PROVINCE OF BUKIDNON

Municipality of Don Carlos

DON CARLOS POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
Purok 2, Poblacion Norte, Don Carlos, Bukidnon

MODULE
IN
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

KARL STEPHEN O. ACAO

INSTRUCTOR
Lesson 1
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

What This Lesson is About

When people experience difficulties or perplexed by the unknown, they resort to various
ways and means for answers and immediate or lasting solutions. Unconsciously, even at a
young age, we use our senses and cognitive skills to gather information, assess and reassess
facts, find meaning to the numbers and grow in understanding of the world around us. Long
before we read it in books and heard it from teachers, we are already applying quantitative
approach in our daily lives in the most primal way.

Upon completing this module, you will have a deeper understanding of the Practical
Research 2 subject that will equip you with the knowledge and skill to decide on a suitable
quantitative research project applicable to your area of interest.

What’s In
Practical Research I introduced you to the two main classifications of research
methods: quantitative and qualitative. You have learned that qualitative research is more of
describing a phenomenon in a narrative; hence, the data collected can be in the form of words,
images, or transcripts taken from a small sample, not generalizable to the population.
Choosing a small sample size makes room for in-depth data collection and interpretation. In
this lesson, you will learn about quantitative analysis, a more formal, objective, and systematic
approach to obtaining answers to a question or problem of the study.

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Research
You have learned from Practical Research 1 that research method is classified into
two main types: quantitative and qualitative. While both methods utilize a specific data
gathering procedure, the former is generally concerned with understanding phenomenon
relating to or involving quality or kind. The latter, on the other hand, is based on the
measurement or quantity. In this module, we will focus on quantitative methods of research
and what are its different kinds.

Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to

investigate observable phenomena. A phenomenon is any existing or observable fact or
situation that we want to unearth further or understand. It is scientific for the fact that it uses
a scientific method in designing and collecting numerical data. Once data is collected, it will
undergo statistical analysis like Pearson’s r, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for
analysis. Since data is analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the data obtained must be
numerical and quantifiable, hence its name quantitative research. Numerical data are
generally easier to collect than descriptions or phrases used in qualitative research.
Information like student’s grades in different subjects, number of hours of engagement in
social media platforms of teens, percentage of consumers who prefer the color blue for soap
packaging, average daily Covid-19 patient recovery per region are just few examples of
research data expressed in numbers. Some data on the other hand, are not directly countable
and thus require conversion from non-numerical information into numerical information. For
instance, determining which brand of canned sardines is the best choice for consumers in
terms of taste cannot be expressed in numbers unless we do a survey using a rating scale.
Several forms of rating scales are available, e.g., the Likert scale that we can use to quantify
data. Usually, they come in a selection of numbers with a corresponding meaning for each
choice, for example: 1= tastes very good, 2 = satisfactory, or 3 = undesirable. Numerical
choices convert texts into numbers so the researcher can perform mathematical operations
for faster, more accurate, and more objective analysis.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is commonly used in natural sciences research problems because of

the following characteristics:

1. LARGE SAMPLE SIZE. To obtain more meaningful statistical result, the data must come
from a large sample size.

2. OBJECTIVE. Data gathering and analysis of results are done accurately, objectively, and
are unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and personal guesses.

3. VISUAL RESULT PRESENTATION. Data is numerical, which makes presentation through

graphs, charts, and tables possible and for better conveyance and interpretation.

4. FASTER DATA ANALYSIS. The use of a statistical tools give way for a less time
consuming data analysis.

5. GENERALIZED DATA. Data taken from a sample can be applied to the population if
sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random samples were taken.

6. FAST DATA COLLECTION. Depending on the type of data needed, collection can be
quick and easy. Quantitative research uses standardized research instruments that allow the
researcher to collect data from a large sample size efficiently. For instance, a single survey
form can be administered simultaneously to collect various measurable characteristics like
age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.

7. RELIABLE DATA. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a sample as a

representative of the population, making it more credible and reliable for policymaking and
decision making.

8. REPLICATION. The Quantitative method can be repeated to verify findings enhancing its
validity, free from false or immature conclusions.

The variables can also be classified according to their nature. The diagram below shows the
different classifications:
 VARIABLE

QUANTITATIVE
QUAILITATIVE
(NUMERICAL)

DISCREET CONTINUOUS NOMINAL ORDINAL DICHOTOMOUS

Kinds of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a broad spectrum that it can be classified into smaller and
more specific kinds: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and
experimental.

Descriptive design is used to describe a particular phenomenon by observing it as it occurs

in nature. There is no experimental manipulation and the researcher does not start with a
hypothesis. The goal of descriptive research is only to describe the person or object of the
study. An example of descriptive research design is “the determination of the different kinds
of physical activities and how often high school students do it during the quarantine period.”

The correlational design identifies the relationship between variables. Data is collected by
observation since it does not consider the cause and effect for example, the relationship
between the amount of physical activity done and student academic achievement.

Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible relationship between previous events
and present conditions. The term “Ex post facto”, means after the fact, looks at the possible
causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just like the first two, there is no experimental
manipulation in this design. An example of this is “how does the parent’s academic
achievement affect the children obesity?”

A quasi-experimental design is used to establish the cause and effect relationship of

variables. Although it resembles the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has lesser
validity due to the absence of random selection and assignment of subjects. Here, the
independent variable is identified but not manipulated. The researcher does not modify
preexisting groups of subjects. The group exposed to treatment (experimental) is compared
to the group unexposed to treatment (control): example, the effects of unemployment on
attitude towards following safety protocol in ECQ declared areas.

Experimental design like quasi- experimental is used to establish the cause and effect
relationship of two or more variables. This design provides a more conclusive result because
it uses random assignment of subjects and experimental manipulations. For example, a
comparison of the effects of various blended learning to the reading comprehension of
elementary pupils.
Lesson 2
IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING
THE PROBLEM

What This Lesson is About

There are so many things we wanted to know about this world and beyond. Our
continues quest for knowledge, answers, and explanation of people, things, events, and
so on seems incomprehensible until we are engaged into research. In doing research, it
is important to identify the specificity and feasibility of a chosen research problem. Without
doing so, the goal of doing research will be implausible.

DESIGNING RESEARCH TOPIC

Steps in Developing Research Topic

Despite the advancement in knowledge and technology, there is still a lot to
discover in this world. There is still an ocean of things that we are yet to explore. It can be
a difficult situation that we want to improve or eliminate, a better understanding of the
unfamiliar, information gaps we wish to fill, or theories that we want to validate. What limits
our choice of a topic are our capacity, understanding, resources, and skill.
Most researchers will agree that choosing a good topic is a challenging and tedious
task. Because a research topic serves as the groundwork for any succeeding actions, it
must be defined appropriately at the beginning of the research work. Otherwise, it may
result in unanticipated complexities to the researcher.

Developing a research problem can be done in four (4) steps:

1. Choose a broad topic
2. Do a preliminary research
3. Define the problem
4. Refine the question

As a student researcher, let us go through these steps to guide us in choosing a

quantitative research topic related to our chosen field.

