Service Manual Steering System

COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
Sector:
AUTOMOTIVE
Qualification:
Automotive Servicing NC II
Unit of Competency:
Service Manual Steering System

Module Title:
SERVICING MANUAL STEERING SYSTEM

Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
East Service Road, South Superhighway, Taguig, Metro Manila
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE LEVEL 2
QUALIFICATION LEVEL
COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

No. Basic Competencies Module Title Code
1. Participate in Workplace 1. Participating in Workplace 500311105
Communication Communication
2. Work in Team Environment 2. Working in Team Environment 500311106
3. Practice Career Professionalism 3. Practicing Career 500311107
Professionalism
4. Practice Occupational Health and 4. Practicing Occupational Health 500311108
Safety Procedures and Safety Procedures
No. Common Competencies Module Title Code

1. Apply Appropriate 1. Applying Appropriate ALT723201
Sealant/Adhesive Sealant/Adhesive
2. Move and Position Vehicle 2. Moving and Positioning ALT723202
Vehicle
3. Perform mensuration and 3. Performing mensuration and ALT311202
calculation calculation
4. Read, Interpret and apply 4. Reading, Interpret and Applying ALT723203
specifications and manuals specifications and manuals
5. Use and apply lubricants/coolants 5. Using and Applying ALT723204
lubricants/coolants
6 Perform shop maintenance 6. Performing shop maintenance ALT723205
7. Perform job estimates 7. Performing job estimates ALT311204
8. Interpret/ draw technical drawing 8. Interpreting/ drawing technical ALT311205

drawing
9. Practice health, safety and 9. Practicing health, safety and ALT723206
environment procedures environment procedures
10. Inspect technical quality of work 10. Inspecting technical quality of ALT311207
work
11. Maintain quality systems 11. Maintaining quality systems ALT311208
12. Provide work skill instructions 12. Providing work skill instructions ALT311209
13. Identify and select original Identifying and selecting original ALT723210
automotive parts and products automotive parts and products
No. Core Competencies Module Title Code

1. Service Automotive Battery Servicing Automotive Battery ALT723303
2. Service Ignition System Servicing Ignition System ALT723304
3. Test and Repair Testing and Repairing ALT723305

Wiring/Lighting System Wiring/Lighting System
4. Service Starting Motor Servicing Starting Motor ALT723307
5. Service Charging System Servicing Charging System ALT723308
6. Service Engine Mechanical Servicing Engine Mechanical ALT723309
7. Service Clutch System Servicing Clutch System ALT723310
8. Service Differential and Front Axle Servicing Differential and Front ALT723311
Axle
9. Service steering system Servicing Steering system ALT723312
10. Service Brake system Servicing Brake system ALT723314
11. Service suspension system Servicing Suspension System ALT723315
12. Perform Underchassis Preventive Performing Underchassis ALT723306

Maintenance Preventive Maintenance
13. Overhaul Manual transmission Overhauling Manual ALT723313
Transmission
About this Competency-Based Learning Material
Welcome to the module “Servicing Manual Steering System”. This learner’s
guide contains training materials and activities for you to complete.
The unit of competency "Service Manual Steering System” contains the

knowledge, skills and attitudes required for Automotive Servicing. It is one of the
specialized modules at National Certificate II (NC 2).
You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

complete each learning outcomes of the module. In each learning outcome there are
Information Sheets and Resource Sheets and Reference Materials for further
reading to help you better understand the required activities. Follow these activities
on your own and answer the self-check at the end of each learning outcome. You
may tear a blank answer sheets at the end of each module to reflect your answers
fro each self-check. If you have questions, please don’t hesitate to ask your technical
/tool subject instructors for assistance.
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

You may already have some or most of the knowledge and skills covered in
this learner's guide because you have:
• been working for some time
• already completed training in this area.
If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a particular
outcome, you don't have to do the same training again.
Talk to your trainer about having them formally recognized. If you have a
qualification or Certificate of Competence from previous training, show it to you r
trainer. If the skills you acquired are still current and relevant to the unit/s of
competency they may become part of the evidence you can present for RPL. If you
are not sure about the currency of your skills, discuss this with your trainer.
After completing this module ask your trainer to assess your competency.
Result of your assessment will be recorded in your competency profile. All the
learning activities are designed for you to complete at your own pace.
Inside this learner's guide you will find the activities for you to complete and at
the back are the relevant information sheets for each learning outcome. Each
learning outcome may have more than one learning activities.
At the back of this learner's guide is a Learner Diary. Use this diary to record
important dates, jobs undertaken and other workplace events that will assist you in
providing further details to your trainer or an assessor. A Record of Achievement is
also provided for your trainer to complete once you complete the module.
This module was prepared to help you achieve the required competency, in Servicing
Manual Steering System. This will be the source of information for you to acquire
knowledge and skills in this particular trade, with minimum supervision or help from your
technical/tool subjects instructor with the aid of this material you will acquire the
competency independently and at your own place.
Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize the training of this
unit. Read through the learning guide carefully. It is divided into section, which
cover all the skills, and knowledge you need to successfully complete this module.
Work through all the information and complete these activities in each section.
Read information sheet and complete the self-check. Suggested the references
are included to supplement the materials provide in this module.
Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager. He/she is
there to support you and show you the correct way to do things. Ask for help.
Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to consider when you
are completing activities and its important that you listen and take notes.
You will be given plenty of opportunity to ask questions and practice on the job.
Make sure you practice your new skills during regular work shifts. This way you
will improve both your speed and memory and also your confidence.
Talk to more experience workmates and ask for their guidance.
Use the self-check question at the end of each section to test you own progress.
When you are ready, ask your trainer to watch you perform the activity outline in
the learning guide.
As you work through activity, ask for written feedback on your progress. Your
trainer keeps feedback/pre-assessment reports for this reason. When you have a
successfully completed each element, ask your trainer to mark on the reports that
you are ready for assessment.
When you have completed this module (or several module), feel confidence that
you have had sufficient practice; your trainer will arrange an appointment withy
registered assessor to assess you. The results of your assessment will be
recorded in your competency Achievement Record.
QUALIFICATION : Automotive Servicing NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Service Manual Steering System
MODULE TITLE : Servicing Manual Steering System
INTRODUCTION:
This module contains information and practices of servicing manual steering

system. It includes instructions on how to analyze front-end geometry failure, service
steering system, perform wheel balancing, and conduct wheel alignment.
You need to complete this module before you can service and repair electronic
drive management systems. Practices in this module will help you in servicing manual
steering system.
This module consist of four learning outcomes, each outcome contains learning
activities for both knowledge and skills, supported with information sheets, self check,
and job/ operation sheets, gathered from different sources. Before you perform the
manual exercises, read the information/ operation sheet and answer the self-check
provided to confirm to yourself and to your instructor that you are equipped with
knowledge necessary to perform the skill portion of the particular learning outcome.
Upon completion of this module you have to undergo assessment conducted by

your instructor. You will be given a certificate of completion as a proof that you met the
standard requirements (knowledge and skills) for this module. The assessment could be
made in different methods, prescribed in the competency standards.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module you will be able to:
1. Analyze front-end geometry failure

2. Service steering system.
3. Perform wheel balancing
4. Conduct wheel alignment
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1.1 Visual inspection on tire wear/steering system is performed.

1.2 Wheel alignment equipment is set-up.
1.3 Camber, caster and toe-angle are inspected and necessary adjustments are
made.
2.1 Steering component is pulled out.

2.2 Steering defects such as deformation, cracks, tube leaks and loose parts are
checked/identified.
2.3 Steering component is dismantled/installed.
2.4 Damaged part is replaced.
3.1 Wheel balancing machine is set-up.
3.2 Wheel weight location and size are identified.
4.1 Steering and suspension component conditions are accurately checked prior
alignment.
4.2 Wheel alignment equipment is positioned/installed as per manual instruction.
4.3 Equipment reading is interpreted accurately and required adjustment done as per
manufacturer specification.
4.4 Wheel alignment is adjusted.
PRE-REQUISITE:
• Before you tackle this module you must complete the basic and common modules
first.
Qualification : Automotive Servicing NC II
Module Title : Servicing Manual Steering System
Learning Outcome # 1 : Analyze front-end geometry failure
Assessment Criteria :
1. Visual inspection on tire wear/steering system is performed.

2. Wheel alignment equipment is set-up.
3. Camber, caster and toe-angle are inspected and necessary
adjustments are made
Resources :
• Power train and Underchassis Training Manual Pp. 4,5 & 26

th
• Automotive Mechanics, 10 Edition
Crouse and Anglin Pp. 679 – 682
691 – 696
691 – 696
749 – 762
• Nissan Diesel Chassis Repair Manual Pp. 27 – 39
Code No.
Servicing Manual Steering System
ALT723312
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning Outcome # 1: Analyze front-end geometry failure
Learning Activities Special Instructions
1. Identifying steering system

components.
1.1 purpose of the steering system • Read Information Sheet LO1-1
1.2 identify components of power
steering
After reading 1.1 and 1.2, answer • Automotive Mechanics

th
the self- check and compare your 10 edition
answer with the answer key Crouse – Anglin
provided. Pp. 679 – 682
What science principle can help us
in analyzing failure of power
steering?
2. Analyzing power steering failure. • Read Information Sheet LO1-2 Tables

2.1. identify steering troubles 1 “Steering and Suspension Trouble-
Diagnosis Chart” and 2 “Abnormal Tire
Wear Chart”.
2.2 inspect tires. • Follow procedures in specifying tires in
Operation Sheet LO1-1 “Perform Visual
Inspection on Tire Wear/Steering
System” and submit form to instructor
for checking.
2.3 align wheels
• Read Information Sheet LO1-3 “Wheel
Alignment Basics”
• Follow the steps in Operation Sheet
LO1-2 “Aligning Front Wheels”
3. Locate testing points as per repair
manual.
3.1 Read failure analysis in power
steering system.
3.2 Apply shop safety.
Self-check on correct testing

procedure then refer to your
instructor. Go over the items, which
you find difficulty in testing.
You are now going to identify tools/
equipment in tracing failure.
4. Identify service tools / equipment used • Nissan Diesel Chassis Repair Manual
for tracing power steering failure. Pp. 27 – 39
4.1 Correct usage of computer wheel
alignment / computer wheel • Automotive Mechanics
balance. th
10 edition
4.2 Apply appropriate tools / Crouse – Anglin
equipment for tracing power Pp. 691 – 696
steering failure.
After performing the activity, have • Automotive Mechanic

th
your instructor check your work, and 10 edition
answer the question in the self- Crouse – Anglin
check. Pp. 749 – 762
See Information Sheet LO6-1 under the

Module “ Performing Underchassis
Preventive Maintenance”
LO1 - ANALYZE FRONT-END GEOMETRY FAILURE
LEARNING OUTCOME:
At the end of these learning activities you should be able to visually inspect tire
wear/steering system, setup wheel alignment equipment, inspect and adjust camber,
caster and toe-angle of a vehicle.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:
• Vehicle with power steering

• Wheel alignment equipment
• Service manual
• Set of wrenches
• Set of screwdrivers (flat and Phillips head)
• Set of pliers
• Floor jack and stands
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
Activity # 1: IDENTIFYING STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Do you know the working components of the steering system and their
functions?
a. Read Information Sheet LO1-1, and then answer these questions.
• What is the purpose of steering system in a vehicle?

• What are the types of steering systems?
b. Read Information Sheet LO1-2 before answering these questions.
• Do you know how power steering operates?

