MATH1.001 - Calculus I - Chapter 1 (Handout)

MATH1.
001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22

Chapter 1: Functions, Limits, and Continuity
MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 1 / 115

Outline
1 Functions
2 Limits
3 Continuity

Summary
Functions are fundamental to the study of calculus. In this section we

study the following topics:
Functions and their graphs

Combining functions
Important types of functions

• What is a function?
Definition. A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that

assigns to each element x in D a unique (single) element, called
f (x), in Y .
The arrow diagram for f looks as follows.

• A function as a kind of machine
The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the
function, while set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout
D is called the range of the function.
So we can imagine a function f as a machine which produces an

output value f (x) in its range whenever we feed it an input x from its
domain.

• How to represent functions?
We will mainly study functions for which the sets D and Y are sets of
real numbers.
There are many different ways of describing functions

For example,
by a description in words (verbally)
by a table of values (numerically)
by a graph (visually)
by an explicit formula (algebraically)

• Visualizing a function
The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph.
The graph of a function

For a function f with domain D, its graph is the set of all points (x, y ) in
the xy -plane, with y = f (x) and x is in the domain of f . We write
G := {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D}.

• Examples
Domain convention
If a function is given by a formula and the domain is not stated
explicitly, then the convention is that the domain is the set of all
numbers for which the format makes sense and defines a real number.
Exercise
What are the domains of the following functions?
1
(a) f (x) =
1 − cos2 x
1 √
(b) g(x) = √ − 1−x
x −1
Answer. (a) x 6= k π (k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...); (b) x = ∅.

• Piecewise-defined functions
The functions defined by different formulas in different parts of their
domains are called piecewise-defined functions.
Example (Absolute value function)


x, x ≥0
|x| =
−x, x < 0.
The graph is as follows.

• Even and odd functions: Symmetry
Definition. A function y = f (x) is called

even, if f (−x) = f (x),
odd, if f (−x) = −f (x),
for every x in its domain.

Note. The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y -axis,
while the graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
Exercise
Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd.
(a) f (x) = x 5 + x (b) g(x) = 1 − x 4 (c) h(x) = 2x − x 2 .
Answer. (a) odd; (b) even; (c) neither even nor odd.

• Increasing and decreasing functions
Definition. A function y = f (x) defined on an interval I is called

increasing, if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), for any points x1 < x2 in I,
decreasing, if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), for any points x1 < x2 in I.
Note.
A function is increasing if its graph climbs or rises as you move
from left to right.
A function is decreasing if its graph descents or falls as you move
from left to right.

• Combining functions
Two functions can be composed at a point x if the value of one function

at x lies in the domain of the other.
More precisely, suppose that we have functions g : X → Y , f : Y → Z ,

and the range of g is a subset of the domain of f .
Definition. The composite function f ◦ g (reading as “f composed

with g”) is defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f g(x) , for x from the domain of g

The arrow diagram for f ◦ g looks as follows.

Example
x +1 1
Let f (x) = and g(x) = x + . Determine the function f ◦ g and
x +2 x
its domain.
Solution. We have
1
1 x+ x +1
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f x + = 1
x x+ x +2
x2 + x + 1
= .
x 2 + 2x + 1

1
Its domain is D = x ∈ R : x 6= 0, x + + 2 6= 0 = R \ {−1, 0}.
x

Note. It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions.
For instance, the composite function f ◦ g ◦ h is found by first applying

h, then g, and then f as follows:

(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f g(h(x)) .

• Important types of functions
Polynomials
A polynomials is a function of the form
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 ,
where n is a non-negative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · , an

are real constants (called the coefficients of the polynomial).
The domain of any polynomial is R = (−∞, ∞). If the leading

coefficient an 6= 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial.

- A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form P(x) = mx + b and it is
called a linear function (m is a slope).
- A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form P(x) = ax 2 + bx + c and it
is called a quadratic function.
- A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form P(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
and it is called a cubic function.

Power functions
A function f (x) = x a , where a is a constant, is called a power function.
There are several important cases to consider.
- a = n, a positive number

- a = −1 or a = −2
1 1
- a= , .
2 3

Rational functions
A rational function is a quotient or ratio
P(x)
f (x) = ,
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomials.
The domain of a rational functions is the set {x : Q(x) 6= 0}.

