HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary Canal/ G.I.T

Digestive Glands
 HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

1. Mouth
2. Oesophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small Intestine
5. Large intestine
6. Rectum
7. Anus
Alimentary canal: Histology
 HUMAN DIGESTIVE GLANDS

A. Salivary Glands
B. Gastric glands
C. Liver
D. Pancreas
E. Intestinal Glands
Digestive pH Daily secretion Composition
juices

Saliva 6.8 1.5L Salivary amylase (ptyalin), water, Na+ , K+ , Cl- , HCO3 -
and lysozyme.

Gastric Juice 1.8 2.5-3L Pepsinogen, Prorennin, Gastric lipase, HCl, CIF.

Pancreatic 7.8-8.4 1200-1500ml Pancreatic , 𝜶- amylase (amylosin), Trypsinogen,

Juice Chymotrypsinogen, Pro-carboxypeptidases, Elastase,
Pancreatic lipase (Steapsin), DNAase, RNAase.

Bile Juice 7.6-8.6 500-1000ml No digestive enzymes, Bile salts, bile pigments,
cholesterol, lecithin and phospholipids.

Intestinal 7.8 3L Enterokinase, Aminopeptidases, Disaccharidases

Juice (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase), Intestinal Lipase,
Nucleotidases, Nucleosidases.
Digestion of Food : Buccal cavity

Salivary amylase
Starch Maltose
pH 6.8

The water also plays an important role in metabolic

processes and also prevents dehydration of the body.
Digestion of Food : Stomach

➔ No carbohydrate digestion
takes place in stomach as
ptyalin is destroyed by HCl

HCl
Pepsinogen Pepsin

Pepsin
Proteins Peptones (Peptides) &
Proteoses
Digestion of Food : Stomach
HCl
Prorennin Rennin
Rennin Paracasein Ca2+ Calcium paracaseinate
Casein
(Curdled milk)
(Milk protein)
Pepsin
Protein including Ca paracaseinate pH-2.0 proteoses and peptones
Digestion of Food : Small Intestine

Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme,

enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal mucosa
into active trypsin, which in turn activates the
other enzymes in the pancreatic juice.

Proteins Trypsin/Chymotrypsin
Peptones Dipeptides
Carboxypeptidase
Proteoses

Polysaccharides Amylase
Disaccharides
(starch)
Digestion of Food : Small Intestine
The enzymes in the succus entericus act on the end products of protein, carbohydrate, fats and
nucleic acid digestion and form the respective simple absorbable forms.

Dipeptidases
Dipeptides Amino acids

Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Nucleotidases Nucleosidases
Nucleotides Nucleosides Sugars + Bases

Lipases
Di and Monoglycerides Fatty acids + Glycerol
Digestion of Food : Large Intestine
No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestine. The undigested and
unabsorbed substances are passed on to this site

Functions of Large intestine:

(i) Absorption of some water,

minerals and certain drugs.

(ii) Secretion of mucus which helps in

adhering the waste (undigested)
particles together and lubricating it
for an easy passage.
 Digestive Hormones
Hormone Source Target Organ Action

Gastrin Stomach Stomach ● Increase gastric mobility and HCl secretion

Secretin Duodenum Pancreas, Liver, ● Release bicarbonates in pancreatic juice

Stomach ● Increases bile secretion
● Decreases gastric secretion and motility

Cholecystokinin (CCK) Small intestinal Pancreas, ● Contract gall bladder to release bile
gallbladder ● Stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzymes

Enterogastrone Or Gastric Duodenum Stomach ● Inhibits gastric secretion and motility

Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

Duocrinin Duodenum Duodenum ● Stimulate Brunner’s gland to secrete mucus and enzymes
to intestinal juice

Vasoactive Intestinal Small Intestine Small intestine and ● Dilates peripheral blood vessels of gut and inhibit gastric
Peptide (VIP) stomach acid secretion

Enterocrinin Small Intestine Small Intestine ● Stimulate Crypts of Lieberkuhn to release enzymes in
intestinal juice

Somatostatin Delta cells Pancreas, GI tract ● Inhibit secretion of glucagon and insulin from alpha and
(pancreas) beta cells respectively
 Vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins
Vitamins Source Functions Deficiency symptoms

Carrot, tomato, Papaya,

Essential role for vision, growth, Night blindness, Xerophthalmia,
Vitamin A (Retinol) Mango, Milk, Eggs, Cod liver
differentiation of epithelial tissue Abnormal epithelial cell growth
oil

Cod liver oil, Skin can Increases calcium absorption from

Vitamin D Rickets in children and
synthesize it in presence of gastrointestinal tract and help in control
(Calciferol) osteomalacia in adults
sunlight of calcium deposition in bones

Acts as good antioxidants, essential for Reproductive failure (Sterility),

Wheat germ, green leafy
Vitamin E normal reproductive organ functioning, muscular dystrophy, increased
vegetables, fats of vegetable
(Tocopherol) maintain muscles of the body and haemolysis leading to macrocytic
origin
structure of RBCs anaemia

Vitamin K
(Phylloquinone-K1 Leafy vegetables, wheat
Helps in blood clotting, prevention of Faulty blood clotting,
germ, synthesized by large
Menaquinone-K2 excessive bleeding Haemorrhage
intestine bacteria
(Menadione-K3)
 Vitamins
Water soluble vitamins

Vitamins Source Functions Deficiency symptoms

Vitamin B complex Essential for repair, growth of tissue. Beriberi disease, deficiency in
Whole grain, Wheat germ, Helps body to convert tryptophan to alcoholics causes Wernicke’s
Vitamin B1
Legumes, Nuts, Fish niacin. Acts as TPP (Thiamine syndrome and Korsakoff’s
(Thiamine) pyrophosphate) in TCA cycle) syndrome

Vitamin B2 Helps in RBC production. Acts as FMN (in Cheilosis (Painful inflammation
Helps in RBC production
(Riboflavin) ETC) and FAD (ETC and TCA) and cracking in mouth corners

Whole grain, nuts, legumes, Pellagra, Hartnup disease: a

Vitamin B3
yeast, liver, fish, meat, Acts as NAD and NADP in TCA cycle hereditary abnormality in
(Niacin, Nicotinamide) poultry tryptophan metabolism

Yeast, milk, groundnut,

Vitamin B5 For healthy skin and hair. It forms CoA in Dermatitis, retarded growth, loss
tomato, liver, meat, wheat
(Pantothenic acid) TCA cycle and graying of hair,
germ, honey, egg yolk
 Vitamins
Water soluble vitamins
Vitamins Source Functions Deficiency symptoms

Whole grain cereals,

Dermatitis, anaemia,
Vitamin B6 peanuts, banana,
Protein metabolism convulsions, nausea, mental
(Pyridoxine) soyabean, meat,
disorder, retarded growth
vegetables

Loss of muscular control, poor

Vitamin B7 Egg yolk, milk, nuts, Carbohydrate, protein, fat
growth, loss of appetite,
(Biotin) honey, liver, meat, fish metabolism
weakness, hairfall

Vitamin B10 Essential for formation of RBCs, Megaloblastic anaemia or

Green leafy vegetables
(Folic acid) increases appetite macrocytic anemia

Vitamin B12
(Cyanocobalamin Spirulina (alga), Animal
Cobalamin RBCs production, DNA synthesis,
source liver, .eat, fish, Pernicious anaemia
Castle’s extrinsic proper neurological functions
eggs, milk
factor)
 Vitamins
Water soluble vitamins
Vitamins Source Functions Deficiency symptoms

Vitamin B17
Wheatgrass juice Anticancer properties
(Laetrile)

Essential for formation of RBCs and production of

Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla, Scurvy (weakness, skin
antibodies. Good for bones, teeth and gums. Acts
(Ascorbic acid) guava, tomato and gum problems)
as antioxidants

Vitamin P Citrus fruits, green

Maintain walls of blood vessels
(Hesperidin, citrin) vegetables
 Absorption in Digestive system

