SENTENCE

1. A sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question or an order, usually

contain a subject and a verb. Sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a
full/period (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).

2. A sentence is a group of words, usually contain a verb that expresses a thought in the
form of a statement, question, instruction or exclamation and starts with a capital letter.

3. A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main verb and
begins with a capital letter.

Examples:
1. Ama ‘beat’ the boy. (In this example, ‘Ama’ is the subject and ‘beat’ is the verb)
(STATEMENT)
2. Have you written the quiz yet? (Here, ‘have written” are the verbs and ‘you’ is the
subject’. (QUESTION)
3. Kumnipa, get out of my sight! (In this example, ‘Kumnipa’ is the subject and ‘get’ is
the verb)
(INSTRUCTION)
4. God, I’m dead!
(EXCLAMATION)

Now, let’s see if the following examples are sentences or not:

1. Plantain and cocoyam. And yam.
2. Too many students!
3. Not yet, Oppong!
4. When it became public.
5. It is a girl.

Uses/Functions of Sentences
Sentences are used to make statements, to ask questions or make requests, to
give orders, instructions and to express exclamations.

Examples:
1. I took some money out of the bank (statement)
2. Can I help you? Could you open the door? (question or request)
3. Stop arguing, Ama? Bernice, ome here at once! (orders)
4. God, I’m dead! (exclamation)
5. Kumipa, get out of my sight! (instruction)

Now, let’s see if the following examples are sentences or not:

1. Plantain and cocoyam. And yam.
2. Too many students!
3. Not yet, Oppong!
4. When it became public.
5. It is a girl.

NOTE: Apart from “It is a girl” the first three examples are not sentences because they
do not contain a main verb or make sense. They would be acceptable in informal
speaking and writing because they are easy to understand. But it is not a good idea to
use such constructions in formal situations.

Types of Sentences
A simple sentence is a sentence containing just one or more specifically, an
independent clause with a subject and a predicate. It is usually consists of a subject,
verb and object (SVO) and makes a complete thought. However, since a simple
predicate is a verb or just verb phrase a simple sentence can also consist of just a
subject and verb (SV).

Examples:
Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)
1. Richmond ate banku (SVO)
2. I have a new car.
3. The president has travelled to Jamaica.

Subject + Verb
1. Richmond ate (SV)
2. I slept.
3. I ate.

A Compound Sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses,

which are usually joined a conjunction such ‘and’ or ‘but’. When we join two or
independent clauses into one sentence, we have a compound sentence.

Examples:
1. Richmond became up with teaching at STU and he left for a new university.
(independent clause) (conj) (independent clause)

2. I kicked the ball, and it hit Ama.

(IC) (C) (IC)

Let’s look at more examples:

1. I like music. My wife likes movies. → I like music, and my wife likes movies.
2. Ama went to school. Serwaa went to the party. I went home. → Ama went to school,
but Serwaa went to the party, and I went home.
4. My car broke down. I came last. → My car broke down; I came last.

A Complex Sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which), the
sequence/time (since, while) or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent
clause.
A Complex Sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent
clause.

NOTE: If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, place the comma after the clause.
However, if the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is no comma
separating the two clauses. Examples:

1. Though Asantewaa writes good English, she still needs to work on grammar
(NOTE: The comma in this sentence comes after the dependent clause).

2. Because the president organised his sources by theme, it was easier for this
audience to follow (NOTE: The comma in this sentence comes after the dependent
clause).

4. They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting (NOTE:
That there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent clause).

NOTE: Use of complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

More examples of complex sentences:

1. Because my coffee was too cold, I heated it in the microwave.
2. Though he was wealthy, he was still unhappy.
3. She returned the computer after she noticed it was damaged.
4. Whenever prices go up, customers buy fewer products

A Compound-Complex Sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at

least one dependent clause.

Examples:
1. She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section though she finished her methods course last semester.

2. Though he organised his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them

chronologically, and he carefully followed the meal plan for organisation. 

With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they
decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise and
objective.

NOTE: Use of some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence

variety. Also, pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so
that the reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
A paragraph is a collection of sentences that relates to one main idea or topic. Effective
paragraphs have 4 main characteristics. These include a topic sentence, unity,
coherence and adequate development.

Elements of a Paragraph
Unity is the extent to which all the ideas contained in a paragraph “hang together” in a
way that is easy for the audience to understand. When you change to a new idea, one
which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph, you should begin a new
paragraph. Unity in a paragrapgh is important because it helps the audience in follow
your ideas. The audience can expect that a given paragraph will deal just with one main
topic. When a new paragraph begins, this shows that you are moving on to a new topic.

Example:
Employees' attitudes at STU should be improved. The workers do not feel that they are a
working team, but just individuals. If people felt they were a part of a team, they would
not misuse the tools or intentionally undermine the work of others. Moreover,
management's attitude towards its employees should be improved. Managers at STU
behave as if their employees are incapable of making decisions or doing their own work.
Managers treat workers like objects, not humans.

NOTE that there are two main ideas in the paragraph above. The topic sentence shows
that the paragraph will deal with the subject of “employees' attitudes”. However, the
paragraph shifts unexpectedly to the topic of “management's attitudes”.

Now, to achieve unity in this paragraph, you should begin a new paragraph when the
switch is made from “employees’ attitudes” to “management’s attitudes”.

