CONTROL AND COORDINATION

● Importance of nervous system in humans

1. Brain growth and development
2. Sensations (such as touch or hearing)
3. Perception (the mental process of interpreting sensory information)
4. Thought and emotions
● Stimuli: The changes in the environment to which living organisms respond are
called stimuli.
● Nervous system: it is an organ system which consists of highly specialised cells
called neurons. These neurons form a network throughout the body and conduct
information via electrical impulses.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of brain and spinal cord Consists of cranial nerves(nerves arising

from brain) and spinal nerves(nerves
arising from the spinal cord)
Coordinates all neural functions These supply information required for the
movements of muscles.

● Nerve impulse: A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that travels along an axon.
There is an electrical potential difference between the inside of the axon and its
surroundings.This triggers a wave of electrical activity that passes from the cell
body along the length of the axon to the synapse.
● Synapse: the point of contact between axon endings of the neuron and dendrite of
another neuron. It is a functional junction between two neurons.
 Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system

a) Cyton- comprises granular nucleus and granular cytoplasm which

changes stimulus to impulse.
b) Dendrites- hair like processes connected to the cyton. They receive
stimulus, which is passed onto cyton.
c) Axon- longest dendrite of a neuron which transmits impulse away
from cyton.

● Sensory neurons: carry messages from sense organs to brain or spinal

● Motor neurons: carry impulses from brain to muscles or effectors
● Relaying neurons: serve as links between sensory and motor neurons for
transmission of impulse.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

a)BRAIN
- Present inside cranium which protects the brain from injuries
- Protected by three membranes called meninges
- Outer surface- grey matter
Inside matter- white matter
- Filled with cerebrospinal fluid-1. Shock absorber
2. Transports hormones
3. Provides buoyancy
- FOREBRAIN
a) Cerebrum
-initiates and coordinates movement
-regulates temperature
b) Olfactory lobes- the centre for smell
c) Diencephalons
- Thalamus: responsible for relaying sensory information from the sense
organs.
- Hypothalamus: to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis

- MIDBRAIN
- Joins forebrain to pons and cerebellum
- Controls eye movement and hearing response
- Acts as a coordination centre between forebrain and hindbrain.
 - HINDBRAIN
a) Cerebellum
- controls voluntary movements in the brain
- maintains posture and controls equilibrium
b) Pons
- transmits impulses from one side of the cerebellum to another.
- takes part in regulation of respiration
c) Medulla oblongata
- Posterior part of the brain
- Controls involuntary functions such as heart rate.

● Receptors- are the organs called sense organs which have high concentrations of
the dendritic end of neurons and they receive a stimulus.

● Effectors- the muscles and glands which respond to the information from the brain
and spinal cord through the motor nerves.

● Sensory nerves- are nerves which carry information from the receptors (sense
organs) to the brain and spinal cord.

● Motor nerves- are nerves which carry information from the brain and spinal cord to
the effectors (muscles and glands).

Receptors- are the sense organs with a very high density of dendritic ends of
neurons which receive the stimuli and pass the message to the brain or spinal
cord through the sensory nerves.
a)Photoreceptors in the eyes to detect light.
b)Phonoreceptors in the ears to detect sound.
c)Olfactory receptors in the nose to detect smell.
d)Gustatory receptors in the tongue to detect taste.
e)Thermoreceptors in the skin to detect touch, heat

REFLEX ACTION
Reflex action is a sudden, unconscious and involuntary response of the effectors to
a stimulus.
Functioning- the nerves in the skin (receptor) detects the heat and passes the
message through the sensory nerves to the spinal cord. Then the information
passes through the motor nerves to the muscles (effector) of the hand and we
withdraw our hand.
Importance
- Quick response, prevents or reduces the damage by stimulus
- Prevents overloading of Brain

REFLEX ARC
The pathway of a reflex action is called reflex arc. In a reflex arc the stimulus is
received by the receptors (sense organs) and it passes through the sensory nerves
to the spinal cord. From the spinal cord the information passes through the motor
nerves to the effectors (muscles/glands) for the response.