• What are the principles involved in power steering operation?
Information Sheet LO1-1
PURPOSE OF THE STEERING SYSTEM
Figure 1 Front wheel drive car with MacPherson-strut front suspension and strut-type independent
rear suspension. (Saturn Corporation)
The steering system allows the

driver to control the direction of
vehicle travel. This is made
possible by linkage that
connects the steering wheel to
the steerable wheels and tires.
The steering system may be
either manual or power
assisted. When the only
energy source for the steering
system is the force the driver
applies to the steering wheel,
the vehicle has manual
steering. Power steering uses
a hydraulic pump or electric
motor to assist the driver’s
effort. Most vehicles have
power steering to make
parking easier.
Figure 2 Typical front-suspension

and steering system with
MacPherson struts and power rack-
and-piston steering gear. (Ford
Motor Company)
The basic operation is the same for both
manual and power steering. As the driver
turns the steering wheel, the movement is
carried to the steering gear. It changes the
rotary motion of the steering wheel into
straightline or linear motion. The linear
motion acts through steering linkage or tie
rods attached to the steering-knuckle arms
or steering arms. The steering knuckles
then pivot inward or outward on ball joints.
This moves the wheels and tires to the left
or right for steering.
Steering System Components

The steering system has three major
components:
4.2.1.1
The steering wheel and steering shaft
that transmit the driver’s movement to
the steering gear.
4.2.1.2
The steering gear that increases the
mechanical advantage while changing
the rotary motion of the steering wheel
to linear motion.
4.2.1.3
The steering linkage that carries the
linear motion to the steering arms.
Types of Steering Gears
Two types of steering gears are widely

used in automotive vehicles. These are Figure 3 Types of steering system. (ATW)
the recirculating-ball steering gear and the
rack-and-pinion steering gear. Both
steering gears are made in manual and
power versions.
.
A few vehicles have a worm-and-roller steering gear. It is similar to the recirculating-ball.
Both use a pitman arm and the parallelogram steering linkage. The pitman arm connects
the steering-gear output shaft to the steering linkage.
Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear
Trucks and large cars often have a

recirculating-ball steering gear. It has a
sector gear on the inner end of the
output shaft. A sector gear is a section
of gear teeth from a gear wheel. The
output shaft is called the sector shaft or
pitman-arm shaft. The teeth on the
sector gear mesh with the teeth of a ball
nut. It rides on the worm or worm gear
that connects to the end of the steering
shaft. Balls roll in grooves inside the ball
nut and the steering shaft. Balls roll in
grooves inside the ball nut in the worm.
As the steering shaft rotates, the worm
forces the balls to roll in the grooves.
The balls, as they roll, force the ball nut
to move up or down to the worm.
Movement of the ball nut forces the
pitman-arm shaft to turn. This swings
the pitman arm, which forces the
steering linkage to pivot the wheels for
steering.
The balls are the only contact between
the worm and nut. This reduces friction.
The balls are recirculating balls
because they recirculate from one end
of the ball nut to the other end during
steering. As the balls reach the end of
the groove in the ball nut, they enter the
return guides. The balls then travel back
to the other end of the ball nut.
Figure 4 Manual recirculating-ball steering gear. (A)

Cutaway to show construction. (B) Phantom view of nut
and recirculating balls. (Chrysler Corporation, Ford
Motor Company)
Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear
Most smaller and down-sized vehicles use a rack-and-pinion steering gear. It has a
pinion gear on the end of the steering shaft that meshes with a flat rack of gear teeth.
Tie rods connect the ends of the rack to the steering arms. As the steering wheel turns,
the pinion gear moves the rack to the right or left. This moves the tie rods and steering
arms which turn the steering knuckles and wheels inward or outward.
Figure 5 Manual rack-and-pinion steering gear. (Chrysler Corporation)
The inner ends of the tie rods have balls which fit into ball sockets on the ends of the
rack. This allows the outer ends of the tie rods to move up and down with the steering
knuckles and wheels. Flexible rubber boots or bellows protect the steering gear from
dust and water.
Many steering systems have an intermediate steering shaft between the steering column
and the steering gear. The intermediate shaft has a universal joint at the upper end and
a flexible coupling at the lower end. These help prevent road shock and noise from
passing up through the steering column to the driver.
SELF-CHECK LO1-1
Choose the best answer.
1. What part of the system connects the steering wheel to the steerable wheels and
tires?
a. suspension
b. linkage
c. power steering
d. electric motor
2. Which type of steering system uses only the driver’s force to steer the vehicle?
a. manual steering
b. power steering
c. electronic steering
d. hydraulic steering
3. Which component of the steering system converts the rotary motion of the
steering wheel into straightline or linear motion?
a. steering arm
b. steering wheel
c. steering gear
d. steering knuckles
4. What component pivots inward or outward on ball joints?

a. steering arm
b. steering wheel
c. steering gear
5. What component transmits the driver’s movement to the steering gear?

a. steering arm
b. steering wheel
c. steering gear
ANSWER KEY LO1-1
1. B
1. A
2. C
3. D
4. B
ANALYZING POWER STEERING FAILURE
Steering and Suspension Troubles
Most steering and suspension troubles fall into one of four groups. These are hard
steering, handling problems, noise and leaks. Refer to Table 1 Steering and Suspension
Trouble-Diagnosis Chart.
Trouble-diagnosis charts and procedures for specific vehicles are in the vehicle service
manual.
Table 1. Steering and Suspension Trouble-Diagnosis Chart
Complaint Positive Cause Check or Correction

1. Hard steering a. Power steering inoperative Refer to vehicle service manual
b. Low or uneven pressure Inflate to correct pressure
c. Friction in steering gear Lubricate, adjust or repair
d. Friction in steering linkage Lubricate, adjust or repair
e. Friction in ball joints Lubricate or repair
f. Excessive positive camber Align wheels
g. Body or frame bent or misaligned Straighten
h. Spring sag Replace or adjust
2. Excessive a. Looseness in steering gear Adjust, replace worn parts
play in b. Looseness in linkage Adjust, replace worn parts
steering c. Worn ball joints or steering-knuckle Replace worn parts
parts Adjust
d. Loose wheel bearing
3. Wander a. Mismatched tires or uneven pressures Correct
b. Linkage binding Adjust, lubricate, replace worn
parts
c. Steering gear binding Adjust, lubricate, replace worn
parts
d. Excessive toe-out Align wheels
e. Looseness in linkage Adjust, replace worn parts
f. Looseness in steering gear Adjust, replace worn parts
g. Loose ball joints Replace
h. Loose leaf springs Tighten
i. Unequal load in vehicle Adjust load
j. Stabilizer bar ineffective Tighten or replace
4. Pulls to one a. Uneven or low tire pressure Inflate to correct pressure
side b. Uneven caster or camber Align wheels
c. Tight wheel bearing Adjust or replace
d. Uneven springs (sagging, broken, Tighten, replace defective parts
loose attachment)
e. Uneven torsion-bar adjustment Adjust
f. Brakes dragging Adjust or repair
5. Push to one a. Brakes grab Adjust, replace brake lining
side while b. Uneven tire pressure Inflate to correct pressure
braking c. Incorrect or uneven caster Align wheels
d. Causes listed under item 4
6. Shimmy a. Uneven or low tire pressure Inflate to correct pressure
b. Loose linkages Adjust, replace worn parts
c. Loose ball joints Replace
Complaint Positive Cause Check or Correction
d. Looseness in steering gear Adjust, replace worn parts
e. Front springs too soft Replace, tighten attachments
f. Incorrect or unequal camber Align wheels
g. Irregular tire thread Replace worn tires, match threads
h. Wheel imbalance Balance wheels
7. Tramp a. Wheel imbalance Balance wheels
b. Excessive wheel runout Remount tire, straighten or
replace wheel
c. Shock absorbers defective Replace
d. D. Causes listed under item 6
8. Steering a. Tire pressure low or uneven Inflate to correct pressure
lockback b. Springs sagging Replace, adjust torsion bars
c. Shock absorbers defective Replace
d. Looseness in linkage Adjust, replace worn parts
e. Looseness in steering gear Adjust, replace worn parts
9. Poor a. Friction in steering Lubricate, adjust or repair
returnability b. Friction in suspension Lubricate, adjust or repair
c. Excessive negative caster Align wheels
d. Improper power-steering operation Clean, repair
10. Tire squeal or a. Excessive speed Take curves at slower speed
turns b. Low or uneven tire pressure Inflate to correct pressure
c. Improper wheel alignment Align wheels
d. Worn tires Replace
11. Improper tire a. Wear or tread sides from underinflation Inflate to correct pressure
wear b. Wear at tread center from overinflation Inflate to correct pressure
c. Wear at one side of tread from Align wheels
excessive camber
Table 2. Abnormal Tire Wear Chart
RAPID
RAPID WEAR WEAR ON ONE FEATHERED SCALLOPED
CONDITION WEAR AT BALD SPOTS
AT CENTER SIDE EDGE WEAR
SHOULDERS
EFFECT
UNDER- OVER- EXCESSIVE INCORRECT UNBALANCED

INFLATION INFLATION CAMBER TOE WHEEL
OR LACK OF OR LACK OF LACK OF
ROTATION ROTATION ROTATION
OF TIRES OR
CAUSE WORN OR
OUT-OF
ALIGNMENT
SUSPENSION
OR TIRE
DEFECT
ADJUST PRESSURE TO ROTATE
ADJUST CAMBER
SPECIFICATIONS WHEN ADJUST TOE TO BALANCE TIRES AND
CORRECTION TO INSPECT
TIRES ARE COOL. SPECIFICATIONS WHEELS
SPECIFICATIONS SUSPENSION
ROTATE TIRES
Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation
Operation Sheet LO1-1
PERFORM VISUAL INSPECTION ON TIRE WEAR/STEERING SYSTEM
Inspecting Tires for wear
1. Raise the vehicle using floor jacks and stands
2. Inspect each tire for wear. Refer to table 1 and 2 of Information Sheet LO1-2.
3. Record findings in a piece of paper starting from the left front tire (driver’s side) and
so on.
4. Put recommendations on the piece of paper for each tire inspected.
Your recording may look like this. You may also add tire brand and size.
TIRE INSPECTION SHEET
Vehicle Brand/Model: Toyota Corolla SL

Tire Location Findings/defects Recommendations
Left front tire Wear on left side Adjust camber to
specifications
Right front tire Bald spots Balance wheels
Left rear tire Wear at center Adjust tire pressure to

specifications
Right rear tire Wear at center Adjust tire pressure to

specifications
WHEEL ALIGNMENT BASICS
The basic purpose of a wheel alignment is to

restore the vehicle suspension to the original
or manufacturer’s specifications. It is the
proper adjustment of all the interrelated
suspension angles affecting the running and
steering of the vehicle.
Many types of meters, gauges and wheel
aligners are available to measure the
alignment angles. A mechanical camber-
caster gauge attaches to the wheel spindle to
measure tire angles.
The angles are read directly from the gauge,
Some wheel aligners have tight beams that
display the measurements on a screen in front
of the vehicle.
Figure 6 A mechanical camber-caster gauge
and turning radius gauge for measuring wheel
A Computerized four-wheel aligner alignment angles.
simultaneously displays the alignment
measurements for all four wheels.
It has rim-mounted heads or sensors on each

wheel that feed information to a computer in
the console. The specifications, readings and
corrections needed are displayed on meters,
screens or paper printouts. Some
computerized wheel aligners provide video
instruction on how to make the adjustment or
repair.
Pre-Alignment Inspection
Several parts and conditions can affect

vehicle steering. These must be checked and
corrected before aligning the wheels. Pre-
alignment checks include:
Figure 7 The specifications, readings and
corrections needed can be displayed on the
screen of a computerized four-wheel aligner.
(General Motors Corporation)
• Checking for unusual loads in the vehicle or trunk.
• Checking tire pressure and condition.
• Checking wheel bearings for condition and adjustment.
• Checking wheel and tire balance and runout.
• Checking ball-joints and steering for looseness.
• Checking rear suspension condition.
• Checking front suspension condition
Follow the procedures in the vehicle service manual to correct any abnormal condition
found. A full tank of fuel and bouncing the front and rear of the vehicle may be
recommended before taking the readings. Some vehicles have an adjustable engine
cradle or sub frame. Check the cradle-to-body alignment before aligning the wheels. The
vehicle service manual includes the procedure.
Four-Wheel Alignment
To prevent rear-wheel misalignment causing a drift or pull after alignment of the front
wheels, many vehicles should have a four-wheel alignment. This is the aligning of the
rear wheels and then the front tires so the vehicle has a common vehicle centerline,
geometric centerline and thrust line.
Four wheel alignment is usually recommended for 1980 and later model vehicles, and
vehicles with front-wheel drive or independent rear suspension. Always align the rear
wheels first when performing a four-wheel alignment.
Align Front-Wheels
The six basic wheel-alignment factors are

suspension height, caster, camber, toe,
steering-axis inclination and turning radius.
On some vehicles, only camber and toe—or
only toe can be adjusted. The other angles
are not adjustable. Correction is usually
made by replacing bent parts. A mechanical
camber-caster gauge is basically a level. The
position of bubble in a graduated liquid-filled
tube shows horizontal. Another bubble shows
the angle the spindle makes in tilting away
from horizontal.
1. Measuring Camber.
a. Turn the steering wheel until it is Figure 8 The six factors in front-wheel alignment.
(Chrysler Corporation)
pointing straight ahead.
b. Set the camber-caster gauge horizontal to the wheels (see figure 6).
c. Read camber directly from the bubble in the tube marked CAMBER.
d. Repeat the procedure on the other wheel.
2. Measuring Caster:
a. Checking caster requires placing the tires on turning radius gauges (figure 6).
b. Watch the scale on the turning-radius gauge and turn each wheel in 20 degrees.
c. Adjust the gauge until the caster bubble reads zero.
d. Turn the wheel until it is pointing out 20 degrees,
e. Read the caster measurement from the positive or negative side of the caster
scale.
f. Repeat the procedure on the other wheel.
3. Measuring Steering Axis Inclination.

a. Steering-axis inclination can be read when the caster readings are taken.
b. When the turning-radius gauge shows the wheel points in 20 degrees, zero the
bubble in the tube showing steering-axis inclination.
c. This is marked KING PIN ANGLE.
d. When the wheel is turned out 20 degrees, read the steering-axis inclination.
4. Measuring Turning Radius.