1. CHOOSE A BROAD TOPIC. The first step is quite simple. As a Senior High School
student, these tips will surely guide you in selecting a broad topic for quantitative research:

A. Choose an interesting topic. Research is a very challenging task that demands your
time and persistence. Your motivation to find the answer to the problem should keep you
going, thus building a momentum along the way. Therefore, your research topic must be
something that you are passionate about. Review your answers in activity 1, and it might
lead you to the right path. After all, nothing is more satisfying than accomplishing
something that matters to you.
B. Select a significant topic. A topic that is worth researching must be able to answer
or solve problems in the community. No one will take an interest in your topic if it is
obsolete and does not address any real problem. To be proactive and to take part in
solving problems with socio-economic relevance gives a sense of accomplishment. You
do not even have to look far, just take a look at your household, neighborhood, school,
group of friends, or local community for a common problem or difficulty. Activity 2 will help
you identify some main points that can serve as a basis for choosing your research study.

C. Choose a topic relevant to your field. One of the goals of this course is for you to
be able to produce a quantitative research study that is aligned to your chosen track. A
SHS student under ABM must choose a topic related to business and management while
students taking HUMSS may consider choosing a topic about politics, culture, and arts.
Choosing a topic that you can relate will certainly make your research project less
challenging.

In the event, that the three tips above do not shed some light on your minds, do not
despair; other sources of ideas like the ones below may be available for you.

i. Department of Science and Technology (DOST) Harmonized National R & D

Agenda for 2017-2022. Early in 2017, DOST, together with researchers from the
health, agriculture, industry, and academe, released research priorities for 2017 to
2022 that are relevant for the economic growth of the country. Visit this link
https://bit.ly/3hHTf2Y for a list of suggested studies.

ii. Review of Literature. Some researchers reveal that reading previous studies
fueled their minds with tons of research topics. Reviewing the literature lets them
know what has been studied, what is not yet done, and what other researchers
suggest working on. Journals, periodicals, and peer-reviewed articles are a good
read.

iii. Field experts. Gather up some guts to approach anyone you know that are experts
on the field of your choice because they may give valuable inputs or may currently
be working on a study where you can collaborate. Your instructor may also give
you some advice, especially on the possible obstacles, resource limitations, and
expanse of the study.

iv. Brainstorming. Do not underestimate the ideas from classmates, friends, and
family members. You may be overwhelmed at first by the outpouring of ideas, just
build a list, then cross off any topic unrelated to your field or not so interesting to
you. Of course, you must take precautionary measures in doing this by observing
physical distancing. You can use any social media platform to do this.

2. DO A PRELIMINARY RESEARCH. The second step is much more time-consuming.

Once you have chosen a broad topic, you need to have a better understanding of it by
reading some more articles, journals, and related research studies. Find out how other
researchers gathered their data, what research instruments were used, how the data were
analyzed, and what important findings they shared. Take note of every relevant research
study for future reference. If you started the topic search (first step) by doing a literature
review, the second step is just a continuation of what you started.

3. DEFINE THE PROBLEM. After getting enough information, you may be able to list
some questions or problems that you want to research. At this stage, you should be able
to narrow down broad topic into feasible and manageable research questions. A broad
topic can be narrowed down by limiting the population, place, period, or a certain
characteristic. However, be very mindful that your problem may not be too narrow that it
becomes very simple and does not need to collect unique data or does not generate new
information. A very narrow research question can be developed by doing a comparative
study or expanding the scope of the study.

4. REFINE THE QUESTION. This step lets you evaluate the questions formulated. What
specific questions should you ask? How should you gather your data sufficient to answer
the questions? Are the questions too narrow, or does it need to be trimmed down? While
evaluating the research question, consider the requirements of the course. How much
time are you given to finish the research? What resources do you need and are they
available?

RESEARCH TITLE

Basic Guidelines in Make Research Title

A research study title is the very first thing a reader comes across when searching for
scientific literature. It is a concise description of the content of the research study
containing the fewest possible words, yet adequate to describe the contents of the paper
for a simple reason that we do not want to mislead the readers. After conceptualizing a
most probable research topic, drafting the title early in the research process helps in
keeping your focus on the subject. The following are the basic guidelines in making a
research study title:

1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study instead of
using general terms.
2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT.
3. Do not include words like “The study of,” “analysis of,” “an investigation of” or
similar construction as these would only lengthen the title.
4. Include the main dependent and independent variables.
5. . Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation.
6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as the first
letter of the first and last words.
7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form
from time to time.
8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a
historical study.
9. Use current terminology.
 10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to15 words are sufficient to
describe the research study.
11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., NH4)
12. Write and italicize the full scientific names.
13. Must reflect the tone of the paper. An academic research paper has title which
is not casual, or informal, or does not contain humor.

The following steps can guide you in writing your research title:

1. Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish or know from your study. Write
one to two sentences to state the main objectives of your research project.
2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences into one
complete sentence that includes important keywords and variables of the study.
3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words. You may also shrink a phrase
into a simpler phrase or a single word. In doing this, make sure that the main
thought of the research study is retained.
4. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any.
5. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary according to the requirements of
the course or school. Please seek guidance from your professor.

BACKGROUND OF RESEARCH

Background of the Study

The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader
of the context of the study. When we say context, it means the situation or circumstances
within which your research topic was conceptualized. Ideally, this part is written when you
have already conducted a literature review and has a good perception of the topic so you
can articulate the importance and validity of the research problem. It is also in this part of
the paper where you justify the need to conduct a research study about the topic selected
by establishing the research gap.

A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further

exploration. The gap can be in a form of other variables, conditions, population,
methodology, or test subject. To identify research gaps, an exhaustive literature review
regarding the topic is required. You may have to look for similar or related studies
employing quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods from legitimate sources and
examine the gray areas. Reading through the Discussion, Conclusion, or the
Recommendations sections of the articles will help you know potential areas of study that
need further attention. Identifying research gaps sometimes would even make
researchers modify their research problem as they get noteworthy ideas from fellow
researchers.
 While both the Background of the Study and the Review of Related Literature
involves reading past related studies, they differ in some aspects. The former is at the
introductory part of the paper with the purpose of relaying the importance of your research
study; the latter is more comprehensive and thoroughly discuss the studies mentioned in
the background of research. Moreover, the background of the study will answer the
following questions:
1. What is already known about the topic?
2. What is not known about the topic?
3. Why do you need to address those gaps?
4. What is the rationale of your study?

While answering these questions, keep in mind that the studies you include in this part
of the paper are laid down as part of the introduction and should not be discussed in great
detail. The depth and length of the background information largely depend on how much
information you think the reader needs to know to have a full grasp of the topic being
discussed.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Nature of Quantitative Research Problem

Once a person encountered uncertainty, being inquisitive, you will find ways for
answers or solution. Ignited by interest, curiosity, or need you will find yourself pondering
about the current problem you are facing. When you are thinking and behaving this way,
you are then confronted by a problem that can be a source of a research problem.
A research problem is simple as a problem you would like to research. Quantitative
Research Problem dealt more with the precision and specificity of the problem.
Furthermore, the quantitative research problem describes trends and patterns of a
phenomenon.
When you have identified your quantitative research problem, you can now state
it and make sure to establish its place in your study. In your written paper, this can be
found as Statement of the Problem, where it formally introduces the problem that you want
to investigate or address. Then you will start specifying what you want to answer in your
study.

