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ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
TRANSPORTATION LABORATORY
FULL REPORT
Course Code
Experiment Title
Date
Section
Group
Members of Group 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lecturer/Instructor
I, hereby confess that I have prepared this report on my own effort. I also admit not
to receive or give any help during the preparation of this report and pledge
that everything mentioned in the report is true.
_________________
Student Signature
Name : …………………………………………
Date : …………………………………………
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To determine the softening point of bitumen within the range 30 to 157 º C by means of the
Ring-and-Ball apparatus.
2.0 BACKGROUND
Unlike some substances (e.g. water which changes from solid to liquid at 0 º C bituminous
materials do not have a definite melting point. Instead, as the temperature rises, these
materials slowly change from brittle or very thick and slow-flowing materials to softer and
less viscous liquids. For this reason, the determination of 'softening point' must be made
by a fixed, arbitrary and closely defined method if results are to be comparable.
Being very simple in concept and equipment, the Ring-and-Ball Test has remained a
valuable consistency test for control in refining operations, particularly in the production of
air-blown bitumens. It is also an indirect measure of viscosity or, rather, the temperature at
which a given viscosity is evident. The softening point value has particular significance for
materials which are to be used as thick films, such as joint and crack fillers and roofing
materials. A high softening point ensures that they will not flow in service. For a bitumen of
a given penetration (determined at 25 º C), the higher the softening point the lower
the temperature sensitivity
Research has shown that, for conventional paving grade bitumens, the Ring-and-Ball
softening point temperature is the same as that which would give a penetration of 800
d-mm. This, together with the penetration at 25 º C, can be used to compute the
Penetration Index.
Two horizontal disks of bitumens, cast in shouldered brass ring are heated at a controlled
rate in a liquid bath each supports a steel ball. The softening point is reported as the mean of
the temperatures at which the two disks soften enough to allow each ball, enveloped in
bitumen to fall a distance of 25 mm.
1
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
1. Select one of the following bath liquids and thermometers appropriate for the expected
softening point:
a) Freshly boiled distilled water for softening points between 30 and 80°C (86 and
176°F); use Thermometer 15C or 15F. The starting bath temperature shall be 5 6 1°C
(41 6 2°F).
b) USP glycerin for softening points above 80°C (176°F) and up to 157°C (315°F); use
Thermometer 16C or 16F. The starting bath temperature shall be 30 6 1°C (86 6 2°F).
c) Ethylene glycol for softening points between 30 and 110°C (86 and 230°F); use
Thermometer 16C or 16F. The starting bath temperature shall be 5 6 1°C (41 6 2°F).
d) For referee purposes, all softening points up to 80°C (176°F) shall be determined in a
water bath and all softening points above 80°C (176°F) shall be determined in a
glycerin bath.
2. Assemble the apparatus in the laboratory hood with the specimen rings, ball-centering
guides, and thermometer in position, and fill the bath so that the liquid depth will be 105
6 3mm (41⁄8 6 1⁄8 in.) with the apparatus in place. If using ethylene glycol, make sure the
hood exhaust fan is turned on and operating properly to remove toxic vapors. Using
forceps, place the two steel balls in the bottom of the bath so they will reach the same
starting temperature as the rest of the assembly.
3. Place the bath in ice water, if necessary, or gently heat to establish and maintain the
proper starting bath temperature for 15 min with the apparatus in place. Take care not to
contaminate the bath liquid.
4. Again using forceps, place a ball from the bottom of the bath in each ball-centering
guide.
5. Heat the bath from below so that the temperature indicated by the thermometer rises at a
uniform rate of 5°C (9°F)/min (Note 7). Protect the bath from drafts, using shields if
necessary. Do not average the rate of temperature rise over the test period. The maximum
permissible variation for any 1-min period after the first 3 min shall be6 0.5°C (6 1.0°F).
Reject any test in which the rate of temperature rise does not fall within these limits.
2
NOTE 7—Rigid adherence to the prescribed heating rate is essential to
reproducibility of results. Either a gas burner or electric heater may be used, but
the latter must be of the low-lag, variable output type to maintain the prescribed
rate of heating.
6. Record for each ring and ball the temperature indicated by the thermometer at the instant
the bitumen surrounding the ball touches the bottom plate. Make no correction for the
emergent stem of the thermometer. If the difference between the two temperatures
exceeds 1°C (2°F), repeat the test.