a. Check Toe-out or turning radius with a turning-radius gauge under each front tire.
b. Adjust the degree scales to zero.
c. Then turn each wheel in 20 degrees and read the angle shown on the other
turning-radius gauge.
5. Measuring Toe.
a. Toe can be measured with a mechanical toe gauge (see figure 9).
b. Measure the distance between the centers at the back of the tires.
c. The difference is total toe.
d. Wheel aligners with gauges or sensors on both wheels measure the indicated toe
of each wheel.
When wheel alignment angles must be
adjusted, make the adjustments in the specified
order. This is usually caster, camber and toe.
Adjust caster first if it is adjustable. Then adjust
camber (if adjustable). Adjust toe last.
Figure 9 Mechanical toe gauge, used to

measure the distance between the centers at
the front and back of the tires. The difference
in distances is the total toe. (Mitsubishi Motor
Sales of America, Inc.)
Align Caster and Camber (SALA Suspension)
There are several methods for adjusting caster and camber on short-arm/long arm
(SALA) suspensions which have unequal-length control arms.
These include installing or removing shims, adjusting the cam bolts in the control
arms, shifting the control-arm inner shaft, and changing the length of the strut rod.
1. Shim Adjustment.
a. The shims are located at the upper-
control-arm shafts, either outside or
inside the frame or frame bracket.
When the shims are inside the
frame bracket, adding shims moves
the upper control arm outward. This
increases positive camber.
b. Adding shims at one bolt and
removing shims from the other
moves the outer end of the upper- Figure 10 Caster and camber adjustments on some
control arm forward or backward. vehicles using shims. (Chevrolet Division of General
This decreases caster. Motors Corporation)
Note: Some trucks have an I-beam front axle

and leaf springs (figure 11) instead of upper
and lower control arms. Caster is adjusted
by installing tapered caster shims between
the spring and the axle. If the shims are
installed backward, the axle will have
excessive negative caster. The driver may
complain of difficulty in keeping the truck in
a straight-ahead position, wander and pull.
Figure 11 Truck front suspension using a solid I-

beam front axle and two leaf springs. (Ford Motor
Company)
2. Cam-Bolt Adjustment
a. Figure 12 shows one arrangement using
offset or eccentric cam bolts to adjust
caster and camber. The two bushings at
the inner end of the upper control arm
attach to the frame brackets with two
cam bolts.
b. Turning the cam bolt the same amount
in the same direction changes camber.
Turning only one cam bolt or turning
both cam bolts in opposite directions
changes caster. On some vehicles, the
cam bolts are in the inner ends of the
lower control arms.
Figure 12 Caster and camber adjustments by
turning offset, or eccentric cam bolts. (ATW)
3. Pivot-Shaft Adjustment
a. This arrangement has slots in the frame
at the two points where the upper
control-arm pivot shaft attaches.
b. Loosening the attaching bolts and
moving the pivot shaft in or out changes
camber.
c. Moving only one end changes caster
Figure 13 Adjusting caster and camber by

shifting the position of the pivot shaft, using
slots in the frame. (Chrysler Corporation)
4. Strut-Rod Adjustment
a. Changing the length of the suspension
strut rod changes caster (figure).
b. Turning the cam bolt on the inner end of
the lower control arm changes camber.
Figure 14. Coil-spring front-suspension system

with the spring mounted on the upper control
arm. The lower control arm has a single point of
attachment to the frame and requires the use of
a strut rod, or brake-reaction rod.
Adjust Caster and Camber (Strut Suspension)
1. Many vehicles with MacPherson struts do

not have camber and caster adjustments.
Others have a cam bolt at the lower end of
the struts to adjust camber (figure 15).
2. Turning the cam bolt moves the top of the
wheel in or out. If no camber adjustment is
provided, some manufacturers
recommend enlarging the bolt holes in the
bottom of the strut.
3. On some MacPherson-strut suspension,
caster and camber are adjusted at the
upper strut mount (figure 16).
4. Moving the strut toward the front or rear
changes the caster.
5. Moving the strut in or out changes camber.
Figure 15 Marking the strut position and cam bolt

before measuring the strut assembly from the
vehicle. (Chrysler Corporation)
Figure 16 Adjusting caster and camber on a

MacPherson strut by repositioning the upper strut
mount. (Moog Automotive, Inc.)
Adjust Toe
1. After making caster and camber

adjustments, check and adjust toe. Front-
wheel toe is measured with the steering
wheel centered and the wheels straight
ahead. Figure 9 shows a mechanical toe
gauge that measures total toe. Its length is
adjusted so the pointers are at the centers
of the tires. The total toe is the difference
in distance between tire centers at the rear Figure 17 Adjusting toe by changing the length of
and at the front. the tie rod. (Chrysler Corporation)
2. To adjust toe, loosen the tie-rod locknut (figure 17). Rotate the tie rods until the
toe measurement Is set to specifications. Do not allow the boot on the ends of the
steering gear to twist while making the adjustment.
3. Then tighten the tie-rod locknuts to the specified torque.
Center Steering Wheel

1. When all four wheels are properly aligned
and there is not thrust angle, the steering
wheel will be centered while the vehicle is
moving straight ahead (figure 18). If not,
the steering wheel can be centered by
adjusting the tie rods.
2. Adjust the tie rods to steer the front wheels
in the same direction the steering wheel is
off center. For example, if the steering
wheel is off center to the right, adjust the
tie rods to make the front wheels steer
toward the right.
3. To make the adjustment, loosen the
locknuts and turn both tie rods the same
amount in the same direction. On one car,
only 1/5-turn on the tie rods moves the
steering-wheel rim 0.250 inch (6 mm) or 2 Figure 18 Tie-rod adjustments to center the
degrees. steering wheel. (Chrysler Corporation)
Align Rear-Wheels
Many front-wheel-drive vehicles have stub axles or spindles on which the rear hubs and
wheels mount. Rear-wheel camber and toe may be adjustable.
Rear-wheel caster is usually set to zero
and is not adjustable. Various methods of
adjusting rear-wheel camber and toe are
described below. Refer to vehicle service
manual for rear-wheel alignment
procedures on specific vehicles.
1. Adjusting Rear-Wheel Camber
a. In some vehicles, camber is
adjusted by turning a cam bolt in
the inner end of the lower-control
Figure 19 Adjusting rear-wheel camber by turning a
arm or spindle-support rod (figure cam bolt in the inner end of the lower-control arm, or
19). spindle-support rod. (Chevrolet Division of General
Motors Corporation)
b. On other vehicles, shims placed
between the spindle and the
mounting plate provides the camber
adjustment (figure 20A).
2. Adjusting Rear-Wheel Toe

a. One method is a slotted hole in the
inner end of the lower-control arm
(figure 21A). This allows changing
the position of the control arm by
loosening the bolts and prying the
control arm in the proper direction.
b. A second method uses shims on
the two sides of the rear-
suspension trailing arms (figure
21B).
Figure 20 Using shims to adjust rear-wheel camber
and toe. Adjustments at the left-rear wheel are
shown. (Chrysler Corporation)
c. Changing the shim thickness in
either side changes the toe. A third
method uses shims placed between
the stub axle or spindle and
mounting plate (figure 20B).
d. A fourth method uses tie rods that
attach to the rear-wheel knuckle.
e. Lengthening or shortening the tie
rods changes rear-wheel toe.
After Alignment Problems
Sometimes the front wheels are within

specifications but the vehicle pulls or drifts.
Either wheel setback or improper thrust
angle is probably the cause. The problem
is avoided by performing a four-wheel
alignment and aligning the rear wheels
first.
A possible cause of drift or pull after a

four-wheel alignment is tire conicity. This is
Figure 21 Adjusting rear-wheel toe by (A) adjusting
the condition when a radial tire is out-of- control-arm position and (B) shimming the trailing
round because the tire was made with the arms. (Buick Division of General Motors Corporation;
center belt off-center. Dana Corporation)
One side of the tire is slightly larger in diameter than the other side. The result is that
the tire rolls slightly to one side, as does a cone. The condition is more noticeable when
the affected tire is mounted on a front wheel.
To locate and correct a tire-conicity problem (or a tire with a different circumference),
inflate all tires to the same air pressure. Swap the front wheels and road test the vehicle.
If it now pulls in the opposite direction, swap the left-front and left-rear tires. If the pull is
gone, the tire now on the left-rear is defective. If the pull still exists, swap the right-front
and right-rear tires. If the pull is gone, the tire now on the right-rear is defective. If the
vehicle still pulls, the tires are not causing the problem.
Learning Outcome #2 : Service steering system
1. Steering component is pulled out.

2. Steering defects such as deformation, cracks, tube leaks and
loose parts are checked/identified.
3. Steering component is dismantled/installed.
4. Damaged part is replaced.
Resources :
th
• Automotive Mechanics 10 edition
William H. Crouse and Donald L. Anglin pp. 675-690
• Nissan Diesel Chassis repair manual

Model: CK 20 – TK 20 serial Vol. 2 pp. 2-70
• Automotive repair manual pp. 549-611

Learning Outcome # 2: Service steering system
Learning Activities 2-1 Special Instructions
• List down the correct procedure in For more information about serving system
servicing steering system. read reference listed below:
5. Check tire wear
5.1 Read • Automotive mechanics
a. types of tire wear Anglin & Crouse
th
b. causes of tire wear 10 edition
Pp 675 – 690
After reading a and b from the • Nissan Diesel Chassis repair manual
attach learning resources, answer Model; CK 20 – TK 20 series Vol. 2
the self-check.
Your next activity is to identify steering • Repair manual (Automotive)

system failures. Pp 549 – 572
6. Identify failure in front – end

6.1 a. causes of failure in front – end. • Automotive Mechanic
b. check in front – end. Anglin & Crouse
th
10 Edition
Pp 675 – 690
Now that you have come to know
that the operation front – end. Let us • Nissan Diesel Chassis
continue exploring the failure in front Repair Manual
– end. Model CK 20 – TK 20 series Vol. 2
Pp 2 - 70
7. Identifying repair work required.
7.1 Read • Repair Manual (Automotive)
a. repair procedure Pp 549 – 572
b. read about repair work required
• Automotive Mechanic
After learning the repair work Anglin & Crouse
th
required, let us now proceed to the 10 Edition
procedure in gathered data servicing Pp 675 – 690
steering system.
• Nissan Diesel Chassis
Repair Manual
Model CK 20 – TK 20 Series
Volume 2
Pp 2 – 70
Code No. Date: Developed Date: Revised Page #

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 26
8. Gather data or servicing steering • Repair Manual (Automotive)
system Pp 549 – 611
8.1 Read • Automotive Mechanic

Anglin & Crouse
a. records on servicing steering th
10 Edition
system Pp 675 – 690
b. proper checking of steering
system • Nissan Diesel Chassis
Repair Manual
You are now going to apply the Model CK 20 – TK 20 Series
procedure in servicing steering Volume 2
system. Be sure that you are fully Pp 2 – 70
familiar with the procedure and
methods of servicing steering • Repair Manual (Automotive)
system. Pp 549 – 611

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 27
STEERING AND SUSPENSION DIAGNOSIS AND SERVICE
The driver may bring

the vehicle to the
technician because of a
variety of steering and
suspension troubles.
The technician can
often determine the
cause of the trouble by
making a road test and
visual inspection.
Trouble codes from an
electronic control
module (ECM) may help
in the diagnosis. Some
troubles are quickly
located and repaired.
Others are more
difficult. Sometimes an
apparent steering
problem is actually in
the suspension system.
Always turn off the air
Figure 22 Conditions to look when making a visual inspection of the
suspension before steering and suspension.
raising a vehicle so
equipped.
Refer to the vehicle service manual for diagnosis and service procedures on electronic
steering and electronic suspension systems. Also refer to the vehicle service manual for
diagnosis, service and wheel alignment procedures on vehicles with four-wheel steering.
The fasteners in the steering and suspension systems are vital parts. They affect the
proper operation and safety of the vehicle. A fastener failure can cause damage and
injury. Reinstall a fastener in the same location from which it was removed. Some
fasteners should not be reused. If a fastener seems to be replaced, use the specified
replacements. It should have the same part number, or be of equal size or stronger than
the original. Use thread-locking compound where specified. Tighten all fasteners to the
specified torque or torque angle.
Hard Steering
A vehicle has hard steering when the driver must exert excessive steering effort to turn
the steering wheel. This may be caused by too little clearance in the steering gear and
excessive friction in the steering linkage or ball joints. Other causes include uneven tire
pressure and spring sag. Excessive positive caster makes the vehicle hard to steer and
causes the steering wheel to turn too fast.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 28
Sometimes a loss of power assist
occurs only while the vehicle is cold or
only while cornering and parking. This
usually indicates trouble in the control-
valve assembly or its sealing. The four
sealing rings on the control valve have
worn grooves in the aluminum housing.
This allows fluid leakage which causes
morning sickness or no or erratic power
assist especially when cold.
A quick check for hard steering is to

raise the front end so the tires are off Figure 23 Grooves worn in the rack-and-pinion control-
the floor. valve housing.
Start the engine on vehicles with power steering. If the steering wheel turns easily, the
steering is not at fault.
Excessive Play
Excessive play means there is excessive movement of the steering wheel without
corresponding movement of the front wheels. A small amount of freeplay makes steering
easier. Too much freeplay reduces the driver’s ability to steer accurately and control the
vehicle.
Check the amount of freeplay in the steering by placing the steering wheel in the straight-
ahead position. Measure the free movement of the steering wheel at the rim. The
specification for maximum allowable freeplay is in the vehicle service manual. On the
steering system, maximum freeplay should not exceed 3/8 inch (9.5 mm). if the steering
column or shaft joints, steering gear, steering linkage, or suspension.
Wander
Wander is the tendency of a vehicle to drift from one side of the road to the other. The
driver must continually fight the steering wheel to keep the vehicle traveling in the
desired direction. This condition usually results from lost motion somewhere between the
steering wheel and the road wheels. In addition to loose steering or suspension, other
causes include tire problems, an unevenly loaded or overloaded vehicle, and excessive
toe-out.
Pulls to One Side