Research Problem and Research Questions

The research questions help to clarify and specify the research problem. Research
questions are also considered as sub-problems of your research problem. These
questions are informative in nature. It specifies the method of collecting and analyzing
data and the type of data to be collected since you are exploring a quantitative research
problem.

Characteristics of Good Research Questions

Once you have already enumerated your research questions for your study, it is
important that you consider its quality to answer and explain your research problem. The
following are good characteristics of research questions, as described by Fraenkel and
Wallen (2020).
 Feasible. Consider the amount of time, energy, money, respondents, and even your
current situation as a student-researcher. Is the research problem possible? Will it not
spend unreasonable amount? Consider these examples: “How do parents feel about the
blended learning modality for elementary learners?” and “How would giving each learner
their own laptop to be used in this blended learning modality affect their performance
tasks?” The first example is definitely a more feasible research question. Considering the
resources, it is more possible to gather the data needed to answer the question.

Clear. The clarity of how the questions stated lead to agreement of meaning of the
readers of your study. Since your research questions are also considered as the main
focus in the gathering and analyzing the data, it is therefore very important that these are
stated clearly.

Significant. Ask if your research questions are relevant or important to ask. Will
answering these questions provide an additional contribution to address the given
research problem? In other words, are the research questions really worth investigating?

At this point, you do not just consider the time and money that you will spend, but
more importantly, the value of what you are trying to investigate. So aside from the reason
that your chosen research problem is within your interest, you should also provide a sound
justification of your choice as a researcher.

Ethical. Always consider the welfare of people, animals or who so ever involve in
your study. Look into ways of answering the research questions without inflicting physical
and psychological harm to persons involved.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Scope and Delimitation

In doing research study, we make sure that we have certainty and reasons for
drawing the inclusion and exclusion of research variables. We do not write for the sake of
writing the parts of the research paper; such as setting the scope and delimitation of your
study. It is important because it draws the boundary of your study. Without doing so,
research procedures and results will not be coherent to the goal of your study.

The scope specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or
participant, and timeline. Delimitation cites factors of your study that are not included or
excluded or those you will not deal in your study.

In this section of your research paper, you may also state the reasons why you did
not include the variables. A clearly written scope and delimitation of the study will make it
definitely easier to answer questions which are related or not related to your study.

Components of Scope and Delimitation

 In writing the scope and delimitation of your study, you are also asking the basic
profile questions of your research. The following are the components of the scope and
delimitation of the study but not limited to:

Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be included and excluded?
Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are you doing this study?
Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this study?
Locale of the Study. Where are you going to gather your data?
Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be your respondents?
Method and Research Instruments. How are going to collect the data?

Difference between Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the
design and conduct of the study. Along the way of conducting your study, you will
encounter limitations which you have not drawn before you start – these are the
delimitations of study. Most of the delimitations arose from the applicability or
usefulness of the findings of the study to the current problem.

Variables not included in your study are also determined by delimitation of your
study. While on the other hand, limitation of the study are those variables included in your
study. Hence, limitation of the study is actually the identified scope of the study.

PRESENTING STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Getting this far means you have already completed the first part of the research paper.
The next step is to present your Statement of the Problem. The following topics were
already discussed and practiced so it is time to present your output for this Module.

Research Title Background of the Research

Research Questions
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Significance of the Study or Beneficiaries (if applicable)

Lesson 3
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW
OF RELATED LITERATURE
What This Lesson is About
 The main emphasis of this module is to illustrate and explain the conceptual
framework, discuss the definition of terms used, formulating the research hypothesis, and
review the related literature. These topics are essential in initiating a research study. Thus,
needed competencies should be acquired.
Furthermore, in this module, you will learn how to differentiate the conceptual and
theoretical framework, how to define terms operationally, how to write hypotheses base
on your problem, and determine the methods in selecting appropriate related literature for
your study.

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

As you begin writing your research project, you must consider the framework that is
suitable for your study. What is a research framework? A research framework illustrates
the structure or blueprint of the research plan and helps the researcher formulate relevant
research questions.

The framework consists of the key concepts and assumed relationships of the
research project. It is normally used as a guide for researchers so that they are more
focused on the scope of their studies. It can be presented using visual (diagrams, chart,
etc.) and narrative (paragraph stating the concepts and relationships of the study) forms.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The types of research frameworks are classified as the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks. A theoretical framework is commonly used for studies that anchor on
timetested theories that relate the findings of the investigation to the underpinning relevant
theory of knowledge. At the same time, a conceptual framework refers to the actual ideas,
beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically support the study. It is primarily a
conception or model of what is out there that the researcher plans to study.

Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The following are the similar characteristics of Theoretical and Conceptual Framework:

1. Provide an overall view of the research study;

2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;
3. Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives;
4. Help justify assumptions/hypothesis;
5. Aid in choosing appropriate methodology;
6. Help in gathering and interpreting data and
7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity.

Differences between the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical framework Conceptual framework
 Scope  Broader  Narrowed/Focused
 Can be used in  Directly related to
different studies a specific study
Focus of Content  The particular  Set of related
theory used concepts to a
already in the field specific study
Number of Theories  Presents one  May synthesize
theory at a time one or more
theories
Time of Development  Already existing  Develop while
before the conduct planning and
of the study writing a specific
research

Concept Map
A concept map is a visual representation of information that helps show the
relationship between ideas. Concept maps begin with the main topic and then branch out
into sub-topics, reflecting the connection of all the elements in the study. It can also
provide and organize new ideas.

It is composed of different figures such as lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or
symbols which represent the elements of your research. It can take the form of charts,
graphic organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts. Concept
map arranges related ideas in a hierarchy. You start broad, and the sub-topics will get
more and more specific. It also helps you in formulating a specific topic from the general
or the main idea with significant connections of information. In other words, understanding
the big picture makes the details more significant and easier to comprehend.

Concept maps are very useful for researchers and readers who understand better
visually. With the proper connection of lines and linking arrows to shapes and other
symbols representing your concepts about the research, the readers can visualize a
comprehensive picture of your study.

However, in the concept map, you are not yet actually researching your study. It is
developing or creating your plan or blueprint so that you will be guided on the flow and
direction of your research study. And that includes your research questions, variables,
and methodology. It means that you are just gathering and soliciting ideas on what you
could learn about your chosen topic.

Before creating your conceptual framework, you have to understand first the different
variables of your study. Although these were already discussed in the previous module
for the purpose of utilizing it in your framework, an in-depth concept is a need.

The independent variable is the “presumed cause” of the research problem. It is the
reason for any “change” or difference in a dependent variable. It can be purposely
manipulated by the researcher, depending on the focus of the study. It maybe can cause,
influence, or affect the result or outcome of the study. It is also called as the experimental,
treatment, antecedent, or predictor variable. Moreover, it refers to the variable that is
stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure.

The dependent variable is the “presumed effect” of the research problem. It is usually
the problem itself or the element that is being questioned. This variable is altered as a
result of experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is also
called as the criterion, effect, response, or outcome variable which captures the interest
of the researcher and requires analysis, interpretation, and implication of the findings of
the study. The variable that depends on other factors that are measured and are affected
or influenced by the independent variable.