5.0 RESULTS
The mean temperature of the two specimens (which shall not differ by more than 10 C) is
recorded as the softening point. This temperature is to be used in conjunction with the
penetration value to obtained the Penetration Index (PI)
6.0 DISCUSSION
a) State the heating rate of the liquid bath during the experiment
b) Quote the mean softening point of your specimen. Comment on the value obtained.
c) If the two test temperature differ by more than 1 C, offer an explanation.
d) Explain the function of the magnetic stirrer
e) Report the possible grade of tested bitumen.
7.0 REFERENCES
1. ASTM (1998). ASTM D36-95 Standard test method for softening point of
bitumen (Ring and Ball Apparatus). 1998 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Volume 04.04, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA 19103-
1187
2. Millard, R.S. (1993). Road building in the tropics. Transport Research Laboratory State-
of-the-art Review 9, HMSO, London.
3
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
4
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
Number of Test
1
2
Average
PI Bitumen Type
5
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
8.0 DISCUSSION
9.0 CONCLUSION
6
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
1.0 OBJECTIVE
2.0 BACKGROUND
This is the most widely used method of measuring the consistency of a bituminous material
at a given temperature. It is a means of classification rather than a measure of quality. (The
engineering term consistency is an empirical measure of the resistance offered by a fluid to
continuous deformation when it is subjected to shearing stress).
The consistency is a function of the chemical constituents of a bitumen, viz. the relative
proportions of asphaltenes (high molecular weight, responsible for strength and stiffness),
resins (responsible for adhesion and ductility) and oils (low molecular weight, responsible
for viscosity and fluidity). The type and amount of these constituents are determined by the
source petroleum and the method of processing at the refinery.
Penetration is related to viscosity and empirical relationships have been developed for
Newtonian materials. If penetration is measured over a range of temperatures, the
temperature susceptibility of the bitumen can be established. The consistency of bitumen
may be related to temperature changes by the expression ;
log P = AT + K . . . (1)
where ;
P = penetration at temperature T
A = temperature susceptibility (or temperature sensitivity)
K = constant
1
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
A Penetration Index (PI) has been defined for which the temperature susceptibility would
assume a value of zero for road bitumens, as given by
PI = 20 (1 – 25 A)
( 1+50 A)
The value of A (and PI) can be derived from penetration measurements at two temperatures,
T1 and T2, using the equation
Research has shown that, for conventional paving grade bitumens, the Ring-and-Ball
Softening Point temperature is the same as that which would give a penetration of 800 d-
mm. This, together with the penetration at 25 º C, can be used to compute A where
The nomograph as given in Figure 3 enables the PI to be deduced approximately from the
penetration at 25 º C and the softening point temperature. Typical values of PI are
Bitumen Type PI
Blown Bitumen >2
Conventional Paving Bitumen -2 to + 2
Temperature Susceptible Bitumen (Tars) < -2
2
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
PI values can be used to determine the stiffness (modulus) of a bitumen at any temperature
and loading time. It can also, to a limited extent, be used to identify a particular type of
bituminous material. One drawback of the PI system is that it uses the change in bitumen
properties over a relatively small range of temperatures to characterize bitumen;
extrapolations to extremes of the behavior can sometimes be misleading.
The sample is melted and cooled under controlled conditions. The penetration is measured
with a penetrometer by means of which a standard needle is applied to the bitumen
specimen under specific conditions.
3
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
4
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
4.0 PROCEDURE
The penetration apparatus (Figure 4) is specified in many standards throughout the world
but has always the same basic requirements as ASTM D5.
1. Specimens are prepared in sample containers exactly as specified (ASTM D5-97) and
placed in a water bath at the prescribed temperature of test for 1 to 1.5 hours before the
test.
2. For normal tests the precisely dimensioned needle, loaded to 100 ± 0.05 g, is brought to
the surface of the specimen at right angles, allowed to penetrate the bitumen for 5 ± 0.1s,
while the temperature of the specimen is maintained at 25 ± 0.1 oC. The penetration
measured in tenths of a millimetre (deci-millimetre, dmm).
3. Make at least three determinations on the specimen. A clean needle is used for each
determination. In making repeat determinations, start each with the tip of th needle at
least 10 mm from the side of the container and at least 10 mm apart.