Algebraic functions
A function is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed from
polynomials using algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and taking roots).
Figures below display the graphs of some algebraic functions.

Trigonometric functions
Recall that a function f (x) is said to be periodic if there is a positive
number T such that
f (x + T ) = f (x), for every value of x.
The smallest such value of T is called the period of f .
We have six basic trigonometric functions (cosine, sine, tangent,

cotangent, secant, and cosecant):
1 1
cos x, sin x, tan x, cot x, sec x = , csc x = .
cos x sin x
The graphs of these functions are showed below, where the shading
for each function indicates its periodicity.

- Functions cos x and sin x.

- Functions tan x and sec x.

- Functions csc x and cot x.

Exponential functions
The exponential functions are the functions of the form f (x) = ax ,
where the base a > 0 and a 6= 1, is a constant.
All exponential functions have domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). So
these functions never assume the value 0.

Logarithmic functions
The logarithmic functions are the functions of the form f (x) = loga x,
where the base a > 0 and a 6= 1, is a constant. They are the inverse
functions of the exponential functions.
The domain is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).

Outline
1 Functions
2 Limits
3 Continuity

Summary
In this section, we study the following topics:
Rates of change and tangents to curves

Limits, one-sided limits
Limit laws
Infinite limits
The concept of a limit is a central idea that distinguishes calculus from

algebra and trigonometry.
It is fundamental to finding the tangent to a curve.

• Rates of change
Let us consider a moving object, for example, a rock falling from a

mountain.

We can find its average speed during an interval of time by dividing the
distance covered by the time elapsed.
In this case, we use the fact discovered by Galileo in the late sixteenth
century:
a solid object dropped from rest (initially not moving) near the
surface of the earth and allowed to fall freely will fall a distance
proportional to the square of the time it has been falling.
(Note. This type of motion is called free fall. It assumes negligible air
resistance to slow the object down, and that gravity is the only force
acting on the falling object.)
The unit of measure is length per unit time: kilometers per hour,
meters per second, or whatever is appropriate to the problem at hand.

If we denote by y the distance fallen in meters after t seconds, then
Galileo’s law is
y = 4.9t 2 ,
where 4.9 is the (approximate) constant of proportionality.
More generally, suppose that the moving object has traveled distance
f (t) at time t. Its average speed during an interval of time [t1 , t2 ] is the
change in distance f (t2 ) − f (t1 ) divided by the length of the time
interval t2 − t1 . That is,
Average speed over [t1 , t2 ]
distance traveled f (t2 ) − f (t1 ) f (t1 + h) − f (t1 )

= = = , h 6= 0.
elapsed time t2 − t1 h

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist and
engineer. He has been called the “father of observational astronomy”,
the “father of modern physics”, the “father of the scientific method”,
and the “father of modern science”.

Geometrically, the rate of change of y = f (x) over [x1 , x2 ],
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= ,
∆x x2 − x1
is the slope of the straight line passing through points P(x1 , f (x1 )) and
Q(x2 , f (x2 )).
In geometry, a straight line joining two points of a curve is called a

secant to the curve.

So the average rate of change of f from x1 to x2 is identical with the
slope of secant PQ.
Now we want to know what happens as the point Q approaches the

point P along the curve, so the length h of the interval over which the
change occurs approaches zero.
This procedure leads to defining the slope of a curve at a point, which

is called a tangent to the curve at a point.

To define tangency for general curves, we use an approach that
analyzes the behavior of the secant lines that pass through P and
nearby points Q as Q moves toward P along the curve.

• Limit and the tangent to a curve
A tangent to a curve
A tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve. In other words, a
tangent line should have the same direction as the curve at the point of
contact.

• Limits
In order to solve tangent problems we must be able to find limits.
Limit is one of the most fundamental concepts in calculus (and, in fact,

is one of the most important ideas in all of mathematics).
What is a limit?
Let’s think about the function

sin x
f (x) = ,
x
and focus on how it looks close to the point x = 0.

Question. What is the domain of f (x)? Answer. R \ {0}.
Question. What is the value of f (0)? Answer. The point 0 does not lie
in the domain of f , so f does not assign any value to the point x = 0.
The key idea

sin x
Even though f (x) = has no value defined at the point x = 0, we
x
can still look at the values f takes at points close to x = 0, and see if
those values are approaching some fixed value as x gets closer and
closer to 0.
That is precisely what the limit of a function f (x) at a point a is: a

number L which the values of the function get “closer and closer” to as
the variable x gets “closer and closer” to a.