MOUTH STOMACH SMALL INTESTINE LARGE INTESTINE

Certain drugs coming in Absorption of water, Principal organ for Absorption of water,
contact with the mucosa simple sugars, and absorption of nutrients. some minerals and drugs
of mouth and lower side alcohol etc. takes place. The digestion is takes place.
of the tongue are completed here and the
absorbed into the blood final products of digestion
capillaries lining them. such as glucose, fructose,
fatty acids, glycerol and
amino acids are absorbed
through the mucosa into
the bloodstream and
lymph.
 Sites of Absorption in Gastrointestinal Tract
Water, alcohol, some
Iron, calcium, amino monosaccharides,
acids some drugs, some salt

Monosaccharides,
amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol,
vitamins, water
Water, some minerals
(NaCl mostly), some
Vitamin B12, bile salts, drugs, vitamins (B
water complex and K)
produced by bacteria
 Digestive Disorders
Disorder Causes & Symptoms
Kwashiorkor (Protein energy malnutrition), Weak muscle, thin limbs, reddish hair, retarded growth of body and brain,
protein deficient (in age 1-5 years)

Marasmus (Protein energy malnutrition), Impaired growth, prominent ribs (very less fat in body), protein and calorie
deficient (below 1 year)

Indigestion Symptoms such as pain, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, acid regurgitation and accumulation of gas. Caused
due to Overeating, eating spicy food, Anxiety and high fever etc

Constipation Caused by decreased motility of the intestine. Caused by insufficient fibre in diet, delaying defecation,
inadequate fluid intake, lack of exercise, stress etc

Vomiting Ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. Feeling of nausea precedes vomiting

Jaundice Yellowish coloration of whites of eyes, skin, mucous membranes and liver is affected due to buildup of
bilirubin

Diarrhoea Increase in the frequency, volume and fluid content in faeces caused by increased motility of and
decreased absorption by the intestine
Quiz Time

Q2. Lactase hydrolyses lactose into

A Glucose + glucose

B Glucose + galactose

C Galactose + galactose

D Galactose + fructose
Quiz Time

Q2. Lactase hydrolyses lactose into

A Glucose + glucose

B Glucose + galactose

C Galactose + galactose

D Galactose + fructose
Solution:
Lactose ⟶ Glucose + Galactose
Lactose is a disaccharide which hydrolyses into glucose and
galactose by breaking of glycosidic bonds. Normally when a person
eats something containing lactose, an enzyme in the small intestine
called lactase breaks it down into simpler sugar forms called
glucose and galactose. These simple sugars are then easily
absorbed into the bloodstream and turned into energy — fuel for
our bodies. It is a prominent sugar, present in milk which is
metabolized in the intestine.
Quiz Time

Q3. The crypts of Lieberkuhn are found in which one of the following parts
of the human digestive tract?

A Oesophagus

B Small intestine

C Stomach

D Rectum
Quiz Time

Q3. The crypts of Lieberkuhn are found in which one of the following parts
of the human digestive tract?

A Oesophagus

B Small intestine

C Stomach

D Rectum
Solution:
In histology of alimentary
canal, a crypt of
Lieberkiihn (also
intestinal gland or
intestinal crypt) is a gland
found in between villi in
the intestinal epithelium
lining of the small
intestine in humans.
Quiz Time

Q4. Which of the following is NOT an enzyme?

A Lipase

B Amylase

C Trypsin

D Bilirubin
Quiz Time

Q4. Which of the following is NOT an enzyme?

A Lipase

B Amylase

C Trypsin

D Bilirubin
Solution:
Enzymes are biological catalysts which catalyse biochemical
reactions during cellular metabolism. The enzymes are mostly
made up of proteins except for a small minority of catalytic RNA
molecules.
Amylase digests carbohydrates, lipase digests fats, and trypsin
digests proteins. These digestive enzymes are released from the
cells of the Acini and flow into the pancreatic duct.
Bilirubin (BR) is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal
catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates.
Quiz Time

Q5. Removal of the pancreas impairs the breakdown of

A Lipids and carbohydrates only

B Lipids and proteins only

C Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

D Proteins and carbohydrates only

Quiz Time

Q5. Removal of the pancreas impairs the breakdown of

A Lipids and carbohydrates only

B Lipids and proteins only

C Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

D Proteins and carbohydrates only

Solution:
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that acts on all type of
foods. It is the important gland that is present behind the stomach
it secretes pancreatic juice in the duodenum this juice is
responsible for digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats. It
consists of pancreatic lipase, pancreatic trypsin and pancreatic
amylase. Pancreatic lipase is responsible for the breakdown of fat
into fatty acid and glycerol.
Pancreatic trypsin is responsible for the breakdown of protein into
peptides and lastly, these peptides converted into amino acids.
Pancreatic amylase is responsible for the breakdown of sugar into
glucose.
Quiz Time

Q16. Which ONE of the following statements is TRUE about trypsinogen?

A It is activated by enterokinae

B It is activated by renin

C It is activated by pepsin

D It does not need activation

Quiz Time

Q16. Which ONE of the following statements is TRUE about trypsinogen?

A It is activated by enterokinae

B It is activated by renin

C It is activated by pepsin

D It does not need activation

Solution:
Enterokinase(produced from intestinal gland in small intestine)
converts trypsinogen
(an inactive enzyme produced from pancreatic juice) into active
trypsin, it hydrolyses some peptide bonds of food proteins and
activates a number of pancreatic zymogens. For this
reasonenterokinase is a key enzyme in the digestion of dietary
proteins and its absence may result in gross protein malabsorption.
Quiz Time

Q20. Which one of the following glands does NOT secrete saliva?

A Submaxillary gland

B Lacrimal gland

C Parotid gland

D Sublingual gland
Quiz Time

Q20. Which one of the following glands does NOT secrete saliva?

A Submaxillary gland

B Lacrimal gland

C Parotid gland

D Sublingual gland
Solution:
The lacrimal gland is the main contributor to the aqueous layer of
the tear film. It secretes proteins, electrolytes and water, which
helps to nourish and protect the ocular surface.
Quiz Time

Q23. The first enzyme that the food encounters in human digestive system
is

A pepsin

B trypsin

C chymotrypsin

D amylase
Quiz Time

Q23. The first enzyme that the food encounters in human digestive system
is

A pepsin

B trypsin

C chymotrypsin

D amylase
Solution:
The first enzyme that the food encounters in human digestive
system is amylase (salivary amylase). Amylase is an enzyme that
catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars. Amylase is present in
the saliva of humans and some other mammals and it begins the
chemical process of digestion of food in mouth.
Quiz Time

Q27. Which of the following anions neutralize the acidic pH of the chyme
that enters into the duodenum from the stomach?

A H2PO4–

B HSO4–

C CHO3–

D CH3COO–
Quiz Time

Q27. Which of the following anions neutralize the acidic pH of the chyme
that enters into the duodenum from the stomach?

A H2PO4–

B HSO4–

C CHO3–

D CH3COO–
Solution:
Secretin stimulates pancreas into secreting bicarbonate (HCO3–)
into the duodenum. This anion neutralizes the hydrochloric acid
just coming from the stomach, allowing duodenum pH to rise to
the optimum values for the pancreatic enzymes (proteases, lipases,
pancreatic amylase).
Quiz Time

Q28. Solid and dotted lines represent the activities of pepsin and salivary
amylase enzymes of the digestive tract, respectively. Which one of the
following graphs best represents their activity vs pH?

A B
Quiz Time

C D
Quiz Time

Q28. Solid and dotted lines represent the activities of pepsin and salivary
amylase enzymes of the digestive tract, respectively. Which one of the
following graphs best represents their activity vs pH?

A B
Quiz Time

C D
Solution:
The optimum pH for pepsin activity of 1.0-2.0 is maintained in the
stomach by HCI. In the graph (a) indicating the activity of pepsin at
low pH (2.5). The optimum pH for the enzymatic activity of salivary
amylase ranges from 6 to 7. Above and below this range, the
reaction rate reduces as enzymes get denatured. It will be highest
and similarly activity of salivary amylase will be highest at the pH
of 6.8. Graph B shows minimum activity and C and D graph shows
constant activity.
 Human Respiratory System
The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in
oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. The respiratory organs include Nose,
Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi and Lungs
Pharynx is comprised of nasophyrynx,
oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Pharynx
provides passage to both air and food.