The moderating variable is an independent variable which influences the direction

and the strength of the connection between independent and dependent variables. The
independent variable interacts with the moderator variable, which makes the relationship
of the independent and dependent variable stronger or weaker. It alters the effect that an
independent variable has on a dependent variable base on its value. The moderator thus
influences the effective component of the cause-effect relationship between the two
variables. This is also called as the interaction effect.

Mediating variable or Intervening variable is an element that exists between the

independent to the dependent variable. A mediator (or mediating) variable is an integral
part of the cause-effect relationship and helps us to understand the effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable. It is a variable that describes the effect
and influence of the relationship between the variables and what is controlling that
relationship. This is also called as correlated or mediator variables

The control variable is a special type of independent variable that can influence the
dependent variable. It takes an active role in quantitative studies. Statistical procedures
are used to control this variable. It is useful to integrate the control variables into your
research study, but it is not the main focus.

The Input-Process-Output Model

The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is a conceptual paradigm which indicates
the inputs, required process, and the output. This approach is seated on the premise of
acquiring essential information by converting inputs into outputs through the required
processing steps in obtaining the result. The IPO Model is also referred to as a functional
model that is usually used in action research where an intervention or solution is
necessary to solve the identified problem.
The Input is usually the independent variable of the study. Meanwhile, the Process
is the intervention or solution consist of the instruments and analyses used to acquire the
result. Lastly, the Output is the findings or outcome of the interventions being made to
solve the identified problem.

Common Example of Conceptual Framework

As you read on different research studies, the common conceptual frameworks
used of most studies are the independent and dependent variable model and the input,
process, and output model.
A. Independent Variable - Dependent Variable Model (IV-DV)

For example:

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIAVLE

Hours of study Academic performance

This conceptual framework shows the independent and dependent variables of the
study. It is presumed that the more number of hours a student prepares for the exam, the
higher would be the expected academic performance.
B. The Input – Process - Output Model (IPO)

For example:
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Socio-demographic
Profile
1. Age 1. Profiling
2. Sex 2. Survey Proposed
3. Marital Questionn Interventio
status aire n Program
3. Data
Food safety Profile
1. Knowledge
Analysis
2. Attitude
3. Practices
This conceptual framework shows the input, process, and output approach of the
study. The input is the independent variable, which includes the socio-demographic and
food safety profile of the respondents. The process includes the tools and analyses in
gathering the data, while the output is the outcome based on the results of the study.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Usually, in writing a research paper, the definition of terms is included. It helps in

simplifying some of the technical terms which are vital in the understanding of the research
project. Although this part of the paper is optional, it is advantageous for the reader to
include this to prevent the ambiguous meaning of terms that might otherwise be
interpreted in different ways, causing confusion. It can also enhance comprehension of
important key terms.
 Definition of Terms is also called as Operational Definition of Variables (ODV).
The word operational refers to “how the word/term was used in the study. At the same
time, the variables are the elements essential to the study.

There are two ways in defining the terms, the conceptual and operational definition.
The conceptual definition is the meaning of the term that is based on how it is defined
in the dictionary or encyclopedia. Operational definition on the other hand is the meaning
of the term based on how it was used in the study.

Generally, there are two cases in which important terms need to be defined. First, if
the term is not common or widely known and second, if the term has a specific or unique
meaning in the context of the study.

Benefits of Having Definition of Terms

1. It is a useful place to include technical terms in the topic of the research questions.
2. It can clarify the definition of term, especially if it has a different meaning. Define the
term according to how it was used in the study.
3. It makes it easier to revisit or check the meaning of a term instead of trying to locate it
through the paper.
4. Helps to ensure that the reader can understand the technical terminologies and jargons
while reading the paper.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It shortly describes the content of the definition of
terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that
the variables and key terms found in the title are included).
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
4. Indention should be applied to each term.
5. The term should be followed with a period.
6. It can be underlined or not.
7. It can be bold and italic or not.
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point).
9. Acronym/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first,
followed by the acronym/initials in open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
10. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study).
11. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your
paper.

Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms

1. Conceptual definition
Face to face. It is when the people involved are being close together and looking
directly at each other.

Module. Is any in a series of standardized units used together, such as an

educational unit that covers a single subject or topic.
Online. Is controlled by or connected to another computer or network.

2. Operational definition
Face to face. This refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which
the teacher and students should be in the same place or setting, such as the classroom.

Module. Teaching modules are guides of the topics and lessons of a specific
subject given to students under the modular method. It is also an alternative distance
learning delivery in which students are required to read and answer the activities specified
in the module.

Online. It refers to another form of distance learning wherein the teacher and
students will have their lessons using internet connectivity.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
When you are finished identifying your statement of the problem or research
questions/objectives, you may now start formulating the hypothesis of your study. What is
hypothesis?

A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more

variables. It is a specific and testable prediction on what you expect to happen with the
variables in your study. Usually, it proposes a possible relationship between the
independent variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependent variable (what
the research measures). It is also described as an “educated guess” of what possibly the
result would be of your research, which should be supported on existing theories and
knowledge. Furthermore, the hypothesis states a tentative answer to your research
question that can be tested by further investigation in which you can support or refute it
through scientific research methods such as data collection and statistical analysis. It is
the primary idea of any inquiry that transforms the research questions into a prediction
and integrates components like variables, population, and the relation between the
variables. Hypothesis formulation is employed when conducting correlational, ex-post
facto, quasi experimental, and experimental studies.

As a researcher, you must determine whether your hypothesis is accepted or not base
on the findings and outcome of your research study. Not all studies have a hypothesis
while, some studies have several hypotheses.

Types of Research Hypothesis

1. Simple Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables, the
independent variable and the dependent variable. It shows a connection between one
independent variable and a single dependent variable.
Ex: The higher the poverty rate in society (one independent variable), the higher
the number would be the out of school youth (one dependent variable).

2. Complex hypothesis
The complex hypothesis reflects the relationship between the independent variable and
the dependent variable. It expresses a connection between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.
Ex: Eating more vegetables and fresh fruits (independent variables) leads to boost
immune system and enhance blood circulation and digestion (dependent variables).

3. Empirical Hypothesis
An empirical hypothesis is also called as the “working hypothesis.” It is presumed to
explain certain facts and relationships of phenomena. It comes to life when a theory is
being put to the test, using observation and experiment. From the name itself “working,” it
would mean that it can be changed or replace anytime as soon as it is no longer supported
or accepted base on the observation and experimentation being done. It is going through
some trial and error and perhaps changing around those independent variables.
Ex: Plants watered everyday grow faster than plants watered once a week. (Here,
trial and error are leading to a series of findings).

4. Logical hypothesis
Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with limited evidence that can be verified
logically. It reflects a relationship of the variables which anchored based on logical
phenomena. Sometimes, a logical hypothesis can be turned into an empirical hypothesis
in which you have to test your theories and postulates.
Ex: Tomato plants bear fruit faster in Earth than in Moon. (Until we are can test the
soil and plant growth in Moon's ground, the evidence for this claim will be limited, and the
hypothesis will only remain logical).

5. Statistical hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a portion of a population. It can be verified
statistically. The variables in a statistical hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable
sub-variable to assess it statistically.
Ex: If your research is about the psychosocial development of K-3 pupils of the
private and public schools in the city, you would want to examine every single K-3 pupil in
the city. It is not practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical
hypothesis or a sample of the K-3 pupil population.

6. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is denoted with the symbol Ho It exists when you consider that there
is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables or that there is an
insufficient amount of information to claim a scientific hypothesis.
Ex: There is no significant change in my health, whether I exercise every day or
not.

7. Alternative hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis is denoted with the symbol (Ha). It is an alternate statement
expressed to be tested in order to generate the desired output when the empirical or
working hypothesis is not accepted. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, you tend
to seek an alternative hypothesis.
Ex: My health improves during the times when I sleep 8 hours a day than sleeping for
4 hours only.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

After you have selected your research topic, you have to spend more time for your
review of related literature. As a researcher, you are promoting knowledge. The
knowledge created by other previous studies is essential because it can be a baseline or
reference for your research study as the related literature.

Review of related literature is a compilation of studies related to a specific area of

research. It evaluates, classifies and summarizes all the relevant previous studies
conducted on a specified topic. It is also design to justify your research by exposing the
gaps of the previous studies. It is vital that your literature review is centralized. Thus, you
should choose studies that are focused to your topic rather than collecting a broader
scope of studies which are already not relevant to your research.

Moreover, literature review is an essential component of research. It forms a

"picture" for the reader, providing a support and full comprehension of the developments
in the field. This picture tells the reader that you have acknowledged, considered and
adapted previous related significant works in the field into your research.

Literature review plays a significant impact in the discussion of the results and
findings. The discussion of results and findings should focus on your research rather
than those of the other previous researches. Hence, the literature review should be used
only in the discussion as support, evidence, and further explanation for your study.
These are the three (3) ways of using literature review in the discussion of your study: a)
providing context as a foundation to develop your ideas, b) comparing your findings from
other previous related studies, and c) stating what contribution your study has made in
the field.

However, there are also three (3) common errors that are usually made when
including literature reviews in the discussion of the study. First, there are wide range of
studies being included in which most of them are not anymore relevant to your specific
topic under investigation. Second, stating the related article mentioning the original
article rather than citing the original article itself. Lastly, previous work has been cited by
the researcher based only on the abstracts and without even reading the entire
research.

Purpose of a literature review

The review of related literature is anchored to the following purposes.

 1. To discover the connection of your research to the existing body of knowledge
and to the real-life situations.
2. To identify more theories or concepts as the foundation of your research study
and learn from them.
3. To determine the relationship of your research with previous research studies to
prevent duplication and to acknowledge other researchers.
4. To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and significance of your research
questions.
5. To acquaint yourself with the technical terminologies relevant to your study.
6. To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open questions left from other
researches which might help you in formulating and justifying your research
ideas.
7. To clarify misconceptions on previous researches and help refocus, polish, and
contribute to the development of the body of knowledge.

Structure of Literature Review

This is how you are going to structure your review of related literature. The main
goal for doing this is to make the reader understand easily the different studies and how
they are relevant to your study.

1. Introduction
The introduction somehow presents the fundamental idea of the particular study of the
literature review.

2. Main Body
The main body is consists of the organized discussion of sources. This is where you
summarize and synthesize your literature review and reflect how they related to your
study.

3. Conclusions/Recommendations
Conclusion and recommendation emphasized what you have learned from reviewing the
literature and where would your study leads to.

Types of Literature Review

These are the different types of literature review depending on how you organize
and present your review of related studies.

1. Context review
From the name itself, context review is primarily focused on the content or
contextual aspect of research. Usually it is a type of review in which the researcher relates
his or her study to a larger body of knowledge. It presents the current research by merging
it into a wider framework and determine its contribution and impact to the specific field of
study.
2. Historical review
Historical review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher
organizes the related researches according to the period of time it was
conducted.Historical literature review focuses on probing research in a specified field
throughout a chronological order, which usually starts from the oldest period of time going
to the most recent studies. The goal of this type of research is to gain knowledge on the
advancement of technology and to identify developments on certain areas, which progress
through time. It can be integrated with a theoretical or methodological review to illustrate
how a concept, theory, or research method developed through time.

3. Integrative review
Integrative review is a common type of literature review in which the researcher introduces
and summarizes the recent knowledge of the study. It emphasizes the agreements and
disagreements of knowledge among various previous researches. It also considers
reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature in an integrated way in order
to generate new structure and viewpoint on the topic. This is the most common form of
literature review in the social sciences.This review is usually merge with a context review.

4. Methodological review
Methodological review is a specialized type of literature review in which the
researcher gathers and compares and contrast other studies to the current research. It
basically summarizes and evaluates the strengths and gaps in methodological aspects of
various studies and illustrates the effects of different methodologies (research designs,
samples, process) to different outcomes. This approach also emphasizes ethical issues
when necessary, which you should consider and be conscious of as you go through your
current research.

5. Self-study review
Self-study review is a literature review in which the researcher demonstrates his
or her understanding of a specific body of knowledge. It contains existing proof associated
to a clearly stated research questions and uses standardized methods to determine and
evaluate relevant research. However, it can also produce problems of prejudice especially
when it is used to summarize claims or statements linking his or her findings to a system
of knowledge. Typically, it is a practice in the educational program or course requirement.

6. Theoretical review
Theoretical review is a literature review in which the researcher introduces several
theories or concepts that are focused on a specific topic. It is particular on the theories
and concepts being highlighted on other researches and compare them to the current
study basing on its framework, hypothesis, consistency, and justification. The theoretical
literature review aids in establishing the theories already existed, the relationships of
theories among various studies, the degree of its investigation, and the development of
new hypotheses.
 Lesson 4
UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO
SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

What This Lesson is About

When you aim to arrive to a certain solution of a problem, the journey is definitely
smooth and focused when the direction is clear. The research methodology of your study is
very important since it gives direction to systematically arrive to answers or solution to your
chosen research problem. It contains rules and procedure that you as a researcher will have
to follow.

This module focuses on the discussion of your research design and plan, population
to consider, sampling technique, research instruments, and appropriate statistical treatments
to be employed. At end of this learning module learners are expected to understand the
concept of research data and know the ways to systematically collect data.

SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND THE SAMPLE

Remember when you were taught how to write your scope and delimitation, you stated
the subjects, participants, or respondents of your study. You also described their
characteristics which qualify them to be the source of your research data.

The next question you have to answer is, how many of the subjects, participants, or
respondents should be selected as source of data? This lesson will teach you how to describe
sampling procedure in quantitative research. Note that, the sampling procedure should be
aligned to your chosen research design. Since you have already decided the research design
of your study, then you are ready for this lesson.

Population and Sample

The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic
of interest. The population is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and
characteristics under consideration. It is understood that this population possess common
characteristics about which the research aims to explore.

There are two types of population: target population and accessible population. The
actual population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School Students
enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of
Cagayan de Oro City. While the accessible population is the portion of the population in which
the researcher has a reasonable access, for example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM
strand at Gusa Regional Science High School – X.
 When the whole population is too costly or time consuming or impractical to consider
then a sample representative is identified. Sampling pertains to the systematic process of
selecting the group to be analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get information from
a group that represents the target population. Once good sample is obtained; the
generalizability and applicability of findings increases.