Let’s calculate some values to see what happens as x gets close to 0:
Approaching 0 from the left:
x -0.25 -0.1 -0.05 -0.01 -0.005 -0.001

sin x
x 0.9896 0.9983 0.9996 0.999983 0.999996 0.999998
Approaching 0 from the right:
x 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.005 0.001

sin x
x 0.9896 0.9983 0.9996 0.999983 0.999996 0.999998
sin x
Comment. We can only guess is closer and closer to 1 as x is
x
closer and closer to 0?
sin x
The graph of function f (x) = is as follows.
x

• Definition of a limit
Definition. Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval

that contains a, except possibly at a itself.
We say that the limit of f (x) as x tends to a is L, and write
lim f (x) = L,
x→a
if for every number ε > 0, there exists a corresponding number

δ > 0, such that
0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

• We can have the following figure.
• By the graph interpretation, it looks as follows.

• A typical procedure to prove lim = L by definition
x→a
To prove a particular limit our task is to explain why we can always

choose an appropriate δ > 0, no matter what ε > 0 is.
(1) Let ε > 0 be any number. Choose an appropriate number δ > 0.

(We need to find δ by several-step calculations - this is the
important part of the proof )
(Note that δ depends on ε, that is formally speaking, we need to
find a good function δ(ε) : R+ → R+ . Here R+ = {x ∈ R : x > 0}.)
(2) Verify (prove) δ works, that is
0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.
Conclude that lim = L.

x→a

Example
Prove that lim (4x − 5) = 7.
x→3
Solution.
Preliminary analysis of the problem (guessing a value for δ).
Let ε > 0 be given. We want to find a number δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − 3| < δ =⇒ |(4x − 5) − 7| < ε.

| {z }
4|x−3|
So we need to find δ so that

ε
0 < |x − 3| < δ =⇒ 4|x − 3| < ε ⇐⇒ |x − 3| < .
4
ε ε
To make sure that |x − 3| < , we should choose δ = .
4 4
Proof (showing that this δ works).
ε
Given ε > 0, choose δ = . In this case, if 0 < |x − 3| < 4ε , then
4
ε
|(4x − 5) − 7| = 4|x − 3| < 4δ = 4 · = ε.
4
Thus
0 < |x − 3| < δ =⇒ |(4x − 5) − 7| < ε,
which shows, by the definition of a limit, that lim (4x − 5) = 7.

x→3
Comment. In the solution there were two stages: guessing & proving.
- First we made a preliminary analysis that enabled us to guess a
value for δ.
- Next we had to go back and prove in a careful, logical fashion that
we had made a correct guess.

• How to show that the limit does not exists?
Let us consider the following function f (x).
How would we use the ε-δ technique to show that the limit lim f (x)
x→0
does not exist?
In general, it is not simple. We will come back to this problem later.

One-sided limits
Example

0, t < 0
The Heaviside function H is defined by H(x) =
1, t ≥ 0.
This function is named after Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) (who was

an English electrical engineer, mathematician, and physicist) and can
be used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time
t = 0. Its graph is shown below

It is clear that as t tends to 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0, while as
t tends to 0 from the right, H(t) approaches 1.
Moreover, there is no single number that H(t) approaches as t tends

to 0. Therefore lim H(t) does not exist.
t→0
We indicate the situation symbolically by writing
lim H(t) = lim H(t) = 0,

t→0 t→0−
t<0
and
lim H(t) = lim+ H(t) = 1.
t→0 t→0
t>0

One-sided limits
We also have notions of one-sided limits.

Definition of one-side limits
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if for every number ε > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that
a−δ <x <a =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
if for every number ε > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that
a<x <a+δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

The definitions of one-sided limits are illustrated in the following figure.

