SOIL AND MATERIALS (U6).

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Soil testing is a very important part of building and road construction. In fact, no construction project
can proceed without first making sure the soil can support the load. Thus, the purpose of soil testing
for construction is to determine the suitability of the soil for the type of construction to be done. The
test is also done to determine the presence of groundwater.
There are several different types of preconstruction soil testing. The type of test depends on the
properties of the soil. The design of the foundation is based on the soil test report. Some tests are
conducted at the construction site while others are done in the laboratory
Some examples of tests done on soil before it is been used for construction are as follows.
Moisture Content Test
This is a very important test for building construction. The moisture content of the soil is determined
using several methods, including the oven-drying method, calcium carbide method, torsion balance
method, Pycnometer method, sand bath method, radiation method, and alcohol method. The most
common method is the oven-drying method, which involves weighing the sample soil, drying it in an
oven at a 110degrees Celsius (+/- 5 degrees), and weighing it again. The difference in the before and
after weights is the weight of water in the soil.
Specific Gravity Test
The specific gravity of any substance is the ratio of density to the density of the water. It is
determined using one of several methods that include the density bottle method, Pycnometer method,
gas jar method, shrinkage limit method, and measuring flask method. Of these, the most commonly
used in soil analysis are the density bottle and Pycnometer methods.
Dry Density Test
The dry density of soil is the weight of soil particles in a given volume of a sample. Its value depends
on the void ratio and the soil’s specific gravity. This value is used to classify soil as dense, medium
dense, or loose. The dry density test is done using one of three methods: sand replacement, core
cutter, or water displacement. Of these, the sand replacement and core cutter methods are the more
widely used.
Classification of soil (base on the Squeeze Test)
One of the most basic characteristics of soil is its composition. In general, soils are classified as clay
soils, sandy soils, or loamy soils. Clay is nutrient-rich, but slow draining. Sand is quick draining but
has trouble retaining nutrients and moisture. Loam is generally considered to be ideal soil because it
retains moisture and nutrients but doesn’t stay soggy.
To determine your soil type, take a handful of moist (but not wet) soil from your garden, and give it a
firm squeeze. Then, open your hand. One of three things will happen:

 It will hold its shape, and when you give it a light poke, it crumbles. Lucky you—this means
you have luxurious loam!
 It will hold its shape, and, when poked, sits stubbornly in your hand. This means you have
clay soil.
 It will fall apart as soon as you open your hand. This means you have sandy soil

PREPARED AND PRESENTED BY: PROF. MAFEMBE NDE CEDDRIC 1

NB: Loam soil is a term that refers to a particular type of soil texture. Several characteristics define
it. It is a great medium for plants because it is rich in nutrients and food yet can drain water well

FIG 1: A Loam soil

How to Determine the Water Content of Soil?

1. Oven-Drying Method:
The oven-drying method is the standard method of the
determination of water content in the laboratory.
Principle:
The principle of test is to determine the weight of a wet
soil sample in a container, dry the sample along with the container for 24 h in an oven and then
determine the weight of the dry soil sample. The sequence of steps in water content determination is
illustrated in the Fig below.

The water content of the soil (ω, in percentage) is obtained from the relation –
ω = [(W2 – W1)/(W3 – W1)] x 100…..Eq(1)
where W1 is the weight of the container, W2 is the weight of container + wet soil, and W3 is the
weight of container + dry soil.
Procedure:
Water content of a soil sample is determined in the following steps:

I). A clean dry non-corrodible container with lid is taken and its weight is determined (W1) using a
balance. The balance should be of minimum sensitivity to weigh the samples to an accuracy of 0.04%
of weight of soil taken. This comes to a sensitivity of 0.01 g.
ii). The required quantity of a representative undisturbed soil sample, is taken and placed loosely in
the container. The weight of the container with lid and wet soil is determined (W2).

