Medical Equipment 3

Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced when highly energetic electrons interact with matter,
converting some of their kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation.
A device that produces x-rays in the diagnostic energy range typically contains
an electron source, an evacuated path for electron acceleration, a target electrode,
and an external power source to provide a high voltage to accelerate the electrons.
The cathode is the source of electrons, and the anode, with a positive potential
with respect to the cathode, is the target of electrons.
Approximately 99% of the kinetic energy of electrons from the cathode is
converted to heat.
Only approximately 1% of
electron kinetic energy is used
for the production of x-ray.
There are two types of x-ray
generated:
bremsstrahlung radiation
characteristic radiation.
 Production of x-rays
Bremsstrahlung radiation
Bremsstrahlung radiation arises from energetic electron interactions with an
atomic nucleus of the target material.
In a “close” approach, the positive nucleus attracts the negative electron,
causing deceleration and redirection, resulting in a loss of kinetic energy that is
converted to an x-ray.
The x-ray energy depends on the interaction distance between the electron and
the nucleus; it decreases as the distance increases.
 Production of x-rays
Characteristic radiation
In addition to the continuous bremsstrahlung x-ray spectrum, discrete x-ray
energy peaks called “characteristic radiation” can be present, depending on the
elemental composition of the target electrode and the applied x-ray tube voltage.
When the energy of an incident electron, determined by the voltage applied to
the x-ray tube, exceeds the binding energy of an electron shell in a target atom, a
collisional interaction can eject an electron from its shell, creating a vacancy.
An outer shell electron with less binding energy immediately transitions to
fill the vacancy, and a characteristic x-ray is emitted with an energy equal to
the difference in the electron binding energies of the two shells.
 X-ray Tubes
The x-ray tube provides an environment for the production of bremsstrahlung
and characteristic x-rays.
 Protective Housing
When x-rays are produced, they are emitted isotropically.
We use only x-rays emitted through the special section of the x-ray tube called
the window.
The x-rays emitted through the window are called the useful beam.
X-rays that escape through the protective housing are called leakage radiation;
they contribute nothing in the way of diagnostic information and result in
unnecessary exposure of the patient and the radiologic technologist.
Protective housing guards against excessive radiation exposure and electric
shock.
The protective housing also
provides mechanical support
for the x-ray tube and protects
the tube from damage caused
by rough handling.
 Protective Housing
The protective housing around some x-ray tubes contains oil that serves as both
an insulator against electric shock and as a thermal cushion to dissipate heat.
Some protective housings have a cooling fan to air cool the tube or the oil in
which the x-ray tube is immersed.
A bellows-like device allows the oil to expand when heated.
If the expansion is too great, a micro-switch is activated, so the tube
cannot be used until it cools.
Metal filters, usually aluminum or copper, are inserted into the x-ray tube
housing so that low-energy x-rays are absorbed before they reach the patient.
These x-rays have little diagnostic value.
 Glass Enclosure
An x-ray tube is an electronic vacuum tube with components contained within
a glass enclosure.
The x-ray tube is a special type of vacuum tube that contains two electrodes:
the cathode and the anode.
This vacuum allows for more efficient x-ray production and a longer tube
life.
As a glass enclosure tube ages, some tungsten vaporizes and coats the inside
of the glass enclosure.
This alters the electrical properties of the tube, allowing tube current to stray
and interact with the glass enclosure; the result is arcing and tube failure.
 Cathode
The cathode is the negative side of the x-ray tube; it has two primary parts, a
filament and a focusing cup.
An x-ray tube filament emits electrons when it is heated.
When the current through the filament is sufficiently high, the outer-shell
electrons of the filament atoms are “boiled off” and ejected from the filament.
Filaments are usually made of thoriated tungsten.
Dual-filament cathode designed to provide focal spots of 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm.
 Focusing cup
The filament is embedded in a metal shroud called the focusing cup.
Because all of the electrons accelerated from cathode to anode are electrically
negative, the electron beam tends to spread out owing to electrostatic repulsion.
Some electrons can even miss the anode completely.
The focusing cup is negatively charged so that it electrostatically confines the
electron beam to a small area of the anode.
 Anode
The anode is the positive side of the x-ray tube.