• The trick estimation
In general, it is not always easy to prove that limit statements are true
using the ε, δ definition.
Sometimes we can prove complicated limits using a trick called
estimation.
• The main idea of estimation

Estimation is a useful trick which can sometimes help us prove
complicated limits.
It basically means replacing a complicated piece of some
expression by something larger, but easier to understand.
Actually, this trick - replacing complicated functions by simpler, larger
functions - is useful in many different parts of mathematics, not just
calculus.
Example
Use estimation to prove that lim x 3 = 27.
x→3
Solution.
Guessing a value for δ.
Let ε > 0 be given. We want to find a number δ > 0 so that
0 < |x − 3| < δ =⇒ |x 3 − 27| < ε.
To connect |x 3 − 27| with |x − 3|, we write
|x 3 − 27| = |(x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9)| = |x − 3| · |x 2 + 3x + 9|.
Then we want
0 < |x − 3| < δ =⇒ |x − 3| · |x 2 + 3x + 9| < ε.
Question. How can we process from |x − 3| · |x 2 + 3x + 9| to |x − 3|?

Answer. We can try to replace the complicated term |x 2 + 3x + 9| by a
constant C > 0 so that |x 2 + 3x + 9| < C around the point x = 3.
If we can find such a C, then
|x 3 − 27| = |x − 3| · |x 2 + 3x + 9| < C|x − 3|.

ε
In this case, we can make C|x − 3| < ε by taking |x − 3| < , and so
C
ε
we could choose δ = .
C
However, |x 2 + 3x + 9| has no upper bound in its domain R. We can
only find such a number C if we restrict x to be in some interval
centered at 3.

In fact, since we are interested only in values of x that are close to 3, it
is reasonable to assume that x is within a distance 1 from 3, that is
|x − 3| < 1.
Then we have 2 < x < 4, which gives 19 < x 2 + 3x + 9 < 37. Thus
|x 2 + 3x + 9| < 37, and hence C = 37 is a suitable choice for the
constant.
But now there are two restrictions on |x − 3|, namely

ε ε
|x − 3| < 1 and |x − 3| < = .
C 37
To make sure that both of these inequalities are satisfied, we take δ to
ε
be the smaller of the two numbers 1 and . The notation for this is
n ε o 37
δ = min 1, .
37

Showing that this δ works.
n ε o
Given ε > 0, let δ = min 1, . If 0 < |x − 3| < δ, then
37
|x − 3| < 1 =⇒ 2 < x < 4 =⇒ |x 2 + 3x + 9| < 37.

ε
We also have |x − 3| < , and so
37
ε
|x 3 − 27| = |x − 3| · |x 2 + 3x + 9| < · 37 = ε.
37
Therefore,
lim x 3 = 27.
x→3

Comment. It is not always easy to prove that limit statements are true
using the ε, δ definition.
Fortunately, this is unnecessary, the limits of complicated functions can

be found rigorously from the Limit Laws without resorting to the
definition directly.

• Limit Laws
Theorem
Let L, M, a, and k be real numbers and lim f (x) = L, lim g(x) = M.
x→a x→a
Then the following rules are true.

Sum/Difference rules: lim f (x) ± g(x) = L ± M
x→a

Constant multiple rule: lim k · f (x) = k · L
x→a

Product rule: lim f (x) · g(x) = L · M
x→a
f (x) L
Quotient rule: lim = , provided that M 6= 0
x→a g(x) M
n
Power rule: lim [f (x)] = Ln , n is a positive integer
x→a
p √
n
Root rule: lim n f (x) = L, n is a positive integer
x→a
(If n is even, we assume that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in an interval
containing a.)
• The triangle inequality
In many cases, for simplifying complicated expressions and proving

limits, we also us the following triangle inequality.
Triangle Inequality
For any numbers a, b, we always have
|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
The triangle inequality is useful in mathematical analysis for

determining the best upper estimate on the sum of two or more
numbers.
Here we can use the triangle inequality to prove, for example, the Sum
rule above.

• Direct Substitution Property
We can check that if f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in

the domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Note, however, that not all limits can be evaluated by direct

substitution.