Larynx is a cartilaginous
box which helps in sound
production and hence
called the sound box.
 Trachea (Windpipe)

Larynx leads into a long tube

trachea or windpipe. Trachea
is lined by pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium
bearing glandular cells
(mucus glands).
 Trachea Respiratory Tree
Primary Bronchi

Conducting Zone
Secondary Bronchi

Tertiary Bronchi

Terminal Bronchi

Lobular Bronchiole

Terminal Bronchiole Respiratory Zone

Respiratory Bronchiole

Alveolar Duct

Alveoli
 Bronchi

Lower end of trachea bifurcates into a

pair of primary bronchi which enter
the left and right lungs.
Primary bronchus enters each lung
and it divides to form secondary
bronchi.
Each secondary bronchus divides to
form tertiary bronchi.
 Lungs

A pair of lungs is present in thoracic cavity one on either side of heart

Each lung is enclosed in two membranes called pleurae
Narrow space between two membranes is Pleural cavity that contain
pleural fluid
Structure of lungs
Internal Structure of lungs
 Human Respiratory System

Inspiration occurs if the pressure within

the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure) is
less than the atmospheric pressure.
Diaphragm becomes flat and gets
lowered.
Expiration takes place when the
intrapulmonary pressure is higher than
the atmospheric pressure. Internal
intercostal muscles contract so that they
pull the ribs downward and inward
decreasing the size of thoracic cavity.
 Flow of Air In and Out
Nasal Internal
In Nostrils Pharynx Glottis
cavities nares

Sequence of airflow during inspiration Larynx

Alveolar
Alveoli Bronchioles Bronchi Trachea
ducts

Alveolar
Alveoli Bronchioles Bronchi Trachea
ducts

Sequence of airflow during expiration Larynx

Nasal Internal
Out Nostrils Pharynx Glottis
cavities nares
Respiratory Volume and Capacities
 Exchange of Gases (Between Alveoli and Blood)

The exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between lung alveoli and
pulmonary capillaries is called External respiration. Wall of alveoli is very thin
and has a rich network of blood capillaries and due to this, alveolar walls seem
to be a sheet of flowing blood called respiratory membrane (alveolar capillary
membrane).
Exchange of Gases (Between Alveoli and Blood)
Partial Pressures of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide (in mmHg) at Different Parts
pO2 pCO2
Atmospheric
159 0.3
Air
Alveoli 104 40

Deoxygenated Blood 40 45

Oxygenated Blood 95 40
Tissues 40 45
 Exchange of Gases (Between Blood and Tissue cells)

Partial pressure of oxygen in blood is higher

(95 mmHg) than that of body cells (40
mmHg) therefore oxygen diffuses from
capillaries blood to blood cells through
tissue fluid. Atmospheric Air- pO2159 mmHg

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in blood

is lesser (40 mmHg) than that of body cells
(45 mmHg) so carbon dioxide diffuses from
body cells to the capillary blood via tissue
fluid. Atmospheric Air- pCO20.3 mmHg
 Transport of CO2 and O2 in Blood
Transportation of oxygen in blood takes place via two manners:

Dissolved gas Oxyhaemoglobin

About 3% of oxygen in blood is About 97% of oxygen is carried in
dissolved in the plasma which carries combination with haemoglobin of the
oxygen to the body cells erythrocytes.

Transportation of carbon dioxide in blood takes place via three ways

Dissolved gas Bicarbonate ions Carbaminohemoglobin

About 7% of in CO2 blood About 70% of CO2 in About 23% of CO2 is
is dissolved in the plasma blood is converted into carried by haemoglobin as
which carried in the bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) Carbaminohemoglobin
solution to the lungs transported in plasma
 Transport of Oxygen
O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin. Each
haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2

Conditions when curve shifts to left

● Decrease in pCO2
● Low temperature
● High pH

Conditions when curve shifts to Right

● Increase in pCO2 (Bohr effect)
● Increased temperature
● Low pH

Bohr effect: Increased CO2 concentration

induce dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin to give
up more O2
 Transport of Carbon dioxide

RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase

and minute quantities of the same is present in the plasma too. This enzyme
facilitates the reaction in both directions
 Transport of Carbon dioxide

RBC
Tissue
CO2 + Hb→HbCO2
CO2
pCO2 is high and pO2 is low RBC
Alveoli
HbCO2→CO2 + Hb CO2
pCO2 is low and pO2 is high
 Haldane Effect
Binding of O2 with haemoglobin tends to displace CO2 from the blood, this
phenomenon called Haldane effect.

Oxygenation of blood in the lungs

displaces CO2 from haemoglobin which
increases the removal of CO2 - Haldane
effect
It encourages CO2 exchange in both lungs
and tissues

In the tissue, addition of CO2 to the blood

facilitates unloading of O2 from
haemoglobin - Bohr effect
 Chloride Effect (Hamburger’s Phenomenon)

HCO3- content in RBCs is greater than that in plasma and these ions move from
RBCs to plasma. To restore ionic balance, Cl- ions move from plasma into
RBCs. This is called Chloride effect.
 Disorders Of Respiratory System
Disorder Causes & Symptoms
Bronchial Asthma Allergic reactions to foreign substances that affect respiratory tract. Excess amount of mucus is secreted
which may clog bronchi and bronchioles

Emphysema Inflation or abnormal distension of bronchioles and alveolar sacs of lungs occurs. Major cause is
cigarette smoking or inhalation of toxic substances

Occupational Caused by harmful gas fumes and dust present in work environment. Example are Silicosis and
Respiratory asbestosis (chronic exposure of silica and asbestos dust in mining industry)
Disorders

Bronchitis Inflammation of the bronchi and caused by infection, cigarette smoking or exposure to air pollutants.
Excess mucus production

Coryza Common cold. Rhinovirus is responsible for 40% of all colds. Sneezing, excessive nasal secretion, dry
cough and congestion.

COVID19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Spread due to close contact,
often via small droplets produced by coughing, sneezing, and talking.
Quiz Time

Q24. If you exhale multiple times into a conical flask containing lime water
through a single inlet fixed through a stop cork, lime water will?

A Become cooler

B Turn milky

C Remain unchanged

D Turn yellow
Quiz Time

Q24. If you exhale multiple times into a conical flask containing lime water
through a single inlet fixed through a stop cork, lime water will?

A Become cooler

B Turn milky

C Remain unchanged

D Turn yellow
Solution:
If we exhale multiple times into a conical flask containing lime
water through a single intel fixed through a stop cork, lime water
will turn milky because of CO2. We inhale O2 during respiration and
exhale carbon dioxide. Lime water turns milky after exhalation
because of the CO2 gas. Lime water is calcium oxide (Ca(OH)2)
which when reacts with CO2, forms calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It
is insoluble in water, hence, turns water cloudy or milky.
Ca(OH)2 ⟶ CO2 ⟶ CaCO3
Quiz Time

Q26. The atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg at the sea level. Which of

the following ranges is nearest to the partial pressure of CO2 in mm Hg?

A 0.30-0.31

B 0.60-0.61

C 3.0-3.1

D 6.0-6.1
Quiz Time

Q26. The atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg at the sea level. Which of

the following ranges is nearest to the partial pressure of CO2 in mm Hg?

A 0.30-0.31

B 0.60-0.61

C 3.0-3.1

D 6.0-6.1
Solution:
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood of the capillary
is about 45 mm Hg, whereas its partial pressure in the alveoli is
about 40 mm Hg.
Quiz Time

Q29. Given that tidal volume is 600 ml, inspiratory reserve volume is 2500 ml,
and expiratory reserve volume is 800 ml, what is the value of vital capacity of
lung?