5
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
5.0 RESULTS
The results are very sensitive to test conditions and bitumen specimen preparation and the
requirement s of the appooprite standards must be rigidly adhered to the maximum
difference between highest and lowest reading shall be :
6.0 DISCUSSION
1. ASTM (1998). ASTM D5-97 Standard test method for penetration of bituminous
materials. 1998 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.03, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia 19103-1187.
2. Whiteoak, D. (1990). Shell Bitumen Handbook. Shell Bitumen UK, London.
6
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
7
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
9.0 DISCUSSION
10.0 CONCLUSION
8
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The particle shape of aggregates is determined by the percentages of flaky and elongation
particles. Flaky and elongation particles are considered undesirable as they cause weakness
of the pavement. Rounded aggregates are preferred in cement concrete pavements as the
workability of concrete improves. Regular shapes of particles are desirable for granular
base course due to increased stability desired from better interlocking. When the shape of
aggregates deviates more from the spherical shape, as in the case of angular, flaky and
elongation aggregate the void content increase and hence the grain size distribution of the
aggregates has to be suitable altered in order to obtain minimum voids in the dry mix on the
maximum density.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
To determine the flakiness and elongation indices of the given aggregate sample.
Aggregate particles are classified as flaky when they have a thickness (smallest dimension)
of less than 0.6 of their mean sieve size. The flakiness index of an aggregate sample is
found by separating the flaky particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the
mass of the sample tested. This test is not applicable to aggregate passing 6.30mm sieve and
retained as 63.0 mm sieve.
1
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
3.1 Apparatus
1. Metal thickness gauge (Figure 1.0)
2. Test sieve, balance, trays, etc.
Where x1, x2,…etc. are the weight of the fractions passing from the thickness gauge.
w1, w2…etc are the weight of the original sample retained as the corresponding sieve
2
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
Where: y1, y2, y3, ….weight of the fractions not passing through the length gauge
w1, w2, w3,….are the weight of the original sample on the corresponding sieve.
3
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
4
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
REFERENCES
British Standards Methods of determination of particle shape BS 812, Part 105, 1989.
Kenneth N. derucher and George P .Korfiatis, Material for civil and highway engineers, Prentice
Hall, NJ 2nd edition, 1988.
Harold N. Attkins, Highway materials, soils and concretes, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, 1990.
5
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
Summary of Flakiness & Elongation Index Test (BS 812 Part: III)
6
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE SHAPE TEST
(FLAKINESS INDEX & ELONGATION INDEX)
6.0 DISCUSSION
a) Determine wheather the aggregate tasted meets Malaysian standard requirement
7.0 CONCLUSION
7
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Impact value of an aggregate is the percentage loss pf weight of particles passing 2.36mm
sieve by the application on load by mean of 15 blows of standard hammer and drop under
specified test condition. The aggregate impact value gives a relation measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates differs
from their resistance to a slowly applied compressive load.
General: Normally the aggregate impact value of base course is 30, bituminous bound
macadam is about 35 and the cement concrete base course is 30.
Significance: The test gives an idea of toughness of the aggregate to resist facture under the
impact of moving loads.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
3.0 APPARATUS
2. Measure: A cylinder of internal diameter 7.5cm and 5cm deep for measure aggregate.
3. Tamping rod of I cm diameter and 23cm long rounded at one end and pointed at the
other end.
1
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
4.0 PROCEDURE
1. Sieve the aggregate and obtain the portion passing 12.5mm and retained on 10mm sieve.
2. Wash and dry this aggregate at a constant temperature of 1050C to 1100C and then cool
the sample.
3. Fill this aggregate in the cylindrical measure in 3 layers, tapping each layers 25 times
with the tamping rod. Level the surface tamping road as a using the straight edge.
4. Weight the aggregate in the measure. This weight of the aggregate is used for the
duplicate test on the same material.
5. Transfer the aggregate from the cylindrical measure to the cup in 3 layers and compact
each layer by tamping in 25 strokes with the tamping rod.
6. Release the hammer for fall freely on the aggregate. The test sample is subjected to a
total of 15 blows.