The representative subset of the population refers to sample. All the 240 Senior High School
Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a
school for example constitute the population; 60 of those students constitute the sample. A
good sample should have characteristics of the represented population – characteristics that
are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger the sample the more
reliable the sample be; but still it will depend on the scope and delimitation and research
design of the study.

Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

Heuristics. This approach refers to the rule of the thumb for sample size. Early
established approach by Gay (1976) stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p
172), sample sizes for different research designs are the following:

Number of
Research Design
Subjects/Participants
Descriptive Research 10% to 20% maybe
required
Comparative Research 15 subjects or
groups

Lunenberg and Irby (2008) as cited by Barrot (2017, p 107) also suggested different
sample sizes for each quantitative research design.

Number of
Research Design
Subjects/Participants
Survey 800
Correlational 100 to 200
Ex post facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more

Literature Review. Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and

studies to your current research study. Since you are done writing your review of related
literature and studies, you might want to recall how these studies determine sample size.
Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.

Formulas. Formulas are also being established for the computation of acceptable
sample size. Common formula is the Slovin’s Formula.

Slovin’s Formula:
N
n=
1 + Ne2

Where: n is sample size

N is population size
E is desired margin of error
 600
n=
1 + 600 (0.05)2

600
=
1 + 600 (0.0025)

600
=
1 + 1.5

= 240

Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

Simple Random Sampling.

It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the accessible population are given
equal chance to be selected. There are various ways of obtaining samples through simple
random sampling. These are fish bowl technique, roulette wheel, or use of table of random
numbers.

Stratified Random Sampling.

The same with simple random sampling, stratified random sampling also gives equal chance
to all members of the population to be chosen.

However, the population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the
samples. The samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire
population. This is procedure is best used when the variables of the study are also grouped
into classes such as gender and grade level.

You can simply follow the steps from this given example: A population of 600 Junior
High School students includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150 Grade 9, and 110 Grade 10. If
the computed sample size is 240, the following proportionate sampling will be as follows.

The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible sample size.
The percentage result of members per subgroup will be multiplied from the computed total
sample size. After obtaining the sample size per strata, then simple random sampling will be
done for the selection of samples from each group.

Sample Size per Subgroups

180/600 = .30x 240 = 72 Grade 7 students
160/600 = .27x 240 = 65 Grade 8 students
150/600 = .25x 240 = 60 Grade 9 students
110/600 = .18x 240 = 43 Grade 10 students
100% 240 respondents

Planning Data Collection Procedure

Quantitative Data

Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known. Once
these data answers research problem it becomes helpful to research. When research data
appears to be measurable in numerical form it is considered a quantitative data. However,
some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given numerical
value. For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning,
if it is categorized and numbered accordingly then it can be quantified during analysis.

Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

The following are the common quantitative data gathering technique. Each technique
corresponds to specific instrument which will be further discussed in Module 5.

Observation. It is gathering information about a certain condition by means of senses.

The researcher records the observation as seen and heard. This is done by direct observation
or indirect observation by the use of gadgets or apparatus. An observation checklist aid the
researcher in recording the data gathered.

Survey. Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of

questionnaire you use series of questions or statements that respondents will have to answer.
Basically, respondents write or choose their answer from given choices. On the other hand,
interview is when you ask respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing
quantitative research, it is expected that responses have numerical value either it is nominal
or ordinal in form.

Experiment. When your study is experimental design, it was already discussed in the
previous lesson that it will use treatment or intervention. After the chosen subjects,
participants, or respondents undergone the intervention the effects of such treatment will be
measured.

Lesson 5
Data Collection, Presentation, and Analysis
What This Lesson is About
As a researcher, it is important that you are knowledgeable about what type of data
collection technique to use for a certain type of quantitative research study you are planning
to pursue. The importance of data collection cannot be undermined since in the absence of
correctly collected data, your research questions can remain unanswered or the testing
research hypothesis is not possible.

This module gives an overview of factors to consider when choosing data collection
method. It also shows a brief description on the different instruments available, its advantages
and disadvantages, and guidelines on how to use the specific instrument suitable to the
research questions and or objectives. Additionally, you will be exposed to the different
statistical tool that you can possibly use to analyze the gathered data.

This is made simple and easy to understand yet contains the maximum and solid
knowledge necessary for you to be able to accomplish the Chapter 4 of your research study.
Furthermore, this module also contains examples and exercises for you to improve your
learning. For enrichment, learners may contact anytime their teacher through messenger, FB,
zoom, call or text at their own convenient time.
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

Preparing Your Data Analysis

1. Data Gathering
a. Prepare your research instruments.
b. Begin gathering your data.
c. Encode and organize your data for analysis.
2. Analysis and Interpretation.
a. Use your data for statistical tests. (You may consult a statistician or a statistics teacher.)
b. Present in tabular or graphical form.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Questionnaires

A questionnaire consists of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering

information from respondents about a research topic. In other views, questionnaires can be
thought of as a kind of written interview. Gathering of information can be carried out face to
face, by telephone, or through e-mail, messenger, social media post, or using computer
programs or forms. In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches: (1)
scale (usually like such as strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree);
and (2) conversion of responses into numerical values e.g. strongly as 5, agree as 4, neutral
as 3, disagree as 2 and strongly disagree as 1.

Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. Structured

questionnaires employ closed-ended questions, unstructured questionnaires use open-
ended questions which means that the research participants can answer anything, and semi-
structured is a combination of both structured and unstructured. Structured type is commonly
used in quantitative studies because it is easier to code, interpret objectively and most of all,
easier to standardize. Most of the time, researchers are confused with the terms survey and
questionnaire. Questionnaire is an instrument used to collect data while survey is a process
of collecting, recording, and analyzing data.

Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection

1. Decide on the method of administering the questionnaire.

a. Face-to-face Method
-use this when you need to capture the emotions, behavior, and the non-verbal cues
of the participants
b. Online Method
-can be administered through web-based forms (e.g. google forms)
-use this when behavior and non-verbal cues need not to be taken as part of your
research

2. Draft your questionnaire.

Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts:
Personal information section
Contains details like participants background which are relevant to the study; name is
optional;
Main section
Lists the specific questions or indicators that are aligned with the specific research
questions: and
Open-ended question section (if needed)-additional information you may want to ask but
may not have been covered by the main section

 Tests

Tests are research instruments used for assessing various skills and types of
behavior as well as for describing certain characteristics. These two types of test are used in
quantitative research:

a. Standardized test – scored uniformly across different areas and groups;

administered by institutions to assess a wide range of groups such as students
and test-takers; considered as more reliable and valid
Example: Achievement test e.g. National Achievement Test (measures how
much students have learned in specific subject areas after a considerable period
of time)
b. Non-standardized test- may not be scored uniformly; administered to specific set
of people; more appropriate for obtaining certain types of responses or
measuring a specific skill
Example: Aptitude test (assesses one’s skills and knowledge to predict one’s
ability to perform a certain kind of work)

Types of Test Questions

1. Recall Questions- require participants to retrieve information from memory (e.g. cloze
test/fill-in the blank test, identification test, enumeration test)
2. Recognition Questions- provide options to choose from; participants only need to
select the best or correct choice; easier to answer (e.g. multiple-choice test, true or
false test/yes or no test)
3. Open-ended Questions-allow participants more freedom in their responses; prompts
them to answer in detail; encourage them to express their thoughts and insights
regarding a certain topic (e.g. essay writing tests and other performance-based tests)

 Interview

A quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s

behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and demographic characteristics using numerical data.