A 3900 ml

B 3300 ml

C 3100 ml

D 1400 ml
Quiz Time

Q29. Given that tidal volume is 600 ml, inspiratory reserve volume is 2500 ml,
and expiratory reserve volume is 800 ml, what is the value of vital capacity of
lung?

A 3900 ml

B 3300 ml

C 3100 ml

D 1400 ml
Solution:
Vital Capacity (VC) is the maximum volume of air a person can
breathe in after a forced expiration. This includes ERV, TV and IRV
or the maximum volume of air a person can breathe out after a
forced inspiration.
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
= 600 + 2500 + 800 = 3900 ml
Quiz Time

Q32. Compared to the atmospheric air, the alveolar air has

A More pO2 and less pCO2

B Less pO2 and more pCO2

C More pO2 and more pCO2

D Less pO2 and less pCO2

Quiz Time

Q32. Compared to the atmospheric air, the alveolar air has

A More pO2 and less pCO2

B Less pO2 and more pCO2

C More pO2 and more pCO2

D Less pO2 and less pCO2

Solution:
Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is
called partial pressure and is represented as pO2 for oxygen and
pCO2 for carbon dioxide.
Alveolar air has pCO2 40 mm of Hg and pO2 104 mm of Hg
whereas atmospheric air has pCO 20.3 mm of Hg and pO2 159 mm
of Hg. So alveolar air has more pCO2 and less PO2.
Quiz Time

Q33. Which of the following graphs best describes the oxygen dissociation
curve where pO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen?

A B
Quiz Time

C D
Quiz Time

Q33. Which of the following graphs best describes the oxygen dissociation
curve where pO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen?

A B
Quiz Time

C D
Solution:
The oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve, also called the
oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve or oxygen dissociation curve
(ODC), is a curve that plots the proportion of haemoglobin in its
saturated (oxygen-laden) form on the vertical axis against the
prevailing oxygen tension on the horizontal axis. This curve is an
important tool for understanding how our blood carries and
releases oxygen. The curve is usually best described by a sigmoid
plot.
 Blood

Blood is a mobile connective tissue composed of a fluid, the plasma and the
cells, the blood corpuscles. pH of blood is 7.4 and pH is more in arteries than
in vein

Composition of Blood

Watery fluid- Plasma

Formed element (Corpuscles)
 Blood: Plasma
Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 % of the
blood. 90-92 % of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 % of it.

Composition of Plasma

Minerals: Na+, Ca2+, Nutrients: Glucose, Excretory substances: ammonia,

Mg2+, HCO3-, Cl- etc amino acids, lipids etc urea, uric acid, creatinine etc

Defense compounds: Proteins:Albumin, globulin,

immunoglobulins, lysozyme etc fibrinogen etc

Dissolved gases: O2, CO2, Anticoagulant: Heparin Vitamins. Hormones and

N2 etc (polysaccharide) enzymes
 BLOOD

Plasma -55% Formed elements -45%

Plasma proteins Erythrocytes Thrombocytes Leucocytes

Other components
-6.8%

● Albumins ● Water -90-92% Granular Leukocytes Agranular Leukocytes

● Globulins ● Salts
● Fibrinogen ● Dissolved gases
● Other clotting ● Hormones ● Neutrophils ● Lymphocytes
proteins ● Glucose ● Basophils ● Monocytes
● Wastes ● Eosinophils ● Eosinophils
 Erythrocytes (Red Blood Corpuscles)

Most abundant cells in human body. Red colour is due to the presence of
haemoglobin

Red blood corpuscles of all adult mammals are enucleated. They are mostly
biconcave and circular (oval and nucleated in camel).

Matured mammalian RBCs do not have cell organelles as it increases the

surface area of RBCs and enables these to contain more haemoglobin.
 Leucocytes (White Blood Corpuscles)
White blood cells do not have haemoglobin. These cells are rounded or irregular
in shape and change their shape.
Number varies from 6000 to 8000 mm3. Ratio of WBC:RBC in blood is 1:600.
Abnormal increase of WBCs is in malignancies like leukemia

These are of two types: Granulocytes and Agranulocytes

In granulocytes, granules are present In agranulocytes, granules are not

in the cytoplasm and nucleus is found in the cytoplasm of these
irregular/lobed/subdivided cells
 Leucocytes (White Blood Corpuscles)

WBC Properties

Lymphocytes Large rounded nucleus. Non motile, non phagocytic and produce antibodies to
destroy microbes and kill tumour cells. 20-25% of leucocytes. 2 major groups: B
and T lymphocytes
Monocytes Bean shaped nucleus. Motile and phagocytic in nature and engulf bacteria and
cellular debris. 2-10% of leucocytes. Change into macrophages after entering
tissue spaces
Eosinophils Nucleus is two lobed. Non phagocytic. 2-3% of leukocytes. Their number
increased in people with allergic conditions
Basophils Three lobed nucleus. Release heparin, serotonin and histamine. Basophils are
least (0-1%)
Neutrophils Many lobed nucleus. Eat harmful germs and are therefore phagocytic in nature.
60-65% of leucocytes
 Thrombocytes (Blood Platelets)

In mammals thrombocytes are called blood

platelets. (1,50,000 - 3,50,000/ mm3 platelets
of blood.
Increase and decrease in the number of
platelets is known as thrombocytosis and
thrombocytopenia respectively.
Normal life span of blood platelets is about a
week. When an injury caused the blood
platelets release certain chemicals which are
called the platelet factors the help in the
clotting of blood
 ABO Blood Groups
Blood Groups and Donor Compatibility
Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor's Group

A A anti-B A, O
B B anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O nil anti-A, B O
 Coagulation of Blood
Injured Tissue Blood Platelets
Releases Disintegrates &
Releases
Thromboplastin Platelet Factor-3
Ca2+and Ca2+and
Proteins Prothrombinase Proteins
Inactivates Heparin & catalyses

Prothrombin Thrombin
Ca2+
Catalyses
Fibrinogen Fibrin

Fibrin Blood Cells Clot

Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting because it is necessary for the synthesis of prothrombin in the liver
 Lymph

Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes which are

responsible for the immune responses of the body. Lymph is also an
important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc. Fats are absorbed through
lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi

The organs which secrete lymph are called lymphoid organs. Besides the
lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen and Peyer’s patches are other lymphoid
organs. Spleen is the largest mass of lymphatic tissue in the body
Lymph Blood

1. It is a colourless fluid that does not 1. It is a red-coloured fluid that contains

contain RBCs. RBCs.

2. It contains plasma and lesser number 2. It contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs and
of WBCs and platelets. platelets.

3. It helps in body defence and is a part of 3. It is associated with the circulation of

the immune system oxygen and carbon dioxide.

4. Its plasma lacks proteins. 4. Its plasma has proteins, calcium and
phosphorous.

5. It transports nutrients from the tissue 5.

cells to the blood, through lymphatic
vessels. It transports nutrients and oxygen from
one organ to another.

6. The flow of lymph is slow. 6. The flow of blood in the blood vessels is
fast.
Human Heart
A patch of nodal tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right atrium
called the sinoatrial node (SAN). Another mass of nodal tissue is seen in the
lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrioventricular septum
called the atrioventricular node (AVN)
The nodal musculature has the ability
to generate action potentials without
any external stimuli, i.e., it is
autoexcitable. The SA node can
generate the maximum number of
action potentials, i.e., 70-75 min–1,
and is responsible for initiating and
maintaining the rhythmic contractile
activity of the heart. Therefore, it is
called the pacemaker. Our heart
normally beats 70-75 times in a
minute (average 72 beats min–1).
Origin and Conduction of Heartbeat in Humans
 Circulatory Output (Heart Output)

The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute is called cardiac output
or heart output. Heart of normal person beat 72 times/ minute This is called
heart rate and heart pumps out about 70 mL of blood per beat

Cardiac output (CO) = Heart rate (HR) x Amount of blood pumped/ beat (Stroke
volume)
Cardiac output = 72 x 70 = 5040 mL/Minute (about 5 liters/minutes)
 Cardiac Cycle
Complete Ventricular
Diastole

Beginning of
Ventricular Diastole
(Second heart sound)

Atrial Systole
Cardiac
Cycle

Beginning of
Complete Ventricular
Ventricular Systole
Systole
(First heart sound)
 Total Period of Cardiac Cycle

The duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 second

 Heart Sounds

First sound “lubb” is caused Second sound “dub” is

partly by the closure of the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves
and partly by the contraction
of muscles in the ventricles. It
is low pitched, not very loud
and of long duration
caused by the closure of the
semilunar valves and mark
the end of ventricular systole.
It is high pitched , louder,
sharper and shorter in
duration
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that corresponds to
a specific electrical activity of the heart
The P wave is small upward wave that represent electrical excitation or the atrial
depolarization which leads to contraction of both the atria (atrial contraction). It is
caused by the activation of SA node.

