synapse, structure and

function of brain and spinal cord,

functions of autonomic nervous

system, reflex action, reflex arc,

types of receptors, and finally the

theories of sleep physiology.

KEYWORDS

An area where there are no

Blind Spot cones and rods. It marks the

point of convergence of neurons

that form the optic nerve.

 A thick vascular structure that

is pigmented and separates

Ciliary body
other two layers of the eye.

Smooth involuntary muscles of

the choroid which suspend

Ciliary
thread like ligaments that
muscles
attach to the edge of the lens.

A depressed area of the retina

next to the blind spot which

Fovea
contain only cones no rods.

A violet-coloured
photosensitive
Iodopsin pigment,

present in the cones.

A purple coloured pigment that

Rhodopsin
is sensitive even in dim light.
 The tendency of the membrane
Tympanic
to vibrate best over a particular
resonance
range of frequencies.

Transparent gelatinous material

Vitreous
that supports the lens and
body
retina.

Snail shaped structure in the

Cochlea inner ear which is the sensory

organ of hearing

Group of nerve cells which act

Ganglia
as relay station.

Gyri Folds of cerebral cortex

A study of biological functions

Neurobiology
of nerves

Neuron Nerve cell

Postsynaptic
Neuron which receives message
neuron
Presynaptic
Neuron which sends a message
neuron

Organs having specific sensory

cells which enable them to

Receptors
receive a change in

environment

An immediate stereotyped

Reflex action involuntary motor response to a

sensory stimulus

Fissures separating the folds of

Sulci
cerebral cortex

The junction between two

Synapse
neurons a neuron and muscle

Process of communication
Synaptic
between two neurons across a
transmission
synapse.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is a blind spot?

2. What is cochlea?

3. Define reflex arc.

4. What are the two types of

reflexes?

5. Name the three types of reflex

arc?

6. What are the parts of brain?

QUESTIONS

Part – A

1. Define accommodation?

2. What do you mean by dark

adaptation?

3. What is pupil?

4. What is an ear drum?

5. Define reflex action /effectors/

receptors?
6. What is a synaptic transmission?

7. List down the functions of

cerebellum / spinal cord?

Part – B

1. Explain the working of eye.

2. Discuss on sense of hearing.

3. Write about neuron

4. Define synapse and write notes

on the types of synapse

5. Explain the structure and

function a of medulla oblongata

6. List down the function a of

autonomic nervous system

7. Discuss on any two theories of

sleep physiology
 Part – C

1. Draw the structure of eye / ear

and explain

2. Enumerate the functions of

cerebrum

3. Draw and explain the structure of

cerebrum

4. Explain the function of cerebra

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