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Interviews

Quantitative Interviews Qualitative Interviews

Uses closed-ended questions. Uses open-ended questions.
Contains rating scale or rubric No rating scale or rubric needed.
Responses are numerical. Responses are non-numerical.
Large sample size is used. Small sample size is used.
 Structured type is used to minimize “interviewer Unstructured, semi-structured,
effect” which means that the responses of the informal interviews and focus group
participants may be affected by the behavior discussions (FGD) are used.
displayed by the researcher on the manner that the
questions are presented.

The questionnaire and quantitative interview are both highly structured but here’s a
distinction between the two:

Quantitative Interviews Questionnaires

Items are read to the participants. Participants answer on their own.
Researchers may ask follow-up questions. Researchers may not ask follow-up
questions.
Useful when the target participants do not Not applicable for blind and uneducated
have the capacity to answer a printed or participants.
encoded questionnaire (blind or
uneducated)

Guidelines in Conducting a Quantitative Interview

Before the Interview

1. Decide on the interview method you will use(face-to-face, phone, video conferencing).
2. Choose a comfortable venue with the least amount of distractions.
3. Decide on the duration of the interview.
4. Prepare and rehearse your interview guide.
5. Test your recording device.
6. Pilot-test your interview guide and practice how you will conduct the interview.
7. Make sure that you obtain the consent from the participants before conducting and
recording the interview.

During the Interview

1. Be in control of the flow of the interview.
2. Help the participants respond as easily and as naturally as possible.
3. Demonstrate respect, professionalism, and a positive attitude toward the participants
throughout the interview

After the Interview

1. Check if your recording device worked well throughout the interview.
2. Transcribe or encode the data as soon as you have finished your interview.
3. Write some of your observations regarding the interview.

 Observation

Observation is used frequently in qualitative research. It is also used in quantitative

research when the characteristics being observed are quantitative in nature such as length,
width, height, weight, volume, area, temperature, cost, level, age, time, and speed.

Advantages of Observation
1. It allows the researcher to observe the actual event or phenomenon.
2. It has greater flexibility in observation method.
Disadvantages of Observation
1. It may lack participant authenticity, may be prone to Hawthorne effect (a.k.a.
observer effect where participants alter their behavior due to their awareness that
they are being observed.
2. It is more exhausting and time-consuming (some observations needs to be
conducted for many years)
Forms of Observation

1. Controlled Observation
- used in experimental research
- The researcher selects the time, place (usually a laboratory), participants, and
circumstances where data collection will take place
-done under a standard procedure
- the observer takes a non-participant role (does not interact with the participants)
- it provides more reliable data (obtained through structured and well-defined
process)
- the procedure can be replicated, and the data are easier to analyze
- easier to implement due to its highly structured nature

2. Natural Observation
- carried out in a non-controlled setting
- it has greater ecological validity (flexibility of the findings to be generalized to real-
life contexts
- it also responds to other areas of inquiry not originally intended by the researcher
- its major limitation is its strength to establish causal relationship due to the
presence of extraneous variables which can affect the behavior of the participants

3. Participant Observation
- it allows the observer to become a member of the group or community that the
participants belong to
- can be performed covertly, wherein participants are not aware of the intention
behind the observation
- can be done overtly, wherein participants know the intention or objectives of the
Observation

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

Techniques in Data Processing

Remember to organize your data based on your research questions.

Editing is a process wherein the collected data are checked for consistency, accuracy,
organization, and clarity. In this process, you must not change, omit, or make up information
if you think that the data you collected is insufficient. Data editing can be done manually, with
the assistance of a computer or a combination of both.

Coding is a process wherein the collected data are categorized and organized.
Labeling, using of numbers and symbols are also applied.
 Tabulation is a process of arranging data into a table. This maybe done manually or
electronically using MS Excel.

Data Organization

A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes
and frequencies.

Examples:
1. Ungrouped Data

2. Grouped Data

Presentation and Interpretation of Tables and Graphs

 Non-prose materials are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams,
illustrations, drawings and maps. Collected data can be presented using this. They make the
data easier to understand.
Tables are non-prose materials that help condense and classify information using
columns and rows. They contain headings that indicate the most important information about
your study.
Example:
Table 1: GRSHS-X TEACHERS EVALUATION RATINGS (S.Y. 2019-2020) DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
RATING %
Outstanding 65
Very Satisfactory 30
Satisfactory 5
Unsatisfactory 0
Poor 0

To interpret the tables:

1. Analyze the relationship among the details of the headings.
2. Identify the high and low values in the table.
3. Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the reason behind these (this will
help your analysis of the data.
4. In writing the interpretation, begin with the table number and the title.
5. Then, present the significant figures (high and low values).
6. End with a generalization.

Sample Interpretation for the Given Table

Table 2 showed the adjectival rating and the percentage of teachers who fall under
such rating at GRSHS-X for S.Y. 2019-2020. The results disclosed that sixty-five percent
(65%) of the teachers have an Outstanding Ratings while the rest have Very Satisfactory and
Satisfactory Ratings. Overall, the data showed that the teachers at GRSHS-X have positive
ratings on performing their duties and responsibilities. Therefore, they are eligible to receive
their Performance-Based Bonus (PBB).

Graphs focused on immediately representing how a change in one variable relates to

another. Graphs use bars, lines, circles, and pictures in representing the data. Each graph has
a specific purpose.

USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES TO ANALYZE DATA

Statistical Techniques

Pearson’s r (𝑟) is a statistical method used for determining whether there is a linear
relationship between variable. It can be obtained by using the following formula:

𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦) − (∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)

𝑟=
√[𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑛(∑ 𝑦 2 ) − (∑ 𝑦)2 ]

where:
n = number of paired values
 Σ𝑥 = sum of x – values
Σ𝑦 = sum of y – values
Σ𝑥𝑦 = sum of the products of paired values x and y
Σ𝑥2= sum of squared x – values
Σ𝑦2= sum of squared y – values

There are three possible outcomes after analyzing data using Pearson’s r test:

Positive Correlation- when both values have the same directions (increase or decrease)
Negative Correlation-when one value increases, the other one decreases and vice versa
No Correlation- the two variables have no relationship with each other
The table below shows the interpretation of r between two variables.
Value of r Interpretation
.00-.19 Very weak
.20-.39 Weak
.40-.59 Moderate
.60-.79 Strong
.80-1.0 Very strong

Scatter plot is a good way to represent

correlations since the distribution of dots
shows how closely linked the variables are to
each other, the closer the dots to one another,
the tighter the relationship is between the
variables. You may use scatter plots to
visually present the results of Pearson’s r.The
shape of a scatter plot looks like a line or a
curve. Its direction is either upward or
downward. The strength of the plot can either
be strong or weak. When many points are
closer to the line or curve, it has a strong
association. When many points are farther
from the line or curve, the scatter plot has a
weak association.

Example
Solve the following problem:
The following data shows the scores of five students in Math and Science. Determine if
there is a relationship between the scores in the two subjects. Interpret the result.