The QRS wave (complex) begins after a fraction of second of the P wave. It begins as a
small downward deflection (Q) and continues as large upright (R) and triangular wave
ending downward wave (S) at its base. It represents ventricular depolarization
(ventricular contraction).

T wave is dome shaped which represents ventricular repolarization (ventricular

relaxation). The potential generated by the recovery of the ventricles from the
depolarization state are called the repolarization wave. The end of T wave marks the
end of systole
 Double Circulation

A circulatory system in which

the blood makes two distinct Pulmonary circuit
circuits is double circulation.

Pulmonary Circuit Systemic circuit

Systemic Circuit
 Coronary Circulation

The flow of oxygenated blood from the ascending aorta to the heart muscle
and the return of deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle to the right
atrium is called coronary (cardiac) circulation.
 Hepatic Portal Circulation

The flow of deoxygenated blood from

the digestive organs to the liver
before returning to the heart is called
hepatic portal circulation.
Blood enters the liver from two
sources. The hepatic artery supplies
oxygenated blood from the abdominal
aorta and the hepatic portal vein
carries deoxygenated blood from the
digestive organs
 Blood Vessels

Arteries carry blood from the heart to Veins bring blood from different body
different body parts. parts to the heart. The veins have
valves to prevent backflow of blood.

Arteries and veins divide further into capillaries which are united. The nutrients, hormones, gases etc
can diffuse into the tissue cells through the walls of the capillaries and vice versa
Artery Vein

Carries blood away from heart Carries blood toward heart

Blood under high pressure Blood under low pressure

Thick walls Thin walls

Pulse flow Smooth flow

Narrow lumen Large Lumen

No valves Valves present

Blood rich in oxygen (except Blood poor in oxygen except

pulmonary artery) pulmonary veins
 Disorders of Circulatory System
Disorder Causes and Symptoms
Hypertension (High Blood Blood pressure that is higher than normal (120/80). It leads to heart diseases and affects vital
Pressure) organs like brain and kidney

Coronary Artery Disease Deposition of cholesterol and triglycerides in the tunica interna and smooth muscles of
(Atherosclerosis) arteries. Hardening and loss of elasticity of the arteries iresults in arteriosclerosis. (plaque
formation)

Myocardial Infarction (Heart Death of a part of heart muscle following cessation of blood supply to it. Streptokinase is
Attack) given in such condition

Coronary Thrombosis Formation of clot in the coronary artery. It occurs most frequently in the left anterior
descending coronary artery

Angina Acute chest pain due to insufficient oxygen in heart muscle

Heart Failure Heart is not pumping blood effectively to meet the needs of the body

Tachycardia The heart beats rapidly in this condition

Bradycardia Heart beats slowly in Bradycardia

Cardiac Arrest When heart stops beating, it is called cardiac arrest

Quiz Time

Q1. What is the maximum number of oxygen atoms that a molecule of

hemoglobin can bind?

A 2

B 4

C 8

D 16
Quiz Time

Q1. What is the maximum number of oxygen atoms that a molecule of

hemoglobin can bind?

A 2

B 4

C 8

D 16
Solution:
Haemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells
(erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two
beta subunits. Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that
contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each
haemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules.
Quiz Time

Q7. Microscopic examination of a blood smear reveals an abnormal increase in

the number of granular cells with multiple nuclear lobes. Which one of the
following cell types has increased in number?

A Lymphocytes

B Monocytes

C Neutrophils

D Thrombocytes
Quiz Time

Q7. Microscopic examination of a blood smear reveals an abnormal increase in

the number of granular cells with multiple nuclear lobes. Which one of the
following cell types has increased in number?

A Lymphocytes

B Monocytes

C Neutrophils

D Thrombocytes
Solution:
This granulocyte has very tiny stained granules with low visibility.
The nucleus is frequently multi-lobed with lobes connected by thin
strands of nuclear material. These cells are capable of
phagocytizing foreign cells, viruses. This type of cell is the most
commonly found, accounting for 50-70% of all leukocytes. If the
count exceeds this amount, it is usually caused by an acute
infection such as appendicitis, smallpox, or rheumatic fever.
Quiz Time

Q17. Which one of the following organs is NOT a site for the production of
white blood cells?

A Bone marrow

B Kidney

C Liver

D Spleen
Quiz Time

Q17. Which one of the following organs is NOT a site for the production of
white blood cells?

A Bone marrow

B Kidney

C Liver

D Spleen
Solution:
White blood cells begin in the bone marrow in a process called
hematopoiesis.
The kidneys are essential for homeostasis (maintaining a constant
internal environment) of the body's extracellular fluids.
 Muscle
Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin and about 40-50% of the body
weight of a human adult is made of muscles.
Difference between three kinds of muscles

Types of Fibres Skeletal Muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle

Cell appearance and These are thick, long, These are small spindle , shaped . These are short
features unbranched and Muscle fibre taper at both the branched & cylindrical
cylindrical ends ( fusiform)

Nature of striations It is heavily striated It is not striated It is finely striated

Location Associated with skeletal Located in walls of hollow visceral Heart

components of body organs of body like alimentary
canal and reproductive tract

Nervous control Under the voluntary Not under the voluntary control of Nervous system does
control of nervous system nervous system so known as not control their activity
so known as voluntary involuntary muscles directly
muscles

Functions Involved in locomotory Transportation of food through Pumping of blood

actions and changes of the digestive tract and gametes
body postures through the genital tract
 Skeletal muscle: Structure
A skeletal muscle is made up of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles. These
fascicles or bundles each contain a number of muscle fibers, which in turn are made
of myofibrils. Multiple fascicles are held together by a common collagenous
connective tissue layer called fascia.
During muscle contraction
(i) Length of I bands gets reduced
(ii) Length of A band remains same
(iii)Length of sarcomere decreases
(iv)Length of myofibril decreases
(v) Henson zone disappears
(vi)Length of actin and myosin filaments remains same
Mechanism of muscle contraction
 Initiation of Muscle contraction

Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent from the CNS via a motor neuron.
The point or junction where the motor neuron meets the sarcolemma of the muscle
fibre is called the neuromuscular junction or motor-end plate.
 Relaxation of muscles
Masking of actin filaments lead to return of the Z-lines to their original un-contracted
position. Hence, the sarcomere length is retained and the muscle now relaxes.
 The Human Skeleton - Bones and Cartilages

The skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. Bones
have a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in them. Cartilages have a slightly
pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts. The human skeletal system is made up of
206 bones and a few cartilages.
 The Human Skeleton

The skeletal system plays a significant

role in allowing us to stand, sit, move,
chew etc. The human skeleton can be
divided into:
● Axial Skeleton
● Appendicular Skeleton
 Skeleton (206 bones)

Axial Skeleton (80) Appendicular skeleton- (126)

Vertebral Girdles Limb bones-(120)

Skull (29) Sternum -1 ;
column (26) Pectoral -4
Ribs -24 Pelvic -2
Cranium -8 Cervical -7
Facial -14 Thoracic -12 Bones of hind limbs (60)
Ear Ossicles-6 Lumbar -5 Bones of forelimbs (60) Thigh bone-1×2 =2
Hyoid bone -1 Upper arm - 1×2 =2 Shank bone-2×2=4
Sacral -1
Fore arm - 2×2=4 Patella - 1×2=2
Caudal -1 Wrist bones -8×2=16 Ankle bone -7×2=14
Palm bones-14×2=28 Foot bones -5×2=10
Phalanges -14×2=28 Phalanges -14×2=28
 The Human Skull
The human skull consists of 22 bones, which are of two types: Cranial bones (8) and
Facial bones (14).
 Hyoid bone