Pull is the tendency of the vehicle to drift or pull to one side during normal driving on a
level surface. The vehicle pulls toward the side that has the most positive camber or the
least positive caster. Other causes include tire problem, an unevenly loaded or over
loaded vehicle, damaged suspension parts, defective power-steering control valve, and
brake drag. Improper setback thrust angle and wheel alignment also cause pull. A
common cause of pull is uneven tire pressure.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 29
Pulls to One Side While Braking
Uneven braking or unequal caster may cause the vehicle to swerve or pull to one side
when the brakes are applied. A brake will grab if the shoes or pads are soaked with oil or
brake fluid, the shoes are improperly positioned, or a piston is stuck in a wheel cylinder
or caliper. Other causes include unequal tire pressure and worn control-arm bushings.
Shimmy
Shimmy is the rapid in-and-out movement or wobble of a front wheel on its steering axis.
This causes the front end of the vehicle to shake from side to side. It can result from
worn or damaged parts, excessive side-to-side caster difference, and wheel and tire
imbalance or runout. With rack-and-pinion steering, possible causes include worn
steering-gear mounting bushings and loose rack ball sockets or tie-rod ends.
Tramp
Tram is the hopping up-and-down of a wheel at higher speeds. This is usually due to
wheel and tire imbalance or mount, or a defective strut or shock absorber.
Steering Kickback
Steering kickback is the sharp and rapid movement of the steering wheel that results
when the front tires meet holes or bumps in the road. Some kickback is normal. If it is
excessive , check for uneven tire pressure, sagging springs, defective shock absorbers,
and loose steering gear or linkage.
Poor Returnability
Returnability is the tendency of the front wheels to return freely to the straight-ahead
position when the driver releases the steering wheel after a turn. Excessive friction or
binding in the steering or suspension causes poor returnability. Then the steering wheel
returns slowly or the driver may have to return the steering wheel to center. Other causes
include the tires and wheel alignment.
Tire Squeal on Turns

Tire squeal is usually caused by excessive speed on turns. Other causes include low or
uneven tire pressure, worn tires, or improper wheel alignment.
Improper Tire Wear

Various types of abnormal wear occur on tires. The type of wear indicates its cause. For
example, an underinflated tire wears the sides of the tread. An overinflated tire wears
the center. Excessive camber causes one side of the tire tread to wear.
Any running toe (in or out) increases tire wear. This scrapes off rubber and leaves a
feathered edge on the tread. Excessive toe-in wears a feathered edge on the inside of
the tire tread. Too much toe-out causes a feathered edge along the outside of the tread.
If only one front tire has a feathered edge, check for a bent steering arm. If both front
tires have a feathered edge, the front-end has improper toe.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 30
Suspension Topping or Bottoming Out
A defective shock absorber may allow
the spring to compress and expand too
much. Then the suspension hits the
rubber bumpers at the top, or bottom of
its travel. Check for a weak or broken
spring. Install heavy-duty shock
absorbers if the suspension tops or
bottoms out because of heavy load.
Figure 24 Attachment of the upper end of the

MacPherson strut to the vehicle body. The bearing
allows the strut to turn with the wheels for steering.
Spring Breakage
A leaf spring can break from overloads, a loose U bolt, or a tight spring shackle. A coil
spring or torsion bar can break because of a defective shock absorber. An air spring may
fail to hold air.
Improper Suspension Height

When the front or rear of the vehicle is higher or lower than normal or not level side-to-
side, the body has an abnormal attitude. Check for heavy or improper loading of the
vehicle, spring sag or damage, and improper springs. Measure the suspension height.
The side-to-side difference on the vehicle should not exceed ½ inch (13 mm). A greater
difference may be caused by sagging springs, a defective automatic level-control
system, and an improperly operating air-suspension system. Springs can sag if they are
frequently overloaded. A torsion bar can be adjusted to restore normal suspension
height.
Noise and Vibration

“Noise” is any unpleasant sound such as booming, buzzing, clunking, humming, tapping,
or whining. Noises often occurs along with vibration and harshness or hard ride.
Knowing the parts involved and the condition under which the noise develops helps in
locating the cause. For example, a buzzing noise is heard when a vehicle when a vehicle
with power steering is running at fast idle and the wheels are straight ahead. The noise
stops as the wheels are turned. Knowing the operation of the power steering indicates
that a sticking pressure control valve could be the cause.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 31
Figure 25 Possible causes of noise, vibration, and harshness. (Ford Motor Company)
Harshness or Hard Ride

Harshness or hard ride is usually caused by the tires or suspension. A hard or rough ride
can result from high tire pressure or excessive friction in the suspension.
Leaks
Lubricant will leak from around the rotating shafts in the steering gear if the seals are
worn or damaged. Leaks from the power-steering pump may be caused by overfilling the
reservoir, a missing reservoir cap, or failure of the shaft seal. Other causes of power-
steering fluid breakage include loose or damaged lines (tube or hose) and fittings,
damaged or missing O-rings, and leaking rack seals.
Steering Ratio
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of the
output force to the input force applied to
a mechanical device. With mechanical
advantage, a small input force can
produce a large output force. In the
steering system, the driver applies a
relatively small force to the steering
wheel. This results in a much larger
steering force at the wheels. For
example, a 10-pound (44.5-N) force
applied to the steering wheel may
produce up to 270 pounds (1201 N) or
higher at the wheels. This increase is
due to the mechanical advantage or
steering ratio at the steering gear.
Figure 26 Steering ratio. Turning the steering wheel
17.5 degrees is required to pivot the front wheel 1
degree.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 32
Steering ratio is the number of degrees that the steering wheel must turn to pivot the
front wheels one degree. In figure 6, the steering wheel must turn 17.5 degrees to pivot
the front wheels one degree. The steering ratio is 17.5:1.
Steering ratios vary depending on the type of vehicle and operation. Typical automotive
steering ratios range from about 24:1 with manual steering to 14:1 with power steering.
The higher the steering ratio, the easier it is to steer. However, the steering wheel must
be turned more than with a lower steering ratio. If the steering ratio is 24:1, the driver
must turn the steering wheel 24 degrees to pivot the front wheel 1 degree. If the steering
ratio is 14:1, the steering wheel must be turned only 14 degrees to pivot the front wheel 1
degree. Steering ratio is determined by steering-linkage ratio and the gear ratio in the
steering gear. Steering-linkage ratio for pitman-arm steering gears depends on the
relative length of the pitman arm and the steering arms. When the two are the same
length, the steering-linkage ratio is 1:1. If the pitman arm is twice as long as the steering
arm, the ratio is 1:2. Every degree the pitman arm swings pivots the steering arm and
wheels two degrees.
The gear ratio in the pitman-am steering gear depends on the angle and pitch of the
teeth on the worm and sector gears. In the rack-and-pinion steering gear, steering ratio
may be determined by the numbers of teeth on the pinion gear. The fewer the number of
teeth, the higher the ratio.
Variable-Ratio Steering
Many steering gears provide variable-
ratio steering. The steering ratio varies
as the steering wheel moves away
from the straight ahead. A typical
change would be from 16:1 to 13:1.
For the first 40 degrees of steering
wheel movement in either direction,
the steering ratio is constant. This
faster ratio provides good steering
control for highway driving. The
steering ratio decreases when the
steering wheel turns more than 40
degrees. The lower steering ratio Figure 7 The relationship or ratio between steering-wheel
helps in city driving during cornering or turns and movement of the front wheels in right and left
parking. turns.
It reduces the amount the steering
wheel must turn fro these maneuvers.
The variable ratio is produced by the
shape of the gear teeth. In a
recirculating-ball steering gear, the
center teeth on the sector gear are
larger than the outer teeth. When the
ball nut has moved far enough to bring
the outer teeth into mesh, the effective
leverage changes. Further ball nut Figure 27 Left, shape of teeth on ball nut and sector gear
movement then produces a greater for constant-ratio steering. Right, shape of teeth for
movement of the sector gear. variable-ratio steering. (Chrysler Corporation)
In a rack-and-pinion steering gear, the shape of the rack teeth can provide variable-ratio
steering.
ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 33
Steering Linkage
The steering linkage connects the steering

gear to the front wheel steering arms. The
linkage can be adjusted to produce the
proper alignment of the front wheels. Tie-
rod ends connects to the steering arms
with balls that fit into sockets. These are
ball sockets. They are smaller but similar in
construction to front-suspension ball joints.
In parallelogram steering linkage, the idler
arm and other parts connect through
rubber bushings. The bushings twist as the
parts swing or move. They supply some
force to help return the wheels to center
after completing a turn. Lubricating these
bushings may cause them to slip and wear
prematurely.
POWER STEERING Figure 28 Ball sockets and tie-rod ends. (Ford

Motor Company)
Power Steering has an energy source that aids the driver in turning the wheels for
steering. Most automotive power-steering systems are hydraulic. A pump supplies high-
pressure fluid when the driver turns the steering wheel. This provides most of the
required steering effort. Some cars have electronic power steering. An electric motor
provides the power assist.
Types of Power Steering

Most power-steering systems are
basically a manual steering
system with a power booster
added. In a power recirculating-
ball steering gear, the booster is a
power cylinder and piston built
into the steering gear. This is an
integral power steering because
the power booster is integral with
the steering gear. Figure 29
shows a power rack-and-pinion
steering gear. It also has a built-in
power cylinder and piston. A
linkage-type power steering can
be attached to manual steering
systems that have a pitman-arm
steering gear. The power cylinder
connects between the vehicle
body or frame and the steering
linkage to provide the power Figure 29 Construction of a power recirculating-ball steering
assist. gear. (Cadillac Division of General Motors Corporation)

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 34
All hydraulic power-steering systems work in the same general way. The hydraulic pump
pressurizes the fluid. Steering effort applied to the steering wheel causes the control
valve to open and close fluid passages. These either admit pressurized fluid into the
power cylinder, or relieve the pressure. The pressurized fluid causes the piston to move,
providing most of the steering effort.
Power-Steering-System Components
The power-steering hydraulic system

includes a control-valve assembly and a
power cylinder. In addition, the system
has a hydraulic pump, fluid reservoir,
and connecting hoses. The reservoir
may be attached to the pump (Figures
30 and 31) or separately mounted
(Figure 32). A filter may be located in
the reservoir or hose to remove dirt and
particles from the fluid. Some power
steering systems also have a fluid
cooler.
1. Power-Steering Pump. The pump
usually mounts at the front of the Figure 30 Linkage-type power steering system. (Ford
Motor Company)
engine crankshaft pulley (Figure 33).
Figure 31 Rack-and-pinion power-steering system. (Ford Motor Company)

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 35
The pump can produce high pressure-
up to 2000 psi (13,800 kPa) in some
systems. Figure 32 shows a vane-type-
power steering pump. The rotor turns in
am oval cam ring inside the pump
housing. As the rotor turns, the area
between the rotor, cam ring and vanes
increases and decreases in size. This
forces the pressurized fluid through the
pressure fitting to the pressure hose.
Gear and roller-type power-steering
pumps are also used. Some pumps are
driven by an electric motor instead of
the engine.
9. Hoses and Fittings. Most power-

steering systems have a pressure hose
and a return hose. Figure 32 Vane type power-steering pump.
(Cadillac Division of General Motors Corporation)
The hoses and fittings provide the fluid path between the power-steering pump and
the control valve. They are made to take high pressure and flexing. The hoses also
help reduce noise from pump pulsations.
10. Fluid Cooler. Some vehicles with

air conditioning and high underhood
temperatures have a small power-
steering-fluid cooler. It prevents
excessive fluid temperature that
could damage seals, vanes and
other parts. The fluid cooler may
simply be a loop in the tubing or a
small heat exchanger at the front of
the vehicle. On some vehicles, the
remote-mounted reservoir provides
the necessary fluid cooling.
11. Power-Steering Fluid. Several
different hydraulic fluids are used as
power-steering fluid. Some
manufacturers specify either type F
or Dextron II automatic transmission Figure 33 Components in a speed-sensitive rack-and-
fluid. Other manufacturers use a pinion power steering system that provides variable
special power-steering-fluid. assist. (American Honda Motor Company, Inc.)
It is made to take the high temperatures and pressure. Only the fluid recommended
by the vehicle manufacturer should be used in power steering systems.
12. Power-Steering Pressure Switch. Some vehicles have a power-steering

pressure switch on the pressure line between the pump and the steering gear. The
switch signals the engine control module to increase engine idle speed when pump
pressure or power-steering load is high. The switch position (open or closed) can be
read through the diagnostic-connector with a scan tool.
ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 36
Power Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear
Figure 34 shows a General Motors recirculating-ball steering gear. It has an integral

power cylinder and piston. The ball nut is part of the power piston.
Figure 34 Saginaw recirculating-ball power-steering gear, partly

cutaway. (Pontiac Division of General Motors Corporation)
Applying
hydraulic
pressure at either
end of the piston
assists nut and
sector-gear
movement.
Figure 35 Oil flow in
a recirculating-ball
power-steering gear
during a right turn.
Arrows show the oil
flow and the
direction of oil
pressure on the
piston. (Pontiac
Division of General
Motors Corporation)