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iii). The container with wet soil is placed in the oven with its lid removed for 24 h, maintaining a
temperature of 110 ± 5°C. The container now containing dry soil is then cooled in a desiccator with
the lid closed.
iv). The weight of dry soil with the container and lid (W3) is determined. The water content is
determined from Eq. (1).
The oven-drying temperature of 110 ± 5°C is suitable for most of the soils. A temperature more than
110 ± 5°C should not be used as it breaks the crystal structure of the soil and causes evaporation of
structural water, which has properties completely different from normal water and is considered a part
of soil solids.
For soils containing gypsum or other minerals, there is loosely bound water of hydration (adsorbed
water), which gets evaporated at 110°C. Hence, a lower temperature of 80°C should be used for oven-
drying such soils. Similarly, for soils containing organic matter, the oven-drying temperature should
not exceed 60°C to prevent oxidation of organic matter.
The oven-drying method is the most accurate method of determining water content. The only
disadvantage of the method is that it takes minimum 24 h to know the test result.
NB: Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical
formula CaSO4·2H2O. It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent
in many forms of plaster, blackboard or sidewalk chalk, and drywall.

How to Determine the Specific density of Soil?

2. Density Bottle Method:
The density bottle method is used for the determination of specific gravity of fine-grained soils. It
may be also used for medium- and coarse-grained soils provided that the soil is pulverized and passed
through a 4.75-mm IS sieve. The density bottle is a pycnometer of 50-mL capacity with a stopper.
Procedure:
Figure 4.19 illustrates the principle of determination of specific gravity by density bottle method.

The procedure is described in the following steps:

I). The weight of the clean and dry gas jar is taken to the nearest 0.2 g (W1).
II). The soil sample is placed in the gas jar. The gas jar with slip cover and with the contents is
weighed (W2) to the nearest 0.2 g.

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III). About 500 mL of water is added to the soil in the gas jar. The rubber stopper is inserted on to the
gas jar. For medium- and coarse-grained soils, the gas jar with the contents is set aside for at least 4 h.
At the end of this period or immediately after the addition of water in the case of fine-grained soils,
the gas jar is shaken by hand until the soil particles are in suspension and then placed in the shaking
apparatus and shaken for a period of 20-30 min.
IV). The rubber stopper is then removed and any soil adhering to the stopper is washed carefully into
the jar. Water is then added to the gas jar to within 2 mm of the top surface. The soil is allowed to
settle for a few minutes and the gas jar is then filled with water to the brim. The slip cover is then
placed on the top of the jar taking care not to trap any air under the cover
V. The gas jar and the cover are wiped with a cloth and the whole assembly is weighed (W3) to the
nearest 0.2 g.
VI. The gas jar is emptied, washed thoroughly, and filled completely with water. The glass plate is
placed in position taking care not to trap any air under the plate or slip cover. The gas jar and the plate
or cover are then wiped with a cloth on the outside and the whole assembly is then weighed (W4)
Derivation of Expression for Specific Gravity:
G = γS/γw = Wd/Vsγw
where Wd is the weight of dry soil and Vs is the volume of soil solids. Referring to Fig. 4.17,
Wd = W2 – W1
Vs = (W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2)/ γw
Therefore,

NB: A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated water. It is
used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a long period of time. All
water baths have a digital or an analogue interface to allow users to set a desired temperature

CHAPTER 1: MEASURE OF CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY (TEST)

INTRODUCTION

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The coefficient of permeability can be determined by laboratory as well as field tests. In the
laboratory, coefficient of permeability is determined by Two (2) types of testes. Constant head and
Falling head test. As for the Field test we use the Permeability pumping test.

Definition: Permeability is the ease with which water can flow through the soils. Any soil when
depositing contains some voids in them. The property of the soil which permits the water or any liquid
to flow through it through its voids is called permeability.
NB: Darcy‘s law which state that the velocity of flow of liquid between two points in the
soil is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient applied to it.