Example
√
t2 + 9 − 3
Evaluate the limit lim .
t→0 t2
Solution. We cannot apply the Quotient rule immediately, since the

limit of the denominator is 0. But we can rationalize the numerator as
follows.
√ √ √
t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 + 3 (t 2 + 9) − 9
lim = lim · √ = lim √
t→0 t2 t→0 t2 t 2 + 9 + 3 t→0 t 2 ( t 2 + 9 + 3)
t2 1
= lim √ = lim √
t→0 t 2 (
t 2 + 9 + 3) t→0 t 2 + 9 + 3
1 1 1
= p = = .
lim t2 + 9 + 3 3+3 6
t→0

• The one-sided limits theorem
Some limits are best calculated by first finding the left- and right-hand
limits. The following result gives an alternative method to prove the
existence of a (two-sided) limit via one-sided limits exist.
Theorem (The one-sided limits)

Let f : D → R be a function. Then the limit lim f (x) exists if and only if
x→a
the two one-sided limits both exist and are equal. In this case
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim+ f (x).

x→a x→a− x→a
Note. When computing one-sided limits, we can use the fact that the
Limit Laws also hold for this type of limits.

• Limit does not exist
Now we come back to the question: How to prove that a limit does not
exist?
The one-sided limits theorem above gives us the following good way to
prove lim f (x) does not exit.
x→a
Theorem (Limit does not exist)

If either of the one-side limits lim f (x), lim+ f (x) does not exits, or
x→a− x→a
both one-side limits exit, but they are not equal, then so does the limit
lim f (x).
x→a

Example
Prove that the following limit does not exist.
|x|
lim .
x→0 x
Solution. We compute the one-side limits
|x| x
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1
x→0 x x→0 x x→0
|x| −x
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1.
x→0− x x→0− x x→0−

Since the right- and left-hand limits exist, but they are different, we
|x|
conclude that lim does not exist.
x→0 x

The next two theorems give two additional properties of limits.
Theorem
Suppose
There exist the limits lim f (x) = A & lim g(x) = B
x→a x→a
f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x in some open interval containing a, except
possibly at x = a itself.
Then
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x), that is A ≤ B.
x→a x→a

Theorem (The Squeeze Theorem)
Suppose f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing
a, except possibly at x = a itself. Suppose that
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L.

x→a x→a
Then there exists lim g(x) = L.

x→a
This theorem says that if g(x) is squeezed between f (x) and h(x) near
a, and if f and h have the same limit L at a, then g is forced to have the
same limit L at a.
Example
1
Evaluate the value of the limit lim x sin .
x→0 x
1
This plot leads us to expect that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
But this limit is not calculated by a combination of the various limit
laws. Instead we need the Squeeze Theorem to determine the limit.

Solution. Usually when we use the Squeeze Theorem we have two
questions to answer:
(1) What should we set f (x) to be?
(2) What should we set h(x) to be?
1
Answers. f (x) = −|x| and h(x) = |x|. Also we denote g(x) = x sin .
x
These functions work well for the Squeeze Theorem.

• Finite limits as x → ±∞
Convention. The symbol for infinity ∞ does not represent a real

number. We use ∞ to describe the behavior of a function when the
values in its domain or range outgrow all finite bounds.
1
For example, the function f (x) = is defined for all x 6= 0.
x

Observations.
1
When x > 0 and becomes increasingly large, becomes
x
increasingly small.
1
When x < 0 and its magnitude becomes increasingly large,
x
again becomes small.
We summarize these observations by saying that
1
f (x) = has limit 0 as x → ∞ or x → −∞,
x
or that
1
0 is a limit of f (x) = at (positive) infinity and at negative infinity.
x

Definitions. We say that
f (x) has the limit L as x tends to infinity and write
lim f (x) = L, if for every number ε > 0, there exists a
x→∞
corresponding number M > 0, such that for all x in the
domain of f
x >M =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.
f (x) has the limit L as x tends to negative infinity and write

lim f (x) = L, if for every number ε > 0, there exists a
x→−∞
corresponding number N < 0, such that for all x in the
domain of f
x <N =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

Limits at infinity have properties similar to those of finite limits.
Theorem
All the Limit Laws (for finite limits) are true when we replace lim by
x→a
lim or lim .
x→∞ x→−∞
That is, the variable x may approach a finite number or ±∞
Example
√ !
√ 1 1

2π 5
lim 1+ = lim 1 + lim 2π 5 · ·
x→±∞ x2 x→±∞ x→±∞ x x
√ 1 1
= lim 1 + lim 2π 5 · lim · lim
x→±∞ x→±∞ x→±∞ x x→±∞ x
√
= 1 + 2π 5 · 0 · 0 = 1 + 0 = 1.