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 37
Hydraulic pressure is admitted to one or the other end of the piston by the rotary valve. It
connects through a torsion bar to the steering shaft. When the steering wheel turns,
steering resistance at the front wheels causes the torsion bar to twist. As it twists, it
opens the rotary valve. This sends fluid under pressure to one or the other end of the
piston. Which end of the fluid is sent to depend on the direction of the steering wheel
turns.
The amount of fluid admitted is determined by the resistance at the vehicle wheels. With
greater resistance, the harder the steering wheel must be turned. This twists the torsion
bar more which opens the rotary valve more and allows more fluid to enter. The resulting
power assist is greater.
The action of other integral recirculating-ball steering gears is similar. Some have a spool
valve instead of a rotary valve. As the worm moves, it pivots a pivot lever. This moves
the spool valve so that pressurized fluid is directed to one of the power piston.
Power Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear
Figure 31 shows fluid-flow in a power rack-and-pinion steering gear. A torsion bar

connects to the control valve. When the steering wheel turns, the movement is carried
through the torsion bar. The resistance of the front wheels causes the torsion bar to
twist. This opens the control valve which sends pressurized fluid to one or the other side
of the piston to provide the power assist.
Variable-Assist Power Steering

Some cars have a speed-sensitive,
variable-assist power steering system.
Additional parts include a power-
steering controller (or ECM), steering-
angle sensor, vehicle-speed sensor
and solenoid valve. The steering-angle
sensor measures the rate of steering
wheel-rotation. This information and
information from the vehicle-speed
sensor are inputs to the controller. The
controller determines the amount of
power assist needed and sends the
power signal to the solenoid valve.
The solenoid valve then acts as an
electronic variable orifice (EVO). It
opens or restricts fluid flow to the
steering gear. This varies the power Figure 36 A speed-sensitive, variable-assist, rack-and
assist, while providing the driver with pinion power-steering system. (Ford Motor Company)
the same steering feel.
Below about 20 mph (32 kmph), the solenoid valve allows full fluid-flow. This provides
full power assist at low speed so only a light steering effort is required for parking. As
vehicle speed increases, the solenoid valve reduces fluid-flow to the steering gear.
This increases the steering effort and improves road feel. Full assist returns with sudden
movement of the steering wheel.
Figure 36 shows the solenoid valve on the steering gear. Other systems have the
solenoid valve in the power steering pump. On some cars, setting a switch on the
ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 38
controller increases or decreases steering effort by 10 percent. These cars also have a
diagnostic connection from the power-steering controller. An analog voltmeter can
receive trouble codes through the connector. The trouble codes indicate faults in the
system.
Another speed-sensitive rack-and-pinion power-steering system is shown in Figure 33.
The vehicle-speed sensor regulates the fluid pressure according to vehicle speed. A
steering angle sensor is not used. Many rack-and-pinion and recirculating-ball power-
steering systems have variable assist.
Electronic Rack-and-Pinion Power Steering
Some cars have an electronic rack-and-pinion power steering gear. A fast-acting electric
motor inside the rack housing supplies the power assist. The pinion meshes with helical
grooves which serve as the rack teeth. A magnet and magnetic sensor on the pinion
shaft act as a torque sensor. It signals the electronic control module how much torque is
being applied and in which direction.
Figure 37 Electronic rack-and-pinion power-steering gear.
As torque is applied by turning the steering wheel, the magnet moves. The greater the
torque and the farther the magnet moves, the stronger the signal to the ECM. The ECM
then sends a varying current to the electric motor. The motor is splined to the ball nut.
When the motor runs, the ball nut rotates. The rotation causes balls to run through the
grooves in the rack. This applies a force against one end of the rack. The result is that
most of the steering effort is supplied by the electric motor.
Electronic power steering does not require a hydraulic pump, hoses, a hydraulic pinion
on the rack, or a sealed rack housing. In addition, if the driver prefers more or less power
assist, it can be changed by resetting a selector switch.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 39
FOUR-WHEEL STEERING
Purpose of Four-Wheel Steering
A variety of military and off-road vehicles have had four-wheel steering (4WS) for years.
When the front wheels pivot for steering, the rear wheels also pivot and steer the rear
end of the vehicle. This improves handling and allows tighter turns.
Some cars have four-wheel steering. It is

controlled either mechanically or
electronically. The system automatically
steers the rear wheels according to the
speed of the vehicle and the steering angle
of the front wheels. For increased
maneuverability at lower speeds, the rear
wheels may steer in the opposite direction
of the front wheels. At higher speed, the
rear wheels steer in the same direction as
the front wheels. This provides greater
stability during cornering and high-speed
lane changes. Figure 38 Basic operation of four-wheel steering.
Mechanical Four-Wheel Steering

Figure 39 shows a mechanical four-wheel-
steering system. It uses a steering shaft to
carry the rotary motion of the steering
wheel to the rear steering gear. The rear
wheels can swing inward and outward on
ball joints similar to those at the front
wheels.
During small turns of the steering wheel,
as when driving at highway speed, the
rear wheels are steered a small amount in
the same direction as the front wheels. For
example, if the front wheels pivot 8
degrees, the rear wheels pivot in the same Figure 39 Mechanic four-wheel steering using two
direction 1.5 degrees. steering gears connected by a steering shaft.
(American Honda Motor Company, Inc.)
When the steering wheel turns a greater amount during low-speed maneuvers, the rear
wheels pivot in the opposite direction of the front wheels. For example, if the front
wheels pivot 30 degrees, the rear wheels pivot 5 degrees in the opposite direction. The
steering shaft to the rear axle operates a mechanism in the rear steering gear that
changes the direction in which the rear-wheel pivot.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 40
Electronic Four-Wheel Steering
Figure 40 shows an electronic four-wheel
steering system. The two rear wheels are
carried on trailing arm that connect to the
rear subframe through flexible toe-
controlled links. When the driver turns the
steering wheel, the hydraulic pressure
applied to the front steering gear acts on
the rear control valve. This causes the
spool valve to move, directing pressurized
fluid from the rear power-steering pump to
one side of the piston in the power
cylinder. The piston then forces the trailing
arms to the right or left. The hydraulic
pressure is regulated according to how far
and how quickly the driver turns the
steering wheel.
Operation of the system when turning left
is shown in figure 40.In this system, the
rear wheels always steer in the same
direction as the front wheels. The rear-heel
steering angle increases in proportion to
velocity, traction and driver input up to a
maximum of 1.5 degrees. The system only
activates above 30 mph (48 kmph) and Figure 40 Electronic four-wheel steering, showing
does not operate in reverse. operation of the system during a left turn.
Other cars use similar systems that are computer-controlled. The trailing arms attach to
the subframe which can be moved by the power cylinder. This steers the rear wheels.
Some cars have electromechanical four-wheel steering. It varies rear-wheel steering
according to front-wheel steering angle and vehicle speed. A shaft from the front steering
gear (similar to the steering shaft in figure 39) transmits steering-wheel movement to the
rear steering gear. At the same time, the ECM sends control signals to the rear steering
gear. At low speed, the rear steering gear arms the rear wheels in a direction opposite of
that of the front wheels. At car speeds above 22 mph (35 kmph), the rear wheels steer in
the same direction as the front wheels.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 41
Self-Check LO2-1
Choose the best answer.
1. A right front-wheel has too much negative caster. The result will be
a. a feathered edge on the inside of the tire tread
b. a feathered edge on the outside of the tire tread
c. pulling to the right
d. pulling to the left
2. A car has no brake problem but pulls to one side during braking. Technician A says
the most likely cause is improper toe. Technician B says the most likely cause is worn
bushings in a lower-control arm. (Who is right?
a. A only
b. B. only
c. both A and B
d. neither A nor B
3. A car with rack-and-pinion steering has a shimmy. Technician A says improper rack-
yoke clearance could be the cause. Technician B says loose rack ball sockets or tie-
rod ends could be the cause. Who is right?
a. A only
b. B. only
c. both A and B
d. neither A nor B
4. A feathered edge on the inside tread of only one front tire may be caused by
a. excessive toe-in or a bent steering arm
b. too much toe-out
c. a loose wheel bearing
d. excessive caster
5. If a torsion-bar front-suspension system sags, restore proper suspension height by

a. replacing the torsion bar
b. replacing the shock absorber
c. adjusting the torsion bar
d. replacing the ball joints
6. A car with power steering has a buzzing noise at fast idle when the wheels are
straight ahead. Turning the steering wheel causes the noise to stop. The cause could
be
a. a defective power steering pump
b. worn steering-gear mounting bushings
c. excessive steering-wheel freeplay
d. a sticking pressure control valve
7. After replacing the ball joints in a MacPherson-strut front suspension

a. compress coil spring
b. replace the upper strut mount
c. adjust the wheel bearings
d. check the wheel alignment

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 42
8. Unequal rear-wheel toe
a. creates a thrust angle
b. causes the steering wheel to be off-center
c. changes caster
d. affects vehicle suspension height
9. The adjustable wheel-alignment angles are

a. steering-axis inclination, caster and camber
b. turning radius, setback and thrust angle
c. toe, suspension height and included angle
d. caster, camber and toe
10. Methods of adjusting camber on MacPherson struts include all the following
except a. adding or removing shims
b. turning a cam bolt
c. moving the upper strut mount inward or outward
d. enlarging the strut bolt holes with a file.
ANSWER KEY LO2-1
1. A
2. A
3. C
4. D
5. B
6. D
7. D
8. B
9. D
10. A

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 43
Learning Outcome # 2 Service steering system
Learning Activities 2-2 Special Instructions
• Enumerate steering system • For more information about dismount /

components. mount steering components read
references listed below
1. Review on component parts of
steering system.
1.1 Read
a. component parts of steering • Automotive Mechanic
system Crouse – Anglin
b. function of its component parts. Pp. 675 – 690
The Next activity will require you to • Nissan Diesel Chassis Repair Manual
know the procedure in pull – outing Model CK 20 – TK 20 series vol. 2
steering. Pp. 2 - 8
2. Perform dismounting of steering as per • The Automotive Drive trains and Chassis
manufacturer manual. Unit
2.1 Read on correct procedure in Felizardo Y. Francisco
dismounting steering system. Pp. 125 - 134
2.2 Actual application on dismounting
of steering system
After dismounting you are going to • Service Manual PTC

know how to identify on failure on Pp. 129 – 143
every components.
3. Identify defects on failure on every • Automotive Mechanic

component. Crouse – Anglin
3.1 Read on failure analysis Pp. 691 – 710
3.2 Identify cause of failure
• Automotive Mechanic
You are now going to apply the Crouse & Anglin
th
procedure on mounting of steering 10 edition
as per manufacturer manual. Pp. 691 – 710
4. Conduct of mounting of steering as per • Nissan Diesel Chassis

manufacturer manual. Repair Manual Model
4.1 Correct procedure on mounting of CK 20 – TK 20 series vol. 1
steering as per manufacturer Pp. 1 – 70
manual.
4.2 Perform operation. • Power Train Under Chassis Course
Manual
Pp. 1 – 71

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 44
STEERING WHEELS AND COLUMNS
Tilt and Telescoping Steering Wheels
The steering wheel attaches to a steering

shaft that connects to the steering gear.
The steering column supports the steering
wheel and encloses the steering shaft.
Many vehicles have tilting steering wheels.
Some tilting steering wheels can also be
moved into or out of the steering column.
These tilt and telescoping actions make it
easier for the driver to get into or out of the
vehicle.
Some steering columns can also swing in
toward the center of the car to make entry
and exit easier. Figure 41 Tilting and telescoping steering wheel.
A locking mechanism connects to the transmission selector lever. The steering column is
locked in all selector-lever positions except PARK. This prevents the steering column from
being accidentally moved while the vehicle is in operation.
Collapsible Steering Column
The collapsible steering column protects

the driver in a front-end collision. If the
driver is thrown forward, the steering
column collapses. This cushions the driver
and helps reduce the possibility of injury.
Some vehicles also have a self-aligning
steering wheel. It has an energy-absorbing
hub that aligns the steering wheel with the
driver’s chest during the accident. This
spreads the impact forces over the largest
possible area of the driver’s body. The
likelihood and severity of chest and
abdominal injuries are reduced.
Figure 42 Tube-and-ball type of collapsible steering

column. (General Motors Corporation)
Steering and Ignition Lock
The ignition lock on the steering column locks both the ignition switch and the steering
wheel. When the ignition key is inserted and turned ON, the steering wheel is freed so the
vehicle can be steered. Turning the key to LOCK allows a plunger to enter a notched disk
that is splined to the steering shaft. This locks the shaft and prevents movements of the
steering wheel.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 45
WHEEL ALIGNMENT ANGLES
Front-End Geometry
Front-end geometry or wheel-alignment

angularity is the relationship of the angles
among the front wheels, the front-wheel
attaching parts, and the ground. There are
six basic factors involved. These are
suspension height, caster, camber, toe,
steering-axis inclination and turning radius.
They affect steering effort, steering
stability, ride quality and tire wear. Other
factors that affect wheel alignment include
scrub radius, setback and thrust angle.
Suspension Height
Suspension height is the distance