A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal cavity and it
is also included in the skull.
 Bones of Middle ear

Each middle ear contains three tiny bones – Malleus, Incus and Stapes, collectively
called Ear Ossicles.
Backbone or Vertebral column
 Rib cage

On the ventral side of

the skeleton, the rib
cage is present, which
consists of 12 pairs of
ribs. The rib cage
protects the internal
organs like heart, lungs
etc.
 Types of Ribs

The first 7 pairs of ribs are

connected to both the sternum
and thoracic vertebrae, and are
hence called true ribs. Ribs 8-10
are false ribs. The last two pairs
(11-12) are called floating ribs.
 Forelimbs or Arms

The bones of the hand or forelimb

consist of:
● Humerus (upper arm),
● Radius and ulna (lower arm),
● Carpals or Wrist bones (8),
● Metacarpals or palm bones (5),
● Phalanges or digits (14)
 Hindlimbs or Legs

The leg bones or hindlimb consist of:

● Femur (thigh bone),
● Tibia and fibula (lower leg),
● Tarsals or Ankle bones (7),
● Metatarsals or feet bones (5),
● Phalanges or toe bones (14)
The femur joins with the lower leg at the knee
joint or patella.
 Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder region)
The pectoral girdle in the shoulder region consists of a large, triangular scapula and
a long, slender clavicle with two curvatures. The scapula is located in the dorsal part
of the thorax between the 2nd and 7th ribs.
 Pelvic Girdle (Hip region)
The pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones, each of which is formed by fusion of
three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis. A cavity called acetabulum is present at the
point of fusion of these bones.
 Joints

Joints are points of contact between bones or between bones and cartilages, that
help in movement and locomotion. Force generated by the muscles is used to carry
out movement through joints, where the joint acts as a fulcrum.

Joints can be classified into

Cartilaginous
Fibrous joints Synovial joints
joints
 Types of Synovial joints

There are several types of synovial joints in the human body. These types are:

Hinge Ball and Gliding

Pivot joint Saddle joint
joint socket joint joint

Bones can Multidirectional Joints that Bones can glide Opposing surfaces
move only in movement and can rotate past one another are reciprocally
one axis rotation of bones E.g. Between along the plane convex and
E.g. Knee possible atlas (1st of the joint concave
joint E.g. Between vertebra) and E.g. Between E.g. Between carpal
humerus and axis carpals and metacarpal of
pectoral girdle thumb
 Muscular and Skeletal Disorders

Some of the common disorders of the muscular and skeletal system that
interfere with locomotion are as follows:

Myasthenia Muscular Arthritis and

Tetany Osteoporosis
gravis dystrophy gout
Quiz Time

Q11. Which ONE of the following proteins does NOT play a role in skeletal
muscle contraction?

A Actin

B Myosin

C Troponin

D Microtubule
Quiz Time

Q11. Which ONE of the following proteins does NOT play a role in skeletal
muscle contraction?

A Actin

B Myosin

C Troponin

D Microtubule
Solution:
Skeletal muscle is composed of muscle fibers which have smaller
units called myofibrils. There are three types of proteins that make
up each myofibril; they are contractile (actin, myosin), regulatory
protein (troponin, tropomyosin ) and structural proteins.
 Human Neural System

Human Nervous System

Central Neural System (CNS) Peripheral Neural System (PNS)

Includes the brain and the spinal cord Includes all the nerves of the body
and is the site of information processing associated with the CNS (cranial &
and control spinal)
 Human Neural System

Central Neural System

Peripheral Neural System
(Brain & Spinal cord)

Autonomous Neural System Somatic Neural System

Sympathetic Neural System Parasympathetic Neural System

 Autonomic Neural System

The autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and
smooth muscles of the body
 Peripheral Neural System
Mnemonic for
No. Cranial nerve Type of nerve Mnemonic for Nerve type
Nerve Name
I Olfactory Sensory nerve
II Optic Sensory nerve
III Oculomotor Motor nerve
IV Trochlear Motor nerve
V Trigeminal Mixed nerve (Both)
VI Abducens Motor nerve
VII Facial Mixed nerve (Both)
VIII Vestibulocochlear Mostly sensory
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed nerve (Both)
X Vagus Mixed nerve (Both)
XI Accessory Motor nerve
XII Hypoglossal Motor nerve
 Peripheral Neural System

31 pairs of spinal nerves are named and

numbered according to the vertebrae with
which they are associated.
8 pairs-Cervical nerves
12 pairs-Thoracic nerves
5 pairs-Lumbar nerves
5 pairs- Sacral nerves
1 pair-Coccygeal nerves
 Neurons

Neurons are microscopic structure which are structural and functional units
of neural system. Structure of a neuron is composed of three major parts,
namely, cell body, dendrites and axon
 Neurons: Type

NEURON AXONS DENDRITES LOCATION

Grey matter of brain and

Multipolar One Several
spinal cord

Retina of eyes, olfactory

Bipolar One One epithelium, cochlear and
vestibular ganglia

Unipolar One None Early embryos

Dorsal root ganglia of spinal

Pseudounipolar One One
nerves
 Neuroglia (Neuroglial Cells/Glial Cells)

Neuroglia are specialized cells found in the brain and spinal cord supporting
the neurons and their fibres

NEUROGLIAL CELLS LOCATION FUNCTION

Astrocyte CNS Provide mechanical support and
repair of damaged areas
Oligodendrocytes CNS Form myelin sheath around axons
Microglia CNS Engulf and destroy microbes and
cell debris
Schwann Cells PNS Form myelin sheath around axons
 Structure of Neuron

MYELINATED NEURON UNMYELINATED NEURON

Enveloped with Schwann cells Enclosed by a Schwann cell that

which form a myelin sheath around does not form a myelin sheath
the axon that lie with the PNS around the axon

Oligodendrocytes form myelin Commonly found in autonomous

sheath around the axons that lie and the somatic neural systems
with the CNS (brain and spinal
cord). Found in spinal and cranial
nerves
Gaps between two adjacent myelin
sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier

Myelinated Axon Non-myelinated Axon

Impulse Generation and Conduction

Depolarization

Action Potential

Action Potential
Impulse Generation and Conduction (Repolarization)
 Transmission of Nerve Impulse

A nerve impulse is transmitted from

one neuron to another through
junctions called synapses.
A synapse is formed by the
membranes of a presynaptic neuron
and a postsynaptic neuron, which
may or may not be separated by a
gap called synaptic cleft
 Transmission of Nerve Impulse

When an impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the
movement of the synaptic vesicles towards the membrane and they fuse with the
plasma membrane releasing neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft

Ca2+ ion influx in presynaptic cleft help in movement of synaptic vesicles. The
released neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles bind to their specific receptors,
present on the postsynaptic membrane

This binding opens ion channels allowing the entry of ions which can generate a
new potential in the postsynaptic neuron
 Transmission of Nerve Impulse

After producing a change in the

permeability of the postsynaptic
membrane, the neurotransmitter is
immediately lost from the synaptic cleft. In
case of cholinergic synapse, acetylcholine
is hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase
(present in synaptic cleft) and product of
hydrolysis (acetic acid and choline) are
reabsorbed into synaptic knob for
resynthesis of ACh. Choline acetylase
enzyme synthesize ACh
 Neurotransmitters

NEUROTRANSMITTER POST-SYNAPTIC CLEFT PRECURSOR

Acetylcholine Excitatory Choline and Acetyl CoA
Gamma aminobutyric acid
Inhibitory Glutamate
(GABA)

Dopamine Both excitatory and inhibitory Tyrosine

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Excitatory Tyrosine

Serotonin Mostly inhibitory Tryptophan

Glycine Inhibitory Serine
Histamine Excitatory Histidine
Glutamate Excitatory Glutamine
 Structure of Human Brain

The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is
covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer called dura mater, a
very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer (which is in contact
with the brain tissue) called pia mater
 Structure of Human Brain

Hind brain
Fore Brain Mid Brain

Cerebellum Medulla
Olfactory Cerebral Diencephalon Crura Cerebri Oblongata
lobes Hemisphere
Corpora quadrigemina Pons

Thalamus Epithalamus Hypothalamus

 Structure of Human Brain

The brain can be divided into three major parts: forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain. The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus
 Structure of Human Brain: Cerebrum

Each cerebral hemisphere divides into four lobes: Frontal, parietal, temporal
and occipital lobes
 Functions of Cerebral Lobes
CEREBRAL LOBE MAJOR FUNCTIONS

Frontal lobe Inner monitoring of complex thoughts and actions, creative ideas, translation of
perceptions and memories into plans of muscle movement, reality testing by
judgement, controls intellectual ability to abstract, reasoning, decision making,
expression of emotions, willpower and personality.

