Proyecto Integrador de Aprendizaje

Edson Elian Martinez Loeza

Israel Alejandro Almaguer Acevedo
Adriel Espinosa Villaseñor Carlos Maximiliano Pérez Garcı́a
José Ignacio Rodrı́guez Rojas

Flight Dynamics - Group 001 - Team 5

Abstract: For this report, an automatic pilot will be analyzed and developed. With the help
of external softwares such as MatLab and Arduino.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the aeronautical field, the autopilot (automatic pilot)

is an important component of the aircraft system that
permits the pilot to have better control of the aircraft.
The AP has the control of the aircraft without a direct Fig 2.2 - General State Equations for a Linear
intervention of the pilot in the controls. Dynamic System.
The usage of the AP has the function of making it In general, the transfer function matrix has the form
easier to control the aircraft, making a balance between
the longitudinal and lateral-directional dynamics and the
disturbances that the aircraft suffer while flying. The
implementation of this system has managed to avoid
uncontrolled events caused by some human error.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Fig 2.3 - Transfer Function Matrix

2.1 Aircraft Response Transfer Functions
Aircraft response transfer functions describe the dynamic
relationships between the input variables and the output
variables. The relationships are indicated diagrammati-
cally in figure below, it is clear that a number of possible
input-output relationships exist.
N(s) is a polynomial matrix whose elements are all of the
response transfer function numerators. The denominator
∆(s) is the characteristic polynomial and is common to
all transfer functions. Thus the application of the state-
space method to the solution of the equations of motion
enables all response transfer functions to be obtained in a
single computation.
Now, when dealing with the solution of the equations of
motion it is usually required that y(s) = x(s), that is,
the output vector and state vector are chosen to be the
same. In this case equation of the output vector may be
simplified since C = 1 and D = 0; so:

Fig 2.1 - Aircraft Response Transfer Functions

2.2 The State-Space Method
Most commercial software is intended for problems in
modern control, so some care is needed to ensure that
the aircraft equations of motion are correctly assembled
before a solution is computed using these tools. However,
the available tools are generally very powerful, and their
use for the solution of the equations of motion of aircraft
is particularly simple.
Fig 2.4 - Developed Transfer Function Matrix
The equation of the simplified transfer function matrix
is equivalent to the multivariable application of Cramer’s
rule.
Comparing the 2 equation of the transfer function matrix,
the simplified and the other one, it is evident that the
polynomial numerator matrix is given by