There are two types of anodes, stationary and rotating.
In stationary anode tubes the target consists of a tungsten alloy embedded in
the copper anode.
In rotating anode tubes the entire rotating disc is the target.
 Anode
The anode must be a good thermal dissipater.
When the projectile electrons from the cathode interact with the anode, more
than 99% of their kinetic energy is converted into heat.
This heat must be dissipated quickly.
Copper, molybdenum, and graphite are the most common anode materials.
High-capacity x-ray tubes have molybdenum or graphite layered under the
tungsten target.
Both molybdenum and graphite have lower mass density than tungsten,
making the anode lighter and easier to rotate.
The rotating anode x-ray tube allows the
electron beam to interact with a much larger
target area.
The heating of the anode is not confined to
one small spot, as in a stationary anode tube.
Heat capacity can be further improved by
increasing the speed of anode rotation.
 Rotating anode
The anode of a rotating anode x-ray tube is a tungsten disk mounted on a
bearing-supported rotor assembly.
The rotor consists of a copper and iron laminated core and forms part of
an induction motor.
The other component is the stator, which exists outside of the insert.
A molybdenum stem connects the rotor to the anode to reduce heat transfer to
the rotor bearings.
 Focal spot
The focal spot is the area of the target from which x-rays are emitted.
Radiology requires small focal spots because the smaller the focal spot, the
better the spatial resolution of the image.
Unfortunately, as the size of the focal spot decreases, the heating of the target is
concentrated onto a smaller area.
This is the limiting factor to focal spot size.
Line-focus principle; angling target makes effective area of the target much
smaller than the actual area of electron interaction.
 Heel effect
The heel effect refers to a reduction in the x-ray beam intensity toward the
anode side of the x-ray field, caused by the greater attenuation of x-rays
directed toward the anode side of the field by the anode itself.
 Collimators
Collimators adjust the size and shape of the x-ray field emerging from the
tube port.
Two pairs of adjustable parallel-opposed lead shutters define a rectangular
x-ray field.
In the collimator housing, a beam of light reflected by a mirror of low x-ray
attenuation mimics the x-ray beam.
Thus, the collimation of the x-ray field is identified by the collimator’s
shadows.
 X-ray Generators
The principal function of an x-ray generator is to provide current at a high
voltage to an x-ray tube.
Transformers are principal components of x-ray generators; they convert low
voltage into high voltage through a process called electromagnetic induction.
Several x-ray generator circuit designs are in use.
The high-frequency generator is now the contemporary state-of-the-art choice
for diagnostic x-ray systems.
Its name describes its function, whereby a high-frequency alternating
waveform (up to 50,000 Hz) is used for efficient conversion of low to high
voltage by a step-up transformer.
Modular components and circuits of the
high-frequency generator
 The high-frequency generator
Low-frequency, low-voltage input power (50 to 60 cycles/s AC) is converted
to a low voltage, direct current.
Next, an inverter circuit creates a high-frequency AC waveform, which
supplies the high-voltage transformer to create a high-voltage, high-frequency
waveform.
Rectification and smoothing produces high-voltage DC power that charges
the high-voltage capacitors placed across the anode and cathode in the x-ray
tube circuit.
During the x-ray exposure, feedback circuits monitor the tube voltage and
tube current and continuously supply charge to the capacitors as needed to
maintain a nearly constant voltage.
 The high-frequency generator
For kV adjustment, a voltage comparator measures the difference between
the reference voltage and the actual kV measured across the tube (the kV sense
circuit).
Trigger pulses generated by the comparator circuit produce a frequency that
is proportional to the voltage difference between the reference signal and the
measured signal.
The mA is regulated in an analogous manner to the kV, with a resistor circuit
sensing the actual mA (the voltage across a resistor is proportional to the
current) and comparing it with a reference voltage.
If the mA is too low, the mA comparator circuit increases the trigger
frequency, which boosts the power to the filament to raise its temperature and
increase the thermionic emission of electrons.
 Recommended References
Bushong, Stewart C., author. Radiologic Science for Technologists: Physics,
Biology, and Protection, 11th Edition.
Bushberg, Jerrold T. The essential physics of medical imaging — 3rd ed.