Parietal lobe Registration of sensory perception of touch, pain, heat and cold, knowledge
about position in space, taking in information from environment, organising it
and communicating to rest of brain.

Temporal lobe Decoding and interpretation of sound, language comprehension, smell, memory
and emotion.

Occipital lobe Decoding and interpretation of visual information; shape and colour.
Forebrain: Thalamus
Structure of Human Brain: Midbrain
 Structure of Human Brain: Hindbrain

The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the
medulla oblongata)

CEREBELLUM PONS MEDULLA

It receives and integrates

It relays information between
Controls rapid muscular signals from spinal cord and
medulla and superior part of
activities such as running, sends resulting signals to the
brain, between hemisphere of
typing and even talking. cerebellum and thalamus.
cerebellum and between
cerebrum and cerebellum. Centres which control
All activities of cerebellum are
involuntary but may involve respiration,Cardiovascular
Pneumotaxic center present reflexes and gastric secretions
learning in the early stages
here limits inspiration
are also present here
 Structure of Human Brain: Brain Stem

Three major regions make up the brainstem; midbrain, pons and medulla
oblongata. Brain stem forms the connections between the brain and spinal
cord
 Reflex Action
There is a sudden withdrawal of a body part which comes in contact with
extremely hot, cold, pointed objects or scary or poisonous animals. The entire
process of response to a peripheral nervous stimulation, that occurs
involuntarily and requires the involvement of a part of the central nervous
system is called a reflex action
 Structure of Human Eye: Inner Layer

The inner layer is retina which has 3 layers from inside to outside– ganglion cells,
bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells namely, rods and cones. The rods contain
rhodopsin composed of opsin and retinene. The retinene is an aldehyde of Vitamin A
also called retinal
 Structure of Human Eye

The optic nerves leave the eye and the retinal blood vessels enter it at a point
medial to and slightly above the posterior pole of the eyeball. Photoreceptor
cells are not present in that region and hence it is called the blind spot (no
image is formed at this spot)
 Structure of Human Eye

The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous chamber and
contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor. The space between the lens
and the retina is called the vitreous chamber and is filled with a transparent gel
called vitreous humor
Accomodation

Object Ciliary muscle Suspensory Lens Refraction

ligament

Near Contracted No tension Thick Increased

(relaxed)

Distant Relaxed Tension maximum Thin Decreased

Mechanism of Vision
 Structure/Functions of Different Parts of Ear

Ears perform two sensory functions, hearing and maintenance of body balance
and are situated on the sides of the head.

Part Function

Pinna Collects and directs sound wave to ear canal

Outer ear
Ear canal Directs sound waves to eardrum
Eardrum Vibrates when sound waves hit it
Ossicles Amplify vibrations
Middle ear
Oval window Transfer vibrations to cochlea
Eustachian Tube Equalises air pressure
Detects vibrations and convert to nerve
Cochlea
impulses
Inner ear
Auditory nerve Carries nerve impulses to brain
Semicircular canal Help in body balance
Structure of Ear
 Structure of Ear: Inner Ear

Crista sense angular Maculae senses

acceleration and longitudinal acceleration
deceleration (static equilibrium)
(dynamic equilibrium)
 Labyrinth ( internal ear)

Bony Labyrinth Membranous Labyrinth

Vestibular apparatus Cochlear duct

Otolith organ 3- semi-circular canals

Organ of corti

Utricle Maculae & cristae are specific

Saccule
Crista ampullaris in receptors of vestibular apparatus
ampulla of each canal responsible for maintaining balance
and posture of the body
Macula Macula
 Mechanism of Hearing

The external ear receives sound waves and directs them to the eardrum.
The eardrum vibrates in response to the sound waves and these vibrations are
transmitted through the ear ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) to the oval window

The vibrations are passed through the oval window on to the fluid of the cochlea,
where they generate waves in the lymphs. The waves induce a ripple in the basilar
membrane and such movements bend the hair cells, pressing them against the
tectorial membrane

As a result, nerve impulses are generated in the associated afferent neurons. These
impulses are transmitted by the afferent fibres via auditory nerves to the auditory
cortex of the brain, where the impulses are analysed and the sound is recognised
Human Endocrine System

● The endocrine glands and hormone

producing diffused tissues/cells are
located in different parts of our body
constitute the endocrine system.
● Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal,
pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and
gonads (testis in males and ovary in
females) are the organised endocrine
bodies in human body.
● Gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney,
heart also produce hormones

Location of endocrine glands

● The hypothalamus is the basal part of diencephalon, forebrain and
the hormones produced by hypothalamus are of two types, the
releasing hormones (which stimulate secretion of pituitary
hormones) and the inhibiting hormones (which inhibit secretions of
pituitary hormones).
● The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity and is attached to
hypothalamus by a stalk.
● The pineal gland is located on the dorsal side of forebrain. Pineal
secretes a hormone called melatonin. Melatonin plays a very
important role in the regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of
our body.
● The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on
either side of the trachea.
● The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
Each thyroid follicle is composed of follicular cells, enclosing a
cavity.
● These follicular cells synthesise two hormones,
tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
● The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide hormone called
parathyroid hormone (PTH). The secretion of PTH is regulated by
the circulating levels of calcium ions.
● The adrenal gland is composed of the centrally located adrenal
medulla and the outer adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
● The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. The
adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
● The adrenal gland is composed of the centrally located adrenal
medulla and the outer adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
● The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. The
adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
● The thymus gland secretes thymosins which play a major role in the
differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated
immunity.
● The endocrine pancreas secretes glucagon and insulin. Glucagon
stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis resulting in
hyperglycemia. Insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake and
utilisation, and glycogenesis resulting in hypoglycemia.
● The testis secretes androgens, which stimulate the development,
maturation and functions of the male accessory sex organs,
appearance of the male secondary sex characters, spermatogenesis,
male sexual behaviour, anabolic pathways and erythropoiesis.
● The ovary secretes estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen stimulates
growth and development of female accessory sex organs and
secondary sex characters. Progesterone plays a major role in the
maintenance of pregnancy as well as in mammary gland development
and lactation.
● Hormones are also secreted by some tissues which are not endocrine
glands. The atrial wall of our heart secretes a very important peptide
hormone called atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), which decreases blood
pressure.
● The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone called
erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis.
● The gastrointestinal tract secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin
and gastric inhibitory peptide. These hormones regulate the secretion
of digestive juices and help in digestion.
● Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific
proteins called hormone receptors located in the target tissues only.
● On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided
peptide/protein hormones, steroid hormones, iodothyronines and
amino acid derivatives.
Quiz Time

Q8. Action potential in neurons is generated by a rapid influx of

A chloride ions

B potassium ions

C calcium ions

D sodium ions
Quiz Time

Q8. Action potential in neurons is generated by a rapid influx of

A chloride ions

B potassium ions

C calcium ions

D sodium ions
Solution:
An action potential (AP) is the mode through which a neuron
transports electrical signals. It is defined as a brief change in the
voltage across the membrane due to the flow of sodium (Na+) ion
into the neuron. When an action potential happens, the sodium
(Na+) ion channels on the axon open and the Na+ rushes in. Since
the Na+ is positively charged, it makes the inside of the axon a little
more positively charged. The sodium keeps rushing in until the
inside is positive relative to the outside.
Quiz Time

Q6. Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by

A Promoting glycogenolysis.