measured from some specific point of the
body, frame or suspension to the ground. If
suspension height is not correct, it can
affect the angles in the steering and
suspension systems (the wheel alignment).
Incorrect height can result from sagging
coil or leaf springs, incorrect torsion-bar
adjustment, or failure in air-suspension
system. Figure 43 The six factors in front-wheel alignment.
Camber
Camber is the inward or outward tilt of a wheel from the vertical when viewed from the
front of the vehicle. A wheel that tilts out at the top has positive (+) camber. If it tilts in, it
has negative (-) camber. The amount of tilt or camber angle is measured in degrees.
On many vehicles, the wheel suspension is adjusted to give a slight outward tilt (positive
camber). Then when the vehicle is loaded and rolling along the road, the wheels should
run straight up and down with zero camber. This puts the full width of the tire tread on
the road surface. However, average running camber of zero seldom occurs. The
camber goes negative when the tire hits a bump and moves up. It goes positive when
the tire drops into a hole in the road. This action is caused by the unequal-length control
arms of the suspension system.
As long as the vehicle rolls on a level road, ideally both front wheels should have the
same camber. However, many roads are slightly higher in the center or crowned.
Because of the crowns, the right wheel runs slightly lower than the left. This adds a slight
amount of positive camber.to the right wheel. Also, the vehicle often has only the driver
in it. The driver’s weight tends to reduce the positive camber. The vehicle will drift or pull
in the direction of the wheel with the most positive camber.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 46
During a turn, centrifugal force causes
body roll. This is the movement of the
vehicle body as it leans out toward the
outside of the turn. The side forces against
the bottom of the tires cause their tops to
tilt toward the inside of the turn. In a left
turn, the result is positive camber of the left
front wheel and negative camber of the
right front wheel.
Camber is a tire wear angle. Any camber,
positive or negative can cause uneven and
rapid tire wear. Tilting the wheel puts more
Figure 44 Changes in camber during a left turn.
load and wear on one side of the tire tread. (Ford Motor Company)
Incorrect camber at both wheels can cause hard and unstable steering and wander.
Unequal camber can contribute to low-speed shimmy. Sagging springs can change
camber. When a rear spring sags, it affects the camber of the diagonally-opposite front
wheel. For each one inch (25 mm) of rear-spring sag, the camber of the front wheel can
change as much as ¾ degree.
Steering Axis Inclination
The steering axis is the line around which a

front wheel swings for steering. In figure
45, the steering axis is a line drawn
through the centers of the ball joints. The
steering knuckle pivots about this line to
swing the wheel right or left. On a strut
suspension, the steering axis is a line
drawn through the center of the upper strut
mount and the lower ball joint.
Steering-axis inclination (SAI) is the inward
tilt of the steering from the vertical as
viewed from the front of the vehicle. It is
the angle, in degrees between a vertical
line and the steering axis. The inward tilt is
desirable for three reasons.
1. It helps steering stability by returning
the wheels to straight ahead after a turn
is completed. This is called steering-
wheel returnability.
2. It reduces steering effort, especially if
the vehicle is not moving.
3. It reduces wear.
SAI also helps keep the front wheels rolling

straight ahead. Figure 45 Steering-axis inclination, or SAI (Mazda
Motors of America, Inc.)
The inward tilt of the steering axis causes the front of the vehicle to raise slightly as the
wheels swing away from the straight ahead. When a front wheel is rolling straight
ahead, the outer end of the spindle is at its highest point. As the steering knuckle pivots
away

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 47
from the straight ahead, the outer end of the spindle begins to drop. This is because the
spindle and steering knuckle pivot around the steering axis, which is tilted inward.
However, the tire is already in contact with the road and cannot move down any farther.
So the steering knuckle, ball joints, suspension and vehicle body are raised upward.
The tilt is slight—one inch (25 mm) or less. But it is enough for the weight of the vehicle
to help bring the wheels back to straight ahead after completing a turn. This same action
provides steering stability. It tends to make the rolling wheels resist any small force that
tries to move them away from straight ahead.
Steering-axis inclination is not adjustable. It is designed into the steering knuckle. If
camber can be adjusted to specifications, steering-axis inclination usually is correct.
When SAI is not within specifications, the spindle, steering knuckle, ball joints or other
parts are bent or worn. Replace the defective parts.
Scrub Radius
Scrub radius or steering offset is the distance between the steering axis and the tire
contact-area centerline at their intersections with the road surface. If the steering axis
intersects the road surface inside the tire centerline, scrub radius is positive. If the point
is outside, scrub radius is negative. A zero scrub radius means the steering axis and tire
centerline intersect at the road surface.
Scrub radius is not an alignment angle and usually cannot be directly measured.
However, it affects steering effort, stability, and returnability. Rear-drive vehicles with
unequal-length front-suspension control arms often have positive scrub radius. Front-
drive vehicles with MacPherson-strut front suspension usually have negative scrub
radius. This tends to turn the front wheels inward as the vehicle moves forward. It
also helps maintain directional stability is a tire blows out, and helps maintain straight-
line braking if a front-wheel brake grabs or fails. Any unequal forces applied to the
steering act inboard of the steering axis.
Included Angle
The included angle is the camber angle

plus the steering-axis-inclination angle. It is
not an adjustable angle. However, an
improper included angle often indicates a
bent spindle or strut.
Figure 46 Included angle is the camber angle plus

the steering-axis inclination (SAI) angle. Positive
camber is shown.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 48
Caster
Caster is the tilt of the steering axis toward

the front or rear of the vehicle. If the tilt is
toward the front, the wheel has negative (-)
caster. A rearward tilt provides positive (+)
caster. Caster is measured in degrees.
There are three reasons for using caster
1. To maintain directional stability and
control.
2. To increase steering returnability.
3. To reduce steering effort. Figure 47 Caster is the tilt of the steering axis
toward the front or rear of the vehicle. Positive
Directional stability is aided by positive caster (backward tilt) is shown. (Chrysler
caster. Corporation)
It covers the steering axis to pass through
the road surface ahead of the center of tire
contact with the road. This places the push
on the steering axis ahead of the road
resistance to the tire. The tire trails behind,
as the positive caster causes the steering
axis to lead or pull the tire and wheel down
the road.
Positive caster tends to keep the wheels
pointed straight ahead. It helps overcome
any tendency for the vehicle to wander or
steer away from straight ahead. However,
negative caster makes steering easier.
Then only steering-axis inclination needs to Figure 48 Positive caster causes the steering axis
be overcome by the driver to steer away to pass through the road surface ahead of the
from straight ahead. center of the tire contact area. This causes the
steering axis to lead, or pull the tire and wheel along
the road. (Chrysler Corporation)
Vehicles with power steering often have
more positive caster than vehicles with
manual steering.The positive caster helps
overcome the tendency of power steering
to hold the front wheels in a turn. The
additional positive caster requires greater
steering effort. However, the driver does
not notice because of the power assist.
Positive caster tends to make the wheels
toe out.
Excessive positive caster may cause
increased steering effort, steering-wheel
snapback after a turn, low-speed shimmy
and increased road shock in the steering
wheel. A decrease of positive caster can
result from spring sag. This is one reason
to check the suspension height. Figure 49 Effect of sagging springs on caster. (Ford
Motor Company)

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 49
Toe
Toe is the measurement of how much the wheels point in or out from the straight-
ahead position. The measurement is made in inches, millimeters or degrees. Ideal
running toe
is zero. This means the wheels are parallel while rolling straight ahead. When the
wheels point in, toe is positive (+). The amount the wheels point inward is toe-in. If the
wheels point out, toe is negative (-). The amount the wheels point out is toe-out. Zero toe
means the wheels run parallel. They are the same distance apart at the front as they are
at the rear.
Toe is set with the vehicle standing still. Typically, the front wheels of a rear-drive
vehicle are given a slight toe-in of about 1/8 inch (3mm). When the vehicle moves
forward, road resistance usually causes the front tires to spread apart or toe out. This
compresses the steering linkage and takes up any play. As a result the tires become
parallel and roll straight ahead with zero toe. On some front-drive vehicles, the front tires
tend to pull in
as the vehicle moves forward. These vehicles are often given a small amount of toe-out.
A tire has to move in the direction the vehicle is traveling. Any toe-in or toe-out drags the
tire sideways as it rolls. The greater the toe or toe angle, the faster the tire wears. Zero
toe allows the tires to roll straight ahead, with neither toe-in nor toe-out.
Turning Radius
Turning radius is the difference in the
angles of the front wheels in a turn. It is
also called toe-out on turns and turning
angle. During a turn, the two front wheels
travel on concentric circles which have a
common center. The inner wheel turns
through a greater angle and follows a
smaller radius than the outer wheel. This
is because the outer wheel must travel a
greater distance and make a wider turn
than the inner wheel.
In figure 50, when the inner wheel turns at
an angle of 20 degrees, the outer wheel
turns 8 degrees. The inner wheel toes out
more to reduce tire scrub (scuffing) and Figure 50 Turning radius, or toe-out-on-turns. (Hunter
wear. Engineering Company)
This difference in toe-out on turns is achieved by the proper relationship among the
steering arms, tie rods and steering gear. The inner- and outer-wheel angles should not
vary more than 1.5 degrees from specifications. If turning radius is not within
specifications, check for a bent steering arm or tie rod.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 50
Setback
Wheel setback is the difference in vehicle
wheelbase from one side to the other
(Figure 51). It occurs when one wheel is
behind the other wheel on the same axle.
Setback results from production
tolerances during vehicle manufacture
and from collision or impact damage. It
can also result from improper placement
of the engine cradle or subframe. A
vehicle will drift or pull toward the side
with the shorter wheelbase.
Setback of more than ¾ inch (19 mm) is Figure 51 Setback or difference in vehicle wheelbase
excessive. from one side to the other. (Ford Motor Company)
It usually indicates bent parts. Excessive setback also causes the center point of the
steering gear to be off. Correct any problem with excessive setback before performing a
wheel alignment.
Thrust Angle
When all four wheels are properly aligned
and the steering wheel is centered, the
vehicle should travel forward in a straight
line. However, if a rear wheel has improper
alignment or setback. When the vehicle
moves forward it may not move straight
ahead. The direction of travel is determined
by three lines that run the length of the
vehicle. These are the vehicle centerline,
the geometric centerline that connects the
midpoints of the front wheels and rear
wheels. The thrust line is a line from the
midpoint between the two rear wheels. It
determines the direction the vehicle will
travel if unaffected by the front wheels.
If the thrust line makes a 90-degree angle
with the rear-axle centerline, the thrust line
falls on or coincides with the vehicle Figure 52 Thrust angle on a vehicle with (A) a live
centerline. rear axle and (B) independent rear suspension.
(Ford Motor Company)
The vehicle will travel straight ahead. If the thrust line does not coincide with the vehicle
centerline, a thrust angle is formed between the centerline and the thrust line. The
thrust line then represents the path the vehicle will try to take. This condition is also
called tracking.
The thrust angle affects handling by causing a pull in the direction away from the
thrust line. In a rear-drive vehicle, this may be caused by chassis damage or improper
positioning of the rear axle. Also, independent rear suspensions can have unequal toe
adjustments on the rear wheels. The result can be tire wear similar in appearance to
wear caused by improper toe.
ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 51
INSPECTING STEERING AND SUSPENSION COMPONENTS
INSPECTING STEERING LINKAGE
Looseness in the
steering linkage can
cause wheel shimmy,
uneven braking
problems, and
excessive tire wear. To
check fro loose
steering linkage, turn
off the air-suspension
switch (trunk switch) on
vehicle with air springs.
Figure 53 An air suspension system with air springs at all four wheels.
Raise the vehicle until the front tires clear the floor. Start the engine if the vehicle has
power steering. [Use a brake-pedal depressor or have an assistant apply the foot or
service brakes. This eliminates any play caused by loose wheel bearings.
Grasp both tires at the front and push out

and then pull in. On vehicles with 16-inch
(406 mm) diameter or smaller wheels, the
maximum movement at the front or rear of
each tire should be ¼ inch (6.5 mm) or
less. Excessive tire movement indicates
worn linkage parts such as wear in the tie-
rod ends or rack ball socket. Replace the
defective parts and any tie-rod end that has
torn boot. Then align the wheels.
Another method of checking the steering
linkage is the dry-park check. Park the
vehicle on a dry surface with the weight on Figure 54 Inspecting steering linkage. (Ford Motor
the wheels. Company)
With the engine off and the steering wheel unlocked, watch the various connecting parts
when the steering wheel is moved. Movement between the tie-rod end and the steering
arm indicates a worn tapered-hole in the steering arm or loose ball-stud in the tie-rod
end. Check each tie-rod end and other wear points for excessive looseness, binding and
roughness.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 52
CHECKING STEERING GEARS
When there is excessive looseness in the steering, find out if the looseness is in the
steering gear. Sometimes a steering-gear adjustment eliminates the looseness.
However, an adjustment cannot correct for defective bearing or excessive wear.
1. Recirculating-ball steering gear.

With the wheels on the floor, turn the steering wheel one way and then the other. If
excessive steering-wheel movement is required to move the pittman arm, the steering
gear is worn or needs adjusting. Two adjustments on the recirculating ball steering
gear are the worm-bearing preload and the overcenter preload. The worm-bearing
preload takes up the worm-shaft ensplay. The overcenter preload removes backlash
between the worm and the sector gear. These adjustments are usually made on the
steering gear after removing it from the vehicle.
2. Rack-and-pinion steering gear.