HORMONES
Chemical substances that coordinate and control the activities of living organisms
and their growth.
Characteristics of hormones:-
(i) they are secretions of endocrine glands or tissues.
(ii) they are poured directly into the blood stream.
(iii) have their effect at the sites different from the sites where they are produced
(iv) they act on special tissue or organ called ‘ target organs’

HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

a series of glands that produce and secrete hormones which help to
control and coordinate various activities in the body.

Importance of Endocrine system

These control many different body functions which includes:
•Respiration
•Metabolism
•Reproduction
 Glands-A gland is a group of cells or organ which produces and releases
substances that perform a specific function in the body.
There are three types of gland.
● Endocrine glands- are ductless glands and release the substances that they make
(hormones) directly into the bloodstream.
eg. Thyroid gland
● Exocrine glands- are glands with ducts and the ducts take the secretion to the site
of action.
eg.Sebaceous glands present in skin.
● Mixed glands- are the glands which are designed to have both endocrine and
exocrine functions.
Eg. Pancreas

How are pancreas both exocrine and endocrine glands?

Functioning as an exocrine gland, the pancreas secretes enzymes to break down
the proteins, lipids and carbohydrates in food. Functioning as an endocrine gland,
the pancreas secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar
levels throughout the day.

TARGET SITE

Most hormones circulate in blood, coming into contact with essentially all cells.
However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, which are
called target cells. A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors
for the hormone.

HOMEOSTASIS
the tendency of an organism or cell to regulate its internal environment and maintain
equilibrium, usually by a system of feedback controls

ADRENAL GLAND-adrenaline hormone

- sent through the blood to the heart
- increases heart and breathing rate to supply more oxygen to the muscles to
prepare the body to either run away or fight with the enemy.

THYROID GLAND- thyroxine hormone

- Iodine is needed by the thyroid gland to produce the hormone thyroxine.
- controls the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and helps in
proper growth.
- diet is deficient in iodine it causes goitre.
PITUITARY GLAND- growth hormone
- Deficiency of this causes dwarfism.
- Excess of this causes excess growth or gigantism.

PANCREAS- insulin hormone

- controls the blood sugar level.
- Increase in blood sugar level causes diabetes.

TESTES-testosterone
- controls the production of sperms

OVARIES- oestrogen/ oestrogen

- controls the production of eggs

GROWTH INDEPENDENT MOVEMENT

non directional movements which are neither towards or away from the stimulus and
it does not depend on growth and is also known as nastic movements.
FUNCTIONING OF A MIMOSA
If we touch the leaves of touch me not plant, its leaves fold up and droop down
immediately due to the change in the amount of water in the cells present at the
base of the leaves. Depending upon the amount of water in these cells, the leaves
open or close.

GROWTH DEPENDENT MOVEMENT

directional movements towards or away from the stimulus and it depends on growth
and are also called Tropic movements.
a) Phototropism
movement of plants in response to light.
Towards the light- positive phototropism
eg:Bending of shoots towards light.
Away from the light- negative phototropism
eg:Bending of root away from light.

b) Geotropism
movement of plants in response to gravity.
towards gravity- positive geotropism.
Eg:Downward growth of roots.
If it is away from gravity- negative geotropism.
Eg:Upward growth of shoots.
c) Chemotropism
movement of plants in response to chemical stimuli.
Eg: Growth of pollen tube towards the ovule.

d) Hydrotropism
movement of plants in response to water.
Eg: Growth of roots towards water.

e) Thigmotropism
This is the movement of plants in response to touch.
Eg: Tendrils winding around solid objects.

PLANT HORMONES
Auxins - synthesised at shoot tip(Meristem)
- Increase in the length of the plant
- Apical dominance : inhibition of growth of lateral buds
- Flower initiation
- Parthenocarpy: the production of fruits without the fertilisation of ovules
Gibberellins- synthesised in young shoots and tips
- Elongation of stem
- Reverse dwarfism
- Parthenocarpy
Cytokinins- abundant in tissues where rapid cell division occurs
- Promotes cell division
- Promotes cell division
- Delays the process of ageing in plants
Ethylene-essentially all parts of higher plants such as leaves and stem
- Fruit growth
- Induces flowering
- Stimulates ageing
Abscisic acid- produced in the roots
- Growth inhibition
- Acts opposite to gibberellins
- Stimulates ageing