7. Remove the aggregate sample from the cup and sieve through 2.36 mm sieve.
2
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
Average
3
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
6.0 DISCUSSION
7.0 CONCLUSION
4
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) was developed by California division of highways as a
method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub-grade and base course materials for flexible
pavements. The CBR test is currently used in pavement design for both roads and airfield
pavement. In some methods CBR is used directly and in some others it is converted to
Resilient Modulus MR using the following relation ships.
The laboratory CBR test measures the shearing resistance of a crushed aggregate/soil under
controlled moisture and density conditions. The test yields bearing ratio number that is
applicable for the state of crushed aggregate/soil as tested. The CBR is obtained as the ratio
of the unit stress required of effect a certain depth of penetration of the piston (1935 mm)
into a compacted specimen of crushed aggregate/soil at some water content and density to
the standard unit stress required to obtain the same depth of penetration on a standard
sample of crushed stone. Thus.
The CBR is usually base on the load ratio for the penetration of 2-5mm. If the CBR value at
the penetration of 5.0 mm is larger, the test should be repeated. If a second test yields a
larger value of CBR at 5.0 mm penetration then this larger value should be adopted.
The CBR test are usually made on test specimens at optimum moisture content (OMC) for
the crushed aggregate/soil as determined from modified compaction test.
1
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
CBR is used to rate the performances of soils used as bases and sub grade. The following
table gives typical rating :
2.0 OBJECTIVE
To determine the CBR value of the given crushed aggregate/soil sample.
3.0 APPARATUS
2
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
4.0 PROCEDURE
1. CBR equipment consisting of 152.4 mm diameter and 178 mm height, An extension
collar of diameter 51 mm, spacer disk of 150.8 mm diameter and 61.4 mm height.
2. Mechanical compaction rammer 50.8 mm die, 2.49 kg and capable of free fall of 305
mm.
3. Surcharge weight to simulate the effect of overlying pavement weight.
4. CBR machine: A compression machine, which can operate at a constant rate of 1.3
mm/min. A metal piston of 1935mm2 is attached to it.
5. The representative crushed aggregate/soil sample is sieved through 20 mm sieve. About
5 kg of crushed aggregate/soil is taken and mixed with optimum moisture content
(OMC).
6. Clamp the mould to the base plate, attach the extension collar and weight. Insert the
spacer disk into the mold and place a coarse filter paper on the top of the disk.
7. Compact the aggregate /soil water mixture into the world in 3 equal layers to give a
height of 127 mm compact each layer in the 10 blows , 30 blows and 65 blows for each
sample.
8. Determine the water content of the crushed aggregate /soil mixture.
9. Remove the extension collar, and using on straight edge, trim the compacted crushed
aggregate/soil even with the top of the mold surface. Remove the spacer disk and
weight the mold with sample.
10. Place the mold with crushed aggregate/soil on the CBR machine and place the
surcharge weight .seat the penetration piston, set the dial gauges for load and
penetration.
11. Apply the loads to the penetration piston at the rate of 1.27mm/min and record the load
at 0.5,1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0mm penetration respectively.
3
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
5.0 CALCULATION
CBR : Plot the load deformation curve for each specimen. In some cases the initial
penetration takes place without a proportional increase in the resistance to penetration and
the curve may be concave upward. To obtain the true stress-strain relationships, correct the
curve having concave upward shape near the origin by adjusting the location of the origin
by extending the straight the portion of the stress strain curve down ward until it intersects
with x-axis.
Determine the corrected load values at 2.5mm and 5.0 mm and determine the CBR by the
following relationship.
Water Content w
Dry Density γd = __λ__
1+w
Plot the CBR vs Dry density and determine the CBR at 95% of maximum dry density and
repeat this value of CBR.
4
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
6.0 REFERENCES
5
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
7.0 DISCUSSION
8.0 CONCLUSION
6
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
Sample 1 2 3
No. of Blows
Empty wt. of mould, W1
Wt of mould + wet sample, W2
Volume of sample, V
Wet density γ = ( W2 - W1) / V
Can no.
Wt.of empty can, A
Wt. of can + wet sample, B
Wt. of can + dry sample, C
Water content, W% = [ (B - C) / (C - A)] * 100
Dry Density, γd = γ / ( 1 + W )
7
Faculty :
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department :
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Title :
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
Load
Penetration
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
(mm)
Div. Corrected Div. Corrected Div. Corrected
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0