• Infinite limits
Look at the following graph of a function.
It is clear that for any given horizontal line y = M, we can find a

number δ > 0 so that if we restrict x to lie in the interval (a − δ, a + δ)
but x 6= a, then the curve y = f (x) lies above the line y = M.

This leads us to the definition.
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval that contains a,
except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = ∞ (or also +∞)

x→a
means that for every positive number M there is a positive number δ

such that
0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ f (x) > M.
This says that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (larger
than any given number M) by requiring x to be close enough to a
(within a distance δ, where δ(M) depends on M, but with x 6= a).
You can see that if a larger M is chosen, then a smaller δ may be

required.
Comment. This does not mean that ∞ is a number. Nor does it mean
that the limit exists. It simply expresses the particular way in which the
limit does not exist: f (x) can be made as large as we like by taking x
close enough to 0.

Similarly, we can the negative infinite limit.
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval that contains a,
except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
means that for every negative number N there is a positive number δ

such that
0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ f (x) < N.
This says that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily small (smaller
than any given number N) by requiring x to be close enough to a
(within a distance δ, where δ(N) depends on N, but with x 6= a).

Note. We may read lim f (x) = ±∞ as the limit of f (x), as x tends to
x→a
(approaches) a, is (plus) positive or (minus) negative infinity.
Exercise
Prove that
1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x 2

• One-sided infinite limits
Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided infinite limits
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞.

x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞,

x→−
a
x→a+
remembering that x → a− means that we consider only values of

x < a, and similarly x → a+ means that we consider only x > a.

• Infinite Limits at Infinity
Now we consider the last type of limits, the infinite limits at infinity.
The notation
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞
means f (x) becomes large as x becomes large.
Similarly we have,
lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞.

x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞

We have the following definitions.
Definition
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). We write
lim f (x) = ∞, if for every number M > 0, there exists a number
x→∞
N > 0, such that
x >N =⇒ f (x) > M.
Similar definitions apply when the symbol ∞ is replaced by −∞.

Exercise
Show that
lim x 3 = ∞
x→∞
lim x 3 = −∞.
x→−∞

Outline
1 Functions
2 Limits
3 Continuity

Summary
In this section, we study the following topics:

Continuity of a function at a point; continuity test
Continuous functions and their properties
Important classes of continuous functions
The application: Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous
functions

Observation
We noticed previously that the limit of a function as x tends to a can

often be found simply by calculating the value of the function at a.
We already studied the “Direct Substitution Property”: If f is a

polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
For example, if
x +1
f (x) = ,
x2 − 2
then
x +1
lim f (x) = lim = f (1) = −2.
x→1 x→1 x 2 − 2

• Continuity
It is true that for many functions f (x) we can obtain the limit lim f (x)
x→a
just by evaluating the function at the point a we are taking the limit.
These are actually very special types of functions: the continuous
functions.
Definition. Let f be a function and let a ∈ R. This function is said

to be
continuous at a, if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
right-continuous (or continuous from the right) at a, if
lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a
left-continuous (or continuous from the left) at a, if
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a−

Note.
The equation in the definition is sometimes called the direct
substitution property.
The intuitive idea of a continuous function is that the graph can be
drawn without lifting the pen off the paper. Or, a small change in x
away from x = a only leads to a small change in f (x).
Below is a continuity at points x = a, x = b, and x = c

In the figure below, the function is not continuous at points x = 1,
x = 2, and x = 4.

Example
√
The function f (x) = 4 − x 2 is continuous over its domain [−2, 2]. It is
right-continuous at x = −2, and left-continuous at x = 2.

We summary continuity at an interior point in the form of a test, which
can be easily obtained from the definition.
Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at the point x = a if the following three
conditions are true:
(i) f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )
(ii) The limit lim f (x) exists (that is, f has a limit as x → a)
x→a
(iii) lim f (x) = f (a) (that is, the limit equals the function value).
x→a
Note. For one-side continuity and continuity at an endpoint of an

interval, the limits in parts (ii) and (iii) of the test should be replaced by
the appropriate one-side limits.