Constant Head Test

Constant head test is suitable for coarse grained soil as sufficient discharge is required to determine
the coefficient of permeability.
The figure below shows the schematic diagram of constant head permeameter. The water is allowed
to flow through the soil sample from a reservoir such a way that a constant water level is maintained
in the reservoir by overflow. The quantity of water (Q) flowing through the soil for a particular time
(t) or discharge is measured. The coefficient of permeability is determined as:

where
k = coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
Q=discharge collected in time t (cm3/s)
A = c/s area of the sample (cm2)
h = head drop (distance) in manometers levels (cm)
L = distance between manometer tapping point (cm)
t= Time needed for the water to flow through the soil (s)

Fig. 1.1. Constant head permeameter

EQUIPMENTS
 Constant- Head permeameter setup
 Rigid wall permeability
 Constant head filter tank (to
remove water bubbles before
they enter the soil specimen)

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  Porous stones with hydraulic conductivity greater than the hydraulic conductivity of
the soil specimen.
 Manometer to measure the total head change between two points within the
specimen.
 Compaction equipment for sample preparation
 Balance with a resolution of 0.1g
 Sieve
 Vacuum pump to help saturate the soil specimen
 Graduated beaker to measure the volume of water seepage through the specimen.
 Stopwatch to measure the time needed for a volume of water to seep through a soil
specimen.
 Thermometer with 1degree Celsius resolution.
 Miscellaneous (Containers, mixing pans, scoop and funnels)
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
1) Determine the initial mass of the course-grain specimen and denote it ‘’Mo’’
2) Place the porous at stone at the bottom of the permeameter and pour the soil in the
permeameter using a funnel. Follow a circular motion to fill a layer of soil in the
permeameter mold. If the soil contains large particles (larger than 9.5mm), pour the soil using
a scoop.
3) After filling the specimen holder with the representative soil, weight the remaining soil Mf
and compute the mass of the soil in the permeameter. (M=Mo-Mf).
4) Measure the dimension (D) of the specimen holder and calculate the cross-sectional area
(A=πD2/4)
5) Place the porous stone over the specimen and close the permeameter.
6) Measure the height(H) of the specimen in the permeameter (From the top of the
bottom porous stone to the bottom of the top porous stone) and the distance (L)
between the manometer (see fig 1.1) . Calculate the volume of the specimen: V=HXA

ᵞ
7) Calculate the unit weight of the specimen =M/V
8) Saturate the soil sample.

PROCEDURE
1) Connect the cell containing the specimen to the constant-head tank and define the
datum in your system.
2) Start the water flow by opening the Valve. Wait for the steady-state flow and measure
the changes in total head ( ∆hT =h1-h2) and the flow (Q=Vseep/t) using a
graduated flask to measure the time (t) to fill the graduated flask.
3) Using the thermometer, measure the temperature (T) of the effluent fluid.
4) Repeat the test three different changes in total head. This can be done by changing the
elevation of the constant-head filter tank. This experiment will show that the
hydraulic conductivity remains constant when the hydraulic gradients (i=h1-h2/L)

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 Fig 1.2

Darcy‘s law which state that ‘’the velocity of flow of liquid between two points in
the soil is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient applied to it’’.
 Velocity is the speed at which an object goes in a particular direction.
 Hydraulic gradient describes the effectiveness of the driving force behind water
movement and it is define as : (i=h1-h2/L)

i.e vαi
PREPARED AND PRESENTED BY: PROF. MAFEMBE NDE CEDDRIC 7
and K is added as proportionality constant which is called coefficient of permeability of soil.

v = ki
 We also write the law for discharge as this.

q = kAi

‘’i’’ is the hydraulic gradient and can be written as this.

Here discharge can be calculated as volume of water collected Q divided by time interval t.

q = Q/t
 

We have calculated the area of mould A, we have also determined the head difference and
the length L over which the head changed. So we have measured all the required values in
this equation to calculate and know the permeability of the soil sample.