Coherence is the degree to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood
by the audience. So, coherence is closely related to unity. When you change main ideas
or topics within a paragraph, confusion usually results. So, to achieve coherence, you
should show how all the ideas contained in a paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

Example:
University should offer courses to help students with the problems of unemployment.
These courses might begin with a discussion about where to find employment and cover
resume writing and interviewing. Maths and history do not help students with real-
world needs. They are required courses that students are not interested in, and this is
frustrating for students who would rather learn about other subjects. If university
offered job-skills courses, students would be well prepared for the difficult task of
finding a job once they finish university.

Now, in the paragraph above the writer begins with the topic of “job-skills courses”.
But he/she veers off onto the topic of “maths and history” before returning to the
subject of courses on employment. So, the paragraph is disjointed and difficult to
understand. It lacks coherence.
Adequate Development: A paragraph is adequately developed when it
supports/buttress the topic sentence. If the “promise” of the topic sentence is not
fulfilled or if the audience is left with questions after reading the paragraph, the
paragraph has not been adequately developed. A paragraph that consists of just two or
three sentences is under-developed.

A paragraph must at least contain four sentences that help clarify, support/buttress the
topic sentence. When you begin a new paragraph, it signals to the audience that you are
changing thoughts or ideas or you are moving on to discuss a different aspect of a main
idea.

Example:
The topics of leadership and management are both similar to and different from one
another in many important ways. To be effective, a manager should be a good leader.
And good leaders know how to manage people effectively.

In the paragraph above, the topic sentence promises to discuss “many” points of
comparison and contrast between “leadership” and “management”. But the rest of
the paragraph fails to fulfill this promise. However, just one point of comparison is
raised and this point is left unexplained.

Several questions remain unanswered. How are leaders different from managers? In
what specific ways are the two alike? Why must a manager be a good leader to be
effective? Why must good leaders know how to manage people effectively? Now, to
achieve adequate development in this paragraph, these questions should be answered or
addressed.

Topic Sentences: Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways
to achieve clarity and unity in writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe
what the paragraph will be about, so that the audiences have clear expectations about
what will follow.

An effective topic sentence normally contains just one main idea. The rest of the
paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting points and examples.
Having read a topic sentence, you should be able to expect the kind of information
contained in the rest of the paragraph. If the rest of the paragraph does not fulfill the
“promise” of the topic sentence, the paragraph will lack unity, coherence and adequate
development.

Examples:
The cockroaches that live in many city apartments and homes are parasites that are
almost impossible to exterminate.

NOTE that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the paragraph is
cockroaches. It also shows what the rest of the paragraph will discuss: “the difficulty
of exterminating cockroaches”. The audience can then expect the rest of the
paragraph to explain how and why cockroaches are difficult to eliminate.
 Importance of Paragraphs
Paragraphs provide structure and flow to your text. They allow you to move from one
thought to another. When you start a new paragraph you are telling your reader that the
topic is over and you are moving on. Without this structure, your brilliant ideas and
your sound argumentation will be difficult to follow.

Some students tend to forget to use paragraphs where they are duly necessary. But
you’ve to use them if you want good grades. Paragraphs make your writing clearer.
Remember a paragraph is a group of sentences. These sentences are about the same
thing, follow on from each other. All the sentences in a paragraph are related to each
other.

You need to start a new paragraph every time something new is introduced. Paragraphs
do more than you think. They give structure and break it into separate points so that it is
easier to read.

There are lots of different reasons for starting a new paragraph on top of the stated one.
Start a new paragraph every time something changes. For example, each time a new
person speaks. Someone new is speaking so you need to change a paragraph.

This links well with the writing of dialogue in an essay where we say every new speaker
begins a new line to avoid words spoken by another speaker running onto another. Start
a new paragraph when you start writing about a different time or writing about a
different place.

You also start a new paragraph when you talk about a new person. In this instance, your
reader will not be confused as to who is who or who does what? On top of all these, you
start a new paragraph when you start writing about a new topic.

Paragraphs also need to be linked. You have got to link up every paragraph with the one
before and the one after. Use words and phrases like the following to make the link
clear: “therefore”, “however”, “again”, “for the same reason”, “on the other
hand”, “contrary”, “conversely”, “on top of that”, “otherwise”, “in addition”,
“in contrast” etc. These relate the paragraph’s meaning to the previous paragraph’s
meaning. Sometimes, it is a good idea to refer back to the previous paragraph.

Make sure your paragraphs follow a clear order in your writing. Order your paragraphs
so that there is a clear progression. For example, put your paragraphs in order of
importance. Give paragraphs for an argument, then paragraphs against. Order your
paragraphs in time order (chronologically). Try to vary the style of your paragraphs. You
could repeat sentence structure or start with a rhetorical question.

Different Categories of Paragraphs

There are four different categories of paragraphs. These are:
Narrative Paragraphs tell about an event or series of events, usually in chronological
order. Most short stories and newspaper articles are examples of narrative writing.
Descriptive Paragraphs do exactly what you think they do; they describe a person,
an object or a scene in detail.

Expository Paragraphs are used to provide information, including facts, instructions

and definitions. They can list facts, give directions or explain ideas. Writers also use
expository paragraphs to define terms, make comparisons and show cause and effect.
Since information in expository writing can usually be put into categories, it often uses
logical order.

Persuasive Paragraphs are used to share an opinion about a particular subject.

Writers of persuasive paragraphs try to convince readers to agree with the opinions in
the paragraphs and sometimes, to take action. A persuasive paragraph often uses order
of importance.

NOTE: The kind of paragraph you use will depend on your purpose for writing. To
entertain readers or express themselves, writers use narration or description. Exposition
and narration are used to inform readers about something. Writers use persuasion to
influence people.

Several paragraphs written about the same subject might be very different, depending
on why the writers wrote them.