• Discontinuity
If a function f is defined near a (that is, f is defined on an open interval

containing a, except perhaps at a), and f is not continuous at a, then
we say that f is discontinuous at a (or f has a discontinuity at a).
Comments. From the Continuity Test, it follows that a function f is NOT

continuous at a, if and only if either of the following conditions fail to
hold:
f (a) is not defined.
The limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a
lim f (x)6=f (a).
x→a

Exercise
Figure below shows the graph of a function f . At which numbers is f
discontinuous? Why?

• Classification of discontinuity
Suppose a function f (x) is defined near a, but it is discontinuous at

x = a.
If the limit lim f (x) = L, but L 6= f (a), then a is called a removable
x→a
discontinuity.
This discontinuity can be removed to make f continuous at x = a, or
more precisely, the function

f (x) x 6= a
g(x) =
L x =a
is continuous at x = a.

If the two one-sided limits exist and are finite, but are not equal
(and hence the limit L does not exist), then a is called a jump
discontinuity (or discontinuity of the first kind).
For this type of discontinuity, the function f may have any value at a.

If one of the two one-sided limits does not exist or is infinite, then
a is called an essential discontinuity (or discontinuity of the
second kind).

Exercise
Classify discontinuity of the following functions at x0 = 1.
 
2 2
x , x <1 x , x <1

 

 
(a) f (x) = 0, x =1 (b) f (x) = 0, x =1

 

2 − x, x > 1
 2 − (1 − x)2 , x > 1

5

sin
 , x <1
 x −1


(c) f (x) = 0, x =1


 1

 , x >1
x −1
The graphs of these functions are shown in the next slide.

• Properties of continuous functions
Using Limit Laws, we can prove that algebraic combinations of
continuous functions are continuous everywhere they are defined.
Theorem
If f , g are continuous at x = a, then so are the following:
1 Sums, differences: f ± g
2 Constant multiple: k · f , for any number k
3 Products: f · g
f
4 Quotients: , provided that g(a) 6= 0
g
5 n
Powers: f , where n is a positive integer
√n
6 Roots: f , provided that it is defined on an open interval
containing a, where n is a positive integer.
• Continuity on an interval
So far we have only been discussing continuity at a single point, while
in general we want to describe the continuity behavior of a function
throughout its entire domain
Definition
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every
number in the interval.
If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we
understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from
the right or continuous from the left.
Note that by interval we are including all of the following possibilities:
(a, b), (a, b], [a, b), [a, b], (−∞, b), (−∞, b], (a, ∞), [a, ∞), (−∞, ∞).

Example
√
The function f (x) = 2 − 1 − x 2 is continuous on the interval [−1, 1].
Solution.
- If −1 < a < 1, then using the Limit Laws, we have
p p
lim f (x) = lim (2 − 1 − x 2 ) = 2 − lim 1 − x 2
x→a x→a x→a
q p
= 2 − lim (1 − x ) = 2 − 1 − a2 = f (a).
2
x→a
Thus f is continuous at a.
- At the end points ±1, similar calculations show that
lim f (x) = 2 = f (−1) and lim f (x) = 2 = f (1).

x→−1+ x→1−
So f is continuous from the right at −1 as well as from the left at 1.

So conclusion: f is continuous on [−1, 1].
• Continuity of important functions
It turns out that most of the familiar functions are continuous at every
number in their domains.
n
X
Polynomials: P(x) = ai x i
i=0
Power functions: f (x) = x a
P(x)
Rational functions: f (x) =
Q(x)
Algebraic functions
Trigonometric functions: cos x, sin x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x
Exponential functions: f (x) = ax (a > 0, 6= 1)
Logarithmic functions: f (x) = loga x (a > 0, 6= 1)

We have the following principle.
The general principle. Any function constructed from continuous

functions by doing additions, multiplications, and divisions, is itself
going to be continuous at every point of its domain.
This principle shows how to build up complicated continuous functions

from simple ones by doing additions, multiplications, and divisions.

Another way of combining continuous functions f and g to get a
new continuous function is to form the composite function f ◦ g.
This fact is a consequence of the following result.
Theorem

If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then lim f g(x) = f (b).
x→a x→a
In other words,

lim f g(x) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a
This theorem says that a limit symbol lim can be moved through a
x→a
function symbol f if the function is continuous and the limit exists.
In other words, the order of these two symbols can be reversed.