2.3 The Transfer Function Matrix

Fig 2.5 - Polynomial Numerator Matrix
The general state equations, describing a linear dynamic and the characteristic polynomial is given by
system may be written as:
 Fig 2.6 - Characteristic Polynomial
2.4 The Longitudinal Transfer Function Matrix
Fig 2.7 - Longitudinal Transfer Function Ma-
trix
Fig 2.8 - Algebraic Form of Longitudinal
Transfer Function Matrix
2.5 The Lateral-Directional Transfer Function Matrix
Fig 2.9 - Lateral-Directional Transfer Function
Matrix
Fig 2.10 - Algebraic Form of Lateral-Directional
Transfer Function Matrix
3. PROBLEM
The North American X-15 (Fig. 3.1) was a hypersonic
research aircraft which first flew in 1960. This rocket-
powered aeroplane was capable of speeds as high as Mach
6 at up to 300,000 f t altitude. The aircraft was carried
under a B-52 to an altitude of about 45,000 f t, from which
it was launched at a speed of about Mach 0.8. Following
the powered phase of flight, recovery entailed gliding flight
to a normal landing—much in the same way as the space
shuttle recovery.
Fig 3.1 - North American X-15
The goal of this project is to review the stability and
control properties of the aircraft for one typical flight con-
dition. Since the aircraft was fitted with damping augmen-
tation in each axis; and the second objective is to design
an autopilot or control for both dynamics longitudinal and
lateral-directional.
The aircraft equations of motion are given in the form of
the decoupled state equations as follows. The flight condi-
tion assumed corresponds with Mach 2.0 at an altitude of
60,000 f t [2].
The longitudinal state equation is
Fig 3.2 - Longitudinal State Equation
The lateral-directional state equation is
Fig 3.3 - Lateral-directional State Equation
Velocities are given in f t/s, angular velocities in rad/s,
and angles in rad (532.2 f t/s2 ).
4. METHODOLOGY
To design the autopilot or control for the aircraft, it was
used the Cramer’s rule, which describes a mathematical
process for solving sets of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations; and the aircraft response transfer functions
for both longitudinal and lateral-directional dynamics in
MATLAB. Then, an arrangement in Simulink was made
for each state variable using closed-loop structures and
PID controls to achieve the best responses. It should be
noted that it was carried out that in each closed-loop
system the overshoot was considered to be in the range
of 20-25%. Next, it will be explained and discussed the
procedure of the control design.
4.1 State Variables
The state variables were determined with a designed
program in MATLAB, making use of the properties of
the transfer function matrix, explained in the theoretical
framework.
The MATLAB program started defining symbolic objects
or variables that will be used later in the development of
the complete program. This is shown in the Fig. 4.1.
Fig 4.1 - Defining Symbolic Variables
4.2 Longitudinal Dynamics
To determine the longitudinal variables, it was defined
the constant matrix A which multiplies the longitudinal
state variables x, whose definition was also made, in the
longitudinal state equation presented in the Problem sec-
tion. Also, the other constant matrix B and input matrix
u were defined. Then, the identity matrix I was defined
as a square matrix of four lines and four columns. Next,
the polynomial numerator matrix N and the characteristic
polynomial matrix ∆s were defined according to their
definitions. Finally, it was defined the numerator for each
longitudinal state variable as functions of the polynomial
numerator N. This can be illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
Fig 4.2 - Longitudinal Dynamics Code
The numerators of variables u, w, q and θ; and the deter-
minant were the following:
Fig 4.3 - Numerator and denominator for the
longitudinal plant
4.3 Lateral-directional Dynamics
The code for the lateral-directional dynamics has the
same structure as the longitudinal dynamics code. It was
defined as the constant matrix A and the longitudinal
state variables x in the lateral-directional state equation
presented in the Problem section. Constant matrix B and
input matrix u were defined too. The identity matrix I was
defined as a square matrix of four lines and four columns.
Polynomial numerator matrix N and the characteristic
polynomial matrix ∆s were defined according to their
definitions. And, finally, it was defined as the numerator
for each lateral-directional state variable as functions of
the polynomial numerator N. This can be seen next in
Fig. 4.4.
Fig 4.4 - Lateral-directional Dynamics Code
The numerators of variables β, ρ, r and ϕ; and the deter-
minant were the following:
Fig 4.5 - Numerator and denominator for the
Lateral-directional plant
Note that in this case, the numerators have two columns
due to the two different input signals δa and δe , which are
the aileron angle and the elevator angle, respectively.
4.4 Control Design
For the control design it was used the closed-loop system
for each variable filling the numerator and denominator
field of the transfer function blocks with the corresponding
numbers of each state variable. Also, a step source was
used in each closed-loop system. It will be explained this
process in detail for the longitudinal state variable u as an
example, since this process was done for each state variable
in both longitudinal and lateral-directional cases.
First, a transfer function block is inserted in Simulink;
then, it is filled with the corresponding values for numera-
tor and denominator, in this case, for the u variable (Fig.
4.6).
fact that the overshoot does not exceed the 25%, as said
before, and that the output rejection be the fastest as
it can be. Taking that in count, the response time and
the transient behavior are modified to comply with the
later considerations. In Fig. 4.10, it can be seen the final
controller parameters chosen.

Fig 4.6 - u transfer function block parameters
filling
Then a closed-loop is created as follows:
Fig 4.7 - Closed-loop system for u
If we leave this structure like that, the response would be
chaotic. That is why it is pretended to use a PID controller.
So, a PID controller is inserted as in Fig. 4.8. Then, the
PID controller is tuned selecting the ”Tune” button in the
block parameters of the PID controller. A new window
will appear and it will show the tuned response and the
block response for the reference tracking and plot and the
output disturbance rejection plot (Fig.4.9).
Fig 4.10 - PID Controller Parameters for Tun-
ing
These final parameters are updated in the block system
and the closed-loop is done. All the process described
above is done for all the other state variables for both
longitudinal and lateral-directional dynamics. It only re-
mains to accommodate the different closed-loop systems in
arrangements that are visually pleasing and understand-
able.
Finally, it is added a gain before the sum block; this is
to consider it as the reference values, which are obtained
from the f light condition parameters of the aircraft (Fig.
4.11). Next, it is presented the final array of the overall
Simulink program.

