HW 1, Source Rocks: Late Jurassic

Alyaa Al-Jaber, Njoud Al-Kubaisi, Ruba Yousif, Noof Al-Qatabri

Introduction
Source rock is a rock that consists of organic material, and it is where hydrocarbons are formed under
higher temperatures and pressures (AlYafei,2021). Source rocks can be immature meaning that
hydrocarbons have not yet been formed. Source rocks can be mature meaning that hydrocarbons are
being produced at the time being. Moreover, source rocks can be post mature which means that
hydrocarbons have already been produced. A petroleum system consists of reservoir rock, source rock,
migration path, a seal, and a trap.

Figure.1 shows a diagram of a petroleum system.

It is important to know which type of kerogen is present in the source since it gives an indication if there
are hydrocarbons present. Type 1 is made up of planktonic algae and amorphous organics and it is filled
with hydrocarbons, and it is oil prone. Type 2 is made up of mixed marine and continental organics,
therefore it is oil and gas prone. Type 3 is made up of terrestrial woody matter which means it is gas
prone. However, Type 4 is not prospective meaning no oil and gas are produced. Gas chromatography is
helpful since it illustrates the burial history of source rocks and gives an indication of the thermal
maturity and microbial biodegradation of a source rock (Seers,2022). The production of hydrocarbons in
a sedimentary basin is represented by the source rocks. No matter how great a reservoir or a trap may be,
there wouldn't be any petroleum entering the basin if the source rock were ineffective. Accordingly,
evaluating the source rock is also the first step in evaluating a petroleum system (Rasoul Sorkhabi et al.,
2016).
2 HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic

You can know

whether a source
rock is mature and
immature from the
long chains, if it is
abundant then it is
immature, if it is
less abundant then
it is a mature
source rock.

Figure.2 shows different gas chromatographs with different trends.

The Jurassic geological time has three different parts associated with it. The first part is the early
Jurassic, then the middle Jurassic, and the last part is called the late Jurassic. Sometimes these parts are
referred to as Lias, Dogger, and Malam respectively. There were a lot of questions about what actually
happened during this geological period and why the result of the action tends to be useful nowadays,
especially to the oil and gas industry. There are a lot of rocks found during the late Jurassic time; this
was determined by different chronostratigraphic methods used to determine the age of the rocks. Today,
graphs called lithostratigraphy were created to determine the lithology of the rocks found all around the
world.

The Late
Jurassic
Region

Figure.3 shows the lithostratigraphy to determine the

lithology of the rocks during the late Jurassic.

The late Jurassic period occurred 163.5 to 145.5 million years ago. During this period, the large
continent Pangea split into smaller continents. Many source rocks were produced in this period because
there were high sea water levels which formed basins where source rocks were being deposited
(Carrigan,1995). Another reason is there were high rates of organic carbon burial and petroleum source
rock production were common worldwide throughout the Late Jurassic (Cedeño et al., 2021). In this
essay, we will investigate the main worldwide factors that encouraged the formation of source rocks
HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic 3

during the late Jurassic period, the dominant depositional processes that produced the source rocks and
provide examples of source rock formations in the late Jurassic period.

Findings

It was hard at first to find out what specific rocks were found during the Malam period. However, the
scientists did a lot of research and tried different approaches and different methods in order to figure out
the age of each rock. The late Jurassic was around 163.5million- 145.5million years ago as stated above
(Wikimedia Foundation,2022); this was determined by looking at the rocks’ lithology and by getting a
closer look at each rock. Scientists discovered radiometric dating which is related to the decay of
radioactive elements. Therefore, scientists can figure out the age of the rocks, and relate them to their
geological period based on the decay of the rocks’ isotopes(National Geographic Society).

Younges
t

Oldest

Figure.4 shows how the age of the source rock is determined.

The Malam time is one of the most important geological times for the petroleum industry. This is
because at that time there were many deaths of different organisms such as dinosaurs. Therefore, most of
the oil and gas used in the petroleum industry nowadays is all related to the Jurassic timing (Sorkhabi et
al., 2016). Not only oil and gas from that time were useful. But there were many different rocks found in
the Jurassic peninsula that are important to the geological and petroleum field; these rocks are still found
today. Sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks were all present during the Jurassic time. Some
types of rocks that were found during the Jurassic geological time, include mudstones, shales,
sandstones, conglomerates, and carbonate limestones (Tang).

Figure.5 shows the jurassic rocks.

4 HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic

The Middle-Upper Jurassic source rocks can be found primarily in the Middle East (Hanifa-Naokelkan-
Sargelu-Dukhan formations), the Caspian region (various formation names), West Siberia (Bazhenov
Formation), the North Sea (Kimmeridgian Clay), and the Gulf of Mexico (Haynesville Shale). The
majority of these rocks are marine shale and marly limestone with kerogen types II (Mixed Marine and
Continental organic) and III (Terrestrial woody matter). This what makes the gulf region rich with oil
and gas; most of the intakes of these countries is based on the huge amount found.