Student Score in Math Score in Science

x y
1 3 5
2 9 8
3 10 10
4 12 9
5 7 8
Solution:
Complete the table.Get the sum or total of all entries.
Student x y x2 y2 xy
1 3 5 9 25 15
2 9 8 81 64 72
3 10 10 100 100 100
 4 12 9 144 81 108
5 7 8 49 64 56
Total (∑) 41 40 383 334 351

Substitute the obtained values in the formula and perform the operations.

𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦) − (∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)

𝑟=
√[𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑛(∑ 𝑦 2 ) − (∑ 𝑦)2 ]
5(351) − (41)(40)
𝑟=
√[5(383) − (41)2 ][5(334) − (40)2 ]
1755 − 1640
𝑟=
√[1915 − 1681][1670 − 1600]
115
𝑟=
√[234][70]
115
𝑟=
√16380
𝑟 = 0.8985471926
𝑟 = 0.90

Correlational Value: 0.90

Nature of Relationship: Very Strong
Interpretation: There is a “very strong positive” relationship between the scores in Math and
Scienceof the five students based on the computed correlation coefficient, r=0.90.

Spearman’s Rho (𝜌) is a statistical technique that tests the relationship between
ordinal variables. It uses rankings instead of actual values. In ranking the data, the highest
value should be ranked first, the second highest should be ranked second, and so on. After
assigning ranks to the values, you can now compute for the
coefficient using the following formula:
6 ∑ 𝐷2
𝜌=1−
𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)
where:
𝜌= Spearman’s rho correlation
D= difference between ranks
𝑛=number of pairs in data

Spearman’s rho also shows whether the data have positive, negative, or no correlation
at all. The table below shows the interpretation of r between two variables.

Value of r Interpretation
.00-.19 Very weak
.20-.39 Weak
.40-.59 Moderate
.60-.79 Strong
.80-1.0 Very strong

Mean refers to the average score of the given set of values obtained through getting the sum
of all scores divided by the total number of values.
Variance refers to how spread out
the values across the data set you are studying. It helps you determine the extent of variation
in your data. It also helps you find out if the data are close to the mean or not obtained first by
computing for the difference between the mean and each value in the data set; afterwards,
the square of each, difference is calculated, then these squares are average, the resulting
average is the variance of the data set.

Standard Deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance. Aside from determining
the descriptive statistical values for your data, you need to analyze them in relation to the
alpha level and the p-value.

Alpha level (𝜶)

–also known as the significance level
–refers to the probability value that must be reached before claiming that the findings obtained
are statistically significant
–it is set at 0.05 for social sciences and 0.01 or 0.001 for physical, natural, or life sciences
p-value (𝒑)
–is a calculated probability that is compared to the alpha level
–if the p-value is lower than the set alpha level, there is a difference between the scores
obtained for the two groups (statistically significant)

t-value (𝒕)
–is the statistic computed for the t-tests including the extent of the difference between the two
groups being examined
Degree of Freedom (𝒅𝒇)
–refers to the number of values in the final computation of statistic that has freedom to vary
–if you have one sample, the formula is 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1
–if you have two samples, the formula is 𝑑𝑓 = (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) − 2

You can use a table to present the information analyzed through t-test. This includes the
following:
Sample size (𝑛)
Degree of freedom (𝑑𝑓)
t-value (𝑡)
alpha level (𝛼)
p-value (𝑝)

Lesson 6
Conclusions and Recommendations
What This Module is About
The essence of this module is to generate conclusions based from the results and
findings of the study and to formulate significant recommendations for the enhancement of the
research.This module would clearly signify the completeness of the research since
conclusions and recommendations will be emphasized here. Moreover, they will be the basis
for some ideas as reference for further or new research studies.

Drawing Conclusions
A conclusion is an important part of your research study. It wraps up your writing by
summarizing the main idea for your readers. This brings your writing to a smooth close and
creates well- written answers to your research questions. You have to consider the main idea
that you want to convey to your readers and have a sense of closure on the study. It usually
starts answering the specific moving to the general inquiry. Furthermore, the purpose of your
conclusion is to make the readers understand the impact of your research to them. It is a
synthesis of the key points and not just a summary of the entire research study.

Guidelines in Writing Your Research Conclusion

In writing your conclusion, make sure to have a brief introductory statement prior to
itemizing the answers to your research questions. Remember that your conclusion should
address or answer every research inquiry you have in your research study. Here are some
points you have to keep in mind.

1. State your conclusion in a clear and simple language.

Emphasize the purpose of your study then relate your findings differ other studies.
2. Do not just reiterate the discussion of your results.
 Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge
toaddress the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
3. Indicate opportunities for future research.
Highlighting the need for further studies provides the reader with that evidence that you
have an in-depth awareness of the research problem.

Formulating Recommendations

Research Recommendations

Recommendations can be defined as a suggestion regarding the best course of

action to take as a result of your data analysis and conclusion. The whole idea of a
recommendation is to provide a beneficial guide that will not only resolve certain issues but
result in a beneficial outcome. Take note that no matter how studies are similar to in content
and context, their recommendations can be different for it will be heavily dependent on the
results and current situations that arose during research time frame. Your recommendations
should point specific actions to be addressed. An excellent recommendation will guide those
who are affected in the situation to take serious action regarding to what must be done to
address the problem or uplift thesituation.

Two Functions of Recommendations:

1. Implications of your findings must identify the areas of concern that needs to be
addressed.
2. How future studies can address the limitations you encountered in your research.

Guidelines in Writing Your Recommendations:

1. Write your recommendations based from your conclusions and limitations of your
study. Align it to the purpose and scope of your research.
2. Write a practical and doable recommendations. Be specific.
3. Make it concise and clear.
4. Avoid recommendations that are easy to address.

Example 1

Title of Study: “Research Writing Ability of Senior High School Students As Perceived
by Teachers of Sampled Schools in Quezon City by Precy M. Paurillo of Holy Spirit
National High School, Quezon City, Philippines Metro Manila College, Quezon City
Philippines.
7. RECOMMENDATION

In light of the findings and the conclusions derived from this study, the researcher
recommends the following:

7.1 To the teachers in the Senior High School:

7.1.1 They must continue to enhance their skills by attending pieces of training and
seminars that showcase the newest trends in academic writing and by finishing a Master’s
and a Doctorate degree.
7.1.2 They need to be trendier and more experimental in the presentation of the lessons
in Research Writing.
7.1.3 They have to assure the transfer of learning through the use of more engaging
techniques and strategies.

7.2 To the School Administrators:

7.2.1 They must consider the teaching loads vis-à-vis teaching hours of teachers handling
Research subjects to give way to a more in-depth treatment of the lesson and ample time
to check the outputs.

7.3 To the Curriculum Planners:

7.3.1 They must confirm the inclusion of research subjects in the Junior High School
starting from Grade 7 with the consideration of the degree of difficulty; Grade 7 – Focus:
Chapter 1, Grade 8 – Focus: Chapter 2, Chapter 9-Focus: Chapter 3, and Grade 10 –
Focus: Chapter 4. This is to prepare the students in the complex world of research writing
as they reach Senior High School.

7.4 To Future Researchers:

7.4.1 They can make most of the findings of this study and conduct similar research with
students as respondents. This will enable the future researchers to analyze and
recommend a new perspective on the bases of the students’ response and performance
since the respondents of this study are the teachers.