• Continuity of composite functions
Applying the previous theorem, we can get the fact that a continuous
function f of a continuous function g is a continuous function f ◦ g.
More precisely, we have the following result about composition of

continuous functions.
Theorem
If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite

function f ◦ g given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f g(x) is continuous at a.

Example
Where is the following function continuous?
1
F (x) = √ .
x2 +7−4
Solution. Note that F can be broken up as the composition of four

continuous functions:

F =f ◦g◦h◦k or F (x) = f g h(k (x)) ,
where
1 √
f (x) = , g(x) = x − 4, h(x) = x, k (x) = x 2 + 7.
x
Since each of these functions is continuous on its domain, F is
continuous on its domain, which is
n p o
x ∈ R : x 2 + 7 6= 4 = {x ∈ R : x 6= ±3} = (−∞, −3)∪(−3, 3)∪(3, ∞)

• Application of continuity
Let us consider a function f (x) with domain [a, b] whose graph is

shown below. I have concealed part of the graph under a box.
Now I tell you that the graph of f (x) intersect the line y = N at no point.
Question. What can you conclude?
Answer. f (x) cannot be continuous on the whole interval [a, b].

• Intermediate Value Theorem
The observation we just made is actually an important theorem about

an important property of continuous functions.
The Intermediate Value Theorem for a continuous function

Let f be a function, and a, b, N real numbers with a < b. Suppose
f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
f (a) 6= f (b)
N is in between f (a) and f (b).
Then there exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (c) = N.

The IVT for continuous functions states that a continuous function
takes on every intermediate value between the function values f (a)
and f (b).
Note that the value N can be taken on once (as in part (a)) or more
than once (as in part (b)).

If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no
hole or break, then it is easy to believe that the IVT is true.
In geometric terms it says that if any horizontal line y = N is given

between y = f (a) and y = f (b), then the graph of f cannot jump over
the line. It must intersect y = N somewhere.

Example
Show that the equation
4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0
has a root in between 1 and 2.
Solution. Let f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2. We have to show that there

exists a number c ∈ (1, 2) such that f (c) = 0.
Taking a = 1, b = 2, and N = 0 in the IVT, we have
f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0
f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0.
Thus f (1) < 0 < f (2); that is, N = 0 is a number between f (1) and f (2).

Now f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so the IVT says that there
is a number c ∈ (1, 2) such that f (c) = 0.
In other words, the equation 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0 has at least one

root c in the interval (1, 2).
Comment. In fact, we can locate a root more precisely by using the

IVT again. For instance, it is easy to check that
f (1.2) = −0.128 < 0 and f (1.3) = 0.548 > 0,
and so a root must be in between 1.2 and 1.3.

END OF CHAPTER 1

MATH1.001 - Calculus I - Chapter 1 (Handout)

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MATH1.

001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 1 / 115

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Functions are fundamental to the study of calculus. In this section we

Functions and their graphs

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Definition. A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that

The arrow diagram for f looks as follows.

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So we can imagine a function f as a machine which produces an

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There are many different ways of describing functions

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The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph.

The graph of a function

G := {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D}.

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Answer. (a) x 6= k π (k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...); (b) x = ∅.

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Example (Absolute value function)

The graph is as follows.

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Definition. A function y = f (x) is called

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(a) f (x) = x 5 + x (b) g(x) = 1 − x 4 (c) h(x) = 2x − x 2 .

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 11 / 115

Definition. A function y = f (x) defined on an interval I is called

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 12 / 115

Two functions can be composed at a point x if the value of one function

More precisely, suppose that we have functions g : X → Y , f : Y → Z ,

Definition. The composite function f ◦ g (reading as “f composed

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For instance, the composite function f ◦ g ◦ h is found by first applying

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 16 / 115

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 ,

where n is a non-negative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · , an

The domain of any polynomial is R = (−∞, ∞). If the leading

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There are several important cases to consider.

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 19 / 115

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 20 / 115

where P and Q are polynomials.

The domain of a rational functions is the set {x : Q(x) 6= 0}.

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 21 / 115

Figures below display the graphs of some algebraic functions.

MATH1.001 CALCULUS I - AY2021/22 22 / 115

f (x + T ) = f (x), for every value of x.

The smallest such value of T is called the period of f .

We have six basic trigonometric functions (cosine, sine, tangent,

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The domain is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).

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In this section, we study the following topics:

Rates of change and tangents to curves