Therefore, many articles indicate how Hanifa, Naokelkan, Sargelu, and Dukhan formations were
detected. Hanifa formation is the most popular among the four. It was found in Qatar; the top part is
made up of different things, basal bituminous, black limestone, and anhydrite basal Jubail. Whereas the
top part contains tight limestone that had graded Wackstone and Packstone. However, in other gulf
countries, the Hanif formation is made up of shales and limestone (Ibrahim et al., 2002). These source
rocks were made a long time ago due to the Jurassic period. These rocks resulted from different
depositional systems that were stated below.

Sea levels fell in North America during the Late Jurassic, and terrestrial sedimentation occurred across
much of the continent. The Morrison Formation, a clastic deposit of lacustrine and fluvial mudstone,
siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate, is well-known for its fossil-rich beds containing abundant plant
and dinosaur remains. From the Late Triassic to the Middle Jurassic, the continental interior was uplifted
between central Arizona and southern California and continued till the late jurassic(Tang). Therefore,
this states how the source rocks were spread around during the Late Jurassic timing.

Moreover, there are many other sources that were part of increasing the number of source rocks during
the Malam period. The Jurassic period was characterized by high levels of plate tectonic activity, and
Jurassic igneous rocks are concentrated in areas of activity, such as spreading centers (rifts and oceanic
ridges) and mountain-building areas near subduction zones.

Some areas near the Atlantic Ocean started splitting up, which made basalts accumulate in the basins.
Today, basalts are found on the east coast of North America and southern Africa, where it is connected
to Antarctica. Also, many Ashes were found, this is because, during the Jurassic geological time, many
ash beds occurred. Subduction also was part of the late Jurassic; it happened in the western margin of
North and South America. Many igneous rocks were found as well in the western margin where the
subduction happened.

There were no groups that favored rocks that are from the Jurassic period. However, for many reasons
the Jurassic timing had unique features that made it one of the best timings to get the source rocks. First,
its climate; due to the break and split between countries, mountains started to rise and seafloor,
therefore, sea water rose, which had a dry and hot effect on the climate. That is what made the Jurassic
period different from other times (Tong). Second, the amount of fossil fuel found due to the
decomposition of organisms, resulted in a higher amount of hydrocarbons.

The concept of petroleum systems is a developed idea that sought to pinpoint every influencing factor
that determines whether oil and gas are present in a trap. These influencing factors include: the source
rock, the circumstances surrounding hydrocarbon generation, the timing & hydrodynamics of
hydrocarbon migration, method of entrapment, and ‘any subsequent events that might have had an
impact on the accumulation.’ (Hallet, 2002)
HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic 5

In simple terms, it is important to understand that for hydrocarbons to collect and be conserved, the
processes of creation, migration and accumulation must occur at the proper relative timing. (2014)

A crucial stage in the creation of a petroleum system is generation, and the three conditions that must be
met for generation to occur are: organic matter rich enough in hydrocarbons, appropriate temperature
and the source rock must’ve had enough time to reach maturity. Pressure, catalysts and microorganisms
also impact generation. (2014)

The movement of these hydrocarbons from the source rock and into the reservoir rock is known as
migration. This movement can be further classified into: primary & secondary migration. Primary
migration is the movement of newly generated hydrocarbons away from the source rock and continued
movement into the reservoir rock in a trap or area of accumulation is known as secondary migration.
(2014) Due to hydrocarbons’ relative buoyancy compared to the surrounding rock, migration usually
takes place from a structurally low area to a higher one in the subsurface. All in all, migration is very
essential for the development of a functional petroleum system and can take either locally or over
distances of hundreds of kilometers in huge sedimentary basins. (2014)

As for the term accumulation, it refers to the stage of a petroleum system’s development when
hydrocarbons move into and stay trapped in a reservoir. Secondly, a body of rock beneath the surface
that is porous and permeable enough to carry and store fluids is known as a reservoir rock and the
majority of them are sedimentary rocks as they occur at temperatures that can preserve hydrocarbons.
Then, we have the seal which is a layer of impermeable rocks that forms a barrier above and around the
reservoir rock to stop further migration of hydrocarbons by forming a trap. A seal is commonly made up
of shale, anhydrite, mudstone or salt. The final component which is an essential part of a complete
petroleum system is the trap, which is described as either structural or stratigraphic. Structural traps
develop in geologic structures such as folds and faults whereas stratigraphic traps result from changes in
the rock type, unconformities, or other features (sedimentary) such as reefs. (2014)

Figure.6 shows the five elements of a conventional

petroleum accumulation.