Example 1:
A field sample of medium sand is tested to determine the hydraulic conductivity using a
constant-head permeameter with a head difference of 83 mm (h). The permeameter has length
of 200 mm (L) and a diameter of 75 mm (D). In 1 min, 71.6 cm3 of water is collected at the
outlet. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the sample.
Solution:
Equation (1.21) is used to compute the hydraulic conductivity in a constant-head
permeameter test:

K =QL/ Ath= 71.6cm³ x 20cm/ (π x 7.5cm²/4) x 8.3cm x 60sec =0.065 cm/s

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Example 7.1
In a permeability test, a head difference of 20cmisbeing maintained between the top and
bottom ends of a sample of 40cm height. The inner diameter of the circular tube is 10cm. It
has been measured that in1min an amount of water of 35cm3 is collected in a measuring
glass. What is the value of the hydraulic conductivity k?

Solution
In this case the gradient is i = −20/40= − 0.5. The discharge is Q =35 cm3/60 s
=0.5833cm3/s. The area of a cross section of the tube is π×(5 cm)2=78.54cm2.This means
that the specific discharge is q =7.426×10−3 cm/s. Because q =−ki it follows that k =0.0148
cm/s.
Example: 7.2
A circular glass tube is filled with 20cm of sand, having a hydraulic conductivity of 10−5
m/s, and on top of that 20cm sand having a hydraulic conductivity that is a factor 4 larger, see
Fig.7.4. The inner diameter of the circular tube is 10cm. Calculate the discharge Q through
this layered sample, if the head difference between the top and bottom of the sample is 20cm.
Solution:
In this case the water must flow through two media, in series, Q1 =k1A1h1/s1, Q2
=k2A2h2/s2. Continuity of flow requires that Q1 = Q2 = Q. Furthermore it is given that A1 =
A2 = A =78.54 cm2, s2 = s1 = s =20 cm and k2 =4k1 =4×10−3 cm/s, and it is also given that
h1 +h2 =20 cm.

Exercise1: In a permeability test, the manometers are placed at a height of 20cm from each
other with a constant head different of 60cm. The internal Area of the circular tube is 35cm2.
The quantity of water collected during the realization of the test is 20ml/mins and the test
lasted for 6mins. What is the value of permeability(k) of the soil sample at the end of the test.

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Falling Head Test
Falling head test is suitable for fine sands, silts. Figure 1.3 shows the schematic diagram of
falling head permeameter. The water is allowed to flow through the soil sample and the
height difference of the water level in the stand pipe for a particular time interval is
measured. The coefficient of permeability is determined as:

Where:
k = coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
A = c/s area of the sample (cm2)
a= area of the stand pipe (cm2)
L = the height of the soil specimen (cm)
h1 (cm) and h2 (cm) = height of the water level in stand pipe in time difference t (s)
t= Time needed for the water to flow through the soil (s)

FIG 1.3 Falling Head Permeameter

EQUIPMENTS
 Falling-Head permeameter setup
 A standpipe with constant cross-section area a
 Porous stones with hydraulic conductivity greater than the hydraulic conductivity of
the soil specimen.

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  Compaction equipment for sample preparation
 Balance with a resolution of 0.1g
 Sieve
 Vacuum pump to help saturate the soil specimen
 Graduated beaker to measure the volume of water seepage through the specimen.
 Stopwatch to measure the time needed for a volume of water to seep through a soil
specimen.
 Miscellaneous (Containers, mixing pans, and funnels)
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
1) Determine the initial mass of the course-grain specimen and denote it ‘’Mo’’
2) Place the porous at stone at the bottom of the permeameter and pour the soil in the
permeameter using a funnel. Follow a circular motion to fill a layer of soil in the
permeameter mold.
3) After filling the specimen holder with the representative soil, weight the remaining soil Mf
and compute the mass of the soil in the permeameter. (M=Mo-Mf).
4) Measure the dimension (D) of the specimen holder and calculate the cross-sectional area
(A=πD2/4)
5) Place the porous stone over the specimen and close the permeameter.
6) Measure the height(H) of the specimen in the permeameter (From the top of the
bottom porous stone to the bottom of the top porous stone) and the distance (L)
between the manometer (see fig 1.1) . Calculate the volume of the specimen: V=HXA

ᵞ
7) Calculate the unit weight of the specimen =M/V
8) Saturate the soil sample.