Fig 4.11 - Closed-loop System With PID Con-

trol and a Reference Gain for u

Fig 4.8 - Closed-loop system with PID control

for u

Fig 4.9 - PID Controller Tuning

Simulink automatically tunes the PID controller, but it
is possible to change both the response time and the
Fig 4.12 - Longitudinal Dynamics Subsystem
transient behavior to a slower or faster response, or to
an aggressive or robust behavior. It will be considered the
Fig 4.13 - Lateral-directional Subsystem

Fig 4.16 - State Variables Mixed

Fig 4.14 - Lateral-directional Dynamics for

aileron input subsystem Fig 4.17 - Overall 6-DOF North American X-
15 Aircraft Plant Model.
4.5 IMU MPU6050 with Arduino

The IMU sensor was applied here through the project in

combination with SIMULINK and Arduino. The whole
process was very extended not just for obtaining a correct
process, but also for obtaining a relationship between the
Autopilot and the IMU sensor. It can be defined as ”an
IMU is a specific type of sensor that measures angular rate,
force and sometimes magnetic field. IMUs are composed
of a 3-axis gyroscope, which would be considered a 6-
axis IMU. They can also include an additional 3-axis
magnetometer, which would be considered a 9-axis IMU”.

Fig 4.15 - Lateral-directional Dynamics for

Rudder Input Subsystem

Fig 4.18 - IMU degrees of freedom.

For more information about the IMU, it typically consists 5. RESULTS
of three componentes. The accelerometer, gyroscope, and
magnetometer. Here through the present final project Considering the aircraft X-15, since it is very unstable, a
there is established an accelerometer and gyroscope used comparation was wanted when having a minimum lift with
for determining the angular position of the aircraft. There the velocity component.
are some important parts of the aircraft that are strongly
related to this. Components such as the elevator and the
aileron are part of the IMU MPU6050 and act directly
with the SIMULINK codification. This is because the
accelerometer is related with the accelerations in the y
and z axis, in order to convert this information into
a pitch angle. The previous statement can be obtained
by using a trigonometric function as an arc tangent.
Then the rest of input data as x, y, z velocities and
x acceleration are linked to a “Mux” in order to stop
receiving information and data from these points. Once
the y and z accelerations are calculated, the scope at the
end of the trigonometric function shows some important
development and performance of the MPU6050.

Fig 5.1 - Plant with Minimum Values

On the other side, it was wanted a comparison for the
behavior when having a high-peak velocity value. Having
that the component will take a lot more of time to get an
stable state.

Fig 4.19 - IMU MPU6050 with Arduino re-

sponse.
Here in the scope it can be observed how the MPU6050
interacts with the aircraft’s angular position. If it is
inclined in a positive pitch angle the graph will show an
increase and vice versa. It is very important to clarify
how the Arduino was introduced in Matlab SIMULINK,
and it was possible thanks to the downloads of certain
specific libraries that provide the correct information in
order to accomplish the IMU sensor. An important fact
Fig 5.2 - Plant with a High Velocity Value
and part of the simulation was the physical connection of
the MPU6050 to the proto board and Arduino. Next, there 6. CONCLUSION
are two photos that show how the IMU was connected
respectively. The implementation of an autopilot (automatic pilot) on
aircrafts has benefits, since lightening the work of the
pilots, avoid unwanted situations caused by human error,
to being able to maintain the control of the aircraft having
lateral, vertical and longitudinal stability.
It can also be concluded that the more the autopilots
advance, each time it will be possible to carry out com-
plicated tasks more easily.
On the other hand it must be considered that the elabora-
tion of an autopilot, is a process that may be complicated,
because of all the aspects that have to be considered to
achieve some good control dynamics that permits to keep
the stability of the aircraft.
Fig 4.20 - Installation of MPU6050 to Arduino
7. REFERENCES
and SIMULINK
[1] Cook, M. V. (2013). Flight Dynamics Principles (3rth
ed.).
[2] Heffley, R. K., Jewell, W. F. (December, 1972). NASA
CR-2144. Recovered november, 2021; from https://www.
robertheffley.com/docs/Data/NASA%20CR-2144–Heffley–
Aircraft%20Handling%20Qualities%20Data.pdf
[3] Pao, C. (2019, September 13). The importance of IMU
motion sensors. CEVA’s Experts blog. Retrieved Novem-
ber 19, 2021, from https://www.ceva-dsp.com/ourblog/
what-is-an-imu-sensor/.