An example of a petroleum system from the late Jurassic period would be the Jurassic-cretaceous
petroleum system of southern Iraq which “contains excellent source, reservoir, and seal rocks leading to
6 HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic

the presence of several giant oil fields.” The oil, which is primarily confined in lower cretaceous
sandstone and carbonate reservoirs, was produced from organic-matter rich upper Jurassic to lower
cretaceous carbonate source rocks, according to thorough organic geochemical characterization. The
reservoir rocks are sealed with evaporites and compacted mudstones. (Abeed et al., 2013)

From several studies it was found that the upper Jurassic to lower Cretaceous Yamama and Sulaiy
formations are the most likely source rocks for the Cretaceous hydrocarbons in the Basra region of
southern Iraq. The marine carbonates that make up the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous successions
were deposited under anoxic circumstances and have a very excellent potential for producing
hydrocarbons. Two wells in southern Iraq’s Yamama formation were studied. The results indicate that
marine organic matter predominately enters the formation and that the formation has good source rock
potential in terms of the quantity and quality of organic matter. According to carbonate content and the
amount of organic matter, the underlying Sulaiy Formation has a comparable organic facies, but because
it is considerably more developed, the majority of the petroleum generation potential has already
happened. (Abeed et al., 2013)

The main Jurassic reservoir is the upper Jurassic Najmah limestone. Similar to the Arabian and southern
Arabian Gulf Basin, this unit is “made up of oolitic limestones, dolomites, and anhydrites that were
deposited in a shallow-marine and transitional marine setting made up of lagoons and shoals.” (Abeed et
al., 2013)

Secondly, there are three significant periods of source rock for hydrocarbons in northern Australia’s
Bonaparte Gulf Basin Province. The Jurassic, early Cretaceous and Mesozoic petroleum systems which
are seaward of Joseph Bonaparte Gulf on the Australian continental shelf are the third and youngest
petroleum systems. Deltaic mudstones from the Middle Jurassic Plover Formation and organic-rich
marine shales from the Upper Jurassic Vulcan Formation and Lower Cretaceous Echuca Shoals
Formation are examples of source-rock intervals in the Vulcan graben sub-basin. Gas, oil, and
condensate are produced by these intervals, and they build up in shallow- to deep-marine sandstone
reservoirs of the Challis and Vulcan Formations, which date from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous.
(Bishop, 1999)

One significant late Jurassic, early Cretaceous, and Mesozoic petroleum system can be found offshore of
northern Australia in the Browse Basin Province 3913. It is made up of different Mesozoic reservoir
rocks that were formed in deep-water fan to fluvial settings, as well as Late Jurassic through Early
Cretaceous source rocks that were produced in constrained marine environments. The reservoirs are
sealed by regional claystones from the Cretaceous and Jurassic eras. Less than 40 wells have been sunk
since research in this 105,000 km^2 area began in 1967, and only one recent oil discovery is thought to
have commercial potential. A massive gas resource was found under a contemporary reef on the west
side of the basin in 1971, prior to the most recent oil finding on the basin's eastern side. Other locations
saw the discovery of more oil and gas shows. Province 3913 contains a section of the Vulcan sub-basin,
where a relatively small field that was “discovered in 1987 and produced 18.8 million barrels of oil
between 1995 and 1995 has since been shut in.” (Bishop, 1999)
HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic 7

Conclusion

To sum up, the late Jurassic period ranging from 165 Ma to 145 Ma is the major period for the formation
of source rocks which is evident from the fact that more than two-thirds of the known petroleum
resources were generated during the end of the late Jurassic period. During this period the increase in
marine transgression increased the world’s sediment budget and thus increased the organic content of
the marine sediment thus causing an increase in TOC content which later caused the formation of an
excellent quality source rock to reach out in the future for hydrocarbon supply.

The Jurassic period was a time in the geological time scale that was purely dominated by dinosaurs
which later gave rise to the idea that a large number of source rocks from the late Jurassic period were a
result of any natural calamity which caused the death of dinosaurs and increase in organic content of the
sedimentary rocks that we have as the source rocks of the active Petroleum reserves of the present time.
Instead, contrary to the prior idea, the amount of organic content in the late Jurassic rocks is a result of
the presence of a high density of tiny plankton. The dinosaurs consumed a lot more organic matter than
they ever contributed to sediments. This contradicts the earlier belief of geologists that the death of
dinosaurs caused the formation of a large amount of highly organic source rocks from the late Jurassic
period.

The breakup of Pangaea caused the splitting of the Atlantic Ocean floor causing the accumulation of
sediments in the rift basin through the deposition of sediments during the periods of increase in sea
level. Similarly, during these periods of increase in sea level, many sedimentary basins formed over the
continents. This is evident from the fact that the majority of source rocks are Marine shales and Marley
limestone with kerogen type ll which is a majorly mixed marine and continental organic matter.
Thus, all in all, the Jurassic period was a perfect time for the formation of the source rocks due to certain
reasons that are:
● It’s climate
● Due to the breaking up and the splitting between countries
● Due to rise in sea floor causing rise in sea level.

The real-life examples that support the late Jurassic period are the Jurassic-cretaceous petroleum system
of southern Iraq. The Jurassic early Cretaceous and Mesozoic petroleum system in northern Australia’s
Bonaparte Gulf Basin Province and the Jurassic early and Mesozoic petroleum system that can be found
offshore of northern Australia in the Browse Basin Province 3913. All of these examples support the
presence of the late Jurassic period.
8 HW 1, Source rocks:Late Jurassic

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