PROCEDURE
1) Connect the permeameter to the standpipe.
2) Start flow by opening the valve, note the time required for trhe water in the standpipe to drop
from height h1 to h2 .
3) Calculate the volume of seeping water: Vseep = (h1-h2) × π(D²/4). Compare this volume to
volume of the effluent. If these volumes are not identical, the specimen is not fully saturated
and further vacuuming may be required.
4) Repeat this test 3-time.

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Unconfined Pumping Tests
Figure 18.3 shows the unconfined pumping test procedure. Here aquifer is underlain by an
impermeable layer and pumping well is extended up to the bottom of the permeable layer as shown in
Figure 18.3. Two observation wells are inserted in the aquifer. The permeability is determined as:
\[k=2.3{q \over \pi }{{{{\log }_{10}}({r_2}/{r_1})} \over {(h_2^2 - h_1^{2)}}}\]
(18.3)
where
q is discharge,
k is coefficient of permeability,
h1 and h2 can be determined by measuring the drawdown at the observation wells (as shown in the
Figure 18.3).
r2 and r1 are the distance of the observation well from the pumping well.

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Fig. 18.2. Falling head permeameter

Fig. 18.3. Pumping test in unconfined aquifer

Confined Pumping Tests
Figure 18.4 shows the confined pumping test procedure. Here aquifer is confined in top and bottom
by impermeable layers as shown in Figure 18.4. Two observation wells are inserted in the aquifer.
The permeability is determined as:
\[k=2.3{q \over {2\pi D}}{{{{\log }_{10}}({r_2}/{r_1})} \over {(h_2^{} - h_1^{})}}\] (18.4)
where q is discharge, k is coefficient of permeability, h1 and h2 can be determined by measuring the
drawdown at the observation wells (as shown in the Figure 18.3). r2 and r1 are the distance of the
observation well from the pumping well. D is the thickness of the aquifer.

Fig. 18.4. Pumping test in confined aquifer

Constant Head Permeability Test

Any soil when depositing contains some voids in them. The

property of the soil which permits the water or any liquid to flow through it through its voids is called
permeability. Permeability is the ease with which water can flow through the
soils.

There are numerous methods through which we can measure the

permeability of a soil in the field or of a representative sample in the
laboratory.

In the laboratory we employ two methods

1. Constant Head Permeability Test

2. Variable Head or Falling Head Permeability Test

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These tests measure the amount of water that goes through a soil sample
in a fixed time interval.

Constant head method is suitable for coarse grained soils which are
relatively more pervious because of their larger voids. While variable head
is more suitable for small grained soils which are relatively less pervious
because of their poorly connected void structure.

Let’s discuss Constant Head Permeability Method first.

We perform this test for granular soils, such as sand, where the quantity of
discharge of liquid through them is large.

For this test to perform we use an instrument which is called constant head
permeameter.

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This instrument consists of a cylindrical mould which is connected with two

manometers at its curved surface.

First we measure its internal diameter and determine its internal area which
we say capital A.

This mould is attached with two filter discs at the top and the bottom. These
discs are porous and highly permeable. These are also provided with inlet
and outlet facilities

We can perform this experiment for both disturbed and undisturbed soil
sample.

We fill the mould with our sample soil and compact it to a density which
may be representative of the field conditions.

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Or for an undisturbed sample we take out the soil sample from the ground
and trim it to the dimensions similar to that of the mould. We place this
sample inside the mould between porous discs. Some space will be left
between the mould and the specimen that we will fill with some impervious
material such as cement slurry.