The rack is supported at two points in the housing. The rack bushing supports the
right end. The rack yoke supports the left or control-valve end. A spring behind the
yoke pushes the rack into the pinion. This rack-to-pinion preload is the rack-yoke
clearance. It maintains the proper mesh between the pinion and the rack. The rack
housing includes an adjuster plug, screw, or shim pack for adjusting rack-yoke
clearance.
Figure 55 Construction of rack-and-pinion power steering gear. (Moog Automotive, Inc.)

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 53
CHECKING WHEEL BEARING
Wheel bearings are usually either ball or

tapered-roller bearings. These may be
adjustable or non-adjustable. The front hubs of
rear-drive vehicles and the rear hubs of front-
drive vehicles are often supported by two
adjustable roller bearings. The inner bearing
and outer bearing mount on the stationary
spindle and should have no preload. Front-
drive vehicles have two ball or tapered-roller
bearings in each steering knuckle. These
bearings are permanently lubricated and not
adjustable.
1. Checking adjustable wheel bearings

Turn off the air-suspension switch (trunk
Figure 56 Adjustable wheel bearings in the hub
switch) on vehicles with air springs. of a non-driving wheel. (Chrysler Corporation)
Raise the vehicle until the tires clear the
ground. Support the vehicle so the ball
joints are loaded. This means they are
carrying the weight of the vehicle. Grasp
the tire at the top and bottom and rock it in
and out. If the outer edge of the tire moves
more than 1/8 inch (3 mm), have an
assistant apply the brakes and rock the tire
again. If this eliminates the movement, the
wheel bearings are loose.
2. Checking non-adjustable wheel bearings

To check non-adjustable wheel bearings on
General Motors and other vehicles, raise Figure 57 Non-adjustable wheel bearings used
the tires off the ground. with strut suspension. (Toyota Motor Sales
USA, Inc.)
Remove the wheels and the disc-brake calipers or brake shoes. Install two wheel
nuts to hold the drum or disc in place. Mount a dial indicator against the hub.
Measure the endplay while pushing in and pulling out on the drum or disc. If the
endplay exceeds 0.005 inch (0.13 mm), replace the hub-and-bearing assembly. The
wheel bearings cannot be replaced separately.
INSPECTING BALL JOINTS
Various methods are used to check ball joints. Some have built-in wear indicators. In
others, the amount of wear is measured. Replace any ball joint that has a torn boot.
1. Wear-indicating ball joints

Many ball joints have a built-in wear indicator in the cover. This is slightly protruding
boss into which a grease fitting may be threaded. On a new ball joint, the boss
protrudes 0.050 inch (1.27 mm). It recedes into the cover as the ball joint wears. To
check a wear –indicating ball joint, the weight of the vehicle should be on the wheels

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 54
so the ball joints are loaded. Wipe the grease fitting and boss to remove all dirt and
grease. Observe the cover, or scrape a fingernail, steel scale, or screwdriver across
it. If the boss is flush with or inside the cover, the ball joint is worn and should be
replaced.
Similar check of the lower ball joints is
made on Chrysler front-wheel-drive
vehicles. However, the wear indicator is
that the grease fitting loosens as the
ball joint wears. With the weight of the
vehicle on the wheels, try to move the
grease fitting with your fingers. Replace
the ball joint if the grease fitting has any
movement.
2. Ball joints without wear indicators To
check ball joints without wear
indicators, raise the front end. Support
the vehicle at the proper points to
remove the load from the ball joints.
Attach a dial indicator to the control
arm. Place the dial indicator plunger
against the steering knuckle or pinch-
bolt around the ball-joint stud. The dial
indicator will show any movement
between the ball-joint stud and its
socket.
Check vertical movement by lifting the
tire and wheel with a pry bar while
observing the dial indicator. Some ball
joints are preloaded with rubber or
springs under compression. They
should have very little vertical
movement. These ball joints are
marked as preloaded in specification Figure 58 Support points for checking ball joints in
tables. various coil-spring front-suspension systems.
Check horizontal movement by grasping the top and bottom of the tire, and moving it
in and out. More horizontal movement as indicating ball-joint wear. Replace the ball
joint if either vertical or horizontal movement exceeds the manufacturer’s
specifications. Then check the wheel alignment.
CHECKING SHOCK ABSORBERS AND STRUT DAMPERS
One test of shock absorbers and strut dampers is the bounce test. Bounce the vehicle at
each corner by pushing down and releasing it. The vehicle should return to its original
height and stay there. If it continues to bounce up and down, the shock absorber or strut
damper is probably defective and should be replaced. Check the shock absorber or strut
for wetness and leaking fluid. A shock absorber or strut damper that has lost fluid will not
work properly and should be replaced. The units are sealed and fluid cannot be added.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 55
STEERING AND SUSPENSION SERVICE
SERVICING STEERING AND SUSPENSION
After inspecting the steering and suspension, correct any defects found before starting a
wheel alignment. Follow the procedures in the vehicle service manual. Servicing the
steering and suspension includes:
• Removal, installation and adjustment of tie rods.

• Removal and installation of other steering-linkage parts.
• Removal and installation of steering gears.
• Removal and installation of ball joints and control arms.
• Removal and installation of struts and shock absorbers.
• Removal and installation of wheel hubs.
• Installation and adjustment of wheel bearings.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 56
Learning Outcome #3 : Perform wheel balancing
1. Wheel balancing machine is set-up.

2. Wheel weight location and size are identified.
Resources :
• Automotive Mechanics Pp. 675 - 710

th
10 Edition Pp. 749 - 762
Crouse and Anglin
• Power Train and Under Chassis

Course Manual Pp. 1 - 70
• Nissan Diesel Chassis Repair Manual

Model CK 20 – TK 20 Series Vol.2 Pp. 1 - 12
• Mathematics II SEDP Series Pp. 96 - 97

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 57
Learning Outcome #3 : Perform wheel balancing
• What are the equipment used in wheel • For more information about balancing the
balancing wheel read references listed below
Your first task on this activity is to setup the

tire balancing machine.
1. Identify wheel deformities.
1.1 Read • Automotive Mechanic
a. Wheel runout Crouse – Anglin
b. Wheel balance Pp. 760 – 765
Your next task is to have a review on

tire and wheel repair.
2. Review on tire and wheel repair.

2.1 Read
a. Tire repair • Automotive Mechanic
b. Temporary tubeless tire repair Crouse – Anglin
c. Tubeless tire repair Pp. 761 – 763
d. Wheel repair
What science/math concept would • Mathematics II

help you understand wheel balance? SEDP series
Pp. 96 - 97

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 58
Learning Outcome #4 : Conduct wheel alignment
1. Steering and suspension component conditions

accurately prior alignment.
2. Wheel alignment equipment positioned/installed as per
manual instruction.
3. Equipment reading interpreted accurately and required
adjustment done as per manufacturer specification.
4. Wheel alignment is adjusted
Resources :
th
• Automotive Mechanics 10 Edition
Crouse and Anglin pp. 675 - 690
pp. 691 - 710
• Nissan Diesel Chassis Repair Manual

Model CK 20 – TK 20 Series vol. 2, pp. 5 - 8
• The Automotive Drive Trains and Chassis Unit

Felizardo Y. Francisco pp. 125 - 134

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 59
Learning Outcome #4 : Conduct wheel alignment
• Do you have an experience in • For more information about conduct

conducting wheel alignment? wheel alignment read references listed
• What are the procedures in conducting below.
wheel alignment?
• What are the component parts of wheel
alignment?
1. Correct sequence in conducting • Power Train and Under Chassis

steering and suspension alignment. Course Manual
1.1 Read on procedure in Pp. 1 –70
conducting steering and
suspension alignment.
1.2 Familiar on the component • Automotive Mechanic
parts of wheel alignment. Crouse & Anglin
Pp 675 – 710
After knowing the procedure
and familiarization of • Nissan Diesel Chassis
component parts has a self – Repair Manual
check. Refer to the answer Pp 1 – 70
key for your answer.
What Math concept can help
us understand the actual • Task Sheet Template
wheel alignment?
Let us consider the next
activity and find out the math
concepts relevant to wheel
alignment.
1.3 Perform task sheet an Angles • Automotive Mechanic

and degrees. Crouse & Anglin
Pp 675 – 710
After performing 1.3 be sure
to have a self – check with • Power Train and Under Chassis
your instructor. Course Manual
Pp. 1 –70

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 60
2. Correct reading / interpreting of
wheel alignment / equipment for
adjusting.
2.1 Perform actual adjustment • Automotive Mechanic
and refer to repair manual on Crouse & Anglin
wheel alignment adjustment. Pp 675 – 710
After performing the activity,

have your instructor check
your works, and answer the
questions in the self – check.
3. Record data on steering alignment

inspection.
Fill out data on the checklist • Automotive Mechanic

for referral on the next Crouse & Anglin
alignment. Pp 675 – 710
Stored data on the
storeroom.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 61
CHECKING TIRE AND TIRE PRESSURE
TIRES AND TUBES
Purpose of Tires
The automotive chassis includes the brake,
steering, and suspension systems. The
chassis components that drive the vehicle
and support its weight are the wheels and
tires. Only the vehicle tires have contact
with the road surface.
Tires have two functions. First they are
airfilled cushions that absorb most of the
shocks caused by road irregularities. The
tires flex as they meet those irregularities.
This reduces the effect of road shocks on
the vehicle, passengers, and load. Second,
the tires grip the road to provide good
traction. This enables the vehicle to
accelerate, brake and make turns without Figure 59 A tire-and-wheel assembly. The tire is the
skidding. only contact between the vehicle and the road
surface. (Bridgestone Tire)
Types of Tires
There are two types of ties: tube and
tubeless. Tube tires have an inner tube
inside the tire. This is a round rubber
container that holds the air which supports
the vehicle. Both the tube and tire mount
on the wheel rim. The tire valve is part of
the tube and protrudes through the rim.
Compressed air is forced through the valve
to inflate the tube. The air pressure in the
tube then causes the tire to hold its shape.
Tubes are used in some truck and
motorcycle tires. Tubes are seldom used in
passenger and light-duty vehicles. Most
automotive vehicles use tubeless tires. The
tire mounts on an airtight rim so air is
retained between the flange and the tire
bead.
Figure 60 Tire and rim cut away to show the tube.

(ATW)

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 62
Tire Construction
The tire casings for tube and tubeless tires are
made in the same way. Layers of cord or plies
are shaped on a form and impregnated with
rubber. The tire sidewall and treads are then
applied. They are vulcanized in place to form
the tire. To vulcanize means to heat the
rubber under pressure. This molds the tire into
desired form.
The number of cord layers or plies varies.
Passenger-car tires have 2, 4, or 6 plies.
Heavy-duty truck and bus tires may have up to
14 plies. Tires for heavy-duty service, such as
earth-moving machinery, may have up to 32
plies.
All tires do not have the same shape or profile.
The aspect ratio or profile ratio differs. This is
the ratio of a tire's section height to section Figure 61 In a tubeless tire, the tire bead rests
between the ledges and flanges of the rim to
width. Three aspect ratios are 80, 70, and 60. produce an airtight seal. (ATW)
The lower the number, the wider the tire
appears. A 60-series tire is only 60 percent
high as it is wide.
Bias and Radial Plies