B Increasing the concentration of fructose2,-6-bisphosphate.

C Increasing the concentration of pyruvate kinase.

D Inhibiting gluconeogenesis.
Quiz Time

Q6. Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by

A Promoting glycogenolysis.

B Increasing the concentration of fructose2,-6-bisphosphate.

C Increasing the concentration of pyruvate kinase.

D Inhibiting gluconeogenesis.
Solution:
Glucagon is a pancreatic hormone produced by cells of the islets of
Langerhans. Glucagon raises the concentration of glucose in the
blood by promoting glycogenolysis, which is the breakdown of
glycogen (the form in which glucose is stored in the liver), and by
stimulating gluconeogenesis, which is the production of glucose
from amino acids and glycerol in the liver.
Quiz Time

Q18. Which one of the following ion pairs is involved in nerve impulses?

A Na+, K+

B Na+, CI–

C K+, CI–

D K+, Ca2+
Quiz Time

Q18. Which one of the following ion pairs is involved in nerve impulses?

A Na+, K+

B Na+, CI–

C K+, CI–

D K+, Ca2+
Solution:
The voltage across a membrane is called the membrane potential.
The membrane potential is the basis for the conduction of nerve
impulses along the cell membranes of neurons. Ions that are
important in the formation of a nerve impulse include sodium (Na+)
and potassium (K+). The arrival of the threshold stimulus is
responsible for changing the permeability of the membrane of the
axon to the sodium ions. The influx of the Na+ ions causes
depolarization of the membrane that causes generation of the
impulse. The depolarization is followed by the repolarization due to
efflux of the K+.
Quiz Time

Q19. Which of the following hormones that controls blood pressure is

secreted by human heart?

A Erythropoietin

B Atrial natriuretic factor

C ACTH

D Glucocorticoid
Quiz Time

Q19. Which of the following hormones that controls blood pressure is

secreted by human heart?

A Erythropoietin

B Atrial natriuretic factor

C ACTH

D Glucocorticoid
Solution:
Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) is a 28 amino acid polypeptide
hormone secreted mainly by the heart atria in response to atrial
stretch. ANF acts on the kidney to increase sodium excretion and
GFR, to antagonize renal vasoconstriction, and to inhibit renin
secretion. When blood sodium levels and pressure are increased,
ANP is secreted from the heart. It binds to its receptor in the
kidney and blood vessels, and promotes salt excretion, lowers
blood volume and relaxes the vessel.
Quiz Time

Q21. Which one of the following parts of the eye is affected in cataract?

A Cornea

B Conjunctiva

C Retina

D Lens
Quiz Time

Q21. Which one of the following parts of the eye is affected in cataract?

A Cornea

B Conjunctiva

C Retina

D Lens
Solution:
A cataract is an opacification of the lens of the eye which leads to a
decrease in vision. Cataracts often develop slowly and can affect
one or both eyes. Symptoms may include faded colours, blurry or
double vision, halos around light, trouble with bright lights, and
trouble seeing at night.
Quiz Time

Q22. Hypothalamus directly controls the production of which of the

following hormones?

A glucocorticoid and insulin

B insulin and glucagon

C atrial natriuretic factor and gastrin

D glucocorticoids and androgens

Quiz Time

Q22. Hypothalamus directly controls the production of which of the

following hormones?

A glucocorticoid and insulin

B insulin and glucagon

C atrial natriuretic factor and gastrin

D glucocorticoids and androgens

Solution:
Hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus. The hypothalamus
contains a number of centres which control body temperature,
urge for eating and drinking. It also contains several groups of
neurosecretory cells, which secrete hormones called hypothalamic
hormones.
The hormones produced are Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH),
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), Gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH), somatostain, xytocin, Dopamine.
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) produces glucocorticoids
and Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) increases production
of androgens from testes.
Quiz Time

Q25. The path of passage of stimulus when you accidentally touch a

hotplate is

A Receptor ⟶ Brain ⟶ Muscles

B Muscles ⟶ Spinal cord ⟶ Receptor

C Muscles ⟶ Brain ⟶ Receptor

D Receptor ⟶ Spinal cord ⟶ Muscles

Quiz Time

Q25. The path of passage of stimulus when you accidentally touch a hot
plate is

A Receptor ⟶ Brain ⟶ Muscles

B Muscles ⟶ Spinal cord ⟶ Receptor

C Muscles ⟶ Brain ⟶ Receptor

D Receptor ⟶ Spinal cord ⟶ Muscles

Solution:
The nerve pathway followed by a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
For example, a simple reflex arc happens if we accidentally touch
something hot.
1. Receptor in the skin detects a stimulus (the change in
temperature).
2. Sensory neuron sends electrical impulses to a relay neuron,
which is located in the spinal cord of the CNS. Relay neurons
connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.
3. Motor neuron sends electrical impulses to an effector.
4. Effector produces a response (muscle contracts to move hand
away).
Quiz Time
Q30. Consider the following vision defects listed in Column I & II and the
corrective measures in Column III. Choose the correct combination.
Column I Column II Column III
P. Hypermetropia i. near-sightedness a. convex lens
Q. Myopia ii. Far-sightedness b. concave lens

A P-ii-b

B Q-i-b

C P-i-a

D Q-i-a
Quiz Time
Q30. Consider the following vision defects listed in Column I & II and the
corrective measures in Column III. Choose the correct combination.
Column I Column II Column III
P. Hypermetropia i. near-sightedness a. convex lens
Q. Myopia ii. Far-sightedness b. concave lens

A P-ii-b

B Q-i-b

C P-i-a

D Q-i-a
Solution:
Near-sightedness (myopia) is a common vision condition in which
can see objects near to clearly, but objects farther away are blurry.
It occurs when the shape of eye causes light rays to bend (refract)
incorrectly, focusing images in front of retina instead of on retina.
Lenses used to correct near-sightedness are concave in shape.
Q. Myopia -- i. near-sightedness -- b. concave lens
Human Excretory System

Structure of Kidney
Nephrons
Bowman’s
capsule
Renal
corpuscle
Glomerulus
Structure of Nephrons
Urine Formation
Function of the Tubules
 Regulation of Kidney Functions (Via ADH)

Hypothalamus

Posterior pituitary

ADH
Blood vessels Kidneys
(Constriction) (Fluid reabsorption)

Increased arterial pressure Increased blood volume

Regulation of Kidney Functions (Via ADH)
Renin-Angiotensin Mechanism
Quiz Time

Q9. Podocyte layer that provides outer lining to the surface of glomerular
capillaries are found in

A bowman's capsule

B loop of Henle

C renal artery

D ureter
Quiz Time

Q9. Podocyte layer that provides outer lining to the surface of glomerular
capillaries are found in

A bowman's capsule

B loop of Henle

C renal artery

D ureter
Solution:
Podocytes are cells in the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys that
wrap around capillaries of the glomerulus. Podocyte cells make up
the epithelial lining of Bowman's capsule, the third layer through
which filtration of blood takes place. The Bowman's capsule filters
the blood, retaining large molecules such as proteins while smaller
molecules such as water, salts, and sugars are filtered as the first
step in the formation of urine.
Quiz Time

Q12. Where are the proximal and distal convoluted tubules located within
the human body

A Adrenal cortex

B Adrenal medulla

C Renal cortex

D Renal medulla
Quiz Time

Q12. Where are the proximal and distal convoluted tubules located within
the human body

A Adrenal cortex

B Adrenal medulla

C Renal cortex

D Renal medulla
Solution:
The proximal tubule is the
segment of the nephron in
kidneys which is located in the
renal cortex of loop of Henle's
and distal convoluted tubule is
another segment of nephron it is
found in renal cortex.