The inlet of the instrument is then connected with a constant head water
reservoir and water is released into the soil sample. When water flows
through the soil, water level in the reservoir tend to decrease fast because
soil we took is high permeability soil so high amount of water will flow
through it. But with a proper arrangement the water level in the reservoir
must be kept constant.

Before beginning the experiment we first let the soil sample get fully
saturated and even after that we allow the water to flow out for some time
so that a steady flow can be attained. A steady flow is the one in which the
quantity of liquid flowing per second through any section, is constant.

We will also notice that after the water has been released into the soil, the
water level in the manometers has risen up to some height.

The height of the water column in the manometer shows the total head or
total energy of the water in the soil sample at this level.

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 The difference in the heights of the water level
in these two manometers is the difference of the total energy of the water at
these two levels in the soil sample. This difference of energy of the water
drives it to flow in the soil from the point of high energy to the point of low
energy.

We note down the difference in the heads of these manometers as Δh and

also note down the distance between the points in the soil where these
heads were measured by these manometers as L.

We wish to maintain this difference of heads in the manometers so that we

can maintain the hydraulic gradient inside the soil by keeping the head of
the water reservoir constant.

We place a graduated jar at the outlet to collect the water coming out of the
sample and a stopwatch is started. We collect the water in the jar for a
fixed time internal t and note down the amount of water collected as Q.

Now for this system we may apply Darcy‘s law which state that the velocity
of flow of liquid between two points in the soil is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient applied to it.

vαi

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and K is added as proportionality constant which is called coefficient of
permeability of soil.

v = ki

We also write the law for discharge as this.

q = kAi

i is the hydraulic gradient and can be written as this.

Here discharge can be calculated as volume of water collected Q divided

by time interval t.

q = Q/t

We have calculated the area of mould A, we have also determined the

head difference and the length L over which the head changed.

So we have measured all the required values in this equation to calculate

and know the permeability of the soil sample.

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According to Indian Standards we report the permeability values at 27
degree celcius temperature. So if we measure the temperature of the water
as T degree Celcius then using this formula we can calculate the
permeability at 27 degree celcius.

Here K27 is the permeability of the soil at 27 degree celcius

Here KT is the permeability of the soil at test temperature T degree celcius

myu T is coefficient of viscosity at temperature T

myu 27 is coefficient of viscosity at temperature 27 degree celcius

Falling Head - Variable Head Permeability Method

Any soil when depositing contains some

voids in them. The property of the soil which permits the water or any liquid
to flow through it through its voids is called permeability. Permeability is the
ease with which water can flow through the soils.

There are numerous methods through which we can measure the

permeability of a soil in the field or of a representative sample in the
laboratory.

In the laboratory we employ two methods

One is constant head permeability test

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And another one is Falling head or variable head permeability test.

These tests measure the amount of water that goes through a soil sample
in a fixed time interval.

Constant head method is suitable for large grained soils which are
relatively more pervious because of their larger voids. While variable head
is more suitable for small grained soils which are relatively less pervious
because of their poorly connected void structure.

We have already discussed constant head method now let’s understand

the falling head or variable head method.

We perform this test for fine grained soils where the quantity of discharge
of liquid through them is very small.

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 For this test we use an instrument which consists of a
cylindrical mould. We measure its internal diameter and determine its
internal area which we say capital A.

This mould is attached with two filter discs at the top and the bottom. These
discs are porous and highly permeable. These are also provided with inlet
and outlet facilities.

Inlet is fitted with a graduated vertical standpipe. The diameter of this pipe
is known and let’s say it is small letter d, also its area is small a.

We can perform this experiment on both disturbed and undisturbed soil

samples.

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We fill the mould with our sample soil and compact it to a density which
may be representative of the field conditions.

Or for an undisturbed sample we take out the soil sample from the ground
and trim it to the dimensions similar to that of the mould. We place this
sample inside the mould between porous discs. Some space will be left
between the mould and the specimen that we will fill with some impervious
material such as cement slurry.

We fill the standpipe with water and before beginning the experiment we
allow the water to flow through the soil and let it get fully saturated. Even
after that we let the water to flow out for some time so that a steady flow
can be attained.