Plies can be applied two ways: diagonally or
radially. For many years, most tires had diagonal
or bias plies. These plies crisscross. This makes
a tire that is strong in all directions because the
plies overlaps, However, the plies tend to move
against each other and produce heat, especially
at high speed. Also, the tread tends to close or
"squirm' as it meets the road. Radial tires were
brought out to remedy these problems. In a radial
tire, the plies run parallel to each other and
vertical to the tire bead. Stabilizer belts are
applied over the plies to give strength parallel to
the beads. Belts are made of rayon, nylon,
fiberglass, or steelmesh. Figure 62 Construction of a tubeless radial
tire. (Ford Motor Company)
All new cars and most light-duty vehicles
have radial tires. The radial-tire sidewall is
more flexible than the bias-ply. Therefore,
the radialtire tread wraps around the edge
of the tire to compensate for the flexible
sidewall. The result is that the radial tread
does not hell up as much when the Figure 63 Three aspect ratios of car tires. The lower
vehicle rounds a curve. This keeps more the number the wider the tire appears. (ATW)
of the tread on the road and reduces the
tendency of the tire to skid.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 63
The radial tire provides better fuel economy than a bias-ply tire. This is because the
radial has less rolling resistance and less engine power is required to roll the tire. The
radial also wears more slowly. It has less heat buildup and the tread does not squirm as
the tire meets the road.
Some bias-ply tires are belted. These tires are bias-ply tires to which stabilizer belts have
been added under the tread.
Figure 64. Three basic tire constructions (Firestone Rubber Company)
Tire Tread
Tire tread is part of the tire that meets
the road. It has a raised pattern molded
into it. There are many designs,
depending on the intended use of the
tire. Many passenger vehicles use mud-
and-snow tires. These can be identified
by M+S or M&S molded into the
sidewall. They provide quiet running with
Figure 65 The difference in the amount of tread a bias
good traction in mud and snow. tire and a radial tire put on the road during a turn.
Mud and snow tires are used on four-wheel-drive pickup trucks. Its tread pattern is
deeper and wider or "more aggressive" than normal tread designs. This provides better
mud-and-snow traction with acceptable wear on paved surfaces. The tread compound is
also designed to resist tearing and chunking.
The treads shown are symmetric and nondirectional. "Nondirectional" means the tire can
run equally well in either direction. The tire can be installed with either sidewall facing
out. The tire must be installed for forward rotation in the direction of an arrow on the
sidewall.
Directional and asymetric sports car tread are used as the rear of the Chevrolet Corvette.
"Asymetric" means the inside half of the tread is not the same as the outside half. The
tire is installed on the side of the car marked on the sidewall, and with the specified
direction of forward rotation. This tire provides better braking and handling characteristics
than a comparable symmetric, nondirectional tire. Different size tires are used at the front
and rear of the Corvette. As a result, each tire is position specific. It can run only in a
specified wheel-position on the car. Other tires are classified as snow tires, studded tires,
ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 64
and off-road tires. Snow tires have large rubber cleats that cut through snow to improve
traction. Studded tires have steel studs that stick out above the tread. These improve
traction on ice and snow. However, many states regulate or ban studded tires because of
possible damage to the road surface. A variety of off-road tires are available. These
often have tread patterns using knobs or cleats. Off-road tires usually make noise and
wear prematurely when driven on the highway.
Figure 66 Types of tire tread. (Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company)
Some tires use two different compounds in the tread. Con compound is softer than the
other for improved traction. In general, the softer the compound, the better the traction.
The harder the compound, the longer the tread life.
Tire Valve
Air is put into the tire or tube trough a spring-loaded tire valve or Schrader valve. On tube
tires, the valve is on the inner tube and sticks out through a hole in the rim. Tubeless
tires use a separate tire valve mounted in a hole in the rim.
Spring force and air pressure hold the tire valve in its normally-closed position. A cap is
usually threaded over the valve stem end to protect it from dirt. The cap also keeps
guard against air leaks. Some tire valves have a non-movable valve core. The core is
three-pronged white plastic. A special deflator is required to let air out of the tube.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 65
Tire pressure
The amount of air pressure in the tire
depends on the type of tire and how it is
used. Passenger-car tires are inflated from
about 22 to 36 psi (152 to 248 kPa).
Heavyduty tires for trucks and buses may
be inflated to 100 psi (690 kPa). The
maximum inflation pressure is marked on
the tire sidewall. A tire placard or tire
information label lists the recommended
inflation pressure for each tire.
This label is usually located on a door
edge or door jamb, or inside the glovebox
door. The label also lists maximum load
and tire size (including spare). Running the
tires at the specified pressure helps
provide better vehicle handling while
avoiding premature tire wear.
Underinflated tires wear on the outsides of
the tread.
Also, the tires flex excessively which
produces extra heat and more rapid wear.
Overinflation causes the center of the
tread to wear. The tire cannot flex normally
and this puts stress on the sidewalls and
plies.
Figure 67 A tire placard or information label lists the
recommended inflation pressure for each tire on the
vehicle. (Ford Motor Company)
Tire Pressure Monitoring
Some vehicles have an electronic low-tire
pressure warning system (TPWS). This
system senses or monitors the tire
pressure in a moving vehicle. When the
pressure drops in a tire, an
instrumentpanel light illuminates to alert
the driver. A tire-pressure-sensor and
transmitter mounts inside the tires on each
wheel. When the tire pressure fall below
25 psi (172 kPa), the tire pressure sensor
sends a radio signal to the receiver-control
module in the instrument panel. This turns
on the
LOW TIRE PRESSURE light.
The receiver-control module also has
selfdiagnostic capabilities and can store
Figure 68 A tire-pressure sensor on the wheel inside
fault codes. If no signal is received from a the tire, which signals when the tire pressure is low.
tirepressure sensor, the control module (EPIC Technologies, Inc.)
turns on a SERVICE LTPWS light
.
ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 66
The tire-pressure sensors are peizoelectric devices and do not need batteries. In a
piezoelectric device, a small voltage appears across a crystal when a pressure is
applied. In the tire-pressure sensors, the vibration produced by the rolling tire generate
the voltage. Therefore, the system works only when the vehicle is moving or the tire is
being vibrated.
Tire Size and Sidewall Markings

The format for the metric tire-size designation found on most tires is shown. Various
letters and numbers may appear in each position. Each marking has a special meaning.
TIRE INSPECTION
Cautions for Servicing Tires
Several cautions must be followed to avoid personal injury and to prevent damage to the
wheel and tire.
1. Matching tire and wheel width. Do not

try to install a narrow tire with a high-
aspect ratio on a wide rim. For
example, a tire with an 80 aspect ratio
must not be installed on a wide rim that
requires a 60 tire.
2. Matching tire and wheel diameter. Do
not try to mount a 16-inch tire on a
16.5-inch wheel, or a 15-inch tire on a
15.5-inch wheel. The result could be a
deadly explosion when inflating the tire.
Check the rim size. It may be stamped Figure 69 Wheel with locking wheel cover and lock
near the center of the wheel disc. bracket. The special key wrench is needed to
remove or install the lock bolt. (Ford Motor
Company)
3. Mixing tires. All tires on a vehicle should be the same size, construction (radial or
non-radial), and speed rating unless otherwise specified by the vehicle manufacturer.
If two radials and two non-radials are on the vehicle, put the radials on the rear. Snow
tires should be installed in pairs on the drive axle (either front or rear), or on all four
wheels. Never put non-radial (bias or belted-bias) snow tires on the rear if radials are
on the front. Match tire sizes and construction on four-wheel drive vehicles. Tires
affect vehicle stability and handling. Mixing tires may cause handling problems.
4. Respecting compressed air. A terrific force is contained in an inflated tire. An

explosion of the tire-and-wheel assembly can result from improper or careless
mounting procedures. Never stand over a tire while inflating it. If the tire explodes, the
sudden release of compressed air has enough energy to throw a person more than
30 feet (9 m) in the air. People have been seriously injured or killed by exploding
tires.
5. Protecting your eyes Wear eye protection (safety glasses, safety goggles, or a face
shield) when demounting and mounting tires. When deflating a tire, avoid the air
stream from the tire valve. The air comes out at high speed and can blow dirt or
debris into your eyes.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 67
Checking Tire Pressure and Inflating Tires
Before checking tire pressure and adding air, know the correct pressure for the tire. The
specification is in the owners manual and on the vehicle tire-information label. When the
vehicle is carrying a heavy load, pulling a trailer, or driving at sustained highway speed,
higher tire pressure may be necessary. Maximum pressure should never exceed the
maximum pressure marked on the tire sidewall.
Inflation pressure is given for a cold tire. Pressure increases as tire temperature rises.
Highway driving on a hot day can increase the tire pressure from 5 to 7 psi (35 to 48
kPa). As the tire cools, it loses pressure. Never bleed a hot tire to reduce its pressure.
The pressure will then be low when the tire cools. Install the cap on the tire valve after
checking pressure or adding air.
Tire Inspection
The purpose of inspecting tires is to determine if they are safe for further use. When
defects or improper wear patterns are found, inform the driver. Recommend the services
that will correct the cause of the abnormal wear.
Tires have tread-wear indicators or wear bars. These are filled-in sections of the tread
grooves that will show when the tread has worn down to 1/16 inch (1.6 mm). A tire with a
wear bar showing is worn out and should be replaced. Too little tread remains for
continued safe driving. A tread-depth gauge can be inserted into the tread grooves to
measure tread depth of at least 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) in any two adjacent grooves at any
location on the tire.
Check for bulges in the sidewalls. Bulges mean plies have separated and the tire could
fail at any time. Tires with separated or broken plies should be replaced.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 68
Unit of Competency : Service Steering System
Name of Task Sheet : Measurement of angles
Learning Outcome : Conduct wheel alignment
Equipment and Resources:
5. Mathematics an Integrated Approach.

6. Protractor, Pencil and Calculator
Procedure :
One system of measurement a complete revolution is divided into 360 equal parts,
each of which is called a degree of rotation or simply a degree. If the rotation is
counterclockwise, the measure is ordinarily taken as positive. If the rotation is clockwise,
the measure is negative.
Y
mla = -40
mla = 320
B
O
a
Degrees can be divided into decimal degrees. Each
+320 degree can be divided into 60 equal parts called
minutes (denoted by ’) and each minute can de divided
into 60 equal parts called seconds (denoted by “ ).
Thus,
0
1 = 60’ and 1’ = 60”

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 69
The equal sign is used to indicate that we have written 2 names for the same
amount of rotation.
Step one: Find the degree measure of an angle formed by rotation of:
a) 1 ¾ revolution clockwise b) 17/34 revolution counterclockwise
Step two:
0
a) 1 ¾ (-360 ) = - 630
0 0 0
b) 17 / 32 (360 ) = 191.25 , or 191 15’

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 70
Terms and Definitions
Diagnosis – a conclusion arrived Steering system - the

at through critical perception or mechanism that enables the
scrutiny, hence, keen driver to control the direction of
understanding of appearances. It the vehicle travel.
includes a conclusion as to what Power steering – a steering
has already happened, or a system that uses hydraulic
recommendation of what should be pressure from a pump, or from
done. an electric motor, to multiply the
Caster – the forwarded or driver’s steering force.
backward tilt of the kingpin from Tie – rod – in the steering
vertical system, an adjustable – length
rod that, as the steering wheel
Camber – the inward or outward
turns, transfer the steering force
tilt of the front wheels from vertical.
and direction from the rack or
Front – end geometry – the linkage to the steering arm.
angular relationship between the Wheel – a disc or spokes with a
front wheels, wheel attaching hub (revolving around an axle) at
parts, and vehicle body or frame. the center and a rim around the
Includes camber, caster, steering outside for mounting the tire.
axis inclination, toe, and turning Kingpin inclination – the
radius. inclination or the inward tilt of the
Steering axis inclination – the kingpin or centerline of the
inward tilt of the steering axis from ballpoint from vertical.
the vertical as viewed from the
front of the vehicle.
Steering axis – the line around
which a front wheel swings for
steering.
Toe – the amount, in inches,
millimeters, or degrees, by which
the front of a wheel point inward
(toe – in) or outward (toe – out).
Turning radius – the difference in
the angles of the front wheels in a
turn; the inner wheel toes out
more. Also called toe – out on turn.
Wheel alignment – a series of test
and adjustments to ensure that the
wheels and tires are properly
positioned with the road and with
each other.

ALT723312 Nov. 28, 2003 June 26, 2007 71

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COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

Service Manual Steering System

SERVICING MANUAL STEERING SYSTEM

COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

No. Common Competencies Module Title Code

8. Interpret/ draw technical drawing 8. Interpreting/ drawing technical ALT311205

No. Core Competencies Module Title Code

2. Service Ignition System Servicing Ignition System ALT723304

3. Test and Repair Testing and Repairing ALT723305

6. Service Engine Mechanical Servicing Engine Mechanical ALT723309

7. Service Clutch System Servicing Clutch System ALT723310

10. Service Brake system Servicing Brake system ALT723314

11. Service suspension system Servicing Suspension System ALT723315

12. Perform Underchassis Preventive Performing Underchassis ALT723306

The unit of competency "Service Manual Steering System” contains the

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

Talk to more experience workmates and ask for their guidance.

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Service Manual Steering System

MODULE TITLE : Servicing Manual Steering System

This module contains information and practices of servicing manual steering

Upon completion of this module you have to undergo assessment conducted by

At the end of this module you will be able to:

1. Analyze front-end geometry failure

1.1 Visual inspection on tire wear/steering system is performed.

2.1 Steering component is pulled out.

Module Title : Servicing Manual Steering System

Learning Outcome # 1 : Analyze front-end geometry failure

1. Visual inspection on tire wear/steering system is performed.

• Power train and Underchassis Training Manual Pp. 4,5 & 26

• Nissan Diesel Chassis Repair Manual Pp. 27 – 39

Learning Activities Special Instructions

1. Identifying steering system

After reading 1.1 and 1.2, answer • Automotive Mechanics

2. Analyzing power steering failure. • Read Information Sheet LO1-2 Tables

Self-check on correct testing

After performing the activity, have • Automotive Mechanic

See Information Sheet LO6-1 under the

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

• Vehicle with power steering

Activity # 1: IDENTIFYING STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

a. Read Information Sheet LO1-1, and then answer these questions.

• What is the purpose of steering system in a vehicle?

b. Read Information Sheet LO1-2 before answering these questions.

• Do you know how power steering operates?

The steering system allows the

Figure 2 Typical front-suspension

Steering System Components

Types of Steering Gears

Two types of steering gears are widely

Trucks and large cars often have a

Figure 4 Manual recirculating-ball steering gear. (A)

Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear

Choose the best answer.

4. What component pivots inward or outward on ball joints?

5. What component transmits the driver’s movement to the steering gear?

Steering and Suspension Troubles

Table 1. Steering and Suspension Trouble-Diagnosis Chart

Complaint Positive Cause Check or Correction

Table 2. Abnormal Tire Wear Chart

UNDER- OVER- EXCESSIVE INCORRECT UNBALANCED

Inspecting Tires for wear

1. Raise the vehicle using floor jacks and stands

4. Put recommendations on the piece of paper for each tire inspected.