A steady flow is the one in which the quantity of liquid flowing per second
through any section, is constant.

Then we close the knob at the outlet and stop the water flow.
We refill the standpipe up to a certain height.

The height of the water column in the standpipe represents the head or the
energy of the water. We assume there is negligible head loss due to the
porous disc and the energy of the liquid starts dropping when it begins to
flow through the soil. So if there is a manometer at the beginning of the soil
its water level should be the same as that of in the pipe, because they are
displaying the same water head. Hence we can think this inlet pipe as the
head measurer at the beginning of the flow and we can ignore the first
manometer.

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Now if we have a manometer at the bottom of the sample and when water
flows through the soil, the water level in the manometer will display the exit
head of the water.

But if we place the instrument in a tub like container full of water, its exit
head will become constant. Also if we consider the exit head or water level
of the container as datum then datum head is zero so exit head is also zero
and initial inlet head of the water in the standpipe from datum is, say h1.

Hydraulic gradient, which is the difference of inlet head and outlet divided
by the length of the soil specimen in which the flow takes place, will only
depend on the height of the water column in the standpipe as outlet head is
zero.

When we open the outlet knob water comes out and overflow the container.
We start a stopwatch and place a graduated jar to collect that overflow
water.

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We collect the water for a fixed time internal t and note down the amount of
water collected as capital Q. We close the knob and also note down the
final head in the standpipe which is also the final head difference from the
datum. We call it h2.

Keep in mind that h1 and h2 are the heights of the water column in the
standpipe and also the head differences which are causing the flow.

Now for this system we may apply Darcy‘s law which state that the velocity
of flow of liquid between two points in the soil is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient applied to it.

vαi

and K is added as proportionality constant which is called coefficient of

permeability of soil.

V = ki

We also write the law for discharge rate as this.

q = kAi

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We can notice the hydraulic gradient through the soil is changing every
instant as the water head is continuously changing in the standpipe.

So let at any instant of time when the water head was in between h1 and
h2, the head difference which was causing the flow through the soil is h.
For a very short interval of time dt head in the standpipe drops by dh
height. At that instant when the head is h the flow rate can be given as this

and the amount of water collected in the jar with this rate in small time
interval dt will be q.dt.

So using the continuity equation we can write volume of water dropped or

decreased, negative sign for the decrease, in the standpipe is equal to the
discharge of water collected or increased in the jar through the outlet.

 
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Volume of water dropped in the standpipe is area of standpipe multiplied by
height of drop of water (a.dh) and the amount of water collected in the jar is
discharge rate multiplied by time interval (q.dt).

-a.dh = q.dt

We can write discharge rate by Darcy’s law as this.

-a.dh = kAi.dt

Hydraulic gradient i for that instant of time was h/L

We rearrange it and write it as this

Here some values are constant and for our taken test conditions
permeability is constant. Only variables here are head difference and time.
So we can integrate both from the head difference at initial head difference
of h1 at time t equal to zero to the final head difference of h 2 at time t equal
to t.

Now we can integrate

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and apply the limits also rearrange to find the value of permeability as this.

Here log has its base e that can also be written as this for base 10.

In this equation we have measured and recorded all the required values to
calculate and know the permeability of the soil sample.

According to Indian Standards we report the permeability values at 27

degree Celsius temperature. So if we measure the temperature of the
water as T degree Celsius then using this formula we can calculate the
permeability at 27 degree Celsius.

Here K27 and KT are the permeability of the soil at 27 degree Celsius and
at test temperature T degree Celsius respectively

myu 27 and myu T are the coefficient of viscosity at temperature 27 degree

Celsius and test temperature T degree Celsius respectively

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CHAPTER 2: TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
The triaxial test is used to evaluate the shear strength, strain-stress behaviour, contractive and
dilative response, and generation of pore-presure of soils under axisymmetric state of stress
and controlled drainage conditions.

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